These 
interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, 
and lead to health risks of malnutrition and climate-related mortality 
with no or low levels of adaptation, especially in tropical regions (high 
conﬁdence). Concurrent and cascading risks from climate change to 
food systems, human settlements, infrastructure and health will make 
these risks more severe and more difﬁcult to manage, including when 
interacting with non-climatic risk drivers such as competition for land 
between urban expansion and food production, and pandemics (high 
conﬁdence). Loss of ecosystems and their services has cascading and 
long-term impacts on people globally, especially for Indigenous Peoples 
and local communities who are directly dependent on ecosystems, to 
meet basic needs (high conﬁdence). Increasing transboundary risks 
are projected across the food, energy and water sectors as impacts 
from weather and climate extremes propagate through supply-chains, 
markets, and natural resource ﬂows (high conﬁdence) and may interact 
with impacts from other crises such as pandemics. Risks also arise from 
some responses intended to reduce the risks of climate change, including 
risks from maladaptation and adverse side effects of some emissions 
reduction and carbon dioxide removal measures, such as afforestation of 
naturally unforested land or poorly implemented bioenergy compounding 
climate-related risks to biodiversity, food and water security, and 
livelihoods (high conﬁdence) (see Section 3.4.1 and 4.5).