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История на Украйна Територията на днешна Украйна е важен център на източнославянската култура през Средновековието, преди да бъде поделена между различни държави. Краткият период на независимост (1917-1921) след Руската революция приключва с присъединяването на Украйна към Съветския съюз. Украйна отново става независима след разпадането на Съветския съюз през 1991. Съдържание - 1 Кратка хронология - 2 Древност и Средновековие - 3 Ново време - 4 20 и 21 век - 5 Вижте още Кратка хронология[редактиране | edit source] - 3 хилядолетие пр.н.е. — Ямна култура и култура на погребалните камери - 2 хилядолетие пр.н.е. — Кимерийци, скити и сармати - 4 век — Завладяване от хуните - 9 век — Образуване на Киевска Рус — Покръстване на Киевска Рус — Разцвет на Киевска Рус при Ярослав Мъдри — Андрей Боголюбски превзема Киев и се обявява за велик княз във Владимир — Киев е завладян от Монголската империя - 14 век — Украйна става полско и литовско владение — Люблинска уния: образувана е Жечпосполита, като основната част от Украйна преминава под контрола на Полша — Основаване на Запорожката Сеч, обществено-политическа и военно-административна организация на украинските казаци - 17 век — Успешни сражения на казаците с Османската империя — Богдан Хмелницки предвожда въстание срещу поляците — Хетманът Богдан Хмелницки сключва съюз с Русия в търсене на подкрепа срещу Полша — Битка при Полтава: Хетманът Иван Мазепа, подпомогнат от краля на Швеция Карл XII, се опитва да откъсне Украйна от руското влияние, но Петър I излиза победител — Запорожката Сеч е унищожена от руските войски — Емски указ: пълна забрана на украинския език в образованието и книгопечатането - 22 януари 1918 г. — Обявяване на независима Украинска народна република — На територията на Украйна се бият шест различни армии, за по-малко от година в Киев се сменят пет правителства — Създаване на СССР, Украйна става негова съставна част — Голодомор: зърното на селяните се конфискува, милиони умират от глад — Големият терор: Показни процеси, арести и заточаване на видни интелектуалци, учени, писатели, артисти и културни дейци, въвежда се строга цензура, забранява се религиозната дейност, разрушават се църкви, разграждат се националните украински институции — Украйна е окупирана от Нацистка Германия — Украйна става пълноправен член на ООН - 24 август 1991 г. — Върховната рада приема закон, провъзгласяващ независимостта на Украйна - 1 декември 1991 г. — Законът за независимостта на Украйна се утвърждава чрез референдум, Леонид Кравчук става пръв президент на страната Древност и Средновековие[редактиране | edit source] Ранна история[редактиране | edit source] Първите идентифицирани групи, населявали територията на днешна Украйна, са халколитните трипилианска култура на запад и средностожка култура на изток. През 3 хилядолетие пр.н.е. те са заменени от културите на бронзовата епоха - ямната култура в степите и културата на погребалните камери на север. През желязната епоха в степите живеят кимерийци, скити и сармати. През 6 век пр.н.е. по крайбрежието се появяват гръцки колонии, като Тирас, Олбия, Хермонаса. Те продължават да съществуват като римски и византийски градове до 6 век. През 3 век на територията на Украйна се заселват готите, свързвани с черняховската култура. Северно от тях от 2 век до 5 век се развива киевската култура. В края на 4 век и двете области са подчинени от хуните. След техния разгром в средата на 5 век остготите се преселват в Панония и мястото им в степните райони е заето от прабългарите. В същото време от северозапад започват да се разселват славянски племена. Киевска Рус[редактиране | edit source] През 9 век Киев, плащал дотогава данък на Хазарския хаганат, е завладян от варягите Асколд и Дир, изместени малко по-късно от регента на Новгород Олег. По това време на територията на днешна Украйна живеят славянските племена поляни, древляни, северяни, уличи, тиверци и дулеби, както и етническата група рус, чийто произход е спорен. Киев се намира в земите на рус, заобиколени от тези на поляните, и се превръща в център на държавата Киевска Рус. През 11 век Киевска Рус е държавата с най-голяма територия в Европа. На запад тя е наричана Рутения, име, което се запазва по-късно за западните области на страната. През този период се появява наименованието Украйна, с което се означава областта Рус около градовете Киев, Чернигов и Переяслав. Велика Рус се използва за всички владения на държавата, включително отдалечените области на североизток, които са населени с фино-угри и по-късно стават ядрото на Русия. Други регионални наименования са Бяла Рус, Черна Рус и Червена Рус. Християнството започва да прониква в Киевска Рус през 9 век, като е прието за държавна религия през 988 от великия княз Владимир Велики и за неговите нужди са изпратени свещеници и книги от България. Така Киевска Рус става втората славянска държава, в която намира добър прием и се утвърждава глаголицата, а след това и кирилицата. Началото на украинската правна традиция е поставено от неговия наследник Ярослав Мъдри, който издава кодекса „Руска правда“, използван до завладяването на страната от Литва през 14 век. Въпреки успешното управление на Владимир Мономах, конфликтите между отделните князе на Киевска Рус довеждат до упадък в началото на 12 век. Киев е опустошен от Андрей Боголюбски и столицата на великите князе е преместена във Владимир, на североизток, където се образува руската държава. Самият Киев е завладян от князете на Галич и Волиния. На северозапад около Полоцк се формира бъдещата Беларус. През 13 век почти всички руски княжества попадат под властта на Монголската империя. Тежките условия предизвикват значителна емиграция от Украйна към северните руски области, както и към Полша и Унгария. 13-14 век[редактиране | edit source] Наследник на Киевска Рус в западната част на днешна Украйна са княжествата Галич и Волиния, които през продължителни периоди са обединени. Те са основани от великия княз Владимир Велики в земите на племената дулеби, тиверци и бели хървати и през по-голямата част от своята история са управлявани от наследници на Ярослав Мъдри и Владимир Мономах. Князете на Галич и Волиния се ползват с относителна автономия и в различни периоди воюват с Полша и Литва, както и с князете на Чернигов. След опустошаването на Киев от Андрей Боголюбски през 1169 Галич-Волиния става доминиращата сила в днешна Украйна. През 13 век главен град на княжеството става Лвов, а князете стават васали на Монголската империя. През 14 век Полша и Литва водят продължителни войни срещу монголите и с времето голяма част от Украйна попада под тяхно управление. Карпатска Рутения влиза в границите на Унгария. Волиния и северните области, включително Киев, са включени в Литва, като великите князе на Литва започват да се наричат владетели на Рус. Полша завладява Галиция, а след създаването на Полско-литовския съюз през 1386 владенията на двете страни на територията на днешна Украйна преминават към Полша. Ново време[редактиране | edit source] Жечпосполита[редактиране | edit source] След Люблинската уния от 1569 и образуването на Жечпосполита, Украйна става част от Короната на Полското кралство. Следващите десетилетия са свързани с подем на колонизацията и усвояването на нови земи. Основани са множество градове и села, а новите училища разпространяват идеите на Ренесанса. Новозаселващите се полски селяни се рутенизират, докато в същото време местната аристокрация се полонизира. Множеството украински селяни, мигриращи към южните степни области, за да не попаднат под крепостна зависимост, се вливат в състава на казаците. Казашката епоха[редактиране | edit source] Казаците в южните части на днешна Украйна водят постоянни войни с трите си силни съседа - Жечпосполита, Московското княжество и Кримското ханство, васално на Османската империя. Кралете на Жечпосполита полагат усилия да привлекат казаците на своя страна и от началото на 16 век казаците от днешна Украйна са до голяма степен интегрирани в сложната система на Полско-литовската държава. Напрежението между казаци и поляци нараства през първата половина на 17 век, когато на казаците е отказано да получат статута на шляхтата, като в същото време се правят опити те да бъдат закрепостявани. Това довежда до голямото въстание на Богдан Хмелницки, започнало през 1648. След въстанието казаците се опитват да запазят автономията си, като се сближат с Русия, и през 1654 сключват Переяславския договор с нея. Правителството на Жечпосполита се опитва да постигне компромис с казашката държава и през 1658 двете страни подписват Хадиачкия договор, но споразумението е отменено с полско-руския Андрусовски договор от 1667, който поделя територията на Украйна между двете страни. Под руско управление казаците първоначално запазват формална автономия в Хетманата. За известно време те запазват и полунезависима република в Запорожието, както и колония на руската граница в Слобода Украйна. Руско и австрийско управление[редактиране | edit source] През следващите десетилетия украинската автономия в управляваните от Русия области напълно изчезва. След трите Подялби на Полша в края на 18 век Галиция е присъединена към Австрийската империя, а останалата част от Украйна - към Русия. В хода на Руско-турските войни Русия завладява и южните части на страната. През 19 век украинската интелигенция, вдъхновена от националистическите движения в Европа, прави опити да възроди украинските културни традиции. Руското правителство се отнася отрицателно към тези настроения, като дори забранява използването и изучаването на украински език. В същото време много украинци се интегрират успешно в руското общество. Много руски писатели, композитори, художници и архитекти от този период са с украински произход. В районите под австрийско управление администрацията оказва натиск срещу идентификацията на местните жители с Русия. Драстичен пример е концентрационният лагер в Талерхоф близо до Грац, където загиват няколко хиляди души. 20 и 21 век[редактиране | edit source] Първата световна война и времето след нея[редактиране | edit source] Когато Първата световна война и Руската революция от 1917 разтърсват Австрия и Русия, украинците се оказват между двете разпадащи се империи. През 1917 и 1918 възникват няколко отделни украински държави - Украинска народна република, Хетманат, Западноукраинска народна република, Украинска съветска република. Украйна претърпява поражение в Полско-украинската война. Не успяват и съвместните усилия на Юзеф Пилсудски и Симон Петлюра да спрат настъплението на съветските войски от изток. В края на Полско-съветската война Рижкия договор от март 1921 включва западните части на Украйна в Полша, а основната част е присъединена към Съветския съюз. Между двете световни войни[редактиране | edit source] В началото на 20-те години украинската национална идея се възражда и дори се разпространява в обширна територия с традиционно смесено население на изток и юг в Украинската Съветска Социалистическа Република. Сред членовете на Украинската комунистическа партия (болшевики), основана през 1918 в Москва, първоначално има едва 7% етнически украинци. След присъединяването към нея на комунистическата партия на боротбистите през 1920 и обявяването на политиката на коренизация, до средата на 20-те години техният дял надхвърля 50%. Предприета е широка кампания на украинизация. Новосъздадената широка образователна система, базирана на украинския език, довежда до ограмотяването на предимно украинскиговорещото селско население. Експлозивно нарастват публикациите на украински и се усеща подем в целия културен живот. В същото време урбанизацията украинизира градските центрове. В средата на 20-те години съветското правителство започва да се стреми към отнемане на относителната автономия на Украйна. През 1925 начело на комунистическата партия е поставен Лазар Каганович, който отстранява от управлението най-видните привърженици на украинизацията, като Микола Хвилови и Олександер Шумски. През 1929 е предприета кампания срещу „националистите“ в партията, като чистките продължават до 1934. Сред жертвите на масовите арести са и много представители на Украинската автокефална православна църква, която е унищожена през 1930. През 1931 официално е отменена политиката на украинизация и започва масова русификация в образованието, културния живот и управлението. През следващите десет години приблизително четири пети от украинския културен елит, интелектуалци, писатели, хора на изкуството, духовници, са избити или изпратени в затвора. През 1928 съветското правителство обявява първия петилетен план, поставящ си за цел индустриализацията на страната. Украйна е сред най-засегнатите райони, като през следващите години градското население нараства от 19% на 34%. Индустриализацията е съпътствана с масова колективизация. От есента на 1929 до пролетта на 1930 делът на колективизираните стопанства нараства от 9% на 65%, като през 1935 достига 90%. Колективизацията предизвиква масова съпротива сред селското население - бунтове, избиване на добитък, унищожаване на оборудване. Правителството започва кампания срещу кулаците, неясно определени по-заможни селяни, които са обявени за врагове на държавата. Десетки хиляди са избити и около 100 хиляди семейства са депортирани в Сибир и Казахстан. Насилствената колективизация има опустошителен ефект върху производителността в земеделието. Въпреки това, през 1932 съветското правителство увеличава квотите за доставки на храни от Украйна с 44%. Според съветското законодателство членовете на колхозите не получават никакво зърно, преди да са изпълнени задължителните доставки към държавата, което в много случаи е невъзможно и предизвиква масов глад. Според различни оценки жертвите на бедствието, наричано Голодомор (буквално преведено "Гладомор"), са между 4 и 7 милиона души. До 80-те години официалните съветски източници говорят само за временни затруднения, предизвикани от саботаж на кулаците и лошо време. Някои историци смятат глада от 1932-1933 за неизбежно следствие от колективизацията и провала на съветската система на планиране, а според други това е умишлен акт на геноцид. Периодът 1936-1938 е свързан с нови чистки в апарата на комунистическата партия, като приблизително половината от членовете на партията са изключени. На много от ръководните постове са назначени кадри, преместени от Русия. Втората световна война[редактиране | edit source] След сключването на пакта Рибентроп-Молотов, през септември 1939 Германия и Съветския съюз си поделят територията на Полша, включително Галиция с нейното значително украинско население. Малко по-късно, след капитулацията на Франция, Румъния отстъпва Бесарабия и Северна Буковина след ултиматум от съветска страна. Към Украинската съветска социалистическа република са присъединени най-северните и най-южните части на Бесарабия, Северна Буковина, както и областта Херца, а в замяна на това някои области са предадени на новосъздадената Молдавска Съветска Социалистическа Република. Всички тези териториални промени са признати от Парижките мирни договори от 1947. Когато силите на Оста навлизат в Съветския съюз през лятото на 1941, много украинци, особено в западните области, които са под съветска власт само от две години, посрещат германците като освободители, като някои се надяват да бъде създадена автономна украинска държава. Политиката на германците първоначално дава известни надежди за това. Те дават мъгляви обещания за създаване на суверенна Велика Украйна, опитвайки се да се възползват от антисъветските, антиполските и антиеврейските настроения в някои среди. Въпреки това, след началния период на известна толерантност, политиката на германците рязко се променя и украинското национално движение е смазано. Германската администрация не прави сериозни опити да експлоатира потенциалното недоволство от съветската система, като колхозите и принудителните доставки на храни са запазени. Както в цяла Европа, и тук се провежда системен геноцид срещу евреите, а много украинци са депортирани за принудителен труд в Германия. Украинските националисти сформират Украинска въстаническа армия, която воюва едновременно със съветските и германските сили. Освен това тя организира прогонването и избиването на много поляци и евреи в западните области, най-вече във Волиния. В някои области Украинската въстаническа армия оцелява и след войната и продължава съпротивата срещу съветските власти до 50-те години, като в хода на военните действия и двете страни избиват много цивилни. В голяма част от страната са организирани и просъветски партизански групи. Украинци съставляват и значителна част от Червената армия, както и от нейното командване. С настъплението на съветските войски през 1944 остатъците от полското население в страната е прогонено. Общият брой на цивилните жертви в Украйна по време на войната се оценява на 7 милиона души, включително над 1 милион евреи, избити от германците и украинските националисти. Много цивилни стават жертва на принудителен труд и дори избиване на цели села за отмъщение за нападения срещу германски части. Освен това в Украйна се провеждат някои от най-активните военни действия в хода на цялата война - от Киевското обкръжение, където са пленени над 660 хиляди съветски войници, и отбраната на Одеса до пресичането на Днепър от съветските войски. Следвоенна Украйна[редактиране | edit source] През следващите десетилетия в Украйна се концентрират голямо количество съветски военни бази, оборудвани със съвременно въоръжение. Страната става важен център на тежката промишленост - военна промишленост, въгледобив, металургия, химическа промишленост, енергетика. Някогашната казашка степ в Днепропетровска и Запорожка област се превръща в свръхиндустриализиран район, което има значително въздействие върху околната среда и здравето на хората. За нуждите на енергетиката река Днепър е трансформирана в поредица от огромни язовири. Нарасналото стратегическо и икономическо значение на Украйна засилва влиянието на местния елит в рамките на Съветския съюз. Много висши съветски функционери идват от Украйна, сред тях е и Леонид Брежнев, който е начело на Съветския съюз от 1962 до 1982. През 1954 населената предимно с руснаци Кримска област е включена в Украинската съветска социалистическа република. На 26 април 1986 в северния град Припят се взривява един от реакторите на Чернобилската атомна електроцентрала. Чернобилската авария е най-тежкият ядрен инцидент в историята. Тя предизвиква облак от радиоактивни отпадъци, който преминава над части от Съветския съюз, Източна Европа и Скандинавия. Обширни райони в Украйна, Беларус и Русия са замърсени, а около 200 000 души са евакуирани от родните си места. На 24 август 1991, в хода на разпадането на Съветския съюз, Украйна обявява своята независимост. Тя става един от учредителите на Общността на независимите държави. На 1 декември 1991 референдум утвърждава с голямо мнозинство независимостта на страната. Съветският съюз официално спира да съществува на 25 декември 1991 и суверенитетът на Украйна е признат от международната общност. Вижте още[редактиране | edit source] - Политика на Украйна - История на Беларус - История на Литва - История на Полша - История на Русия - Кримско ханство - История на Съветския съюз
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History of Ukraine The territory of Ukraine was inhabited by Neanderthals for at least 44,000 years. Prehistoric Ukraine as part of the Pontic steppe and has been an important factor in Eurasian cultural contact, including the spread of the Chalcolithic, the Bronze Age, Indo-European expansion and the domestication of the horse.[1][2][3] Part of Scythia in antiquity and settled by Getae, in the migration period, Ukraine is also the site of early Slavic expansion, and enters history proper with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus, which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages but disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, present Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers: the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland, during the 15th century these lands came under the rule of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569), and Crimean Khanate.[4] After a 1653 rebellion against dominantly Polish Catholic rule, an assembly of the people (rada) agreed to the Treaty of Pereyaslav in January 1654. Soon, the southeastern portion of the Polish-Lithuanian empire east of the Dnieper River came under Russian rule, for centuries.[5] After the Partitions of Poland (1772–1795) and conquest of Crimean Khanate, Ukraine was divided between the Tsardom of Russia and Habsburg Austria. A chaotic period of warfare ensued after the Russian Revolution. The internationally recognized Ukrainian People's Republic emerged from its own civil war. The Ukrainian–Soviet War followed, in which the Red Army established control in late 1919.[6] The Ukrainian Bolsheviks, who had defeated nationalist government in Kiev, created the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which on 30 December 1922 became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. Initial Soviet policy on Ukrainian language and Ukrainian culture made Ukrainian the official language of administration and schools. Policy in the 1930s turned to russification. In 1932 and 1933, millions of people, mostly peasants, in Ukraine starved to death in a politically induced famine (Holodomor) due to the "liquidation of the Kulak class". It is estimated that 6 to 8 million people died from hunger in the Soviet Union during this period, of whom 4 to 5 million were Ukrainians.[7] Nikita Khrushchev was appointed the head of the Ukrainian Communist Party in 1938. After the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and Soviet Union, the Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward. Ukraine was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1941 to 1944. During World War II the Ukrainian Insurgent Army fought for Ukrainian independence against both Germany and the Soviet Union. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.[8] After Stalin's death, as head of the Communist Party of Soviet Union, Khrushchev enabled a Ukrainian revival. Nevertheless, there were further political repressions against poets, historians and other intellectuals, like in all other parts of the USSR. In 1954, the republic expanded to the south with the transfer of the Crimea. Ukraine became independent again when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession.[9] Since then, however, the economy has experienced a high increase in GDP growth. Ukraine was caught up in the worldwide economic crisis in 2008 and the economy plunged. GDP fell 20% from spring 2008 to spring 2009, then leveled off.[10] Contents - 1 Prehistory - 2 Middle Ages - 3 Early modern period - 4 Modern history - 5 National historiography - 6 See also - 7 Bibliography - 8 References - 9 External links Prehistory[edit] Settlement in Ukraine by members of the homo genus has been documented into distant prehistory. The Neanderthals are associated with the Molodova archaeological sites (43,000-45,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone dwelling.[11][12] Gravettian settlements dating to 32,000 BC have been unearthed and studied in the Buran-Kaya cave site of the Crimean Mountains.[13][14] Around 10,000 years ago the world's longest river[15] emptied glacier melted water through the Don and the Black Sea. From springs in Gobi it flowed along the Yenisei, which was then dammed by northern glaciers. Through the West Siberian Glacial Lake flowed about 10,000 km;[16] It was longer than any river known today.[17] The late Neolithic times the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished from about 4500–3000 BC.[18] The Copper Age people of the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture resided in the western part, and the Sredny Stog Culture further east, succeeded by the early Bronze Age Yamna ("Kurgan") culture of the steppes, and by the Catacomb culture in the 3rd millennium BC. History[edit] During the Iron Age, these were followed by the Dacians as well as nomadic peoples like the Cimmerians, Scythians and Sarmatians. The Scythian Kingdom existed here from 750–250 BC.[19] Along with ancient Greek colonies founded in the 6th century BC on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, the colonies of Tyras, Olbia, Hermonassa, continued as Roman and Byzantine cities until the 6th century. In the 3rd century AD, the Goths arrived in the lands of Ukraine around 250–375 AD, which they called Oium, corresponding to the archaeological Chernyakhov culture.[20] The Ostrogoths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. North of the Ostrogothic kingdom was the Kiev culture, flourishing from the 2nd–5th centuries, when it was overrun by the Huns. After they helped defeat the Huns at the battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths were allowed by Romans to settle in Pannonia. With the power vacuum created with the end of Hunnic and Gothic rule, Slavic tribes, possibly emerging from the remnants of the Kiev culture, began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, and beyond to the Balkans from the 6th century. In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was the core of the state of the Bulgars (often referred to as Old Great Bulgaria) with its capital city of Phanagoria. At the end of the 7th century, most Bulgar tribes migrated in several directions and the remains of their state were absorbed by the Khazars, a semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.[20] The Khazars founded the Khazar kingdom in the southeastern part of today's Europe, near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. The kingdom included western Kazakhstan, and parts of eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, southern Russia, and Crimea. Around 800 AD, the kingdom converted to Judaism. Middle Ages[edit] Kievan Rus'[edit] As Hrushevsky states, the city of Kiev was established during the time when area around the mid- and low-Dnipro was the part of the Khazar state. He derived that information from local legends because no written chronicles from that period are left. In 882, Kyiv was conquered from the Khazars by the Varangian noble Oleg who started the long period of rule of the Rurikid princes. During this time, several Slavic tribes were native to Ukraine, including the Polans, the Drevlyans, the Severians, the Ulichs, the Tiverians, the White Croats and the Dulebes. Situated on lucrative trade routes, Kyiv among the Polanians quickly prospered as the center of the powerful Slavic state of Kievan Rus. In CE 941, the prince of Kiev invaded the Byzantine Empire but was defeated in the Rus'–Byzantine War (941). In the 11th century, Kievan Rus' was, geographically, the largest state in Europe, becoming known in the rest of Europe as Ruthenia (the Latin name for Rus'), especially for western principalities of Rus' after the Mongol invasion. The name "Ukraine", meaning "in-land" or "native-land",[21] usually interpreted as "border-land", first appears in historical documents of 12th century[22] and then on history maps of the 16th century period.[23] This term seems to have been synonymous with the land of Rus' propria—the principalities of Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav. The term, "Greater Rus'" was used to apply to all the lands ruled by Kyiv, including those that were not just Slavic, but also Uralic in the north-east portions of the state. Local regional subdivisions of Rus' appeared in the Slavic heartland, including, "Belarus'" (White Ruthenia), "Chorna Rus'" (Black Ruthenia) and "Cherven' Rus'" (Red Ruthenia) in northwestern and western Ukraine. Christianization[edit] Although Christianity had made headway into the territory of Ukraine before the first ecumenical council, the Council of Nicaea (325) (particularly along the Black Sea coast) and, in western Ukraine during the time of empire of Great Moravia, the formal governmental acceptance of Christianity in Rus' occurred at in 988. The major promoter of the Christianization of Kievan Rus' was the Grand-Duke, Vladimir the Great (Volodymyr). His Christian interest was midwifed by his grandmother, Princess Olga. Later, an enduring part of the East-Slavic legal tradition was set down by the Kievan ruler, Yaroslav I, who promulgated the Russkaya Pravda (Truth of Rus') which endured through the Lithuanian period of Rus'. Conflict among the various principalities of Rus', in spite of the efforts of Grand Prince Vladimir Monomakh, led to decline, beginning in the 12th century. In Rus' propria, the Kiev region, the nascent Rus' principalities of Halych and Volynia extended their rule. In the north, the name of Moscow appeared in the historical record in the principality of Suzdal, which gave rise to the nation of Russia. In the north-west, the principality of Polotsk increasingly asserted the autonomy of Belarus'. Kiev was sacked by Vladimir principality (1169) in the power struggle between princes and later by Cumans and Mongol raiders in the 12th and 13th centuries, respectively. Subsequently, all principalities of present-day Ukraine acknowledged dependence upon the Mongols (1239–1240). In 1240, the Mongols sacked Kyiv, and many people fled to other countries. Five years after the fall of Kiev, Papal envoy Giovanni da Pian del Carpine wrote: - "They destroyed cities and castles and killed men and Kyiv, which is the greatest Russian city they besieged; and when they had besieged it a long while they took it and killed the people of the city. So when we went through that country we found countless human skulls and bones from the dead scattered over the field. Indeed it had been a very great and populous city and now is reduced almost to nothing. In fact there are hardly two hundred houses there now and the people are held in the strictest servitude."[24] Galicia-Volhynia[edit] A successor state to the Kyivan Rus' on part of the territory of today's Ukraine was the principality of Galicia-Volhynia. Previously, Vladimir the Great had established the cities of Halych and Ladomir (later Volodimer) as regional capitals. This state was based upon the Dulebe, Tiverian and White Croat tribes. The state was ruled by the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh. For a brief period, the country was ruled by a Hungarian nobleman. Battles with the neighboring states of Poland and Lithuania also occurred, as well as internecine warfare with the independent Ruthenian principality of Chernihiv to the east. At its greatest extension the territory of Galicia-Volhynia included later Wallachia/Bessarabia, thus reaching the shores of the Black Sea. During this period (around 1200–1400), each principality was independent of the other for a period. The state of Halych-Volynia eventually became a vassal to the Mongolian Empire, but efforts to gain European support for opposition to the Mongols continued. This period marked the first "King of Rus'"; previously, the rulers of Rus' were termed, "Grand Dukes" or "Princes." The 14th century[edit] During the 14th century, Poland and Lithuania fought wars against the Mongol invaders, and eventually most of Ukraine passed to the rule of Poland and Lithuania. More particularly, the lands of Volynia in the north and north-west passed to the rule of Lithuanian princes, while the south-west passed to the control of Poland (Galicia). Also the Genoese founded some colonies in Crimean coasts until the Ottoman conquest in the 1470s. Most of Ukraine bordered parts of Lithuania, and some say that the name, "Ukraine" comes from the local word for "border," although the name "Ukraine" was also used centuries earlier. Lithuania took control of the state of Volynia in northern and northwestern Ukraine, including the region around Kyiv (Rus'), and the rulers of Lithuania then adopted the title of ruler of Rus'. Poland took control of the southeastern region. Following the union between Poland and Lithuania, Poles, Germans, Lithuanians and Jews migrated to the region. In 15th century decline of Golden Horde enabled foundation of Crimean Khanate, which occupied present Black Sea shores and southern steppes of Ukraine. Until the late 18th century, Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East,[25] exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.[26] It was vassal state of Ottoman Empire till 1774. It was finally dissolved by Russian Empire in 1783. Early modern period[edit] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit] After the Union of Lublin in 1569 and the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Ukraine fell under Polish administration, becoming part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The period immediately following the creation of the Commonwealth saw a huge revitalisation in colonisation efforts. Many new cities and villages were founded. New schools spread the ideas of the Renaissance; Polish peasants arrived in great numbers and quickly became mixed with the local population; during this time, most of Ukrainian nobles became polonised and converted to Catholicism, and while most Ruthenian-speaking peasants remained within the Eastern Orthodox Church, social tension rose. Ruthenian peasants (Ukrainians and some from other nations) who fled efforts to force them into serfdom came to be known as Cossacks and earned a reputation for their fierce martial spirit. Some Cossacks were enlisted by the Commonwealth as soldiers to protect the southeastern borders of Poland from Tatars or took part in campaigns abroad (like Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny in the battle of Khotyn 1621). Cossack units were also active in wars between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Tsardom of Russia. Despite the Cossack's military usefulness, the Commonwealth, dominated by its nobility, refused to grant them any significant autonomy, instead attempting to turn most of the Cossack population into serfs. This led to an increasing number of Cossack rebellions aimed at the Commonwealth. Cossack era[edit] The 1648 Ukrainian Cossack (Kozak) rebellion or Khmelnytsky Uprising, which started an era known as the Ruin (in Polish history as The Deluge), undermined the foundations and stability of the Commonwealth. The nascent Cossack state, the Cossack Hetmanate,[27] usually viewed as precursor of Ukraine,[27] found itself in a three-sided military and diplomatic rivalry with the Ottoman Turks, who controlled the Tatars to the south, the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania, and the rising Russian Empire to the East. The Zaporizhian Host, in order to leave the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, sought a treaty of protection with Russia in 1654.[27] This agreement was known as the Treaty of Pereyaslav.[27] Commonwealth authorities then sought compromise with the Ukrainian Cossack state by signing the Treaty of Hadiach in 1658, but — after thirteen years of incessant warfare — the agreement was later superseded by 1667 Polish-Russian Treaty of Andrusovo, which divided Ukrainian territory between the Commonwealth and Russia. Under Russia, the Cossacks initially retained official autonomy in the Hetmanate.[27] For a time, they also maintained a semi-independent republic in Zaporozhia, and a colony on the Russian frontier in Sloboda Ukraine. Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary[edit] During subsequent decades, Tsarist rule over central Ukraine gradually replaced 'protection'. Sporadic Cossack uprisings were now aimed at the Russian authorities, but eventually petered out by the late 18th century, following the destruction of entire Cossack hosts. After the Partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795, the extreme west of Ukraine fell under the control of the Austrians, with the rest becoming a part of the Russian Empire. As a result of Russo-Turkish Wars the Ottoman Empire's control receded from south-central Ukraine, while the rule of Hungary over the Transcarpathian region continued. Ukrainian writers and intellectuals were inspired by the nationalistic spirit stirring other European peoples existing under other imperial governments and became determined to revive the Ukrainian linguistic and cultural traditions and re-establish a Ukrainian nation-state, a movement that became known as Ukrainophilism. Russia, fearing separatism, imposed strict limits on attempts to elevate the Ukrainian language and culture, even banning its use and study. The Russophile policies of Russification and Panslavism led to an exodus of a number of Ukrainian intellectuals into Western Ukraine. However, many Ukrainians accepted their fate in the Russian Empire and some were to achieve a great success there. Many Russian writers, composers, painters and architects of the 19th century were of Ukrainian descent. Probably the most notable were Nikolai Gogol, one of the greatest writers in the history of Russian literature, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers in the history of Russian music, whose father came of Ukrainian Cossack stock. The fate of the Ukrainians was far different under the Austrian Empire where they found themselves in the pawn position of the Russian-Austrian power struggle for the Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in Russia, most of the elite that ruled Galicia were of Austrian or Polish descent, with the Ruthenians being almost exclusively kept in peasantry. During the 19th century, Russophilia was a common occurrence among the Slavic population, but the mass exodus of Ukrainian intellectuals escaping from Russian repression in Eastern Ukraine, as well as the intervention of Austrian authorities, caused the movement to be replaced by Ukrainophilia, which would then cross-over into the Russian Empire. With the start of World War I, all those supporting Russia were rounded up by Austrian forces and held in a concentration camp at Talerhof where many died. Modern history[edit] 17th and 18th Century Ukraine[edit] Ukraine emerges as the concept of a nation, and the Ukrainians as a nationality, with the Ukrainian National Revival in the mid-18th century, in the wake of the peasant revolt of 1768/69 and the eventual partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Galicia fell to the Austrian Empire, and the rest of Ukraine to the Russian Empire. While right-bank Ukraine belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until late 1793, left-bank Ukraine had been incorporated into Tsardom of Russia in 1667 (under the Treaty of Andrusovo). In 1672, Podolia was occupied by the Turkish Ottoman Empire, while Kyiv and Braclav came under the control of Hetman Petro Doroshenko until 1681, when they were also captured by the Turks but in 1699 the Treaty of Karlowitz returned those lands to the Commonwealth. Most of Ukraine fell to the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine the Great; in 1793 right-bank Ukraine was annexed by Russia in the Second Partition of Poland.[28] Ukrainian writers and intellectuals were inspired by the nationalistic spirit stirring other European peoples existing under other imperial governments. Russia, fearing separatism, imposed strict limits on attempts to elevate the Ukrainian language and culture, even banning its use and study. The Russophile policies of Russification and Panslavism led to an exodus of a number some Ukrainian intellectuals into Western Ukraine, while others embraced a Pan-Slavic or Russian identity. This led to many of the great Russian authors and composers of the 19th century being of Ukrainian origin (notably Nikolai Gogol and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky). Ukraine and World Wars[edit] Ukraine first became independent with the Ukrainian War of Independence of 1917 to 1921, but the resulting Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (in 1919 merged from the Ukrainian People's Republic and West Ukrainian People's Republic) was quickly subsumed in the Soviet Union. Galicia, South Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and Carpathian Ruthenia were added as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Second World War. The Soviet famine of 1932–33 or Holodomor killed an estimated 6 to 8 million people in the Soviet Union, the majority of them in Ukraine.[29] Nazi Germany with its allies invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Many Ukrainians initially regarded the Wehrmacht soldiers as liberators from Soviet rule, while others formed a partisan movement. Some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground formed a Ukrainian Insurgent Army that fought both Soviet forces and the Nazi. Others collaborated with the Germans. In Volhynia, Ukrainian "fighters" committed a massacre against up to 100,000 Polish civilians.[30] Residual small groups of the UPA-partizans acted near the Polish and Soviet border as long as to the 1950s.[31] After World War II some amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the General Assembly, which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was an elected member of the United Nations Security Council in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985. The Crimean Oblast was transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR in 1954. Independent Ukraine[edit] With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine became an independent state, formalised with a referendum on December 1991. On January 21, 1990, over 300,000 Ukrainians[32] organized a human chain for Ukrainian independence between Kyiv and Lviv. Ukraine officially declared itself an independent state on August 24, 1991, when the communist Supreme Soviet (parliament) of Ukraine proclaimed that Ukraine will no longer follow the laws of USSR and only the laws of the Ukrainian SSR, de facto declaring Ukraine's independence from the Soviet Union. On December 1, voters approved a referendum formalising independence from the Soviet Union. Over 90% of Ukrainian citizens voted for independence, with majorities in every region, including 56% in Crimea. The Soviet Union formally ceased to exist on December 26, when the presidents of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia (the founding members of the USSR) met in Belovezh Pushcha to formally dissolve the Union in accordance with the Soviet Constitution. With this Ukraine's independence was formalized de jure and recognised by the international community. In 2004, Leonid Kuchma announced that he would not run for re-election. Two major candidates emerged in the 2004 presidential election. Viktor Yanukovych, the incumbent Prime Minister, supported by both Kuchma and by the Russian Federation, wanted closer ties with Russia. The main opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, called for Ukraine to turn its attention westward and eventually join the EU. In the runoff election, Yanukovych officially won by a narrow margin, but Yushchenko and his supporters alleged that vote rigging and intimidation cost him many votes, especially in eastern Ukraine. A political crisis erupted after the opposition started massive street protests in Kyiv and other cities, and the Supreme Court of Ukraine ordered the election results null and void. A second runoff found Viktor Yushchenko the winner. Five days later, Viktor Yanukovych resigned from office and his cabinet was dismissed on January 5, 2005. During the Yushchenko term, relations between Russia and Ukraine often appeared strained as Yushchenko looked towards improved relations with the European Union and less toward Russia. In 2005, a highly publicized dispute over natural gas prices with Russia indirectly involved many European countries. A compromise was reached in January 2006, and in early 2010 a further agreement locked the price of Russian gas. By the time of the presidential election of 2010, Yushchenko and Tymoshenko — allies during the Orange Revolution — had become bitter enemies. Tymoshenko ran for president against both Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych, creating a three-way race. Yushchenko, whose popularity had plummeted, persisted in running, and many pro-Orange voters stayed home.[33] Yanukovych received 48% of the vote and Yushchenko less than 6%, an amount which, if thrown to Tymoshenko, who received 45%, would have prevented Yanukovych from gaining the presidency. Yanukovych won the run-off ballot. In November 2013, President Yanukovych did not sign the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement and instead pursued closer ties with Russia.[34][35] This move sparked protests on the streets of Kyiv. Protesters set up camps in Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square),[36] and in December 2013 and January 2014 protesters started taking over various government buildings, first in Kyiv and, later, in Western Ukraine.[37] Battles between protesters and police resulted in about 80 deaths in February 2014.[38][39] Following the violence, the Parliament turned against Yanukovych and on February 22 voted to remove him from power, and to free Yulia Tymoshenko from prison. The same day Yanukovych supporter Volodymyr Rybak resigned as speaker of the Parliament, and was replaced by Tymoshenko loyalist Oleksandr Turchynov, who was subsequently installed as interim President.[40] Yanukovych fled Kyiv, and subsequently gave a press conference in the Russian city of Rostov-on-Don.[41] In March 2014, the 2014 Crimean crisis resulted in Crimea being annexed by Russia. The referendum, which was organized under Russian military occupation, was denounced by the European Union and the United States as illegal.[42] The Crimean crisis was followed by pro-Russian unrest in east Ukraine and south Ukraine.[43] In April 2014 Ukrainian separatists self-proclaimed the Donetsk People's Republic and Lugansk People's Republic and held referendums on 11 May 2014; the separatists claimed nearly 90% voted in favour of independence.[44][43] Later in April 2014 fighting between the Ukrainian army and pro-Ukrainian volunteer battalions against forces supporting the Donetsk People's Republic and Lugansk People's Republic escalated into the War in Donbass.[43][45] More than 4,000 people have died in this conflict and according to United Nations figures it led to over half a million people internally displaced within Ukraine and two hundred thousand refugees to flee to (mostly) Russia and other neighbouring countries.[46][47][48] National historiography[edit] The scholarly study of Ukraine's history emerged from romantic impulses in the late 19th century. The outstanding leaders were Volodymyr Antonovych (1834–1908), based in Kyiv, and his student Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1866–1934).[49] For the first time full-scale scholarly studies based on archival sources, modern research techniques, and modern historical theories became possible. However, the demands of government officials—especially Soviet, but also Czarists and Polish—made it difficult to disseminate ideas that ran counter to the central government. Therefore exile schools of historians emerged in central Europe and Canada after 1920.[50] Strikingly different interpretations of the medieval state of Kyivan Rus' appear in the four schools of historiography within Ukraine: Russophile, Sovietophile, Eastern Slavic, and Ukrainophile. The Sovietophile and Russophile schools have become marginalized in independent Ukraine, with the Ukrainophile school being dominant in the early 21st century. The Ukrainophile school promotes an identity that is mutually exclusive of Russia. It has come to dominate the nation's educational system, security forces, and national symbols and monuments, although it has been dismissed as nationalist by Western historians. The East Slavic school, an eclectic compromise between Ukrainophiles and Russophilism, has a weaker ideological and symbolic base, although it is preferred by Ukraine's centrist former elites.[51] Many historians in recent years have sought alternatives to national histories, and Ukrainian history invited approaches that looked beyond a national paradigm. Multiethnic history recognizes the numerous peoples in Ukraine; transnational history portrays Ukraine as a border zone for various empires; and area studies categorizes Ukraine as part of Eurasia, or more often as part of East-Central Europe. Plokhy (2007) argues that looking beyond the country's national history has made possible a richer understanding of Ukraine, its people, and the surrounding regions.[52] After 1991, historical memory was a powerful tool in the political mobilization and legitimation of the post-Soviet Ukrainian state, as well as the division of selectively used memory along the lines of the political division of Ukrainian society. Ukraine did not experience the restorationist paradigm typical of some other post-Soviet nations, including the Baltic states, although the multifaceted history of independence, the Orthodox Church in Ukraine, Soviet-era repressions, mass famine, and World War II collaboration were used to provide a different constitutive frame for the new Ukrainian nation. The politics of identity (which includes the production of history textbooks and the authorization of commemorative practices) has remained fragmented and tailored to reflect the ideological anxieties and concerns of individual regions of Ukraine.[53] See also[edit] - Politics of Ukraine - Ruthenia - Kyivan Rus - History of Christianity in Ukraine - History of the Soviet Union - List of Ukrainian rulers Bibliography[edit] - Surveys and reference - Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) 5 vol; from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, partly online - Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia. ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyČ; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp online at Questia - Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (Rutgers UP, 1964) online - Hrushevsky, Michael. A History of Ukraine (1986) - Mykhailo Hrushevsky. History of Ukraine-Rus' in 9 volumes. Selected volumes translated into English. Available online in Ukrainian as "IcTopiя ykpaïHи-Pycи". - Katchanovski, Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second edition (2013). - Kubicek, Paul. The History of Ukraine (2008) excerpt and text search - Magocsi, Paul Robert, A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996 ISBN 0-8020-7820-6 - Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine (2003) online edition - Snyder, Timothy D. (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. - Subtelny, Orest (2009). Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. A Ukrainian translation is available online. - Wilson, Andrew. The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation. Yale University Press; 2nd edition (2002) ISBN 0-300-09309-8. - Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation (Oxford University Press 2007) online - Topical studies - Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654-1917 (Marquette University Press 1958) online - Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. - Velychenko, Stephen, "Nationalizing and Denationalizing the Past. Ukraine and Russia in Comparative Context," Ab Imperio no 1 (2007). http://abimperio.net/cgi-bin/aishow.pl?state=showa&idart=1846&idlang=1&Code= - Plokhy, Serhii. The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine (2001) online edition - Shkandrij, Myroslav. Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929-1956 (Yale University Press; 2014) 331 pages; Studies the ideology and legacy of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Especially by Dmytro Dontsov, Olena Teliha, Leonid Mosendz, Oleh Olzhych, Yurii Lypa, Ulas Samchuk, Yurii Klen, and Dokia Humenna. - World War II - Boshyk, Yuri (1986). Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. - Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. - Brandon, Ray, and Wendy Lower, eds. The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization. 378 pp. online review - Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. - Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988). - Kudelia, Serhiy. "Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in Western Ukraine," East European Politics and Societies (2013) 27#1 pp 149–181 - Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. - Narvselius, Eleonora. "The 'Bandera Debate': The Contentious Legacy of World War II and Liberalization of Collective Memory in Western Ukraine," Canadian Slavonic Papers (2012) 54#3 pp 469–490. - Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. - Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust In The Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. - Recent history - Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (2006) "Ukraine's Independence and Its Geostrategic Impact in Eastern Europe". Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe 21 (2–3): 165. - D'Anieri, Paul, et al. Politics and Society in Ukraine (1999) online edition - Dimarov, Anatoliy et al. A Hunger Most Cruel: The Human Face of the 1932–1933 Terror-Famine in Soviet Ukraine (2002) excerpt and text search - Askold Krushelnycky. An Orange Revolution: A Personal Journey Through Ukrainian History. 320 pages. - Kutaisov, Aleksandr. - Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building (1998) online edition - Luckyj, George S. Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934 (1990). online edition - Wanner, Catherine. Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine (1998) excerpt and text search - Abridged History of Ukraine at Portals of the World: Ukraine project by the Library of Congress - Historiography and memory - Kasianov, Georgiy, and Philipp Ther, eds. Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography (Central European University Press 2009) online edition - Velychenko, Stephen, National history as cultural process : a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914 (Edmonton, 1992) - Velychenko, Stephen, Shaping identity in Eastern Europe and Russia : Soviet-Russian and Polish accounts of Ukrainian history, 1914-1991 (London, 1993) - Primary sources in English - Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. - Ukrainian language - Essays on History on Ukraine - Volume 1 by Natalia Yakovenko, "From the Earliest Times until the End of the 18th Century" - Volume 2: ЯpocлaB Гpицak (Yaroslav Hrytsak) (1996). ФopMyBaHHя MoдepHoï ykpaïHcbkoï Haцiï XIX-XX cT. (Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Nation in the late 19th–20th centuries). Kyiv: ГeHeзa (Heneza). Available online. - Mykhailo Hrushevsky. Illustrated History of Ukraine (1913). Available online - I. Krypiakevych. "History of Ukraine - Handbook on the History of Ukraine - "Ukraine: Briefly about Her Past and Present", in Welcome to Ukraine, 2003, 1. - Polons'ka-Vasylenko, Natalia. History of Ukraine in two volumes. Available online. - Alexander F. Tsvirkun History of Ukraine.7 class electronic textbooks. Kiev., 2005 (co-authored with Valentin A. Savelii) - Alexander F. Tsvirkun E-learning course. History of Ukraine. Journal Auditorium, Kiev 2010 References[edit] - ^ Matossian Shaping World History p. 43 - ^ "What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur". International Museum of the Horse. - ^ "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald (CBC Radio). - ^ "Ukraine :: History – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 31 October 2011. - ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. (1963). A History of Russia. Oxford University Press. - ^ Riasanovsky (1963), p. 537. - ^ "Ukraine – The famine of 1932–33". Encyclopædia Britannica. - ^ "Activities of the Member States – Ukraine". United Nations. Retrieved 17 January 2011. - ^ "Macroeconomic Indicators". National Bank of Ukraine. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007. - ^ Inozmi, "Ukraine – macroeconomic economic situation". - ^ Gray, Richard (December 18, 2011). "Neanderthals built homes with mammoth bones". Telegraph.co.uk. - ^ Molodova I and V (Ukraine) - ^ Prat, Sandrine; Péan, Stéphane C.; Crépin, Laurent; Drucker, Dorothée G.; Puaud, Simon J.; Valladas, Hélène; Lázničková-Galetová, Martina; van der Plicht, Johannes et al. (17 June 2011). "The Oldest Anatomically Modern Humans from Far Southeast Europe: Direct Dating, Culture and Behavior". plosone. Retrieved 21 June 2011. - ^ Carpenter, Jennifer (20 June 2011). "Early human fossils unearthed in Ukraine". BBC. Retrieved 21 June 2011. - ^ Suhoi Don (stux) - ^ Mangerud, J. et al. (2004). Ice-dammed lakes and rerouting of the drainage of northern Eurasia during the Last Glaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004), pp. 1313–1332. [1] (accessed 30 November 2006) - ^ http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/GallagherR1.php - ^ "Trypillian Civilization 5,508 – 2,750 BC". The Trypillia-USA-Project. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. - ^ "Scythian". Encyclopædia Britannica. - ^ a b Magocsi, Paul Robert (1996). A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. - ^ uk:ykpaïHa (HaзBa) - ^ Name of Ukraine - ^ IcTopичHi HaзBи ykpaïHcbkиx TepиTopiй - ^ "Ukrainian Tribal Divisions and Ethnographic Groups". Home.swipnet.se. Retrieved 2011-01-30.[dead link] - ^ Brian Glyn Williams (2013). "The Sultan’s Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire" (PDF). The Jamestown Foundation. - ^ Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. - ^ a b c d e Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation by Serhy Yekelchyk, Oxford University Press (2007), ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3 - ^ Orest Subtelny; Ukraine: A History; University of Toronto Press; 2000. - ^ "The famine of 1932–33", Encyclopædia Britannica. Quote: "The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33 – a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself." - ^ Mariusz Zajączkowski: 1943 Volhynia massacre - ^ Kyiv Post: Ukrainian Insurgent Army: Myths and facts - ^ Subtelny, Orest (2000). Ukraine: A History. University of Toronto Press. - ^ Ukraine's New President: Is the Orange Revolution Over?, Time.com (11 February 2010) - ^ Why is Ukraine in turmoil?, BBC News (21 February 2014) - ^ http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/11/ukraine-still-wants-sign-eu-deal-20131129111345619208.html - ^ Ukraine crisis: Police storm main Kyiv 'Maidan' protest camp, BBC News (19 February 2014) - ^ Ukraine protests timeline, BBC News (21 February 2014) - ^ Sandford Daniel (February 19, 2014). "Ukraine crisis: Renewed Kyiv assault on protesters". BBC News. Retrieved February 19, 2014. - ^ "Ukraine crisis: Yanukovych announces 'peace deal'". BBC News. February 21, 2014. Retrieved February 21, 2014. - ^ "Profile: Olexander Turchynov". BBC News. February 23, 2014. Retrieved February 25, 2014. - ^ Taylor, Charles (February 28, 2014). "Profile: Ukraine's ousted President Viktor Yanukovych". BBC News. Retrieved May 4, 2014. - ^ "Crimea referendum: Voters 'back Russia union'". BBC News. Retrieved May 4, 2014. - ^ a b c Ukraine crisis timeline, BBC News - ^ Putin Tells Separatists In Ukraine To Postpone May 11 Referendum, NPR (May 07, 2014) "Ukraine rebels hold referendums in Donetsk and Luhansk". BBC News. Retrieved 11 May 2014. "Russian Roulette (Dispatch Thirty-Eight)". Vice News. Retrieved 7 July 2014. - ^ Ukraine underplays role of far right in conflict, BBC News (13 December 2014) - ^ Fergal Keane reports from Mariupol on Ukraine's 'frozen conflict', BBC News (12 December 2014) - ^ Half a million displaced in eastern Ukraine as winter looms, warns UN refugee agency, United Nations (5 December 2014) - ^ Ukraine conflict: Refugee numbers soar as war rages, BBC News (5 August 2014) - ^ Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (2005) - ^ KubijovyČ, ed. Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia (1963) 1:559-74 - ^ Taras Kuzio, "National Identity and History Writing in Ukraine," Nationalities Papers 2006 34(4): 407–427, online in EBSCO - ^ Serhii Plokhy, "Beyond Nationality" Ab Imperio 2007 (4): 25–46, - ^ See Andryi Portnov, "Exercises with history Ukrainian style (notes on public aspects of history's functioning in post-Soviet Ukraine)," Ab Imperio 2007 (3): 93–138, in Ukrainian External links[edit] - Ukrainian history overview published in Den'. - The Holocaust by bullets, the Jewish victims of the Einsatzgruppen in Eastern Europe Yahad In Unum - History of Ukraine: Primary Documents