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История на Малта Най-ранните доказателства за човешко присъствие на Малта са от неолита. Първите заселници стъпват на островите около 5200 г. пр.н.е. След тях следват финикийци, гърци, римляни. През Средновековието островите са владение на византийци, араби, нормани, испанци, хоспиталиери. Наполеон ги завладява през 1798 г., но само няколко години по-късно е принуден да ги отстъпи на британците. Малта е единствената колония, за която са правени опити да стане част от Обединеното кралство, но след неуспеха през 1964 г. страната избира независимостта. На 1 януари 2004 г. Малта става част от Европейския съюз. [редактиране] Важни години и дати - около 5200 пр. : Първо заселване на островите. - около 3600 пр. : Започва Храмовият период. - около 2500 Хр.: Храмовият период завършва. : Островите попадат под властта на Картаген. : Островите попадат под властта на Римската империя. : вел претърпява корабокрушение на малтийския бряг на място, което днес се нарича залив Свети Павел. : Малта е завладяна от арабите, които оставят своя отпечатък върху малтийската култура и най-вече върху малтийския език. - 1091: Граф Роджър I остановява норманското владичество. - 1127: По времето на синът му Роджър II норманският контрол е окончателно затвърден. Християнството се завръща в Малта. - 1530: За да предпази Рим от мюсюлманска инвазия, Карл V предава Малта на Ордена на хоспиталиерите. - Юли 1551: Османската империя и средиземноморски пирати покоряват Гозо и поробват всички 5 000 или 6 000 местни жители, откарвайки ги в Тархуна Уа Мсалата в Либия. - 1565: Успешна отбрана на остров Малта от османско нашествие от рицарите хоспиталиери. - 1798: Малтийският орден предава на Наполеон правата над островите. - 1799: Руският император Павел I поема попечителство над остатъците от разтурения малтийски орден, в резултат на което бива избран за негов Велик магистър. - 1800: Великобритания поема контрола над островите. Сър Александър Бол е назначен за губернатор. - 1814: Като част от Парижкия договор, Малта официално става част от Британската империя и се използва като пристанище от Британската флота до средата на 30-те години на XIX в. - 1919: Бунтове заради прекалено високата цена на хляба. Довеждат до по-голяма автономия на малтийците. - 1934: Английският и малтийският са обявени за единствените официални езици в страната. - 1939-1945: Малта изиграва важна роля във Втората световна война. - 11 юни 1940: Първи въздушни атаки над Малта. - Декември 1955 : В Лондон се провежда Кръгла маса по въпросите на бъдещето на Малта. - 14 февруари 1956: Проведен е референдум относно бъдещето на Малта. - 1958: Преговорите пропадат и Великобритания налага директно властта си. - 21 септември 1964: Провъзгласена е независимостта на Малта. Страната остава член на Общността на нациите. - 1971: Дом Минтоф е преизбран на поста министър-председател. - 1974: Малта е провъзгласена за република, а последният Генерал-губернатор Антъни Мамо става първия президент на страната. - 1979: Последните британски сили напускат Малта. - 1987: Работническата партия (РП) губи на изборите от Националната партия (НП). - Април 2003: Чрез референдум малтийските граждани изразяват желанието си да се присъединят към Европейския съюз. - 1 май 2004 Малта става пълноправен член на ЕС. [редактиране] Неолит и бронзова ера Издигането на островите от дъното на Средиземно море са възможност, а косвено и причина за заселването на островите на Малта — геоложките изследвания показват покачване на нивото на Средиземно море около 5600 г. пр.н.е., което води до пробив край Босфора. Голямото сладководно езеро бива залято от солена вода и става това, което днес знаем като Черно море. Земеделците от неговото крайбрежие са принудени да мигрират и вълната преселници достига Малта около 5200 г. пр.н.е. Заселниците са можели да правят достатъчно големи лодки, с които да пренесат добитък и покъщнина през 93-километровото разстояние от Сицилия. Оръдията им са били изработени от камък, дърво и кост. Имали са култивирани видове пшеница, ечемик и леща, и са имали опитомени овце, кози, свине и говеда. Разкопките при Skorba разкриват религиозен култ към плодовитостта. Каменните породи на островите са основно варовикови и за каменни сечива е използван обсидиан от островите Пантелерия и Липари. Докато за едно хилядолетие археологичните находки не се различават от подобни в другите части на Европа, около 4100–4000 г. пр.н.е. се появява коренно различен културен пласт — т.нар. Храмова култура. По времето на този период на остров Гозо са построени множество храмове, за които се смята, че са едни от най-старите сгради в света. Храмовият период продължава до около 2500 г. пр. Смята се, че някъде около това време е изчезнала древната цивилизация построила храмовете. Все още не е сигурно какво точно се е случило с представителите ѝ. След Храмовия период настъпва Бронзовата ера. От тогава датират останките на няколко колонии и села, както и на редица долмени. [редактиране] Финикийци и гърци Около 1000 г. пр. ХР. островите са колонизирани от финикийци, идващи от град Тир. Те използват Малта като преден пост за осъществяване на своите експедиции и за извършване на търговски плавания в Средиземно море. В края на VIII в. пр. Хр. на главния малтийски остров е основана гръцката колония Мелите. [редактиране] Рим и Картаген Малта попада под властта на Картаген около 400 г. Хр. и под тази на Римската империя близо 200 години по-късно. По време на римския период островите процъфтяват. Доказателство за близките връзи между малтийците и римляните са множеството римски реликви запазили се и до днес. Хр. островите са посетени от св. Павел, за който се смята, че е претърпял корабокрушение на брега на залив, известен в наши дни с името „Свети Павел“. През 440 г. Малта е превзета от вандалите и отново върнат в пределите на Римската империя през 535 г. [редактиране] Средни векове След период на византийско владичество, островите са покорени от арабите. Новите завоеватели не се опитват да наложат ислямската вяра на населението и то остава в основната си част християнско. Започва отглеждането на цитрусови плодове и памук, внедрени са първите напоителни системи. Арабското влияние се усеща най-вече в съвременния малтийски език. Периодът на арабско владичество продължава до 1091 г., когато островите са превзети от сицилийските нормани. Арабското влияние постепенно бива изместено от европейското. Век по-късно норманският крал определя за първи граф на Малта своя адмирал Маргаритони де Бриндизи. През следващите 300 години островите биват продадени и препродадени на редица феодални владетели и са под контрола последователно на Швабия, Херцогство Аквитания, Кралство Арагон, Кастилия. През 1479 г. След обединението на Арагон и Кастилия, Малта става част от Испанската империя. [редактиране] Орденът на хоспиталиерите През 1530 г. Императорът на Свещената римска империя Карл V, надявайки се по този начин да предпази Рим от набезите на Османската империя, предава Малта за вечно владение на рицарите хоспиталиери на св. Йоан Йерусалимски. Орденът, познат в наши дни като „Малтийски“, е изтласкан от предишната си територия на о-в Родос от турците. През 1565 г. Сюлейман Великолепни подготвя масирана обсада на Малта, продължила близо 5 месеца и останала в историята с името „Великата обсада“. Девет хиляди души рицари и обикновени малтийци се изправят срещу 40-хилядната турска армия и успяват да надделеят. Година след успешната защита на островите започва изграждането на нов укрепен град с името Валета, кръстен на Жан дьо ла Валета -Водач на ордена на тамплиерите по време на обсадата. Освен града, който по-късно ще стане столица на Малта, рицарите изграждат и множество замъци, църкви, укрепления, паркове и градини. Значителна част от културното и историческо богатство на Малта е запазена именно от този 275-годишен период преминал под знака на Ордена на хоспиталиерите. [редактиране] Френско владичество С годините могъщото някога рицарство все повече започва да клони към заник. Военната мощ на ордена през XVIII в. е вече само привидна. Местните милиции съществуват по-скоро на хартия, а останалите общо около 1500 рицари се уповават преди всичко на солидните укрепления, построени в миналото. През юни 1798 г., на път за Египет Наполеон иска разрешение от Великия магистър на малтийския орден да продоволства в пристанището на Валета своя флот. След първоначалния си отказ рицарите в крайна сметка приемат, като на 12 юни подписват споразумение, по силата на което преотстъпват на Франция всичките си суверенни права над Малта и нейните владения. За краткото време на своя престой Наполеон реорганизира управлението на островите в духа на Френската революция - всички малтийци получават равни права, аристократическите отличия са премахнати, на всички религиозни общности са предоставени равни права на изповедание, включително на православните и юдеите, създадено е ново административно-териториално деление. Рицарите на ордена са пенсионирани, като тези от тях, които са под шестдесетгодишна възраст са отправени обратно в страните, от които са дошли, а друга част се присъединяват към френската експедиция. Някои от тях, като Шаналей (Chanaleilles) и Ласкарис (Lascaris), по-късно играят важна роля в новата администрация на Египет. След като оставя трихиляден гарнизон начело с генерал Вобоа (Vaubois), на 18 юни Наполеон отплува за Египет. [редактиране] Руско попечителство След като рицарите се пръсват из Европа, една значителна част от тях се обръща за подкрепа към Русия. Император Павел І им предоставя убежище и финансова подкрепа, в резултат на което на 16 декември 1798 г. бива избран за Велик магистър на Малтийския орден и негов протектор. Този избор създава допълнителни предпоставки за усилване на руското влияние в Средиземно море, което със средиземноморския поход на адмирал Ушаков в периода 1798-1800 г. и установяването на руско-турски протекторат над Йонийските острови през март 1800 г, се намира в своя апогей. След убийството на Павел І през 1801 г. тази политика е изцяло изоставена от неговия наследник Александър І. [редактиране] Британско владичество Орденът на хоспиталиерите не бил особено популярен сред местното население и по тази причина в началото французите били приети радушно. Данъчната реформа и раграбването на църквите обаче довеждат само няколко месеца по-късно до бунт срещу новата власт. Великобритания и Кралството на двете сицилии помагат на бунтовниците, а британският флот блокира пристанището на Валета, където се е укрепил френския гарнизон. През 1800 г. Французите се предават и островите стават протекторат на Великобритания. За първи губернатор е назначен, ръководилият близо 2 години блокадата на Валета, сър Александър Бол. С Парижкия мирен договор от 1814 г. Малта официално влиза в състава на Британската империя. Стратегическото разположение на островите на половината път от Гибралтар към Суецкия канал, ги превръща в особено важна морска база (главна за Великобритания в Средиземно море) и междинна спирка на много търговски маршрути. По-голямата част от местните жители са доста бедни и нямат почти никакво право на самоуправление чак до 1919 г., когато след бунтовете заради високата цена на хляба, Малта получава известна автономия. [редактиране] Втора световна война В средата на 30-те години на XX в. Главният щаб на Кралската средизмноморска флота е преместен от Валета в Александрия по икономически причини, което доста отлабва съпротивителните сили на острова в предстоящата Втора световна война. Като британска колония намираща се близо до Сицилия и основните пристанища на Оста, Малта става мишена на немските и италиански бомбардировки. От базата си на острова британците пък извършват атаки срещу италианската флота, а пристанището на Валета приютява множество съюзнически подводници. За проявената храбост в дългата и ожесточена борба малтийският народ е награден с най-високия цивилен орден за храброст в Британската империя — „Кръстът на свети Георги“, от крал Джордж VI. Въпросното отличие е изобразено в горния ляв ъгъл на съвременното малтийско знаме. [редактиране] Независима история След войната Малта получава полу-автономен статут. Една от свете основни политически сили на острова — Работническата партия(РП) на Дом Минтоф, се стреми към по-близко сътрудничество с Великобритания, докато опонентите им от Националната партия (НП), водени от Джордж Борг Оливие, се обявяват за засилване на самоуправлението. Дом Минтоф е много близо до реално обединение с Обединеното кралство, но в крайна сметка опитите му в тази насока се провалят. На 21 септември 1964 г. (Денят на Независимостта) Малта е обявена за независима държава, въпреки че Елизабет II остава формално кралица на острова. На 13 декември 1974 г. (Ден на Републиката) Малта е провъзгласена за република с държавен глава президент, а на 31 март 1979 г. (Ден на Свободата) получава пълна автономия. Зад тези реформи също стои името на Минтоф, който тотално обръща политическите си цели след като не успява да направи страната част от Великобритания. През 80-те Малта не застава на страната на нито един от двата блока в Студената война и дори за кратко е член на Движението на необвързаните държави. През 1989 г. на острова се провежда първата среща между президента на Съдинените щати Джордж Буш и съветския лидер Михаил Горбачов, с която се слага началото на края на Студената война. [редактиране] Членство в Европейския съюз Най-същественият въпрос в последните 15 г. е кандидатстването за членство и последвалото влизане в ЕС. По пътя си към Общността Малта е водена от лидера на Националната партия Фенех Адами. Работническата партия, оглавена от Алфред Сант, обаче идва на власт през 1996 г. и оттегля молбата за членство на Малта. Тя отново е подадена през 1998 г., когато изборите на свой ред са спечелени от НП. През 2003 г. е проведен референдум за влизането на страната в ЕС, който показва одобрение с мнозинство от над 19 хил. гласа при 91% избирателна активност. РП твърдят, че няма да се чувстват обвързани от резултатите от референдума, ако дойдат отново на власт след изборите в началото на 2004 г. Това обаче не се случва и на 1 май 2004 г. Малта става членка на ЕС заедно с още девет държави. [редактиране] Източници - The Story of Malta, Brian Blouet, ISBN 99909-3-081-3*
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History of Malta Malta has been inhabited since it was settled around 5200 BC from Sicily.[1] [edit] Geology and prehistory Malta stands on an underwater ridge that extends from North Africa to Sicily. At some time in the distant past Malta was submerged, as shown by marine fossils embedded in rock in the highest points of Malta. As the ridge was pushed up and the straits of Gibraltar closed through tectonic activity, the sea level was lower, and Malta was on a bridge of dry land that extended between the two continents, surrounded by large lakes. Some caverns in Malta have revealed bones of elephants, hippopotami, and other large animals now found in Africa, while others have revealed animals native to Europe. Man first arrived in Malta around 5200 BC. These first Neolithic people probably arrived from Sicily (about 100 kilometres/60 miles north), and were mainly farming and fishing communities, with some evidence of hunting activities. They apparently lived in caves and open dwellings. During the centuries that followed there is evidence of further contacts with other cultures, which left their influence on the local communities, evidenced by their pottery designs and colours. One of the most notable periods of Malta's history is the temple period, starting around 3600 BC. The Ggantia Prehistoric Temple in Gozo is the oldest free-standing building in the world (photo). Many of the temples are in the form of five semicircular rooms connected at the centre. It has been suggested that these might have represented the head, arms and legs of a deity, since one of the commonest kinds of statue found in these temples is a fat woman — a symbol of fertility. The Temple period lasted until about 2500 BC, at which point the civilization that raised these huge monoliths seems to have disappeared. There is much speculation about what might have happened and whether they were completely wiped out or assimilated. After the Temple period came the Bronze Age. From this period there remains of a number of settlements and villages, as well as dolmens — altar-like structures made out of very large slabs of stone. One surviving menhir, which was used to build temples, still stands at Kirkop; it is one of the few still in good condition. Among the most interesting and mysterious remnants of this era are the so-called cart ruts as they can be seen at a place on Malta called Clapham Junction. These are pairs of parallel channels cut into the surface of the rock, and extending for considerable distances, often in an exactly straight line. Their exact use is unknown. One suggestion is that beasts of burden used to pull carts along, and these channels would guide the carts and prevent the animals from straying. The society that built these structures eventually died out or at any rate disappeared. [edit] Antiquity [edit] Phoenicians and Greeks Phoenicians from Tyre colonized the islands around 1000 BC, using them as an outpost from which they expanded sea explorations and trade in the Mediterranean. They named the island Maleth/Malat meaning "safe haven" and lived in the area now occupied by the city of Mdina and its suburb Rabat. In the late 8th century BC, a Greek colony was founded, called Meλίtn (Melite), from the Doric Greek word for "honeybee" on the main island. The name is thought to be in reference to an endemic species of bee on the island, and the distinctive honey it produces. [edit] Carthage and Rome The islands later came under the control of Carthage (400 BC) and then of the Roman Republic (218 BC). The islands prospered under Roman rule, and were eventually distinguished as a Municipium and a Foederata Civitas. Many Roman antiquities still exist, testifying to the close link between the Maltese inhabitants and the people of Rome. In AD 60, the New Testament records that Saint Paul was shipwrecked on an island named Melite, which many Bible scholars and Maltese conflate with Malta; there is a tradition that the shipwreck took place on the shores of the aptly named "Saint Paul's Bay". [edit] Vandals and Byzantines In 440 the island was captured by the Vandals, which had recently occupied the Roman province of Africa. It was recovered by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 533, along with the other Vandal possessions, and remained a part of the Byzantine province of Sicily for the next 340 years. [edit] Middle Ages [edit] Arab period Malta was occupied by the Fatimids, who exerted 220 years of influence (from 870 to 1090 CE/AD) on the existing civilization. In addition to their language, Siculo-Arabic, cotton, oranges and lemons and many new techniques in irrigation were introduced. Some of these, like the noria (waterwheel), are still used, unchanged, today. Many place names in Malta date to this period. The Phoenician city of Mdina was extensively modified in this period. [edit] Norman Kingdom of Sicily rule Between 1194 and 1530 the Kingdom of Sicily ruled the Maltese islands and a process of full latinisation started in Malta. In 1091, count Roger I of Sicily, made an initial attempt to establish Norman rule of Malta and was greeted by the few native Christians. In 1127, his son Roger II of Sicily succeeded. This marked the gradual change from an Arab cultural influence to a European one. In 1191, Tancred of Sicily appointed Margaritus of Brindisi the first Count of Malta. Until the 1224 AD/CE, however, there remained a strong Muslim segment of society. After the Norman conquest the population of the Maltese islands kept growing mainly through immigration from the north (Sicily and Italy), with the exile to Malta of the entire male population of the town of Celano (Italy) in 1223, the stationing of a Norman and Sicilian garrison on Malta in 1240 and the settlement in Malta of noble families from Sicily between 1372 and 1450. As a consequence of this one major academic study found that "the contemporary males of Malta most likely originated from Southern Italy, including Sicily and up to Calabria".[2] Malta was an appendage of Sicily for nearly 440 years. During this period, Malta was sold and resold to various feudal lords and barons and was dominated successively by the rulers of Swabia, Anjou, the Crown of Aragon, the Crown of Castile, and Spain. Eventually the Crown of Aragon, which then ruled Malta, joined with Castile in 1479, and Malta became part of the Spanish Empire. Malta's administration thus fell in the hands of local nobility who formed a governing body called the Università. [edit] Modern period [edit] Knights of St. John In the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire started spreading over the region, reaching South-East Europe. The Spanish king Charles V feared that if Rome fell to the Turks, it would be the end of Christian Europe. In 1522, Suleiman II drove the Knight Hospitaller of St. John out of Rhodes. They dispersed to their commanderies in Europe. Wanting to protect Rome from invasion from the South, in 1530, Charles V handed over the island to these Knights. For the next 275 years, these famous "Knights of Malta" made the island their domain and made the Italian language official. They built towns, palaces, churches, gardens, and fortifications and embellished the island with numerous works of art and enhanced cultural heritage. The order of the Knights of St. John was originally established to set up outposts along the route to the Holy Land, to assist pilgrims going in either direction. Owing to the many confrontations that took place, one of their main tasks was to provide medical assistance, and even today the eight-pointed cross is still in wide use in ambulances and first aid organisations. In return for the many lives they saved, the Order received many newly conquered territories that had to be defended. Together with the need to defend the pilgrims in their care, this gave rise to the strong military wing of the Knights. Over time, the Order became strong and rich. From hospitallers first and military second, these priorities reversed. Since much of the territory they covered was around the Mediterranean region, they became notable seamen. From Malta the knights resumed their seaborne attacks of Ottoman shipping, and before long the Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent ordered a final attack on the Order. By this time the Knights had occupied the city of Birgu, which had excellent harbours to house their fleet. Also Birgu was one of the two major urban places at that time, the other most urban place being Mdina the old capital city of Malta. The defences around Birgu were enhanced and new fortifications built on the other point where now there is Senglea. Also a small fort was built at the tip of the peninsula where the city of Valletta now stands and was named Fort St. Elmo. On 18 May 1565, Suleiman the Magnificent laid siege to Malta. By the time the Ottoman fleet arrived the Knights were as ready as they could be. First the Ottomans attacked the newly built fort of St. Elmo and after a whole month of fighting the fort was in rubble and the soldiers kept fighting until the Turks ended their lives. After this they started attacking Birgu and the fortifications at Senglea but to no gain. After a protracted siege ended on 8 September of the same year, which became known in history as the Great Siege, the Ottoman Empire conceded defeat as the approaching winter storms threatened to prevent them from leaving. The Ottoman empire had expected an easy victory within weeks. They had 40,000 men arrayed against the Knights' nine thousand, most of them Maltese soldiers and simple citizens bearing arms. Their loss of thousands of men was very demoralising. The Ottomans made no further significant military advances in Europe and the Sultan died a few years later. [edit] After the War The year after, the Order started work on a new city with fortifications like no other, on a peninsula called Gholja Sciberras which the Ottomans had used as a base during the siege. It was named Valletta after Jean Parisot de la Valette, the Grand Master who had seen the Order through its victory. Since the Ottoman Empire never attacked again, the fortifications were never put to the test, and today remain one of the best-preserved fortifications of this period. Unlike other rulers of the island, the Order of St. John did not have a "home country" outside the island. The island became their home, so they invested in it more heavily than any other power. Besides, its members came from noble families, and had amassed considerable fortune due to their services in the route to the Holy Land. The architectural and artistic remains of this period remain among the greatest of Malta's history, especially in their "prize jewel" — the city of Valletta. However, as their main raison d'être had ceased to exist, the Order's glory days were over. [edit] Napoleonic French conquest (1798–1800) Over the years, the power of the Knights declined; their reign ended in 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte's expeditionary fleet stopped off there en route to his Egyptian expedition. Napoleon asked for safe harbour to resupply his ships, and when they refused to supply him with water, Napoleon Bonaparte sent a division to scale the hills of Valletta. Grand Master Hompesch capitulated on June 11. The following day a treaty was signed by which the order handed over sovereignty of the island of Malta to the French Republic. In return the French Republic agreed to "employ all its credit at the congress of Rastadt to procure a principality for the Grand Master, equivalent to the one he gives up".[3] During his very short stay (six days), Napoleon accomplished quite a of reforms, notably the creation of a new administration with a Government Commission, the creation of twelve municipalities, the setting up of a public finance administration, the abolition of all feudal rights and privileges, the abolition of slavery and the granting of freedom to all Turkish slaves (2000 in all). On the judicial level, a family code was framed and twelve judges were nominated. Public education was organised along principles laid down by Bonaparte himself, providing for primary and secondary education. Fifteen primary schools were founded and the university was replaced by an ’Ecole centrale’ in which there were eight chairs, all very scientific in outlook: notably, arithmetic and stereometry, algebra and stereotomy, geometry and astronomy, mechanics and physics, navigation, chemistry, etc.[4] He then sailed for Egypt leaving a substantial garrison in Malta. Since the Order had also been growing unpopular with the local Maltese, the latter initially viewed the French with optimism. This illusion did not last long. Within months the French were closing convents and seizing church treasures. The Maltese people rebelled, and the French garrison of General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois retreated into Valletta. After several failed attempts by the locals to retake Valletta, they asked the British for assistance. Rear Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson decided on a total blockade, and in 1800 the French garrison surrendered. [edit] Malta in the British Empire, 1800-1964 [edit] British Malta in the 19th century In 1800, Malta voluntarily became part of the British Empire. Under the terms of the 1802 Treaty of Amiens, Britain was supposed to evacuate the island, but failed to keep this obligation – one of several mutual cases of non-adherence to the treaty, which eventually led to its collapse and the resumption of war between Britain and France.[citation needed] Although initially the island was not given much importance, its excellent harbours became a prized asset for the British, especially after the opening of the Suez canal in 1869. The island became a military and naval fortress, the headquarters of the British Mediterranean fleet. Home rule was refused to the Maltese until 1921 although a partly elected legislative council was created as early as 1849 (the first Council of Government under British rule had been held in 1835), and the locals sometimes suffered considerable poverty.[5] This was due to the island being overpopulated and largely dependent on British military expenditure which varied with the demands of war. Throughout the 19th century, the British administration instituted several liberal constitutional reforms[6] which were generally resisted by the Church and the Maltese elite who preferred to cling to their feudal privileges.[7] Political organizations, like the Nationalist Party, were created or had as one of their aims, the protection of the Italian language in Malta. In 1813 Malta was granted the Bathurst Constitution; in 1814 it was declared free of the plague, while the 1815 Congress of Vienna reaffirmed the British rule under the 1814 Treaty of Paris. In 1819, the local Italian-speaking Università was dissolved. The year 1828 saw the revocation of the right of sanctuary, following the Vatican Church-State proclamation. Three years later, the See of Malta was made independent of the See of Palermo. In 1839, press censorship was abolished, and the construction of St. Paul's Anglican Cathedral begun. Following the 1846 Carnival riots, in 1849 a Council of Government with elected members under British rule was set up. In 1870 a referendum was held on ecclesiastics serving on Council of Government, and in 1881 an Executive Council under British rule was created; in 1887, the Council of Government was entrusted with "dual control" under British rule. A backlash came in 1903, with the Return to the 1849 form of Council of Government under British rule. The last quarter of the century saw technical and financial progress in line with the Belle Epoque: the following years saw the foundation of the Anglo-Egyptian Bank (1882) and the beginning of operation of the Malta Railway (1883); the first Maltese postage stamps were issued in 1885, and in 1904 tram service begun. The Royal Opera House begun to be built in 1888. In 1886 Surgeon Major David Bruce discovered the microbe causing the Malta Fever, and in 1905 Themistocles Zammit discovered the fever's sources. Finally, in 1912, Dun Karm wrote his first poem in Maltese. [edit] Malta in the Interwar period During World War I, Malta becomes known as the Nurse of the Mediterranean. In 1919, the Sette Giugno (7 June) riots over the excessive price of bread led to greater autonomy for the locals during the 1920s. After Filippo Sciberras had convened a National Assembly, in 1921 self-government is granted under British rule. Malta obtained a bicameral parliament with a Senate (later abolished in 1949) and an elected Legislative Assembly. Joseph Howard is named Prime Minister. In 1923 the Innu Malti is played for the first time in public, and the same year Francisco Buhagiar becomes Prime Minister, followed in 1924 by Sir Ugo Pasquale Mifsud and in 1927 by Sir Gerald Strickland. The 1930s see a period of instability in the relations between Maltese political elite, the Maltese church, and the British rulers; the 1921 Constitution was suspended twice. First in 1930-32, following a clash between the governing Constitutional Party and the Church[8] and the latter's subsequent imposition of mortal sin on voters of the party and its allies, thus making a free and fair election impossible. Again, in 1933 the Constitution was withdrawn over the Government's budgetary vote for the teaching of Italian in elementary schools.[9] Malta thus reverted to the Crown Colony status it held in 1813. Before the arrival of the British, the official language since 1530 (and the one of the educated elite) had been Italian, but this was downgraded by the increased use of English. In 1934, English and Maltese were declared the sole official languages. In 1934, only about 15% of the population could speak Italian fluently.[10] This meant that out of 58,000 males qualified by age to be jurors, only 767 could qualify by language, as only Italian had until then been used in the courts.[10] This injustice carried more weight than concerns over fascism.[citation needed] In 1936 the Constitution was revised to provide for the nomination of members to Executive Council under British rule, and in 1939 to provide again for an elected Council of Government under British rule. [edit] British Malta during World War II Before World War II, Valletta was the location of the Royal Navy's Mediterranean Fleet's headquarters. However, despite Winston Churchill's objections,[11] the command was moved to Alexandria, Egypt, in April 1937 fearing it was too susceptible to air attacks from Europe.[11][12][13][page needed] At the time of the Italian declaration of war (10 June 1940), Malta had a garrison of less than four thousand soldiers and about five weeks of food supplies for the population of about three hundred thousand. In addition, Malta's air defences consisted of about forty-two anti-aircraft guns (thirty-four "heavy" and eight "light") and four Gloster Gladiators, for which three pilots were available. Being a British colony, situated close to Sicily and the Axis shipping lanes, Malta was bombarded by the Italian and German air forces. Malta was used by the British to launch attacks on the Italian navy and had a submarine base. It was also used as a listening post, reading German radio messages including Enigma traffic.[14] The first air raids against Malta occurred on 11 June 1940; there were six attacks that day. The island's biplanes were unable to defend due to the Luqa Airfield being unfinished; however, the airfield was ready by the seventh attack. Initially, the Italians would fly at about 5,500 m, then they dropped down to three thousand metres (in order to improve the accuracy of their bombs). Major Paine stated, "[After they dropped down], we bagged one or two every other day, so they started coming in at [six thousand metres]. Their bombing was never very accurate. As they flew higher it became quite indiscriminate."[15] Mabel Strickland would state, "The Italians decided they didn't like [the Gladiators and AA guns], so they dropped their bombs twenty miles off Malta and went back."[16] By the end of August, the Gladiators were reinforced by twelve Hawker Hurricanes which had arrived via HMS Argus.[16] During the first five months of combat, the island's aircraft destroyed or damaged about thirty-seven Italian aircraft. Italian fighter pilot Francisco Cavalera observed, "Malta was really a big problem for us—very well-defended."[16] On Malta, 330 people had been killed and 297 were seriously wounded from the war's inception until December 1941. In January 1941, the German X. Fliegerkorps arrived in Sicily as the Afrika Korps arrived in Libya. Over the next four months 820 people were killed and 915 seriously wounded.[17] On 15 April 1942, King George VI awarded the George Cross (the highest civilian award for gallantry) "to the island fortress of Malta — its people and defenders."[16] Franklin D. Roosevelt arrived on 8 December 1943, and presented a United States Presidential Citation to the people of Malta on behalf of the people of United States. He presented the scroll on 8 December, but dated it 7 December for symbolic reasons. In part it read: "Under repeated fire from the skies, Malta stood alone and unafraid in the center of the sea, one tiny bright flame in the darkness -- a beacon of hope for the clearer days which have come."[18] (The complete citation now stands on a plaque on the wall of the Grand Master's Palace on Republic Street in the town square of Valletta.[19]) In 1942, Operation Pedestal convoy arrives in Grand Harbour, and the following year Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill visit Malta. George VI arrives in Grand Harbour for a visit. During the Second World War, Ugo Mifsud and George Borg Olivier were the only remaining Nationalist members of parliament of Malta. Ugo Mifsud fainted after delivering a very passionate defence against the deportation to concentration camps in Uganda of Enrico Mizzi and 49 other Maltese Italians accused of pro-Italian political activities. He died a few days later. The Allies launch their invasion of Sicily starting from Malta. The same year 1943, after the Cassibile armistice, the Italian Fleet surrenders to the Allies in Malta. In 1945, Churchill and Roosevelt meet in Malta prior to the Yalta Conference with Joseph Stalin. The 1946 National Assembly results in the 1947 constitution under British rule, with the restoration of self-government, and Paul Boffa becoming Prime Minister. [edit] From Home rule to independence After World War II, the islands achieved self-rule, with the Malta Labour Party (MLP) of Dom Mintoff seeking either full integration with the UK or else "self-determination (independence), and the Partit Nazzjonalista (PN) of George Borg Olivier favouring independence, with the same "dominion status" that Canada, Australia and New Zealand enjoyed. In the meanwhile, after the 1948 Red Flag incident, in 1949 Malta signs the North Atlantic Treaty and joins NATO. After the 1953 Coronation incident, in December 1955, a Round Table Conference was held in London, on the future of Malta, attended by the new PM Dom Mintoff, Borg Olivier and other Maltese politicians, along with the British Colonial Secretary, Alan Lennox-Boyd. The British government agreed to offer the islands their own representation in the British House of Commons, with the Home Office taking over responsibility for Maltese affairs from the Colonial Office. Under the proposals, the Maltese Parliament would retain responsibility over all affairs except defence, foreign policy, and taxation. The Maltese were also to have social and economic parity with the UK, to be guaranteed by the British Ministry of Defence (MoD), the islands' main source of employment. A UK integration referendum was held on 11 and 12 February 1956, in which 77.02 per cent of voters were in favour of the proposal,[20] but owing to a boycott by the Nationalist Party, only 59.1 per cent of the electorate voted, thereby rendering the result inconclusive. There were also concerns expressed by British MPs that the representation of Malta at Westminster would set a precedent for other colonies, and influence the outcome of general elections.[21] In addition, the decreasing strategic importance of Malta to the Royal Navy meant that the British government was increasingly reluctant to maintain the naval dockyards. Following a decision by the Admiralty to dismiss 40 workers at the dockyard, Mintoff declared that "representatives of the Maltese people in Parliament declare that they are no longer bound by agreements and obligations toward the British government..." (the 1958 Caravaggio incident)[22] In response, the Colonial Secretary sent a cable to Mintoff, stating that he had "recklessly hazarded" the whole integration plan.[22] Under protest, Dom Mintoff resigned as Prime Minister, while Georgio Borg Olivier declined to form an alternative government. This led to the islands being placed under direct colonial administration from London, with the MLP abandoning support for integration and now advocating independence. In 1959, an Interim Constitution provided for an Executive Council under British rule. While France had implemented a similar policy in its colonies, some of which became overseas departments, the status offered to Malta from Britain constituted a unique exception. Malta was the only British colony where integration with the UK was seriously considered, and subsequent British governments have ruled out integration for remaining overseas territories, such as Gibraltar.[23] In 1961, the Blood Commission provided for a new constitution allowing for a measure of self-government and recognizing the "State" of Malta. Giorgio Borg Olivier became Prime Minister the following year, when the Stolper report was delivered. [edit] History of independent Malta (1964-) [edit] Nationalist governments (1964-1971) Following the Maltese constitutional referendum, 1964, approved by 54.5% of voters, on 21 September 1964, Malta became an independent state as a Constitutional Monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its Head of State. This is celebrated as Independence Day or Jum l-Indipendenza in Maltese. On 1 December 1964, Malta was admitted to the United Nations In the first two post-independence electoral rounds, in 1962 and 1966 the Nationalist Party emerged as the largest party, gaining a majority of the Parliamentary seats. In 1965 Malta joined the Council of Europe, and in 1970, Malta signed an Association Treaty with the European Community. [edit] Labour governments (1971-1987) The elections of 1971 saw the Labour Party (MLP) under Dom Mintoff win by just over 4000 votes. The Labour immediately set out to re-negotiate the post-Independence military and financial agreements with the United Kingdom. The government also undertook nationalization programmes and the expansion of the public sector and the welfare state. Employment laws were updated with gender equality being introduced in salary pay. Concerning civil law, civil marriage was introduced and homosexuality and adultery were decriminalised (1973); capital punishment for murder was abolished in 1971. The following year, Malta enters into a Military Base Agreement with the United Kingdom and other NATO countries. Through a package of constitutional reforms agreed to with the Nationalist opposition, Malta became a republic on 13 December 1974, with the last Governor-General, Sir Anthony Mamo, as its first President. The Gieh ir-Repubblika Act, promulgated the following year, abolished all titles of nobility in Malta and mandated that they not be further recognized. The Party was confirmed in office in the 1976 elections. Between 1976 and 1981 Malta went through difficult times and the Labour government demanded that the Maltese were to tighten their belts in order to overcome the difficulties Malta was facing. There were shortages of essential items; the water and electricity supplies were systematically suspended for two or three days a week. Political tensions increased, notably on Black Monday when following an attempted assassination of the Prime Minister, the premises of the Times of Malta were burned to the ground and the house of the Leader of Opposition was attacked. On 1 April 1979 the last British forces left the island after the end of the economic pact to stabilise the Maltese economy. This is celebrated as Freedom Day (Jum Il-Ħelsien) on 31 March. Celebrations start with a ceremony in Floriana near the War Memorial. A popular event on this memorable day is the traditional regatta. The regatta is held at the Grand Harbour and the teams taking part in it give it their best shot to win the much coveted aggregate Regatta Shield. Mintoff also established close cultural and economic ties with Muammar Gaddafi's Libya.[24] The 1981 general elections saw the Nationalist Party (NP) gaining an absolute majority of votes, yet the Labour winning the majority of Parliamentary seats under the Single Transferable Vote and Mintoff remained Prime Minister, leading to a political crisis. The Nationalists, now led by Eddie Fenech Adami, refused to accept the electoral result and also refused to take their seats in parliament for the first years of the legislature, mounting a campaign demanding that Parliament should reflect the democratic will of the people. Despite this, the Labour government remained in power for the full five year term. Mintoff resigned as Prime Minister nd Party leader and appointed Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici as his successor in 1984. The Mifsud Bonnici years were characterised by political tensions and violence. After a five-year debate, Fenech Adami, through the intervention of Dom Mintoff, reached an agreement with Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici to improve the constitution. Constitutional amendments were made voted and made effective in January 1987 which guaranteed that the party with an absolute majority of votes would be given a majority of parliamentary seats in order to govern. This paved the way for the return of the Nationalist Party to government later that year. [edit] The accession process to the European Union (1987-2004) The general elections that followed in 1987 saw the Nationalist Party achieve such a majority of votes. The new Nationalist administration of Edward Fenech Adami sought to improve Malta's ties with Western Europe and the United States. The Nationalist Party advocated Malta's membership in the European Union presenting an application on 16 July 1990. This became a divisive issue, with Labour opposing membership. A wide-raging programme of liberalisation and public investments meant the confirmation in office of the Nationalists with a larger majority in the 1992 elections. In 1993, local councils were re-established in Malta. General elections were held in Malta on 26 October 1996; although the Labour received the most votes, the Nationalists won the most seats. The 1987 constitutional amendments had to be used for the second time, and the Labour Party was awarded an additional four seats to ensure they had a majority in Parliament. Malta's EU application was subsequently frozen. A split in the Labour Party in 1998, between the PM Sant and the former PM Mintoff, now a backbencher, resulted in the government losing the majority. Notwithstanding the President of the Republic's preference for a negotiated solution, all attempts proved futile, and he had no other option but to accept Sant and his government's resignation and a call for early elections. On being returned to office in the 1998 elections with a wide 13,000 vote margin, the Nationalist Party reactivated the EU membership application. Malta was formally accepted as a candidate country at the Helsinki European Council of December 1999.[25] In 2000, capital punishment was abolished also from the military code of Malta. EU accession negotiations were concluded late in 2002 and a referendum on membership in 2003 saw 90.86% casting a valid vote of which 53.65% were "yes" votes. Labour stated that it would not be bound by this result were it returned to power in the following general election that year. In the circumstances, elections were called and the Nationalist Party won another mandate, electing as PM Lawrence Gonzi. The accession treaty was signed and ratified and Malta joined the EU on 1 May 2004. A consensus on membership was subsequently achieved with Labour saying it would respect this result. [edit] Malta in the EU (2004-) In the context of EU membership, Malta joined the eurozone on 1 January 2008; the 2008 election confirmed Gonzi in the premiership, while in 2009 George Abela became President of Malta. On 28 May 2011, Maltese voted 'yes' in the consultative divorce referendum. At that time, Malta was one of only three countries in the world, along with the Philippines and the Vatican City, in which divorce was not permitted. As a consequence of the referendum outcome, a law allowing divorce under certain conditions was enacted in the same year. [edit] See also - Arab-Norman culture - Culture of Malta - History of the Jews in Malta - Malta Summit - Monarchs of Malta - Operation Pedestal - Pan Am Flight 103 - Timeline of Maltese history General: [edit] References - Stephenson, Charles. The Fortifications of Malta 1530–1945. Great Britain: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2004. - Attard, Joseph. Britain and Malta. Malta: PEG Ltd.1988. - Luke, Sir Harry. Malta – An Account and an Appreciation. Great Britain: Harrap, 1949. IslandofGozo.org. 7 October 2007. http://www.islandofgozo.org/history.htm. - ^ C. Capelli, N. Redhead, N. Novelletto, L. Terrenato, P. Malaspina, Z. Poulli, G. Lefranc, A. Megarbane, V. Delague, V. Romano, F. Cali, V.F. Pascali, M. Fellous, A.E. Felice, and D.B. Goldstein; "Population Structure in the Mediterranean Basin: A Y Chromosome Perspective," Annals of Human Genetics, 69, 1–20, 2005. - ^ Porter, 451. - ^ http://www.napoleonicsociety.com/english/Life_Nap_Chap12.htm - ^ Attard P.76 - ^ Luke ChVIII - ^ Attard P.64:Luke P.107 - ^ http://www.doi.gov.mt/en/islands/prime_ministers/strickland_gerald.asp - ^ http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ITA2413/_P6.HTM - ^ a b Luke P.113 - ^ a b Bierman, John; & Colin Smith (2002). The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II. Viking. - ^ Titterton, G. A. (2002). The Royal Navy and the Mediterranean, Volume 2. Psychology Press. p. xiii. - ^ Elliott, Peter (1980). The Cross and the Ensign: A Naval History of Malta, 1798-1979. Naval Institute Press. - ^ Calvocoressi, Peter (1981 (reprint)). Top Secret Ultra - Volume 10 of Ballantine Espionage Intelligence Library. Ballantine Books. - ^ Bierman & Smith. - ^ a b c d Bierman & Smith. - ^ Shankland, Peter; & Anthony Hunter (1961). Malta Convoy. Washburn. - ^ "Mr. Roosevelt Gives Scroll To People On Isle Of Malta". The Gettysburg Times (Associated Press): pp. 1, 4. December 10, 1943. - ^ Rudolf, Uwe Jens; & Warren G. Berg (2010). Historical Dictionary of Malta. Scarecrow Press. - ^ Referenda in Malta: The Questions and the Voters' Responses - ^ MALTA (ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE)HC Deb 26 March 1956 vol 550 cc1778-931 - ^ a b "Penny-Wise", TIME, January 13, 1958, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,862830,00.html - ^ Hansard 3 August 1976 Written Answers (House of Commons) → Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs - ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877632-1,00.html - ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/ACFA4C.htm [edit] External links - Academic Brief History fully referenced - Malta through the Ages - Notable Dates in Maltese History - Malta Elections Data - Malta free of the Plague