risk to food security and economic disruption due to 
destruction of settlements and infrastructure
-Economic decline and livelihood failure of ﬁsheries, agriculture, tourism and from 
biodiversity loss from traditional agroecosystems 
-Reduced habitability of reef and non-reef islands leading to increased displacement
-Risk to water security in almost every small island 
Africa -Species extinction and reduction or irreversible loss of ecosystems and their services, 
including freshwater, land and ocean ecosystems
-Risk to food security, risk of malnutrition (micronutrient deﬁciency), and loss of 
livelihood due to reduced food production from crops, livestock and ﬁsheries
-Risks to marine ecosystem health and to livelihoods in coastal communities
-Increased human mortality and morbidity due to increased heat and infectious diseases 
(including vector-borne and diarrhoeal diseases)
-Reduced economic output and growth, and increased inequality and poverty rates 
-Increased risk to water and energy security due to drought and heat
Aus-
tralasia
-Degradation of tropical shallow coral reefs and associated biodiversity and 
ecosystem service values
-Loss of human and natural systems in low-lying coastal areas due to sea level rise
-Impact on livelihoods and incomes due to decline in agricultural production
-Increase in heat-related mortality and morbidity for people and wildlife
-Loss of alpine biodiversity in Australia due to less snow
Asia -Urban infrastructure damage and impacts on human well-being and health due to 
ﬂooding, especially in coastal cities and settlements
-Biodiversity loss and habitat shifts as well as associated disruptions in dependent 
human systems across freshwater, land, and ocean ecosystems
-More frequent, extensive coral bleaching and subsequent coral mortality induced by 
ocean warming and acidiﬁcation, sea level rise, marine heat waves and resource 
extraction
-Decline in coastal ﬁshery resources due to sea level rise, decrease in precipitation in 
some parts and increase in temperature
-Risk to food and water security due to increased temperature extremes, rainfall 
variability and drought
Central
and
South
America
-Risk to water security
-Severe health effects due to increasing epidemics,