LDCs and SIDS who have much 
lower per capita emissions (1.7 tCO2-eq, 4.6 tCO2-eq, respectively) than 
the global average (6.9 tCO2-eq) excluding CO2-LULUCF, also have high 
vulnerability to climatic hazards, with global hotspots of high human 
vulnerability observed in West-, Central- and East Africa, South Asia, 
Central and South America, SIDS and the Arctic (high conﬁdence). 
Regions and people with considerable development constraints have 
high vulnerability to climatic hazards (high conﬁdence). Vulnerability is 
higher in locations with poverty, governance challenges and limited 
access to basic services and resources, violent conﬂict and high levels 
of climate-sensitive livelihoods (e.g., smallholder farmers, pastoralists, 
ﬁshing communities) (high conﬁdence). Vulnerability at different spatial 
levels is exacerbated by inequity and marginalisation linked to gender, 
ethnicity, low income or combinations thereof (high conﬁdence), especially 
for many Indigenous Peoples and local communities (high conﬁdence). 
Approximately 3.3 to 3.6 billion people live in contexts that are highly 
vulnerable to climate change (high conﬁdence). Between 2010 and 
2020, human mortality from ﬂoods, droughts and storms was 15 times 
higher in highly vulnerable regions, compared to regions with very low 
vulnerability (high conﬁdence). In the Arctic and in some high mountain 
regions, negative impacts of cryosphere change have been especially felt 
among Indigenous Peoples (high conﬁdence). Human and ecosystem 
vulnerability are interdependent (high conﬁdence). Vulnerability of 
ecosystems and people to climate change differs substantially among and 
within regions (very high conﬁdence), driven by patterns of intersecting 
socio-economic development, unsustainable ocean and land use, 
inequity, marginalisation, historical and ongoing patterns of inequity 
such as colonialism, and governance81 (high conﬁdence).