http___en.wikipedia.org_wiki_Irak.xml
1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.1 11.1 12.1 13.1 14.1 15.1 16.1 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 19.1 20.1 20.2 20.3 21.1 21.2 21.3 22.1 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 24.1 25.1 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 27.1 27.2 28.1 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 33.1 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 35.9 35.10 35.11 35.12 36.1 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 39.7 40.1 41.1 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 42.6 43.1 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 46.1 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 47.6 47.7 48.1 49.1 49.2 50.1 51.1 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 53.1 53.2 53.3 54.1 55.1 55.2 55.3 56.1 57.1 57.2 57.3 58.1 59.1 60.1 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 62.5 62.6 62.7 63.1 64.1 65.1 66.1 67.1 68.1 69.1 70.1 71.1 72.1 73.1 74.1 75.1 76.1 76.2 77.1 78.1 79.1 79.2 80.1 80.2 81.1 81.2 81.3 82.1 82.2 82.3 83.1 83.2 83.3 84.1 84.2 85.1 85.2 85.3 86.1 87.1 88.1 89.1 89.2 89.3 90.1 91.1 92.1 92.2 93.1 94.1 95.1
Ирак Република Ирак е държава в Близкия изток, намираща се на територията на някогашна Месопотамия. Тя граничи със Саудитска Арабия и Кувейт на юг, с Турция на север, със Сирия и Йордания на запад и с Иран на изток. Местността между реките Тигър и Ефрат от древни времена е била люлка на велики цивилизации — шумерите, асирийците и вавилонците. По-късно тези райони попадат под властта на Персия, преди да бъдат завладени от арабите през 656 г. През 762 г. халифатът е преместен в Багдад, който се превръща в един от центровете на арабския свят, преди да бъде разрушен от монголците и Хулагу, през 1258 г. По-късно е завладян от османците през 1534 г. Участието на Османската империя в Първата световна война се превръща в национална катастрофа и се стига до разделянето ѝ на няколко по-малки държави. Франция поема контрола върху Сирия и Ливан, а Великобритания — над Палестина и Ирак. През 1932г. държавата е провъзгласена за независима монархия. През 1958 г. след държавен преврат Ирак престава да бъде монархия и се превръща в република. Баасистите започват да набират сила и завземат властта през 1968, а през 1979 президент на страната става Саддам Хюсеин. Партия Баас активно модернизира страната и въвежда арабска форма на социализма. Ирак води война с Иран, която завършва без ясен победител, но с милиони жертви и за двете страни. След войната в Персийския залив през 1991 г. Ирак се намира в положение на международна изолация, продължила до втората война в залива през 2003 г., когато САЩ и коалиция от държави окупират страната, свалят режима на Саддам Хюсеин и инсталират ново правителство. Съдържание - 1 История - 2 География - 3 Държавно устройство - 4 Административно деление - 5 Население - 6 Икономика - 7 Култура - 8 Други - 9 Източници - 10 Външни препратки История[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Древен Ирак[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Ирак често е наричан „люлка на цивилизацията“, тъй като тук се е развила най-старата цивилизация на Земята — шумерската, която процъфтява в долината между реките Тигър и Ефрат по време на халколита. Именно тук преди 6000 години се създава първата писменост и започва да се записва самата човешка история. Шумерската цивилизация се развива стабилно в продължение на 3000 години, и бива наследена от Акадското царство през 24 век пр.н.е.. След повече от два века, през 21 век пр.н.е., започва т.нар. Шумерско възраждане, което продължава до 2004 пр.н.е., когато еламско нашествие слага край на шумерския възход. През 18 век се появява нова могъща цивилизация — Вавилония, която става хегемон в южен Ирак, а паралелно с нея на север се формира Асирия. През 6 век пр.н.е. персийският цар Кир II Велики побеждава Нововавилонското царство в битката при Опис и го включва в състава на Ахеменидската империя за почти 4 века. През 4-ти век Александър Велики завладява тези територии и днешен Ирак става част от елинистичното Селевкидско царство за почти 200 години.[2] Аршакидската династия на Партското царство, начело с Митридат I (171-138 г.) на свой ред завземат тези територии. Римляните от Сирия също нападат региона няколко пъти. Ардашир I от Сасанидското царство унищожава Партия и покорява Ирак през 224 н.е. Така регионът става част от Персия в продължение на няколко века — до 7 век, когато мюсюлманите завладяват Месопотамия. Ислямски златен век[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 7 век мюсюлманите разпространяват исляма в Ирак. Братовчедът на пророка Мохамед — Али ибн Абу Талиб, премества столицата на Рашидунския халифат в Куфа, откъдето управлява като четвърти халиф. По-късно територията става част от халифата на умаядите. През 8 век абасидите построяват Багдад като нова столица, и градът се превръща във водещ център за ислямския и арабския свят в продължение на 5 века. Багдад става най-големият мултикултурен град на Средновековието с население от над 1 милион жители,[3] и е най-големият научен център по време на Ислямския златен век. Монголците опустошават и ограбват града през 1258 година.[4] Монголско нашествие[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1257 година хан Хулагу събира огромна армия, съставяща голяма част от всички войски на монголската империя, за да завладее Багдад. Хулагу настоява пред арабските управници града да му бъде предаден доброволно, но последният абасидски халиф — Ал-Мустасим, отказва. В отговор хан Хулагу превзема града и го унищожава, избивайки между 200 000 и 1 000 000 от жителите му,[5] а Ал-Мустасим е убит чрез стъпкване от коне. Резултатите от монголското нашествие са налице — голямата библиотека на Багдад, съдържаща хиляди безценни документи, е изгорена; напоителните системи, поддържали земеделието по тези земи в развет в продължение на хилядолетия, биват унищожени. Самият Багдад никога не възвръща величието си. В средата на 14 век чумата опустошава целия ислямски свят.[6] Най-малко 1/3 от населението на Сирия, Ирак и Иран умира.[7] През 1401 друг монголски пълководец — Тамерлан, пленява отново града и избива 20 000 от жителите му.[8] Османски Ирак[редактиране | редактиране на кода] В края на 14 и началото на 15 век т.нар. черни туркомани налагат управлението си над днешен Ирак. През 1466 те са изгонени от белите туркомани, а през 16 век цялата територия става част от Османската империя под названието Багдадски пашалък. През целия период на османско управление (1533-1918) днешен Ирак е арена на борби между племена и различни османски родове. Сефевидите на два пъти успяват за кратко да отвоюват Ирак от османците, между 1508 и 1533 и 1622 и 1638. Между 1747 и 1831 мамелюците успяват да придобият автономия от Високата порта, смазват племенните въстания, намаляват властта на еничарите, възстановяват обществения ред и провеждат програма за модернизация на обществото и войската. През 1831 османците премахват мамелюците от властта и възстановяват пълния си контрол върху Ирак.[9] До началото на 20 век населението на Ирак се свива до по-малко от 5 милиона души.[10] Британска окупация и кралство Ирак[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Краят на османският контрол върху Ирак идва по време на Първата световна война. Османската империя застава на страната на Централните сили, което става повод Великобритания да влезе във война с нея. По време на т.нар. Месопотамска кампания британците претърпяват тежка загуба при обсадата на Кут (1915-16), но успяват да се възстановят от удара и завладяват Багдад през 1917 година. През 1918 двете страни подписват примирие. Територията на Ирак е отцепена от Османската империя от французите и англичаните съгласно подписаното през 1916 тайно споразумение Сайкс-Пико, в което Франция, Великобритания и Руската империя определят сферите си на влияние в западна Азия. На 11 ноември 1920 година получава мандат от Обществото на народите под британски контрол и наименованието "Иракска държава". Великобритания налага монархия начело с Хашемитската династия и окончателно предопределя иракските граници, без да вземе под внимание интересите на отделните етнически и религиозни групи, като кюрдите и асирийците на север. Това довежда до шиитски и кюрдски бунтове по време на британския мандат. Ръководството на багдадския комисар Арнолд Уилсън довежда до всенародно Иракско въстание. Това събитие, съчетано с високите разходи на Великобритания за тази територия, опитите за налагане на пълен колониален контрол и протестите на Томас Лорънс принуждават британците да сменят Уилсън с нов комисар — сър Пърси Кокс, който потушава бунта и поставя в благоприятна позиция сунитите. По време на управлението си британците подкрепят традиционната шейхова структура на сунитите пред градското националистическо движение. На сунитските шейхове се дават много права на самоуправление, но строгият военен контрол се запазва. През 1932 на Ирак е дадена независимост, но Великобритания запазва силно военно присъствие. Първият крал — Файсал I, управлява само една година, до 1933, след което е сменен от крал Гази I. Монархията е нестабилна и опитите за военен преврат са чести. През 1930-те Рашид Али ал-Гайлани и група приближени офицери влизат в контакт с държавите-членки на Оста в опит да договорят премахване на британското влияние в Ирак. Това довежда до организиран от ал-Гайлани преврат през 1941, чийто неуспех е причината Великобритания да обяви война на Ирак и да го окупира. Окупацията официално приключва през 1947 година. Краят на монархията настъпва на 14 юли 1958 година, когато с успешен военен преврат кралската власт е свалена. Република Ирак[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Превратът от 1958 докарва на власт генерал Абд ал-Карим Касим. Едно от първите му действия е оттеглянето от Багдадския пакт (СЕНТО) и установяване на близки отношения с СССР. Правителството му обаче е свалено — отново чрез преврат — през февруари 1963 година от Абдул Салам Ариф. Ариф умира през 1966 и президентският пост е поет от брат му. В крайна сметка и той е свален от власт, този път от партия БААС начело с Ахмед Хасан ал-Бакир. Постепенно обаче влиянието му започва да намалява за сметка на това на Саддам Хюсеин, който става държавен глава през 1979. БААС национализира голяма част от промишлеността и транспорта, забранява изповядването на радикален ислям и дава равни права на жените. Малко след като Саддам поема властта, ситуацията в съседен Иран се променя коренно — светският режим на шаха е свален от радикалните поддръжници на аятоллах Хомейни и е установена шиитска теократична държава. Иракското правителство възприема тази промяна като опасна за стабилността на Ирак, тъй като шиитите са мнозинство в страната. Иракските шиите се разделят — едни поддържат светската позиция на БААС, а други подкрепят установяването на шериат. През 1980 година Саддам твърди, че Иран се опитва да свали правителството му, и обявява война. Саддам поддържа групировката Народни мужахидини на Иран, която се бори против аятолаха, а иракската армия използва широк спектър от специални въоръжения, включително химически, срещу военни и цивилни в Иран. Войната се води в окопи от една страна, и с размяна на ракетни удари от друга (т.нар. "Война на градовете"). Западните страни, САЩ[11][12] и СССР застават на страната на Ирак, възприемайки го като "по-малкото зло", но международната подкрепа за правителството на Саддам драстично намалява след кампанията Ал-Анфал. По време на тази военна операция иракската армия организира геноцид срещу кюрдите,[13] вследствие на което са убити 182 000 кюрди.[14] Кулминацията на кампанията е обгазяването на Халабджа, при което загиват 4000 души. Това е наказателна акция за подкрепата на кюрдите към иранската кауза. Ирано-иракската война приключва през 1988 година с незначителни териториални промени и стотици хиляди загинали. Мобилизацията на Ирак засяга по-голям процент от жителите, като към 1988 иракската армия е 4-тата най-голяма в света.[15] Война в Залива[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1990 година Ирак се намира в състояние на икономически колапс. Същевременно съседен Кувейт с население от около едва 1 милион души увеличава производството и износа си на петрол, което се отразява зле на иракския износ на тази суровина. Ирак обвинява Кувейт, че краде петролните му запаси чрез пробиване на диагонални шахти, които минават през границата и изтеглят иракски петрол в кувейтски кладенци. Кувейт отрича обвинението, в отговор на което през август 1990 Ирак го напада. ООН решава да наложи икономически санкции на Ирак и го призовава незабавно да изтегли войските си от по-малката страна. Ирак не се съгласява с тези искания и отхвърля санкциите. В отговор Съветът за сигурност на ООН гласува резолюция 678, която дава право на страните-членки да използват всякакви средства за "възстановяване на мира и сигурността". В последствие САЩ, които имат огромни интереси към петролните запаси района на Персийския залив, повеждат международна коалиция за освобождаването на Кувейт. Военната коалиция от западни държави изтласква иракската армия от Кувейт. Американските войски разполагат с голямо технологично предимство пред изтощените от недостиг на ресурси иракски въоръжени сили. Коалицията започва и масирани въздушни бомбардировки над военни цели в Ирак, но някои от ударите убиват и много цивилни. Такава е въздушната атака над Амирия, при която загиват 408 цивилни.[16][17][18] Преди окончателното си изтегляне от Кувейт обаче, иракските сили подпалват петролните кладенци там, което предизвиква икономическа и екологична катастрофа в Кувейт. Саддам отговаря на загубата с изстрелване на ракети „Скъд“ срещу Израел и Саудитска Арабия. Въпреки това Ирак е окончателно победен, а последвалите резолюции на ООН призовават режима на Саддам да спре репресиите срещу етнически малцинства, да се откаже от програмите си за химически и биологични оръжия и да спре опитите за създаване на ядрено оръжие. Установява се зона, забранена за полети, която да попречи на самолети от иракските военновъздушни сили да организират удари срещу кюрдски и шиитски цели. В резултат на икономическите санкции обаче в страната през 1990-те години умират 500 000 деца по данни на УНИЦЕФ.[19] Според бившия главен прокурор на САЩ Рамзи Кларк броят на загиналите от 1990 до 2002 в следствие на ефектите от икономическите санкции, бомбардировките и отравяне с обеднен уран е 1,5 милиона души.[20] Американска окупация на Ирак[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1990 г. Саддам Хюсеин самоволно окупира Кувейт с цел да наложи контрол над нефтените залежи на страната, но Съюзниците, начело със САЩ освобождават Кувейт. Тогава е имало сведения, че Саддам Хюсеин планира да използва оръжия за масово унищожение и подкрепя ислямските терористи, поради което САЩ, Великобритания, Австралия, Полша и Дания нападат Ирак и успяват за по-малко от месец да окупират цялата държава (последният град в ръцете на Саддам Хюсеин е Тикрит, който пада на 15 април 2003). На 28 юни 2004 властта е прехвърлена в ръцете на иракско правителство, макар че в страната продължават да се намират над 160 000 военнослужещи от редица държави, включително и България до края на 2005 г. Въпреки плановете на американците за сигурен и демократичен Ирак, особено след залавянето на Саддам Хюсеин на 13 декември 2003, в страната действат много терористични организации (най-вече в така наречения Сунитски триъгълник), а атентатите са ежедневие за жителите на много градове, сред които Багдад, Фалуджа, Рамади, Самара, Мосул, Басра, Бакуба, Кербала, Наджаф и др. Първите избори в Ирак след свалянето от власт на Саддам Хюсеин бяха проведени през февруари 2005 г. География[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Голяма част от територията на Ирак е заета от пустини, но районът между двете основни реки — Тигър и Ефрат — и наоколо е плодороден. В северната част на страната преобладава планински релеф, като най-високата точка е връх Хаджи Ибрахим (3600 м). Ирак има тесен излаз на Персийския залив. Близо до брега и в района на река Шат ал-Араб, в която се сливат Тигър и Ефрат, доскоро е имало големи по площ блата, но всички те са пресушени до средата на 1990-те години. Климатът е от пустинен тип, с меки до хладни зими и сухи, горещи и безоблачни летни месеци. В северните райони зимите са студени и с почти постоянни снеговалежи и по тази причина напролет често има наводнения. Столицата Багдад се намира на река Тигър, в центъра на плодородната и населена източна част от страната. Центровете на Южен и Северен Ирак са съответно Басра и Мосул. Ирак се смята за едно от 15-те места на планетата, наричани под общото наименование „Люлка на цивилизацията“. Държавно устройство[редактиране | редактиране на кода] До 2003 година Ирак е авторитарна, еднопартийна диктатура. След свалянето на Саддам Хюсеин и партия БААС от власт страната е реорганизирана във федеративна парламентарна република, което е записано в конституцията от 2005 година. Политическата система се основава на консенсуса между трите основни етнорелигиозни общности - араби сунити, араби шиити и кюрди. Министър-председателят е основната политическа фигура в страната. Първият демократично избран премиер е Нури ал-Малики. Президент е Джалал Талабани. Неговият пост има много малко правомощия. Иракският парламент се състои от 275 депутата, а към днешна дата в него са представени четири партии. Заради лошата икономическа обстановка, корупцията и въоръжените борби между отделни групировки, правителството трудно упражнява контрол върху държавата. Вътрешната сигурност е слаба — различни радикални ислямски духовници и фундаменталисти организират бомбени атентати, които почти винаги водят до голям брой жертви. Иракски Кюрдистан е един от малкото стабилни региони, въпреки, че в икономическо отношение той е най-слабо развит. Въоръжени сили[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Въоръжените сили на Ирак, официално Иракски сили за сигурност представляват отбранителната институция на страната. Те включват армия, военновъздушни сили, военноморски флот, полицейски и полувоенни служби. Към 2008 общата численост на иракските сили за сигурност е 531 000 души (180 000 военни, 340 000 полицаи и други).[21] Целта на иракското правителство е да се постигне численост от 600 000 души към 2010. През 2009 въоръжените сили поемат задачата да опазват сигурността в цялата страна. Дотогава тази задача е била изпълнявана от коалиционните сили. Иракските войски към днешна дата са най-големият купувач на американско оръжие, вкл. джипове, транспортни самолети, танкове, бронетранспортьори, леко стрелково оръжие и комуникационна апаратура. Въпреки това нивото на подготовка е слабо. Военни болници в страната няма, в следствие на което ранените войници трябва да бъдат лекувани в граждански медицински заведения, които са малко на брой. Административно деление[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Ирак е разделен на 18 провинции (по време на войната в Персийския залив Кувейт за кратко става 19-та провинция), на арабски наричани мухафазати (ед.ч. — мухафаза), а на кюрдски паризгати (ед.ч. — паризга): Население[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Населението на Ирак към 2009 е 28 946 000 души. Около 75-80% от тях са араби, 15-20% са кюрди, под 5% са тюркмени, асирийци, халдейци, арменци, чеченци, черкези, евреи, мандайци, бахайци, йезиди, иранци и други. 97% от населението принадлежи към ислямската вяра. Две-трети от мюсюлманите са шиити. Средната грамотност на населението е 74,1%. Икономика[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Ирак има смесена икономика с голямо държавно участие. След откриването на огромните нефтени запаси през 1927 г. Ирак става водещ световен производител на нефт. Ирак разполага и с едни от най-големите в света запаси на сяра, която е суровина за различни химически производства. С установяването на режима на Саддам Хюсеин голяма част от приходите отиват за въоръжаване. През 1980 г. Ирак започва осемгодишна война с Иран, в която загиват над 300 000 иракчани, а през 1990 г. иракски войски нахлуват в Кувейт. През 1991 г. коалиция от държави, водени от САЩ, изтласкват иракските войски от Кувейт. Наложените от ООН санкции поставят Ирак в международна изолация. Ирак използва нефтените си запаси само за вътрешни нужди. В резултат брутният вътрешен продукт е намален наполовина. Нанесените материални щети, човешките жертви по време на войната в Залива и последвалото ембарго върху външната търговия, възпрепятстват развитието на икономиката на Ирак, което особено силно засяга най-бедните слоеве на иракското население. Култура[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Други[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Комуникации в Ирак - Транспорт в Ирак - Армия на Ирак - Външна политика на Ирак - Война в Персийския залив (1990-1991) - Война в Ирак (2003) - Сунитски триъгълник Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ↑ http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=433&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=54&pr.y=11 - ↑ "Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq", University of Michigan. - ↑ Largest Cities Through History, Matt Rosenberg - ↑ Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary. - ↑ Ian Frazier, Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad, The New Yorker 25 April 2005. p.4 - ↑ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death), The University of Calgary - ↑ Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online. // Nationalreview.com, 2005-09-14. - ↑ Tamerlane – Timur the Lame Biography. // Asianhistory.about.com, 2010-02-15. - ↑ Iraq. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. - ↑ Population crises and cycles in history. A review of the book Population Crises and Population cycles by Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell. - ↑ Statement by former NSC official Howard Teicher to the U.S. District Court, Southern District of Florida. Plain text version - ↑ Shaking Hands with Saddam Hussein:The U.S. Tilts toward Iraq, 1980-1984 - ↑ Black, George. Genocide in Iraq: the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London, Human Rights Watch, July 1993, [1993]. - ↑ David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 504 pp., I.B. - ↑ Iraqi Army GlobalSecurity.org - ↑ Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War, Rick Atkinson, 1993, p. 284–285 - ↑ The Ameriya Shelter – St. Valentine's Day Massacre. // Uruknet.de. - ↑ 'Smarter' bombs still hit civilians. - ↑ "UNICEF : Questions and Answers for the Iraq child mortality surveys" 16 August 1999 - ↑ (The Wisdom Fund, "[Clark] Charges US, British and UN Leaders," 20. November 1996) - ↑ Доклад на Пентагона Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ((en)) Карта на Среден Изток
1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6.1 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.1 11.1 12.1 13.1 14.1 15.1 16.1 17.1 18.1 19.1 20.1 21.1 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 23.1 23.2 23.3 24.1 25.1 26.1 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 28.1 29.1 30.1 31.1 32.1 32.2 33.1 33.2 34.1 35.1 35.2 36.1 36.2 36.3 37.1 37.2 37.3 38.1 39.1 39.2 39.3 40.1 40.2 40.3 41.1 41.2 41.3 42.1 42.2 43.1 43.2 44.1 44.2 44.3 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 46.1 46.2 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 48.1 48.2 48.3 49.1 49.2 50.1 50.2 51.1 51.2 52.1 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.5 54.1 54.2 54.3 55.1 55.2 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 57.1 58.1 58.2 58.3 59.1 60.1 60.2 60.3 60.4 61.1 61.2 61.3 62.1 62.2 62.3 63.1 63.2 63.3 63.4 64.1 65.1 65.2 66.1 67.1 67.2 67.3 67.4 67.5 68.1 68.2 68.3 69.1 69.2 69.3 70.1 70.2 70.3 70.4 70.5 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 72.1 73.1 73.2 73.3 74.1 75.1 75.2 75.3 75.4 76.1 76.2 76.3 77.1 77.2 77.3 78.1 79.1 79.2 79.3 79.4 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 81.1 81.2 81.3 82.1 82.2 83.1 83.2 83.3 84.1 85.1 85.2 87.1 87.2 88.1 88.2 89.1 89.2 90.1 90.2 91.1 92.1 92.2 93.1 93.2 94.1 95.1 96.1 97.1 97.2 98.1 99.1 99.2 99.3 100.1 100.2 101.1 102.1 103.1 103.2 104.1 105.1 105.2 105.3 106.1 106.2 106.3 106.4 107.1 108.1 108.2 108.3 108.4 108.5 108.6 109.1 110.1 110.2 110.3 111.1 111.2 111.3 112.1 112.2 112.3 113.1 113.2 114.1 115.1 115.2 115.3 116.1 116.2 117.1 118.1 119.1 120.1 120.2 120.3 120.4 121.1 121.2 122.1 122.2 122.3 122.4 123.1 123.2 123.3 124.1 125.1 126.1 126.2 126.3 126.4 127.1 127.2 128.1 129.1 130.1 130.2 130.3 130.4 131.1 131.2 131.3 132.1 133.1 133.2 133.3 134.1 135.1 135.2 136.1 137.1 137.2 137.3 138.1 139.1 139.2 140.1 141.1 142.1 143.1 144.1 145.1 146.1 147.1 147.2 148.1 149.1 149.2 149.3 150.1 151.1 152.1 152.2 153.1 153.2 154.1 155.1 156.1 157.1 158.1 158.2 159.1 160.1 160.2 160.3 160.4 160.5 161.1 161.2 162.1 163.1 164.1 164.2 165.1 165.2 166.1 166.2 167.1 168.1 168.2 169.1 170.1 171.1 172.1 173.1 174.1 175.1 175.2 175.3 176.1 176.2 177.1 178.1 179.1 180.1 180.2 180.3 180.4 181.1 181.2 182.1 182.2 182.3 182.4 182.5 183.1 184.1 184.2 184.3 184.4 185.1 185.2 186.1 187.1 188.1 189.1 189.2 190.1 191.1 191.2 191.3 192.1 192.2 192.3 193.1 194.1 195.1 195.2 196.1 197.1 198.1 199.1 200.1 201.1 202.1 202.2 203.1 204.1 204.2 205.1 205.2 205.3 205.4 206.1 207.1 208.1 209.1 210.1 211.1 212.1 213.1 213.2 214.1 214.2 214.3 215.1 215.2 216.1 216.2 216.3 217.1 218.1 219.1 219.2 220.1 220.2 220.3 221.1 221.2 222.1 222.2 223.1 223.2 224.1 224.2 224.3 224.4 225.1 226.1 226.2 227.1 227.2 227.3 228.1 229.1 229.2 230.1 230.2 230.3 230.4 231.1 231.2 231.3 232.1 233.1 233.2 233.3 234.1 235.1 236.1 236.2 236.3 237.1 238.1 238.2 239.1 239.2 239.3 240.1 241.1 241.2 242.1 242.2 243.1 243.2 243.3 244.1 244.2 245.1 245.2 246.1 246.2 247.1 247.2 248.1 248.2 249.1 249.2 250.1 251.1 251.2 252.1 252.2 252.3 253.1 253.2 254.1 255.1 255.2 255.3 256.1 256.2 256.3 257.1 258.1 258.2 258.3 259.1 259.2 260.1 261.1 261.2 261.3 262.1 262.2 263.1 263.2 263.3 263.4 264.1 264.2 264.3 264.4 265.1 266.1 266.2 267.1 267.2 267.3 268.1 268.2 268.3 268.4 269.1 269.2 269.3 269.4 270.1 270.2 270.3 271.1 271.2 271.3 272.1 272.2 273.1 273.2 274.1 274.2 275.1 275.2 276.1 276.2 276.3 277.1 277.2 277.3 278.1 278.2 278.3 279.1 279.2 280.1 280.2 280.3 281.1 281.2 281.3 281.4 282.1 282.2 282.3 283.1 283.2 284.1 284.2 285.1 285.2 285.3 286.1 286.2 287.1 288.1 288.2 289.1 290.1 290.2 290.3 290.4 291.1 291.2 291.3 291.4 292.1 293.1 294.1 295.1 295.2 296.1 296.2 297.1 297.2 298.1 298.2 299.1 299.2 299.3 299.4 300.1 300.2 300.3 300.4 301.1 301.2 301.3 301.4 302.1 302.2 302.3 302.4 303.1 303.2 303.3 303.4 303.5 304.1 304.2 304.3 305.1 305.2 305.3 305.4 306.1 306.2 306.3 306.4 307.1 307.2 307.3 308.1 308.2 309.1 309.2 309.3 310.1 310.2 310.3 311.1 311.2 312.1 312.2 313.1 313.2 314.1 314.2 314.3 315.1 315.2 315.3 316.1 316.2 317.1 317.2 317.3 318.1 318.2 319.1 319.2 319.3 320.1 320.2 321.1 321.2 321.3 322.1 322.2 322.3 323.1 323.2 323.3 324.1 324.2 324.3 325.1 326.1 326.2 326.3 327.1 327.2 327.3 328.1 328.2 329.1 329.2 330.1 330.2 331.1 331.2 332.1 332.2 332.3 332.4 333.1 333.2 334.1 334.2 335.1 336.1 336.2 336.3 337.1 337.2 338.1 338.2 339.1 339.2 339.3 340.1 340.2 341.1 341.2 341.3 342.1 342.2 342.3 343.1 343.2 343.3 344.1 344.2 344.3 345.1 345.2 345.3 346.1 346.2 347.1 347.2 348.1 348.2 349.1 349.2 350.1 350.2 350.3 351.1 351.2 352.1 352.2 353.1 354.1 354.2 354.3 355.1 355.2 356.1 356.2 356.3 357.1 357.2 357.3 358.1 358.2 359.1 359.2 360.1 360.2 361.1 361.2 362.1 362.2 363.1 363.2 364.1 364.2 365.1 365.2 365.3 366.1 366.2 367.1 367.2 367.3 368.1 368.2 369.1 369.2 370.1 370.2 371.1 371.2 372.1 372.2 373.1 373.2 374.1 374.2 374.3 375.1 375.2 376.1 376.2 377.1 377.2 377.3 377.4 377.5 378.1 378.2 379.1 379.2 379.3 380.1 380.2 381.1 382.1 383.1 384.1 385.1 385.2 386.1 386.2 387.1 388.1 388.2 388.3 389.1 389.2 390.1 391.1 391.2 392.1 392.2 392.3 393.1 393.2 393.3 393.4 394.1 394.2 394.3 395.1 395.2 396.1 396.2 397.1 397.2 398.1 398.2 398.3 399.1 400.1 400.2 401.1 401.2 401.3 401.4 402.1 402.2 402.3 403.1 403.2 404.1 404.2 405.1 405.2 405.3 406.1 406.2 406.3 406.4 407.1 407.2 408.1 408.2 409.1 409.2 410.1 410.2 411.1 411.2 411.3 411.4 412.1 412.2 412.3 412.4 413.1 413.2 414.1 415.1 415.2 415.3 416.1 417.1 418.1 418.2 419.1 419.2 420.1 420.2 420.3 421.1 421.2 422.1 423.1 424.1 425.1 426.1 427.1 428.1 429.1 430.1 431.1 432.1 433.1 434.1 435.1 436.1 437.1 438.1 439.1 440.1 441.1 442.1 443.1 444.1 445.1 446.1 447.1 448.1 449.1 450.1 451.1 452.1 453.1 454.1 455.1 456.1 457.1 458.1 459.1 460.1 461.1 462.1 463.1 464.1 465.1 466.1 467.1 468.1 469.1 470.1 471.1 472.1 473.1 474.1 475.1 476.1 477.1 478.1 479.1 480.1 481.1 482.1 483.1 484.1 485.1 486.1 487.1 488.1 489.1 490.1 491.1 492.1 493.1 494.1 495.1 496.1 497.1 498.1 499.1 500.1 501.1 502.1 503.1 504.1 505.1 506.1 507.1 508.1 509.1 510.1 511.1 512.1 513.1 514.1 515.1 516.1 517.1 518.1 519.1 520.1 521.1 522.1 523.1 524.1 525.1 526.1 527.1 528.1 529.1 530.1 531.1 532.1 533.1 534.1 535.1 536.1 537.1 538.1 539.1 540.1 541.1 542.1 543.1 544.1 545.1 546.1 547.1 548.1 549.1 550.1 551.1 552.1 553.1 554.1 555.1 556.1 557.1 558.1 559.1 560.1 561.1 562.1 563.1 564.1 565.1 566.1 567.1 568.1 569.1 570.1 571.1 572.1 573.1 574.1 575.1 576.1 577.1 578.1 579.1 580.1 581.1 582.1 583.1 584.1 585.1 586.1 587.1 588.1 589.1 590.1 591.1 592.1 593.1 594.1 595.1 596.1 597.1 598.1 599.1 600.1 601.1 602.1 603.1 604.1 605.1 606.1 607.1
Iraq Iraq (/ɪˈræk/, i/ɪˈrɑːk/, or /aɪˈræk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq, Kurdish: Êraq), officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq; Kurdish: كۆماری عێراق Komar-i ‘Êraq), is a country in Western Asia. The country borders Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital, Baghdad, is in the center of the country and its largest city. The largest ethnic groups in Iraq are Arabs and Kurds. Other ethnic groups include Assyrians, Turcoman, Shabaki, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians and Kawliya form the minorities. [6] Around 95% of the country's 36 million citizens are Shia or Sunni Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism and Mandeanism also extant. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf and its territory encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain, the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert.[7] Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through the center of Iraq and flow into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as Mesopotamia and thought to be the birthplace of writing and the world's oldest civilizations. The area has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian empires. It was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.[8] Iraq's modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres. Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic of Iraq was created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party from 1968 until 2003. After an invasion by the United States and its allies, Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011[9] but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country. Contents - 1 Name - 2 History - 3 Geography - 4 Government and politics - 5 Economy - 6 Demographics - 7 Culture - 8 Technology - 9 Health - 10 Education - 11 See also - 12 References - 13 Bibliography - 14 External links Name The Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (Biblical Hebrew Erech) and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for "city", UR.[10][11] An Arabic folk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile".[12] During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī ("Foreign Iraq"),[13] for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran.[14] The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.[15] The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contrasting it with the arid Arabian desert. As an Arabic word, عراق means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment", viz. at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area.[16] The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary) or /ɪˈræk/ (listed first by MQD), the American Heritage Dictionary, and the Random House Dictionary. The pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in US media. History Pre-historic era Between 65,000 BC and 35,000 BC northern Iraq was home to a Neanderthal culture, archaeological remains of which have been discovered at Shanidar Cave[17] This same region is also the location of a number of pre-Neolithic cemeteries, dating from approximately 11,000 BC.[18] Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq (alongside Asia Minor and The Levant) was one of centers of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Further important sites of human advancement were Jarmo (circa 7100 BC),[18] the Halaf culture and Ubaid period (between 6500 BC and 3800 BC),[19] these periods show ever increasing levels of advancement in agriculture, tool making and architecture. Ancient Iraq The historical period in Iraq truly begins during the Uruk period (4000 BC to 3100 BC), with the founding of a number of Sumerian cities, and the use of Pictographs, Cylinder seals and mass-produced goods.[21] The "Cradle of Civilization", is thus a common term for the area comprising modern Iraq as it was home to the earliest known civilization, the Sumerian civilization, which arose in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid period). It was here in the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history itself were born. The Sumerians were also the first to harness The Wheel and create City States, and whose writings record the first evidence of Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology, Written Law, Medicine and Organised religion. The Sumerians spoke a Language Isolate, in other words, a language utterly unrelated to any other, including the Semitic Languages, Indo-European Languages, Afro-Asiatic Languages or any other Isolates. The major city states of the early Sumerian period were; Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Uruk, Kish, Ur, Nippur, Lagash, Girsu, Umma, Hamazi, Adab, Mari, Isin, Larsa, Kutha, Der and Akshak. Cities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern Irbil) and Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk) were also extant in what was to be called Assyria from the 25th century BC, however at this early stage they were Sumerian ruled administrative centers. In the 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash created what was perhaps the first Empire in history, though this was short lived. Later, Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean.[22] It was during this period that the Epic of Gilgamesh originates, which includes the tale of The Great Flood. From approximately 3000 BC, a Semitic people had also entered Iraq from the west and settled amongst the Sumerians. These people spoke an East Semitic language which would later come to be known as Akkadian. From the 29th century BC Akkadian Semitic names began to appear on king lists and administrative documents of various city states. During the 3rd millennium BCE a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influences between Sumerian and Akkadian are evident in all areas including lexical borrowing on a massive scale—and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This mutual influence has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BCE as a Sprachbund.[23] From this period the civilisation in Iraq came to be known as Sumero-Akkadian. Between the 29th and 24th centuries BC, a number of kingdoms and city states within Iraq began to have Akkadian speaking dynasties; including Assyria, Ekallatum, Isin and Larsa. However, the Sumerians remained generally dominant until the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335-2124 BC), based in the city of Akkad in central Iraq. Sargon of Akkad, originally a Rabshakeh to a Sumerian king, founded the empire, he conquered all of the city states of southern and central Iraq, and subjugated the kings of Assyria, thus uniting the Sumerians and Akkadians in one state. He then set about expanding his empire, conquering Gutium, Elam, Cissia and Turukku in Ancient Iran, the Hurrians, Luwians and Hattians of Anatolia, and the Amorites and Eblaites of Ancient Syria. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire in the late 22nd century BC, the Gutians occupied the south for a few decades, while Assyria reasserted its independence in the north. This was followed by a Sumerian renaissance in the form of the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The Sumerians under king Shulgi conquered almost all of Iraq except the northern reaches of Assyria, and asserted themselves over the Elamites, Gutians and Amorites. An Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Sumerian revival to an end. By the mid 21st century BC the Akkadian speaking kingdom of Assyria, had risen to dominance in northern Iraq, it expanded territorially into the north eastern Levant, central Iraq, and eastern Anatolia, forming the Old Assyrian Empire (circa 2035-1750 BC) under kings such as Puzur-Ashur I, Sargon I, Ilushuma and Erishum I, the latter of whom produced the most detailed set of Written Laws yet written. The south broke up into a number of Akkadian speaking states, Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna being the major ones. During the 20th century BC, the Canaanite speaking Northwest Semitic Amorites began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia. Eventually these Amorites began to set up small petty kingdoms in the south, as well as usurping the thrones of extant city states such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna. One of these small kingdoms founded in 1894 BC contained the then small administrative town of Babylon within its borders. It remained insignificant for over a century, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Assyria, Elam, Isin, Ehnunna and Larsa. In 1792 BC, an Amorite ruler named Hammurabi came to power in this state, and immediately set about building Babylon from a minor town into a major city, declaring himself its king. Hammurabi conquered the whole of southern and central Iraq, as well as Elam to the east and Mari to the west, then engaged in a protracted war with the Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan for domination of the region, creating the short lived Babylonian Empire. He eventually prevailed over the successor of Ishme-Dagan and subjected Assyria and its Anatolian colonies. It is from the period of Hammurabi that southern Iraq came to be known as Babylonia, while the north had already coalesced into Assyria hundreds of years before. However, his empire was short lived, and rapidly collapsed after his death, with both Assyria and southern Iraq, in the form of the Sealand Dynasty, falling back into native Akkadian hands. The foreign Amorites clung on to power in a once more weak and small Babylonia until it was sacked by the Indo-European speaking Hittite Empire based in Anatolia in 1595 BC. After this, another foreign people, the Language Isolate speaking Kassites, originating in the Zagros Mountains of Ancient Iran, seized control of Babylonia, where they were to rule for almost six hundred years, by far the longest dynasty ever to rule in Babylon. Iraq was from this point divided into three polities; Assyria in the north, Kassite Babylonia in the south central region, and the Sealand Dynasty in the far south. The Sealand Dynasty was finally conquered into Babylonia by the Kassites circa 1380 BC. The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) saw Assyria rise to be the most powerful nation in the known world. Beginning with the campaigns of Ashur-uballit I, Assyria destroyed the rival Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, annexed huge swathes of the Hittite Empire for itself, annexed northern Babylonia from the Kassites, forced the Egyptian Empire from the region, and defeated the Elamites, Phrygians, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Cilicians, Gutians, Dilmunites and Arameans. At its height the Middle Assyrian Empire stretched from The Caucasus to Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and from the Mediterranean coasts of Phoenicia to the Zagros Mountains of Iran. In 1235 BC, Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria took the throne of Babylon, thus becoming the very first native Mesopotamian to rule the state. During the Bronze Age collapse (1200-900 BC) Babylonia was in a state of chaos, dominated for long periods by Assyria and Elam. The Kassites were driven from power by Assyria and Elam, allowing native south Mesopotamian kings to rule Babylonia for the first time, although often subject to Assyrian or Elamite rulers. However, these East Semitic Akkadian kings, were unable to prevent new waves of West Semitic migrants entering southern Iraq, and during the 11th century BC Arameans and Suteans entered Babylonia from The Levant, and these were followed in the late 10th to early 9th century BC by the migrant Chaldeans who were closely related to the earlier Arameans. After a period of comparative decline in Assyria, it once more began to expand with the Neo Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). This was to be the largest and most powerful empire the world had yet seen, and under rulers such as Adad-Nirari II, Ashurnasirpal, Shalmaneser III, Semiramis, Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, Iraq became the center of an empire stretching from Persia, Parthia and Elam in the east, to Cyprus and Antioch in the west, and from The Caucasus in the north to Egypt, Nubia and Arabia in the south. The Arabs are first mentioned in written history (circa 850 BC) as a subject people of Shalmaneser III, dwelling in the Arabian Peninsula. The Chaldeans are first mentioned at this time also. It was during this period that an Akkadian influenced form of Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of their vast empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. The descendant dialects of this tongue survive amongst the Assyrians of northern Iraq to this day. In the late 7th century BC the Assyrian Empire tore itself apart with a series of brutal civil wars, weakening itself to such a degree that a coalition of its former subjects; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Parthians, Scythians and Cimmerians, were able to attack Assyria, finally bringing its empire down by 605 BC.[24] The short lived Neo-Babylonian Empire (620-539 BC) succeeded that of Assyria. It failed to attain the size, power or longevity of its predecessor, however it came to dominate The Levant, Canaan, Arabia, Israel and Judah, and to defeat Egypt. Initially, Babylon was ruled by yet another foreign dynasty, that of the Chaldeans, who had migrated to the region in the late 10th or early 9th century BC. Its greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar II rivaled another non native ruler, the ethnically unrelated Amorite king Hammurabi, as the greatest king of Babylon. However by 556 BC the Chaldeans had been deposed from power by the Assyrian born Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. In the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire for nearly two centuries. The Chaldeans and Chaldea disappeared at around this time, though both Assyria and Babylonia endured and thrived under Achaemenid rule (see Achaemenid Assyria). Little changed under the Persians, having spent three centuries under Assyrian rule, their kings saw themselves as successors to Ashurbanipal, and they retained Assyrian Imperial Aramaic as the language of empire, together with the Assyrian imperial infrastructure, and an Assyrian style of art and architecture. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, putting it under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for over two centuries.[25] The Seleucids introduced the Indo-Anatolian and Greek term Syria to the region. This name had for many centuries been the Indo-European word for Assyria and specifically and only meant Assyria, however the Seleucids also applied it to The Levant (Aramea, causing both the Assyria and the Assyrians of Iraq and the Arameans and The Levant to be called Syria and Syrians/Syriacs in the Greco-Roman world.[26] The Parthians (247 BC – 224 AD) from Persia conquered the region during the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC). From Syria, the Romans invaded western parts of the region several times, briefly founding Assyria Provincia in Assyria. Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and Assyria became a center of Syriac Christianity, the Church of the East and Syriac literature. A number of indigenous independent Neo-Assyrian states evolved in the north during the Parthian era, such as Adiabene, Assur, Osroene and Hatra. A number of Assyrians from Mesopotamia were conscripted into or joined the Roman Army, and the Aramaic language of Assyria and Mesopotamia has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in northern Ancient Britain, with inscriptions written by Assyrian and Aramean soldiers of the Roman Empire.[27] The Sassanids of Persia under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. During the 240s and 250's AD the Sasanids gradually conquered the small Neo Assyrian states, culminating with Assur in 256 AD. The region was thus a province of the Sassanid Empire for over four centuries, and became the frontier and battle ground between the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire, with both empires weakening each other greatly, paving the way for the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century, Middle Ages The Arab Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century AD established Islam in Iraq and saw a large influx of Arabs and Kurds. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, moved his capital to Kufa when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Córdoba in Iberia.) The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million,[28] and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.[29] In 1257 Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu Khan demanded surrender but the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, he besieged Baghdad, sacked the city and massacred many of the inhabitatnts.[30] Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.[31] The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad's House of Wisdom, which contained countless precious and historical documents. The city has never regained its previous pre-eminence as a major center of culture and influence. Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for millennia. Other historians point to soil salination as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.[32] The mid-14th-century Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.[33] The best estimate for the Middle East is a death rate of roughly one-third.[34] In 1401 a warlord of Mongol descent, Tamerlane (Timur Lenk), invaded Iraq. After the capture of Baghdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred.[35] Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[36] Timur also conducted massacres of the indigenous Assyrian Christian population, hitherto still the majority population in northern Mesopotamia, and it was during this time that the ancient Assyrian city of Assur was finally abandoned.[37] Ottoman Iraq During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the eyalet of Baghdad. Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances. The Safavid dynasty of Iran briefly asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods of 1508–1533 and 1622–1638. By the 17th century, the frequent conflicts with the Safavids had sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire and had weakened its control over its provinces. The nomadic population swelled with the influx of bedouins from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin raids on settled areas became impossible to curb.[38] During the years 1747–1831 Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian[39] origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a program of modernization of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. The population of Iraq, estimated at 30 million in 800 AD, was only 5 million at the start of the 20th century.[40] During World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and initially suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–1916). However, subsequent to this the British began to gain the upper hand, and were further aided by the support of local Arabs and Assyrians. In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western Asia under the Sykes-Picot Agreement.[41] British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917, and defeated the Ottomans. An armistice was signed in 1918. During World War I the Ottomans were defeated and driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, of which 112,000 were combat troops.[citation needed] British adminitration and independent Kingdom On 11 November 1920 Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name "State of Iraq". The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal I of Iraq, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][42][page needed] Faced with spiralling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox.[citation needed] Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority.[43] The institution of slavery was abolished in the 1920s.[44] Britain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932,[45] on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases, local militia in the form of Assyrian Levies, and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom (which still maintained air bases in Iraq) invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies,[46] defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May. A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947, although Britain was to retain military bases in Iraq until 1954, after which the Assyrian militias were disbanded. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri as-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II. Republic and Ba'athist Iraq In 1958 a coup d'etat known as the 14 July Revolution led to the end of the monarchy. Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim assumed power, but he was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in a February 1963 coup. After his death in 1966 he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, who was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became the first Ba'ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of General Saddam Hussein, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979. After the success of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, President Saddam Hussein initially welcomed the overthrow of the Shah and sought to establish good relations with Ayatollah Khomeini's new government. However, Khomeini openly called for the spread of the Islamic Revolution to Iraq, arming Shiite and Kurdish rebels against Saddam's regime and sponsoring assassination attempts on senior Iraqi officials. Following months of cross-border raids between the two countries, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Iraq withdrew from Iran in 1982, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive.[47][page needed] The war ended in stalemate in 1988 and cost the lives of between half a million and 1.5 million people.[48] In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials testing reactor at Osirak and was widely criticized at the United Nations.[49][50] Iraq waged chemical warfare against Iran.[51] In the final stages of Iran–Iraq War, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime led the Al-Anfal Campaign, a genocidal[52] campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds,[53][54][55] and led to the killing of 50,000 – 100,000 civilians.[56] In August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This subsequently led to military intervention by United States-led forces in the First Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets[57][58][59] and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in Southern Iraq and those occupying Kuwait. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war and shortly after it ended in 1991, Shia and Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against Saddam Hussein's regime, but these were successfully repressed using the Iraqi security forces and chemical weapons. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed.[60] During the uprisings the US, UK, France and Turkey, claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from attacks by the Hussein regime's fixed-wing aircraft (but not helicopters). Iraq was ordered to destroy its chemical and biological weapons and the UN attempted to compel Saddam Hussein's government to disarm and agree to a ceasefire by imposing additional sanctions on the country in addition to the initial sanctions imposed following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi Government's failure to disarm and agree to a ceasefire resulted in sanctions which remained in place until 2003. Studies dispute the effects of the sanctions on Iraqi civilians.[61][62][63] During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis[citation needed] and attacks on U.S. aircraft patrolling the no-fly zones led to U.S. bombing of Iraq in December 1998. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks the George W. Bush administration began planning the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's government and in October 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq. In November 2002 the UN Security Council passed UNSCR 1441 and in March 2003 the U.S. and its allies invaded Iraq. On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, under the pretext that Iraq had failed to abandon its weapons of mass destruction program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. This claim was based on documents provided by the CIA and British government[64] and were later found to be unreliable.[65][66] Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq. In May 2003 L. Paul Bremer, the chief executive of the CPA, issued orders to exclude Baath Party members from the new Iraqi government (CPA Order 1) and to disband the Iraqi Army (CPA Order 2).[67] The decision dissolved the largely Sunni Iraqi Army[68] and excluded many of the country's former government officials from participating in the country's governance, helping to bring about a chaotic post-invasion environment.[69] Insurgency against the U.S.-led coalition-rule of Iraq began in summer 2003 within elements of the former Iraqi secret police and army who formed guerilla units. In fall 2003, also self-entitled ‘Jihadist’ groups began targeting coalition forces. Various Sunni militias were created in 2003, for example Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. The insurgency included intense inter-ethnic violence between Sunnis and Shias.[70] The Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal came to light, late 2003 in reports by Amnesty International and Associated Press. The Mahdi Army--a Shia militia created in the summer of 2003 by Muqtada al-Sadr[71]--began to fight Coalition forces in April 2004.[71] 2004 saw Sunni and Shia militants fighting against each other and against the new Iraqi Interim Government installed June 2004, and against Coalition forces, as well as the First Battle of Fallujah in April and Second Battle of Fallujah in November. Sunni militia Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad became Al-Qaeda in Iraq in October 2004 and targeted Coalition forces as well as civilians, mainly Shia Muslims, further exacerbating ethnic tensions.[72] In January 2005 the first elections since the invasion took place and in October a new Constitution was approved which was followed by parliamentary elections in December. Insurgent attacks were common however and increased to 34,131 in 2005 from 26,496 in 2004.[73] During 2006 fighting continued and reached its highest levels of violence, more war crimes scandals were made public, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq was killed by U.S. forces and Iraq's former dictator Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death for crimes against humanity and hanged.[74][75][76] In late 2006 the U.S. government's Iraq Study Group recommended that the U.S. begin focusing on training Iraqi military personnel and in January 2007 U.S. President George W. Bush announced a "Surge" in the number of U.S. troops deployed to the country.[77] In May 2007 Iraq's Parliament called on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal[78] and U.S. coalition partners such as the UK and Denmark began withdrawing their forces from the country.[79][80] 2008–present In 2008 fighting continued and Iraq's newly trained armed forces launched attacks against militants. The Iraqi government signed the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement which required U.S. forces to withdraw from Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009 and to withdraw completely out of Iraq by 31 December 2011. U.S. troops handed over security duties to Iraqi forces in June 2009, though they continued to work with Iraqi forces after the pullout.[81] On the morning of 18 December 2011, the final contingent of U.S. troops to be withdrawn ceremonially exited over the border to Kuwait.[9] Crime and violence initially spiked in the months following the US withdrawal from cities in mid-2009[82][83] but despite the initial increase in violence, in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level since the 2003 invasion.[84] Following the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011 the insurgency continued and Iraq suffered from political instability. In February 2011 the Arab Spring protests spread to Iraq;[85] but the initial protests did not topple the government. The Iraqi National Movement, reportedly representing the majority of Iraqi Sunnis, boycotted Parliament for several weeks in late 2011 and early 2012, claiming that the Shiite-dominated government was striving to sideline Sunnis. In 2012 and 2013 levels of violence increased and armed groups inside Iraq were increasingly galvanised by the Syrian Civil War. Both Sunnis and Shias crossed the border to fight in Syria.[86] In December 2012, mainly Sunni Arabs protested against the government who they claimed marginalized them.[87][88] During 2013 Sunni militant groups stepped up attacks targeting the Iraq's Shia population in an attempt to undermine confidence in the Nouri al-Maliki-led government.[89] In 2014 Sunni insurgents belonging to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist group seized control of large swathes of land including several major Iraqi cities, like Tikrit, Fallujah and Mosul creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters.[90] After an inconclusive election in April 2014, Nouri al-Maliki served as caretaker-Prime-Minister.[91] On 11 August, Iraq’s highest court ruled that PM Maliki’s bloc is biggest in parliament, meaning Maliki could stay Prime Minister.[91] By 13 August, however, the Iraqi president had tasked Haider al-Abadi with forming a new government, and the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and some Iraqi politicians expressed their wish for a new leadership in Iraq, for example from Haider al-Abadi.[92] Maliki on 14 August stepped down as PM, to support Mr al-Abadi and to “safeguard the high interests of the country”. The U.S. government welcomed this as “another major step forward” in uniting Iraq.[93][94] On September 9, 2014, Haider al-Abadi had formed a new government and became the new prime minister.[citation needed] Geography Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km2 (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay. Iraq mainly consists of desert, but near the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft) point, unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s. Climate Most of Iraq has a hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C (104 °F) for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C (118.4 °F). Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 21 °C (69.8 °F) with maxima roughly 15 to 19 °C (59.0 to 66.2 °F) and night-time lows 2 to 5 °C (35.6 to 41.0 °F). Typically precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during the winter months. Rainfall during the summer is extremely rare, except in the far north of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding. Government and politics The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary Islamic republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance.[95] The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals.[95] The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Both parties are secular and enjoy close ties with the West.[95] In 2010, according to the Failed States Index, Iraq was the world's seventh most politically unstable country.[96][97] The concentration of power in the hands of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and growing pressure on the opposition led to growing concern about the future of political rights in Iraq.[98] Nevertheless progress was made and the country had risen to 11th place by 2013.[99] In August 2014 al-Maliki's reign came to an end. He announced on 14 August 2014 he would stand aside so Haider Al-Abadi, who had been nominated just days earlier by newly installed President Fuad Masum, could take over. Until that point al-Maliki had clung to power even asking the federal court to veto the president's nomination describing it as a violation of the constitution.[100] Since the establishment of the no–fly zones following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the Kurds established their own autonomous region. This has been a source of particular tension with Turkey. Law In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[101] The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15, 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities. Law no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law)[102] made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16.[103] Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law.[104] Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offenses.[105] The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia.[106] In 2004, the CFA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law.[107] The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics,[108] and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.[109] The Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq. Military Iraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Defense, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. Ministry of Defense forces include the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force and the Iraqi Navy. The Peshmerga are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent.[110] The Iraqi Army is an objective counter-insurgency force that as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each division consisting of 4 brigades.[111] It is described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight.[112] Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, RPGs, body armor and light armored vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles.[112] As of mid-2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems.[113] The Iraqi Air Force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. It currently has 3,000 personnel. It is planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018.[112] The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and officers, including 800 Marines, designed to protect shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy is also responsible for the security of offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion.[112] The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by year 2010.[114] Foreign relations On November 17, 2008, the U.S. and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement,[115] as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement.[116] This agreement states "the Government of Iraq requests" U.S. forces to temporarily remain in Iraq to "maintain security and stability," and that Iraq has jurisdiction over military contractors, and US personnel when not on US bases or on–duty. On 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons. Specific criteria is in development to address the unique nature of Iraqi accession.[117] Iran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high level visits: Iraqi PM Nouri al-Maliki makes frequent visits, along with Jalal Talabani visiting numerous times, to help boost bilateral cooperation in all fields. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.[118] Relationships with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue.[119] In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq."[120] Human rights Relations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the constitution.[121] LGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalized, homosexuality remains stigmatized in Iraqi society.[122] Targeting people because of their gender identity or sexual orientation is not uncommon and is usually carried out in the name of family honor. People who dress in emo style are mistakenly associated with homosexuality and may suffer the same fate.[123] A BBC article published in 2009, which includes interviews of homosexual and transgendered Iraqis, suggests that LGBT people were less subject to violence under Hussein's regime.[124] Administrative divisions Iraq is composed of nineteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat (singular muhafadhah); Kurdish: پارێزگا Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas). Iraqi Kurdistan (Erbil, Duhok, Sulaymaniyah and Halabja) is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official army Peshmerga. Economy Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,000.[2] Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011.[125] The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment.[125] Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.[125] Prior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods.[126] After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatizing Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment. On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[127] In February 2011, Citigroup included Iraq in a group of countries which it described as 'Global Growth Generators', that it argued will enjoy significant economic growth in the future.[128] The official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques.[129] Jim Cramer's October 20, 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi Dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.[130] Five years after the invasion, an estimated 2.4 million people were internally displaced (with a further two million refugees outside Iraq), four million Iraqis were considered food-insecure (a quarter of children were chronically malnourished) and only a third of Iraqi children had access to safe drinking water.[131] According to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance "piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information".[131] International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, 24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.[131] Oil and energy With its 143.1 billion barrels (2.275×1010 m3) of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves.[132][133] Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012.[134] Iraq intends to increase its production to 5 million barrels per day by 2014.[135] Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[136] Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.[137][138] As of 2010, despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.[139] The Iraq oil law is a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Iraqi Council of Representatives in May 2007.[140] The Iraqi government has yet to reach an agreement on the law. According to a US Study from May 2007, between 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d) and 300,000 barrels per day (48,000 m3/d) of Iraq’s declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling.[141] In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in U.S. care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for.[142] Some reports that the government has reduced corruption in public procurement of oil; however, reliable reports of bribery and kickbacks to government officials continue to persist.[143] In June 2008, the Iraqi Oil Ministry announced plans to go ahead with small one- or two-year no-bid contracts to Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total and BP — once partners in the Iraq Petroleum Company — along with Chevron and smaller firms to service Iraq’s largest fields.[144] These plans were canceled in September because negotiations had stalled for so long that the work could not be completed within the time frame, according to Iraqi oil minister Hussain al-Shahristani. Several United States senators had also criticized the deal, arguing it was hindering efforts to pass the hydrocarbon law.[145] On June 30 and December 11, 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields.[146][147] Oil fields contracted include the "super-giant" Majnoon Field, Halfaya Field, West Qurna Field and Rumaila Field.[147] BP and China National Petroleum Corporation won a deal to develop Rumaila, the largest Iraqi oil field.[148][149] On March 14, 2014, the International Energy Agency said Iraq's oil output jumped by half a million barrels a day in February to average 3.6 million barrels a day. The country hadn't pumped that much oil since 1979, when Saddam Hussein rose to power.[150] On July 14, 2014 however as sectarian strife had taken hold, Kurdistan Regional Government forces seized control of the Bai Hassan and Kirkuk oilfields in the north of the country, taking them from Iraq's control. Baghdad condemned the seizure and threatened "dire consequences" if the fields were not returned.[151] Infrastructure Although many infrastructure projects are underway, Iraq remains in deep housing crisis, with the war-ravaged country likely to complete only 5 percent of the 2.5 million homes it needs to build by 2016 to keep up with demand, the Minister for Construction and Housing said in September 2013.[152] - In 2009, the IBBC was established (Iraq Britain Business Council). The Council was established by Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. - In August 2009, two American firms reached a deal with the Iraqi Government to build Basra Sports City, a new sports complex. Basra Sports City will be the venue for the 2014 Gulf Cup of Nations. - In October 2012, the Emirati property firm, Emaar Properties reached a deal with the Iraqi Ministry of Construction and Housing to build and develop housing and commercial projects in Iraq. - In January 2013, the Emirati property firm, Nakheel Properties signed a deal to build Al Nakheel City, a future town in Basra, Iraq. Demographics An April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000.[3] Iraq's population was estimated at only 2 million in 1878.[153] Iraq's population as announced by the government has reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.[156] According to the Central Intelligence Agency, Arabs form 75%–80% of the population.[2] 15% of Iraq's population are Kurds. Assyrians, Turkmen and other much smaller minorities such as Mandeans, Armenians, Circassians, Iranians, Shabakis and Kawliya make up the remainder 5%-10% of the population.[2][157] Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.[158] Iraq also has a community of 2,500 Chechens.[159] In southern Iraq there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practiced in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port.[44] Religion Iraq is a Muslim-majority country; Islam accounts for an estimated 95% of the population, while non-Muslims (mainly Assyrian Christians) account for just 5%.[2] It has a mixed Shia and Sunni population. Most sources estimate that around 65% of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, and around 35% are Sunni.[2][160] The Sunni population complains of facing discrimination in almost all aspects of life by the government. However, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki denied it.[161] Christians have lived in the area for about 2,000 years, and many descend from the pre-Arab ancient Mesopotamians-Assyrians.[162] They numbered over 1.4 million in 1987 or 8% of the estimate population of 16.3 million.[163] Indigenous Neo Aramaic speaking Assyrians, most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Syriac Orthodox Church account for most of the Christian population. Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8–10% in the mid-20th century to 5% in 2008. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled to neighbouring countries since the start of the war, and many have not returned, although a number are migrating back to the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Kurdish Autonomous region.[164][165] There are also small ethno-religious minority populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis. The Iraqi Jewish community, numbering around 150,000 in 1941, has almost entirely left the country.[166] Iraq is home to two of the world's holiest places among Shias: Najaf and Karbala.[167] Languages Arabic is the majority language; Kurdish is spoken by approximately 10–15% of the population; and Turkmen,[121] the Neo-Aramaic language of the Assyrians and others, by 5%.[2] Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic, Shabaki, Armenian, Circassian and Persian. Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and South Azeri are written with versions of the Arabic script, the Neo-Aramaic languages in the Syriac script and Armenian is written in the Armenian script. Prior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq approved in June 2004, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages,[168] while Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Turkmen language (referred to as respectively "Syriac" and "Turkmen" in the constitution) are recognized regional languages.[169] In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum.[170] According to the Iraqi constitution: "The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions".[171] Diaspora and refugees The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi-National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Syria and Jordan.[172] The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates an additional 1.9 million are currently displaced within the country.[173] In 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled and that most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[174] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[175][176] In recent years the diaspora seems to be returning with the increased security; the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.[177] As of 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced, with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million in neighboring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria.[178] More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled the country since the 2003 U.S.-led invasion.[179][180] According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis have been granted refugee-status citizenship as of May 25, 2011.[181] To escape the civil war, over 160,000 Syrian refugees of varying ethnicities have fled to Iraq since 2012.[182] Increasing violence during the Syrian civil war led to an increasing numbers of Iraqis returning to their native country.[183] Culture Public holidays in Iraq include Republic Day on July 14 and the National Day on October 3. Music Iraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam al-Iraqi is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri).[184] This form of art is recognized by UNESCO as “an intangible heritage of humanity”.[185] Early in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish.[186] In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.[186] The most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps the Jew Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad).[186][187] The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time since public performance by women was considered shameful, and most female singers were recruited from brothels.[186] The most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Daoud Al-Kuwaiti.[citation needed] Daoud and his brother Saleh formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.[186] Art and architecture Important cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions. Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artifacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilizations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq. The capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 16 km (10 mi) N.E. of Mosul; of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, and some interesting works connected with the drainage. Media After the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq. Immediately, and the ban on satellite dishes is no longer in place, and by mid-2003, according to a BBC report, there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated. Significantly, there have been many of these newspapers in numbers disproportionate to the population of their locations. For example, in Najaf, which has a population of 300,000, is being published more than 30 newspapers and distributed. Iraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.[188][page needed] Cuisine Iraqi cuisine has a long history going back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians.[189] Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world.[189] Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilizations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts.[189] However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith.[189] Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.[189] Some characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits, especially lemon and lime.[189] Similarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq.[189] Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes – having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.[189] Sport Football is the most popular sport in Iraq. Football is a considerable uniting factor in Iraq following years of war and unrest. Basketball, swimming, weightlifting, bodybuilding, boxing, kick boxing and tennis are also popular sports. The Iraqi Football Association is the governing body of football in Iraq, controlling the Iraqi National Team and the Iraqi Premier League (also known as Dawri Al-Nokba). It was founded in 1948, and has been a member of FIFA since 1950 and the Asian Football Confederation since 1971. The Iraqi National Football Team were the 2007 AFC Asian Cup Champions after defeating Saudi Arabia in the final by 1-0 the goal took place by the foot of Younis Mahmoud after that the iraqi people named him alsafah literally mean atrocious duo to his skill in football playing . Technology Mobile phones Despite having mobile phones in the middle east since 1995, Iraqis were only able to use mobile phones in 2003. Mobile phones were banned under Saddam's rule and the punishment of owning or using a mobile phone could be death.[citation needed] Currently upwards to 78%[190] of Iraqis own a mobile phone. Satellite According to Iraqi Ministry of Communication, Iraq is now in the second phase of building and launching a multipurpose strategic satellite.[191] A project which expected to cost $600 million is ongoing in cooperation with market leaders such as Astrium and Ariannespace. Undersea cable On the 18th January 2012 Iraq was connected to the undersea communications network for the first time.[192] This had an immense impact on internet speed, availability and usage in Iraq. On 2 October 2013, the Iraqi Minister for Communication ordered the internet prices to be lowered by a third. This is an attempt to boost usage and comes as a result of significant improvements in Internet infrastructure in the country.[193] Health In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[194] The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females.[195] This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.[196] Iraq had developed a centralized free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a “Watching Brief” report issued jointly by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003. Unlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernized system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed. Education The CIA World Factbook estimates that in 2000 the adult literacy rate was 84% for males and 64% for females, with UN figures suggesting a small fall in literacy of Iraqis aged 15–24 between 2000 and 2008, from 84.8% to 82.4%.[198] The Coalition Provisional Authority undertook a complete reform of Iraq’s education system: Baathist ideology was removed from curricula and there were substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s.[citation needed] In 2003 an estimated 80% of Iraq’s 15,000 school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary facilities, and most schools lacked libraries and laboratories.[citation needed] Education is mandatory only through the sixth grade, after which a national examination determines the possibility of continuing into the upper grades.[citation needed] Although a vocational track is available to those who do not pass the exam, few students elect that option because of its poor quality.[citation needed] Boys and girls generally attend separate schools beginning with seventh grade.[citation needed] In 2005 obstacles to further reform were poor security conditions in many areas, a centralized system that lacked accountability for teachers and administrators, and the isolation in which the system functioned for the previous 30 years.[citation needed] Few private schools exist.[citation needed] Prior to the invasion of 2003, some 240,000 persons were enrolled in institutions of higher education.[citation needed] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Dohuk (1717th worldwide), the University of Baghdad (3160th) and Babylon University (3946th).[199] See also References - ^ Embassies overseas of Republic of İraq: جريدة الصباح تنشر احصائية وزارة التخطيط لعدد نفوس سكان العراق لسنة - ^ a b c d e f g "Iraq". CIA Factbook. - ^ a b c d e "Iraq". International Monetary Fund. October 2014. - ^ "World Bank GINI index". Data.worldbank.org. - ^ "Human Development Index and its components. Human Development Report 2011" (PDF). UNDP. - ^ Article 125 of the Iraqi Constitution.http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/454f50804.pdf - ^ "Declaration of Principles for a Long-Term Relationship of Cooperation and Friendship Between the Republic of Iraq and the United States of America". - ^ "Top 10 Battles for the Control of Iraq". Livescience.com. "Deadly Iraq war ends with exit of last U.S. troops". CNN.com. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. - ^ Halloran, John A. (2000). "Sumerian Lexicon". The name of the very ancient city of URUK- City of Gilgamesh is made up from the UR-city and UK- thought to mean existence (a-ku, a-Ki & a-ko. The Aramaic and Arabic root of IRQ and URQ denotes rivers or tributaries at the same times referring to condensation (of water). - ^ "often said to be from Arabic `araqa, covering notions such as "perspiring, deeply rooted, well-watered," which may reflect the impression the lush river-land made on desert Arabs. etymonline.com; see also "Rassam, Suha (2005-10-31). Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Gracewing Publishing. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. - ^ "ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM(Ī)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. - ^ Magnus Thorkell Bernhardsson (2005). Reclaiming a Plundered Past: Archaeology And Nation Building in Modern Iraq. University of Texas Press. The term Iraq did not encompass the regions north of the region of Tikrit on the Tigris and near Hīt on the Euphrates. - ^ Boesch, Hans H. (1 October 1939). Economic Geography 15 (4): 329. - ^ Edwards, Owen (March 2010). "The Skeletons of Shanidar Cave". Smithsonian. Retrieved 17 October 2014. - ^ a b Ralph S. Solecki, Rose L. Solecki, and Anagnostis P. Agelarakis (2004). The Proto-Neolithic Cemetery in Shanidar Cave. Texas A&M University Press. - ^ Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Number 63) The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (2010) ISBN 978-1-885923-66-0 p.2, at http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/saoc/saoc63.html; "Radiometric data suggest that the whole Southern Mesopotamian Ubaid period, including Ubaid 0 and 5, is of immense duration, spanning nearly three millenia from about 6500 to 3800 B. - ^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. - ^ Crawford 2004, p. 75 - ^ Roux, Georges (1993), "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin) - ^ Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. - ^ Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq - ^ "Seleucia on the Tigris". Umich.edu. - ^ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (4): 284–287. - ^ http://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall - ^ "Largest Cities Through History". Geography.about.com. - ^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Arts, Learning, and Knowledge (Conclusion)". Acs.ucalgary.ca. - ^ "Battuta's Travels: Part Three – Persia and Iraq". Sfusd.k12.ca.us. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008. "Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad". The New Yorker. - ^ "Irrigation Systems, Ancient". Waterencyclopedia.com. - ^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)". The University of Calgary. - ^ "Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online". Nationalreview.com. - ^ "Tamerlane – Timur the Lame Biography". Asianhistory.about.com. - ^ "14th century annihilation of Iraq". Mert Sahinoglu. - ^ ^ Nestorians, or Ancient Church of the East at Encyclopædia Britannica - ^ "Iraq – The Ottoman Period, 1534–1918". Countrystudies.us. - ^ Reidar Visser (2005). Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism And Nationalism in Southern Iraq. LIT Verlag Münster. - ^ "Population crises and cycles in history A review of the book Population Crises and Population cycles by Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell. valerieyule.com.au. - ^ p.8[dead link] - ^ Tripp, Charles (2002). A History of Iraq. Cambridge University Press. - ^ Liam Anderson; Gareth Stansfield (2005). The Future of Iraq: Dictatorship, Democracy, Or Division?. Palgrave Macmillan. Sunni control over the levels of power and the distribution of the spoils of office has had predictable consequences- a simmering resentment on the part of the Shi'a... - ^ a b Williams, Timothy (2009-12-02). "In Iraq’s African Enclave, Color Is Plainly Seen". The New York Times. - ^ Ongsotto et.al. Asian History Module-based Learning Ii' 2003 Ed. p69. - ^ Lyman, p.23 - ^ Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988. Oxford, Oxfordshire: Osprey Publishing. "The Iran-Iraq war: 25 years on". BBC News. - ^ S-RES-487(1981) Security Council Resolution 487 (1981)". United Nations. Retrieved 19 June 2011., http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/6c57312cc8bd93ca852560df00653995? OpenDocument - ^ Jonathan Steele (7 June 2002). "The Bush doctrine makes nonsense of the UN charter". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 November 2010, http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/jun/07/britainand911.usa - ^ Tyler, Patrick E. Officers Say U.S. Aided Iraq in War Despite Use of Gas New York Times August 18, 2002. - ^ "The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds A Middle East Watch Report". Human Rights Watch. - ^ Black, George (July 1993) [1993]. Genocide in Iraq: the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. - ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. (February 1994) [1994]. Bureaucracy of repression : the Iraqi government in its own words / Western Asia Watch. Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2006-10-28. - ^ "Charges against Saddam dropped as genocide trial resumes". Agence France-Presse. January 8, 2007. Archived from the original on 2009-01-01. - ^ Hiltermann, J. R. (2007). A poisonous affair: America, Iraq, and the gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press. - ^ Rick Atkinson (1993). Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. - ^ "The Ameriya Shelter – St. Valentine's Day Massacre". Uruknet.de. - ^ "'Smarter' bombs still hit civilians". Csmonitor.com. "'Chemical Ali' on trial for brutal crushing of Shia uprising". London: The Guardian. - ^ "Iraq surveys show 'humanitarian emergency'". Retrieved 29 November 2009. - ^ Spagat, Michael (8 July 2010). "Truth and death in Iraq under sanctions". Significance 7 (3): 116–120. - ^ Rubin, Michael (December 2001). "Sanctions on Iraq: A Valid Anti-American Grievance?" Middle East Review of International Affairs. - ^ "Bush's "16 Words" on Iraq & Uranium: He May Have Been Wrong But He Wasn't Lying". FactCheck.org. Archived from the original on 2010-03-05. "There were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq". guardian.co.uk (London: Guardian Media Group). - ^ "John Simpson: 'The Iraq memories I can't rid myself of'". BBC News. Retrieved 19 March 2013. - ^ Pfiffner, James (February 2010). "US Blunders in Iraq: De-Baathification and Disbanding the Army". Intelligence and National Security 25 (1): 76–85. Retrieved 16 December 2013. - ^ Gordon, Michael R. (2008-03-17). "Fateful Choice on Iraq Army Bypassed Debate". New York Times. - ^ "Can the joy last?". The Economist. - ^ "U.S. cracks down on Iraq death squads". CNN. - ^ a b Jackson, Patrick (2007-05-30). "Who are Iraq's Mehdi Army?". BBC News. - ^ "Al Qaeda's hand in tipping Iraq toward civil war". Christian Science Monitor / Al-Quds Al-Arabi. - ^ Thomas Ricks (2006) Fiasco: 414 - ^ "Saddam death 'ends dark chapter'". BBC News. - ^ "Saddam Hussein's Two Co-Defendants Hanged in Iraq". - ^ Qassim Abdul-Zahra (2007-03-20). "Saddam's Former Deputy Hanged in Iraq". Abcnews.go.com. Archived from the original on 2007-03-23. - ^ Ferguson, Barbara (11 September 2007). "Petraeus Says Iraq Troop Surge Working". Arab News. Retrieved 26 December 2009. - ^ Iraq Bill Demands U.S. Troop Withdraw Associated Press, Fox News, 10 May 2007 - ^ BBC NEWS 21 February 2007, Blair announces Iraq troops cut - ^ Al-Jazeera ENGLISH, 21 February 2007, Blair announces Iraq troop pullout[dead link] - ^ "US soldiers leave Iraq's cities". BBC. - ^ "After years of war, Iraqis hit by frenzy of crime". Associated Press. - ^ "Violence Grows in Iraq as American troops withdraw". FOX. - ^ "Iraqi civilian deaths drop to lowest level of war". Reuters. - ^ Sly, Liz (12 February 2011). "Egyptian revolution sparks protest movement in democratic Iraq". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 February 2011. - ^ Salem, Paul (29 November 2012). "INSIGHT: Iraq’s Tensions Heightened by Syria Conflict". Middle East Voices (Voice of America). Retrieved 3 November 2012. - ^ "Iraq Sunni protests in Anbar against Nouri al-Maliki". BBC News. 28 December 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2013. - ^ "Protests engulf west Iraq as Anbar rises against Maliki". BBC News. 2 January 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013. - ^ "Suicide bomber kills 32 at Baghdad funeral march". Fox News. Associated Press. 27 January 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012. - ^ "Iraq crisis: Battle grips vital Baiji oil refinery". BBC. Retrieved 18 June 2014. - ^ a b Spencer Ackerman and agencies (11 August 2014). "Kerry slaps down Maliki after he accuses Iraqi president of violating constitution". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 November 2014. - ^ Salama, Vivian (13 August 2014). "Tensions high in Iraq as support for new PM grows". Stripes. Retrieved 15 November 2014. - ^ "White House hails al-Maliki departure as ‘major step forward’". The Times. Retrieved 15 November 2014. - ^ "Iraq's new prime minister-designate vows to fight corruption, terrorism". Fox News. - ^ a b c "Guide to political groups in Iraq". BBC News. 11 November 2010. - ^ "Failed States Index Scores 2010". fundforpeace.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-28. - ^ "The Failed States Index 2010". fundforpeace.org. - ^ "Freedom in the World 2013". Freedom House. - ^ "The Failed States Index 2013". fundforpeace.org. - ^ "Iraq's Incumbent PM Nouri Al-Maliki Grows More Isolated As He Clings To Power". Huffington Post. Retrieved 14 August 2014. "Iraq's Constitution Adopted by Voters". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2006-02-18. - ^ "Iraq Personal Status Law of 1959 (ABA Translation)". American Bar Association. - ^ "Women In Personal Status Laws: Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria". SHS Papers in Women’s Studies/ Gender Research, No. 4. UNESCO. - ^ "Iraq, Republic of". Law.emory.edu. - ^ Fox, Jonathan (2008). A World Survey of Religion and the State. Cambridge University Press. - ^ "Religion, Law, and Iraq’s Personal Status Code". Islamopedia Online. - ^ "Bremer will reject Islam as source for law". NBC News. Retrieved 21 February 2013. - ^ "Shia fume over Bremer sharia threat". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 21 February 2013. - ^ Carroll, Rory; Borger, Julian (2005-08-22). "US relents on Islamic law to reach Iraq deal". London: The Guardian, 21 August 2005. - ^ "Annex H 2010 Updates". Home.comcast.net. January 2010. - ^ Swanson, Daniel M. (April 3, 2008) Coalition team assists in building combat force, U.S. Department of Defense. - ^ a b c d "The New Iraqi Security Forces". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2006-07-18. - ^ Magee, Thomas M. (July–August 2008). "Fostering Iraqi Army Logistics Success". Army Logistician 40 (4). - ^ "Iraq Weekly Status Report March 21, 2007". Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs US Department of State. - ^ "US-Iraq SOFA". Archived from the original on 2009-08-25. - ^ "Strategic Framework Agreement" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2010-04-14. - ^ "Iraq Joins the Chemical Weapons Convention". The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons -Opcw.org. - ^ Muhanad Mohammed (December 19, 2012). "Iran, Iraq seek diplomatic end to border dispute". Reuters. Retrieved August 18, 2012. - ^ "TURKEY:Relations with Iraq become explosive". Ipsnews.net. - ^ "24 soldiers killed in attack in Turkey". CNN. - ^ a b Iraqi Constitution, Article 4. - ^ "Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death". The Washington Post. February 24, 2014. "Fear as death squads hunt Iraq's gays and emos". Reuters. - ^ "Saddam's rule 'better' for gay Iraqis". BBC News. - ^ a b c "Unemployment Threatens Democracy in Iraq". USAID Iraq. January 2011. - ^ "Iraq's economy: Past, present, future". Reliefweb.int. - ^ "G7, Paris Club Agree on Iraq Debt Relief". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2004-11-21. - ^ Joe Weisenthal (2011-02-22). "FORGET THE BRICs: Citi's Willem Buiter Presents The 11 "3G" Countries That Will Win The Future". Business Insider. - ^ Coalition Provisional Authority. "Iraq Currency Exchange". Archived from the original on 2007-05-15. - ^ Odio, Sam. Jim Cramer on the Iraqi Dinar. dinarprofits.com - ^ a b c Sarah Bailey and Rachel Atkinson (2012-11-19). "Humanitarian action in Iraq: putting the pieces together". Overseas Development Institute. - ^ "World Proved Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates". Energy Information Administration. - ^ "Iraqi oil reserves estimated at 143B barrels". CNN. - ^ "Iraq’s flood of ‘cheap oil’ could rock world markets". The Washington Times. - ^ "Iraq Opens New Oil Terminal". Nuqudy English. - ^ "U.S. Electricity Imports from and Electricity Exports to Canada and Mexico Data for 2008". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2010-11-09. - ^ "Iraq facts and figures". OPEC. - ^ "OPEC Announces it Will Absorb The Increase in Iraq’s". Iraqidinar123. - ^ "Iraqi Minister Resigns Over Electricity Shortages". - ^ Pepe Escobar on Iraq – The U.S. "Surge" in Iraq and the oil law. Sao Paulo, Brazil: The Real News. Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. "Billions in Oil Missing in Iraq, US Study Says". New York Times. - ^ AlJazeeraEnglish (2010-07-29). "Inside Story – Iraq's missing billions". YouTube. - ^ "Iraq Country Profile". Business Anti-Corruption Portal. Retrieved 25 February 2014. "Deals With Iraq Are Set to Bring Oil Giants Back". The New York Times. "Iraq Cancels Six No-Bid Oil Contracts". The New York Times. - ^ "Oil firms awarded Iraq contracts". English.aljazeera.net. - ^ a b ""BP group wins Iraq oil contract", Al Jazeera English, June 30, 2009". English.aljazeera.net. - ^ Wong, Edward (June 28, 2011) "China Opens Oil Field in Iraq". The New York Times. - ^ Iraq123 News (October 01, 2013) "Development is Main Dependent on Export of Iraq". Iraq123 News. - ^ The Wall Street Journal(March 14, 2014) "Iraq's Oil Output Surges to Highest Level in Over 30 Years". The Wall Street Journal. - ^ "Tensions mount between Baghdad and Kurdish region as Kurds seize oil fields". Washington Post. Retrieved 11 July 2014. "Iraq faces chronic housing shortage, needs foreign investment -minister". Reuters. - ^ a b Charles Philip Issawi (1988). The Fertile Crescent, 1800–1914: A Documentary Economic History. Oxford University Press. - ^ "Population Census". Central Organization for Statistics. - ^ "Population Of Iraq For The Years 1977 – 2011 (000)". Central Organization for Statistics. - ^ "Iraqi population reaches about 35 million". Aswat Al Iraq. - ^ Assyria. Retrieved on 2013-12-08. - ^ Sharp, Heather (March 3, 2003). "BBC News – Iraq's 'devastated' Marsh Arabs". - ^ "Chechens in the Middle East: Between Original and Host Cultures". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. - ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Archived from the original on 2013-03-19. - ^ "Shias dominate Sunnis in the new Iraq". CBC news World. - ^ "Iraqi Christians' long history". BBC News. - ^ "IRAQ: Christians live in fear of death squads". IRIN Middle East. IRIN. 19 October 2006. Retrieved 21 October 2013. - ^ Assyria. Retrieved on 2013-12-08. "In Iraq, an Exodus of Christians". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2011-04-29. "Embattled Jewish community down to last survivors". Usatoday.com. - ^ On Point: The United States Army In Operation Iraqi Freedom – Page 265, Gregory Fontenot – 2004 - ^ Iraqi Constitution, Article 4, 1st section. - ^ Iraqi Constitution, Article 4, 4th section. - ^ Iraqi Constitution, Article 4, 5th section. - ^ Iraqi Constitution. iraqinationality.gov.iq - ^ "Warnings of Iraq refugee crisis". BBC News. - ^ "A displacement crisis". - ^ Lochhead, Carolyn (2007-01-16). "40% of middle class believed to have fled crumbling nation". The San Francisco Chronicle. "Doors closing on fleeing Iraqis". BBC News. - ^ "Plight of Iraqi refugees worsens as Syria, Jordan impose restrictions". "Iraqi refugees start to head home" (PDF). The Guardian (London). - ^ "Will Iraq's 1.3 million refugees ever be able to go home?". London: The Independent. December 16, 2011. - ^ "Christian areas targeted in Baghdad attacks". BBC. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. - ^ Sabah, Zaid; Jervis, Rick (March 23, 2007). "Christians, targeted and suffering, flee Iraq". USA Today. - ^ "USCIS – Iraqi Refugee ProcessingFact Sheet". Uscis.gov. - ^ "Demographic Data of Registered Population". UNHCR. - ^ "Iraqi refugees flee war-torn Syria and seek safety back home". UNHCR. - ^ Touma, Habib Hassan (1996). The Music of the Arabs. Amadeus Press. - ^ "The Iraqi Maqam". - ^ a b c d e Kojaman. "Jewish Role in Iraqi Music". - ^ Manasseh, Sara (February 2004). "An Iraqi samai of Salim Al-Nur" (PDF). Newsletter (3) (London: Arts and Humanities Research Board Research Centre for Cross-Cultural Music and Dance Performance). Archived from the original on December 2, 2005. - ^ Al-Marashi, Ibrahim (2007). "Toward an Understanding of Media Policy and Media Systems in Iraq". Center for Global Communications Studies, Occasional Paper Series. - ^ a b c d e f g h "Foods of Iraq: Enshrined With A Long History". ThingsAsian. - ^ BBC News – Iraq 10 years on: In numbers. Retrieved on 2013-12-08. - ^ Iraq to build and launch a $600 million strategic satellite into space | (-: One Happy Iraq :-). Onehappyiraq.wordpress.com (2013-10-02). Retrieved on 2013-12-08. - ^ Hall, Camilla. (2012-01-18) Undersea cable aids Iraq’s slow development. FT.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-08.(registration required) - ^ Ministry of Communications. Retrieved on 2013-12-08. - ^ "Health". SESRIC. - ^ "Demography". SESRIC. - ^ "Life expectancy at birth, total (Iraq)". SESRIC. - ^ "High-Tech Healthcare in Iraq, Minus the Healthcare". CorpWatch. January 8, 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-07-17. - ^ "Literacy rates of 15–24 years old, both sexes, percentage". Millennium Development Goals Indicators. United Nations. Retrieved 30 January 2011. Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 26 February 2013. Bibliography - Shadid, Anthony 2005. Night Draws Near. Henry Holt and Co., NY, U.S. ISBN 0-8050-7602-6 - Hanna Batatu, "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978 - Charles Glass, "The Northern Front: A Wartime Diary"' Saqi Books, London, 2004, ISBN 0-86356-770-3 - A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) - By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins) With illustrations and a map, 1908 (1909 ed). (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) - "Iraqi Constitution". Ministry of Interior – General Directorate For Nationality. Retrieved 18 February 2013. - Benjamin Busch, "'Today is Better than Tomorrow'. A Marine returns to a divided Iraq", Harper's Magazine, October 2014, pp. 29–44. External links - Government - General information - Iraq entry at The World Factbook - Iraq Corruption Profile from the Business Anti-Corruption Portal - Iraq web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado–Boulder Libraries - Iraq at DMOZ - Iraq profile from the BBC News - Armed Forces - Constitution - Council of Representatives (legislative) - Elections - Foreign aid - Foreign relations - Government - Human rights - Law - Police - Minorities - Political parties - Judiciary - Wars and conflicts - Afghanistan - Armenia - Azerbaijan - Bahrain - Bangladesh - Bhutan - Brunei - Burma (Myanmar) - Cambodia - China - Cyprus - Egypt - Georgia - India - Indonesia - Iran - Iraq - Israel - Japan - Jordan - Kazakhstan - North Korea - South Korea - Kuwait - Kyrgyzstan - Laos - Lebanon - Malaysia - Maldives - Mongolia - Nepal - Oman - Pakistan - Palestine - Philippines - Qatar - Russia - Saudi Arabia - Singapore - Sri Lanka - Syria - Tajikistan - Thailand - East Timor (Timor-Leste) - Turkey - Turkmenistan - United Arab Emirates - Uzbekistan - Vietnam - Yemen - Comoros - Djibouti - Egypt - Eritrea - France - Kenya - Madagascar - Mauritius - Mozambique - Rodrigues (Mauritius) - Seychelles - Somalia - Somaliland (Unrecognized) - South Africa - Sudan - Tanzania - Zanzibar, Tanzania - Bahrain - Bangladesh - British Indian Ocean Territory - Chagos Archipelago - United Kingdom - Burma - Christmas Island (Australia) - Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) - India - Indonesia - Iran - Iraq - Israel - Jordan - Kuwait - Malaysia - Maldives - Oman - Pakistan - Qatar - Saudi Arabia - Sri Lanka - Thailand - Timor-Leste - United Arab Emirates - Yemen - Afghanistan - Albania - Algeria - Azerbaijan - Bahrain - Bangladesh - Benin - Burkina Faso - Brunei - Cameroon - Chad - Comoros - Djibouti - Egypt - Gabon - Gambia - Guinea - Guinea-Bissau - Guyana - Indonesia - Iran - Iraq - Ivory Coast - Jordan - Kuwait - Kazakhstan - Kyrgyzstan - Lebanon - Libya - Maldives - Malaysia - Mali - Mauritania - Morocco - Mozambique - Niger - Nigeria - Oman - Pakistan - Palestine - Qatar - Saudi Arabia - Senegal - Sierra Leone - Somalia - Sudan - Suriname - Tajikistan - Turkey - Tunisia - Togo - Turkmenistan - Uganda - Uzbekistan - United Arab Emirates - Yemen - 1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State". - Iraq - Arabic-speaking countries and territories - Fertile Crescent - Federal republics - Levant - Member states of OPEC - Member states of the Arab League - Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation - Member states of the United Nations - Mesopotamia - Middle Eastern countries - Near Eastern countries - States and territories established in 1932 - Western Asia - Western Asian countries