Electric vehicles powered by low-emissions 
electricity offer the largest decarbonisation potential for land-based 
transport, on a life cycle basis (high conﬁdence). Costs of electriﬁed 
vehicles are decreasing and their adoption is accelerating, but they 
require continued investments in supporting infrastructure to increase 
scale of deployment (high conﬁdence). The environmental footprint of 
battery production and growing concerns about critical minerals can 
be addressed by material and supply diversiﬁcation strategies, energy 
and material efﬁciency improvements, and circular material ﬂows 
(medium conﬁdence). Advances in battery technologies could facilitate 
the electriﬁcation of heavy-duty trucks and compliment conventional 
electric rail systems (medium conﬁdence). Sustainable biofuels can offer 
additional mitigation beneﬁts in land-based transport in the short and 
medium term (medium conﬁdence). Sustainable biofuels, low-emissions 
hydrogen, and derivatives (including synthetic fuels) can support 
mitigation of CO2 emissions from shipping, aviation, and heavy-duty 
land transport but require production process improvements and cost 
reductions (medium conﬁdence). Key infrastructure systems including 
sanitation, water, health, transport, communications and energy will 
be increasingly vulnerable if design standards do not account for 
changing climate conditions (high conﬁdence). {WGII SPM B.2.5; 
WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII SPM C.8, WGIII SPM C.8.1, WGIII SPM C.8.2, 
WGIII SPM C.10.2, WGIII SPM C.10.3, WGIII SPM C.10.4} 
Green/natural and blue infrastructure such as urban forestry, green 
roofs, ponds and lakes, and river restoration can mitigate climate change 
through carbon uptake and storage, avoided emissions, and reduced 
energy use while reducing risk from extreme events such as heatwaves, 
heavy precipitation and droughts, and advancing co-beneﬁts for health, 
well-being and livelihoods (medium conﬁdence).