{WGI SPM B.2.2, 
WGI TS Figure TS.6; WGII SPM B.1.4, WGII SPM B.4.4, 
WGII Figure SPM.2} 
• Increasing frequency of marine heatwaves will increase risks 
of biodiversity loss in the oceans, including from mass mortality 
events (high conﬁdence). {WGI SPM B.2.3; WGII SPM B.1.2, 
WGII Figure SPM.2; SROCC SPM B.5.1}
• Near-term risks for biodiversity loss are moderate to high in 
forest ecosystems (medium conﬁdence) and kelp and seagrass 
ecosystems (high to very high conﬁdence) and are high to very 
high in Arctic sea-ice and terrestrial ecosystems (high conﬁdence) 
and warm-water coral reefs (very high conﬁdence). {WGII SPM B.3.1} 
• More intense and frequent extreme rainfall and associated ﬂooding 
in many regions including coastal and other low-lying cities 
(medium to high conﬁdence), and increased proportion of and 
peak wind speeds of intense tropical cyclones (high conﬁdence). 
{WGI SPM B.2.4, WGI SPM C.2.2, WGI SPM C.2.6, WGI 11.7} 
• High risks from dryland water scarcity, wildﬁre damage, and 
permafrost degradation (medium conﬁdence). {SRCCL SPM A.5.3.}
• Continued sea level rise and increased frequency and 
magnitude of extreme sea level events encroaching on coastal 
human settlements and damaging coastal infrastructure (high 
conﬁdence), committing low-lying coastal ecosystems to 
submergence and loss (medium conﬁdence), expanding land 
salinization (very high conﬁdence), with cascading to risks to 
livelihoods, health, well-being, cultural values, food and water 
security (high conﬁdence).