by protection, restoration, precautionary ecosystem-based management 
of renewable resource use, and the reduction of pollution and other 
stressors (high confidence). {WGII SPM C.2.4, WGII SPM D.4; 
SROCC SPM C.2} 
Large-scale land conversion for bioenergy, biochar, or afforestation 
can increase risks to biodiversity, water and food security. In contrast, 
restoring natural forests and drained peatlands, and improving 
sustainability of managed forests enhances the resilience of carbon 
stocks and sinks and reduces ecosystem vulnerability to climate change. 
Cooperation, and inclusive decision making, with local communities 
and Indigenous Peoples, as well as recognition of inherent rights of 
Indigenous Peoples, is integral to successful adaptation across 
forests and other ecosystems. (high confidence) {WGII SPM B.5.4, 
WGII SPM C.2.3, WGII SPM C.2.4; WGIII SPM D.2.3; SRCCL B.7.3, 
SRCCL SPM C.4.3, SRCCL TS.7} 
Natural rivers, wetlands and upstream forests reduce ﬂood risk in most 
circumstances (high conﬁdence). Enhancing natural water retention 
such as by restoring wetlands and rivers, land use planning such as no 
build zones or upstream forest management, can further reduce ﬂood risk 
(medium conﬁdence). For inland ﬂooding, combinations of non-structural 
measures like early warning systems and structural measures like levees 
have reduced loss of lives (medium confidence), but hard defences 
against flooding or sea level rise can also be maladaptive 
(high conﬁdence). {WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.4.1, WGII SPM C.4.2, 
WGII SPM C.2.5}
Protection and restoration of coastal ‘blue carbon’ ecosystems 
(e.g., mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows) could 
reduce emissions and/or increase carbon uptake and storage (medium 
conﬁdence).