Individual livelihoods have been 
affected through changes in agricultural productivity, impacts on human 
health and food security, destruction of homes and infrastructure, and loss 
of property and income, with adverse effects on gender and social equity 
(high conﬁdence). Tropical cyclones have reduced economic growth in 
the short-term (high conﬁdence). Event attribution studies and physical 
understanding indicate that human-caused climate change increases 
heavy precipitation associated with tropical cyclones (high conﬁdence). 
Wildﬁres in many regions have affected built assets, economic activity, 
and health (medium to high conﬁdence). In cities and settlements, climate 
impacts to key infrastructure are leading to losses and damages across water 
and food systems, and affect economic activity, with impacts extending 
beyond the area directly impacted by the climate hazard (high conﬁdence). 
{WGI SPM A.3.4; WGII SPM B.1.6, WGII SPM B.5.2, WGII SPM B.5.3} 
Climate change has caused widespread adverse impacts 
and related losses and damages to nature and people (high 
conﬁdence). Losses and damages are unequally distributed across 
systems, regions and sectors (high conﬁdence). Cultural losses, related 
80 
See Annex 1: Glossary. 
81 
Governance: The structures, processes and actions through which private and public actors interact to address societal goals. This includes formal and informal institutions and 
the associated norms, rules, laws and procedures for deciding, managing, implementing and monitoring policies and measures at any geographic or political scale, from global 
to local. {WGII SPM Footnote 31}
to tangible and intangible heritage, threaten adaptive capacity and may 
result in irrevocable losses of sense of belonging, valued cultural practices, 
identity and home, particularly for Indigenous Peoples and those more 
directly reliant on the environment for subsistence (medium conﬁdence). 
For example, changes in snow cover, lake and river ice, and permafrost 
in many Arctic regions, are harming the livelihoods and cultural identity 
of Arctic residents including Indigenous populations (high conﬁdence).