Some land-related adaptation actions such as sustainable 
food production, improved and sustainable forest management, 
soil organic carbon management, ecosystem conservation and land 
restoration, reduced deforestation and degradation, and reduced 
food loss and waste are being undertaken, and can have mitigation 
co-beneﬁts (high conﬁdence). Adaptation actions that increase the 
resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services to climate change 
include responses like minimising additional stresses or disturbances, 
reducing fragmentation, increasing natural habitat extent, connectivity 
and heterogeneity, and protecting small-scale refugia where 
microclimate conditions can allow species to persist (high conﬁdence). 
Most innovations in urban adaptation have occurred through advances 
83 
Documented adaptation refers to published literature on adaptation policies, measures and actions that has been implemented and documented in peer reviewed literature, as 
opposed to adaptation that may have been planned, but not implemented. 
84 
Effectiveness refers here to the extent to which an adaptation option is anticipated or observed to reduce climate-related risk.
85 
 See Annex I: Glossary. 
86 
Irrigation is effective in reducing drought risk and climate impacts in many regions and has several livelihood beneﬁts, but needs appropriate management to avoid potential 
adverse outcomes, which can include accelerated depletion of groundwater and other water sources and increased soil salinization (medium conﬁdence). 
87 
EbA is recognised internationally under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD14/5). A related concept is Nature-based Solutions (NbS), see Annex I: Glossary.
in disaster risk management, social safety nets and green/blue 
infrastructure (medium conﬁdence). Many adaptation measures that 
beneﬁt health and well-being are found in other sectors (e.g., food, 
livelihoods, social protection, water and sanitation, infrastructure) 
(high conﬁdence).