{WGII SPM B.5.1, WGII SPM C.2.9, 
WGII SPM D.2.1, WGII TS Box TS.4; WGIII SPM D.3, WGIII SPM D.3.3, 
WGIII SPM WGIII SPM E.3, SR1.5 SPM D.4.5} (Figure 4.3c)
Regions and people with considerable development constraints 
have high vulnerability to climatic hazards. Adaptation 
outcomes for the most vulnerable within and across countries 
and regions are enhanced through approaches focusing on 
equity, inclusivity, and rights-based approaches, including 3.3 to 
3.6 billion people living in contexts that are highly vulnerable 
to climate change (high conﬁdence). Vulnerability is higher in 
locations with poverty, governance challenges and limited access 
to basic services and resources, violent conﬂict and high levels of 
climate-sensitive livelihoods (e.g., smallholder farmers, pastoralists, 
ﬁshing communities) (high conﬁdence). Several risks can be moderated 
with adaptation (high conﬁdence). The largest adaptation gaps 
exist among lower income population groups (high conﬁdence) and 
adaptation progress is unevenly distributed with observed adaptation 
gaps (high conﬁdence). Present development challenges causing high 
vulnerability are inﬂuenced by historical and ongoing patterns of 
inequity such as colonialism, especially for many Indigenous Peoples 
and local communities (high conﬁdence). Vulnerability is exacerbated 
by inequity and marginalisation linked to gender, ethnicity, low income 
or combinations thereof, especially for many Indigenous Peoples and 
local communities (high conﬁdence).