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Ираклий Флавий Ираклий Август (Латински: Flavius Heraclius Augustus; Гръцки: Hpάkλeιoς, Hērakleios), ( 575 г. - 11 февруари 641 г.) е византийски император царувал в периода 5 октомври 610 г. - 11 февруари 641 г. Известен също и като Ираклий I. Поставя началото на първата византийска династия, Династията Ираклий. Способен реформатор, въвел дълбоки промени във византийския управленски и военен ред. Създава темната организация на провинциите, която е гръбнакът на Византийската империя през следващите векове. Стабилизира империята, неутрализира персите и аварите като врагове. По време на неговото управление са първите сблъсъци между християни и мюсюлмани, в следствие на които Византия загубва Светите земи, Сирия и Египет. Поддържа добри отношения с владетеля на Велика България хан Кубрат, когото през 635 година удостоява с титлата патриций. [редактиране] Идване на власт Син на влиятелния бивш управител на Картаген, носещ също името Ираклий, от арменски произход, който е един от ключовите генерали във войната през 590 година срещу Персийската империя, под властта на император Маврикий. Не се знае точното място на раждане на император Ираклий, но със сигурност е прекарал младостта си в Северна Африка. [редактиране] Бунт на Ираклиите През 608, неговият баща, Ираклий Старши, екзарх на Картаген, и брат му Григорий, следващ в йерархията, въстанали срещу император Фока, който свалил от престола Маврикий шест години преди това. Въстаниците отсекли свои монети, на които се виждат двамата Ираклии с императорски атрибути, въпреки че никой от тях не се е провъзгласил за император. Събрали войска и флота. Никита, син на Григорий и първи братовчед на Ираклий Младши, нападнал по суша Египет, и след като през 609 г. разбил Бонос, генерал на Фока, се провъзгласил за управител на провинцията. [редактиране] Завладяване на трона По същото време младият Ираклий акостира с флотата на изток, минавайки през Сицилия и Кипър. В околностите на Константинопол влязъл в контакт с аристократите от града, които го убедили, че ще бъде добре дошъл. При пристигането му в града Ескувитите (елитна имперска гвардия, която се намира под властта на Приск, зет на Фока) преминали на страната на Ираклий и той успял да влезе в града без съпротива. Заловеният Фока бил докаран при Ираклий, който го попитал: "Значи така управляваше държавата!?", на което Фока отвърнал: "Смяташ ли, че ще я управляваш по-добре?!?". Фока веднага е убит по заповед на Ираклий, а тялото му изгорено на Форумът на Бика. Ираклий предлага императорската корона на Приск, но той отказва. Тогава сенатът и димите провъзгласяват Ираклий за император на Римската империя. На 5 октомври 610 г. Ираклий е коронован в църквата Света София, малко след това се оженва за своята годеница, Фабия, която приема името Евдокия. Императрицата, много почитана в Констанинопол умира през 612 година. Ираклий сключва втори брак със своята племенница Мартина. [редактиране] Войната с Персия Когато Ираклий завзема властта империята сe намира в много критично положение. Бунтът на Фока срещу Маврикий през 602 г. оставя Дунавския лимес незащитен, позволявайки навлизането на аварите на Балканите. На източната граница шахиншах Хозрой II от Персия, бивш съюзник на император Маврикий, използва убийството му като претекст за деклариране на война с Византия. В персийския двор имало човек, който твърдял, че е Теодосий – син на Маврикий и Хосрой защитавал претенциите му за трона. По времето на узурпатора Фока, войната се печелели от персите, които достигат до Сирия. Година преди Ираклий да се качи на трона, персийският генерал Шахрбараз завзема Антиохия. Въпреки, че император Ираклий се опитва да договори мир, Хозрой ІІ отказва да преговоря, считайки го за поредния узурпатор. Първите военни действия на Ираклий завършват неуспешно и персите настъпват на запад. Те завземат Дамаск през 613, и през 614 пада Ерусалим, където завоевателите причиняват големи щети на църквата "Свето Възкресение Христово" над Божи гроб и открадват Светия кръст и други светини, които занасят в Ктезифон. После нападат Египет, житницата на Византийската империя и правят бързо навлизане в Анадола, стигайки до Халкедон, на азиатския бряг на Босфора. Казват, че населението на Константинопол можело да види през нощта отражението във водата на огньовете на персийските караули. В първите десет години от управлението му, ситуацията станала толкова сериозна, че Ираклий наистина започнал да обмисля възможността да премести столицата на империята в Картаген. В крайна сметка решил да остане на изток и се заел с преорганизирането на византийската войска. Възможно е да е бил създателят на темата, административни единици които в същото време са военни подразделения, под властта на един стратег или военен управител. Според други автори тази организация е направена няколко десетки години по-късно. След преструктурирането на войската, Ираклий застава начело и във войната си срещу персите. Така той става първият император дирижирал лично кампания срещу външен враг от времето на Теодосий I. Доверявайки се на факта, че Константинопол е добре защитен и отказвайки се от една изтощителна война за възвръщане на загубените провинции, през пролетта на 622 г. начело на силен контингент той плава по Черно море до Исо, с цел да навлезе в сърцевината на Персийската империя. Ираклий побеждава Шахрбараз есента на същата година, някъде в Кападокия. Кампанията на изток продължила в следващите няколко години. [редактиране] Защита на Константинопол и победа През 626 г., в отсъствието на император Ираклий, Константинопол е обсаден от аварите, но опитите на персите да помогнат на новите си съюзници, прекосявайки Босфора са провалени от византийската флота. Населението на града, ръководено от патриарх Сергий, дава силен отпор и аварите свалили обсадата. През това време Ираклий получава помощта на хазарите и други тюркски народи и разпалва съществуващите вътрешни разделения между персите. Той убедил генерал Шахрбараз, че Хосрой ІІ е наредил убийството му от завист, с което постигнал неговата неутралност. В битката при Ниневия, през 627 г., византийските сили разбили персите водени от Разатес. Въпреки това, шах Хосрой II не приел мира и Ираклий продължавал да напредва към Ктесифон, столицата на Персия. Преди да стигне до града, персийските аристократи свалили Хосрой ІІ. Наследникът на престола подписал мирния договор, връщайки на Византия всички територии завладени от персите. Династията на Сасанидите никога няма да се възстанови от това поражение. На 14 септември 628 г. победителят Ираклий влиза триумфално в Константинопол. [редактиране] Последните години През 630 г. Ираклий достига апогея на своята мощ и слава, отивайки триумфално в Йерусалим, където поставя отново кръста в църквата на Гроба Господен. По това време Мохамед успява да обедини номадските племена от Арабския полуостров и само няколко години след това ислямът се устремява срещу империята в една неспирна офанзива. В чест на победите Ираклий приел персийската титла "Цар на Царете", изоставяйки старата императорска титла "Augustus". Скоро след това се нарича василевс (гр. Baσιλeύς, лат. basileus – гръцка дума, означаваща "владетел") и така започнали да се наричат византийските монарси до самия край на империята. Също така сменя латински с гръцки като официален език. След неговото царуване Византийската империя вече е маркирана с елински характер. [редактиране] Начало на арабската експанзия Старите империи Византия и Персия са твърде изтощени от продължителните конфликти за да противостоят на новата арабска заплаха. Когато мюсюлманите нападат Сирия и Палестина през 634, Ираклий, който бил болен, не може да поведе лично войските си и неговите генерали се провалят. В битката при Ярмук през 636, византийците, по-многобройни, биват разбити от арабите. Най-вероятно това се случва поради преминаването на 12 000 араби-християни от византийска на арабска страна. В ръцете на арабските завоеватели падат градовете Дамаск (635 г.) и Йерусалим (638 г.). Сирия и Палестина биват загубени завинаги. По същото време персите губят Месопотамия. В края на живота си Ираклий става свидетел на покоряването на по-голямата част от Египет от арабите (641 г.). В опитите си да спаси религиозното единство на империята, застрашена от монотелитите той се опитва да намери формулата на компромиса между монотелитството, доктрина пропагандирана от патриарх Сергий, която е считана за еретична от Папа Йоан IV. Когато монотелитските провинции биват завладени от исляма, монотелизмът загубва своята важност и бива изоставен. Въпреки фаталния край на царуването му, Ираклий е един от най-талантливите византийски императори. Той спасява империята от сигурна смърт и благодарение на неговите реформи във всички сфери на държавничеството арабите биват задържани в Мала Азия, и също така в Северна Африка, където арабите ще се забавят още 60 години докато я завладеят. Макар обаче империята да оцелява, много от богатите провинции като Сирия и Египет са изгубени безвъзвратно. Ираклий умира през 641 г. и е наследен от Константин III Ираклий, първороден син от брака му с Евдокия и Ираклеон, син на Мартина, втората му съпруга. [редактиране] Външни препратки - Войните на император Ираклий, според хрониките на Теофан Изповедник Английски текст. - Heraclius and Chosroes or The Desire for the True Cross Английски текст. - Heraclius - Emperor of Byzantium, Walter E. Kaegi. Oxford University Press [редактиране] Източници - John Haldon: Byzantium in the Seventh Century. The Transformation of a Culture. 2. Aufl. Cambridge 1997 - Walter E. Kaegi: Heraclius – Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge 2003 - Gerrit Jan Reinink, Bernard H. Stolte (Hrsg.): The Reign of Heraclius (610–641). Crisis and Confrontation. Leuven 2002
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Heraclius Heraclius (Latin: Flavius Heraclius Augustus, Greek: ΦλάBιoς Ἡpάkλeιoς, Armenian: Հերակլես Փլավիոս, c. 575 – February 11, 641) was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641.[A 1] He was responsible for introducing Greek as the Eastern Empire's official language. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, successfully led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas. Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the ongoing war against the Sassanids. The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus; however, because Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh. The Persian king Khosrau II was overthrown and executed soon after and peace was restored to the two deeply strained empires. However, soon after his victory he faced a new threat, the Muslim invasions. Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslims quickly conquered the Sassanid empire. In 634 the Muslims invaded Roman Syria, defeating Heraclius' brother Theodore. Within a short period of time the Arabs would also conquer Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Egypt. In religious matters, Heraclius is remembered as the driving force in converting the peoples migrating to the Balkan Peninsula. At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Dalmatia, a newly Croatian-ruled province settled by Porga and his clan, who practiced Slavic paganism. He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites by promoting a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism. The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in the process.[4] Eventually, however, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Heraclius was the first Emperor to engage the Muslims; in the Islamic tradition he is portrayed as an ideal ruler who corresponded with Muhammad, possibly was a true believer of Islam, and viewed Muhammad as the true prophet, the messenger of God.[5] However, other sources suggest that Heraclius may have never read Muhammad's letter or received any messenger sent by Muhammad.[6][7] Contents - 1 Early life - 2 Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 - 3 War against the Arabs - 4 Legacy - 5 See also - 6 Annotations - 7 Notes - 8 References - 9 Further reading - 10 External links Early life[edit] Origins[edit] Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder and Epiphania, of an Armenian family from Cappadocia,[A 2][8] probably of Arsacid descent.[9] Beyond that, there is little specific information known about his ancestry. His father was a key general during Emperor Maurice's war with Bahrām Chobin, usurper of the Sassanid Empire, during 590.[10] After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa.[10] Revolt against Phocas and accession[edit] In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas, who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as consuls, though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time.[11] Heraclius' younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt; by 609, he had defeated Phocas' general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus.[11] As he approached Constantinople, he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city, and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as Emperor. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors, an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas' son-in-law Priscus, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him, "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas said in reply, "And will you rule better?" With that, Heraclius became so enraged that he beheaded Phocas on the spot.[12] He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city.[13] On October 5, 610, Heraclius was crowned for a second time, this time in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace; at the same time he married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia. After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular.[14] In the reign of Heraclius' two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage.[14] Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628[edit] Initial Persian advantage[edit] During his Balkan Campaigns, Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny.[15] Khosrau II (Chosroes) of the Sassanid Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies.[A 3] Thus, the Persian King Khosrau II seized the pretext to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer the Byzantine province of Mesopotamia.[16] Khosrau had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius, and Khosrau demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as Emperor. The war initially went the Persians' way, partly because of Phocas' brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610.[15] Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.[17][18] By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin, and the Roman position collapsed; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus.[19] Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621 the whole province was in their hands)[20] and to devastate Anatolia,[A 4] while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613, the Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews, seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross, and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618.[15] With the Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and a thousand virgins to the Persian King.[22] The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.[23] Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence[edit] On April 5, 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia, and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard.[23][24][25][26] The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.[27] Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years.[28][29] On March 25, 624 he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina, and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on April 15, he campaigned in the Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrau and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan.[30][31] However, in the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena, capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania, resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I.[32] In 626 the Avars and Slavs besieged Constantinople, supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city),[33] while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate, Ziebel, who invaded Persian Transcaucasia. Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping the Persian general Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrau had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh.[34] Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories.[35] In 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony.[18][36][37] Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of "King of Kings" after his victory over Persia. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus, the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Roman Emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars as relating to his Armenian origins.[38] Heraclius' defeat of the Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavadh II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III, Heraclius' ally Shahrbaraz, and Khosrau's daughters Purandokht and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdgerd III, a grandson of Khosrau II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability, but by then it was too late to rescue the Sassanid empire.[39][40] However, the Byzantine victory was ultimately a Pyrrhic one, as the devastating impact of the war left the Byzantines in much weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs who had become newly united by Islam,[41] ultimately leading to the Muslim conquest of Persia in 644 and the fall of the Sassanid dynasty in 651.[42] War against the Arabs[edit] In 629, the Islamic Prophet Muhammad had recently succeeded in unifying all of the nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. Those tribes had previously been too divided to pose a serious military threat to the Byzantines or the Persians. Now unified and animated by their new conversion to Islam, they comprised one of the most powerful states in the region.[43] The first conflict between the Byzantines and Muslims was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Muslim skirmishing force attacked the province of Arabia but were repulsed. Because the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military configuration of the region.[44] Also, once the severity of the Muslim threat was realized, the Byzantines had little preceding battlefield experience with the Arabs, and even less with zealous soldiers united by a prophet.[45] Even the Strategicon, a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length.[45] The following year the Muslims launched raids into the Arabah south of Lake Tiberias, taking Al Karak. Other raids penetrated into the Negev reaching as far as Gaza.[46] Islamic sources record that Heraclius dreamt of the coming Arab invasion. Historian Al-Tabari wrote that Heraclius dreamt of a new kingdom of the "circumcised man" that would be victorious against all its enemies.[47] After telling his court his dream, his patricians, who did not know of the rise of Islam in Arabia, "advised him to send orders to behead every Jew in his dominion."[47] It was only when a Bedouin trader speaking of a man uniting the tribes of Arabia under a new religion was brought before the Emperor did Heraclius and his court realize that the kingdom of the "circumcised man" was not the Jews but the new Islamic Empire.[47] When the Muslim Arabs attacked Syria and Palestine in 634, he was unable to oppose them personally in battle. Although he remained strategically in charge of operations, his generals failed him in battle. The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. By the time of Heraclius' death in Constantinople, on February 11, 641, most of Egypt had fallen as well. Islamic view of the Emperor[edit] In Islamic and Arab histories Heraclius is the only Roman Emperor who is discussed at any length.[48] Owing to his role as the Roman Emperor at the time Islam emerged, he was remembered in Arabic literature, such as the Islamic hadith and sira. In Surah 30, the Qur'an refers to the Perso-Roman wars as follows: 30:2 Certainly, the Romans will be defeated. 3 In the lowest land. After their defeat, they will rise again and win. 4 Within several years. Such is GOD's decision, both in the first prophecy, and the second. On that day, the believers shall rejoice 5 in GOD's victory. He grants victory to whomever He wills. He is the Almighty, Most Merciful.[49] The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka, an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off the shore of present-day Kenya) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's command to renounce his false belief in Christianity; he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces.[50] In Muslim tradition he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with the emerging Islamic forces.[51] The 14th century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor."[48] Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Muhammad as the true prophet and proclaimed him the messenger of God.[52][53][54] Later however, when he told his people to turn to Islam and they rioted, he claimed this was just to test their faith.[55] Islamic historians often cite a letter that they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you."[51] According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert the ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed his course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity.[56] Legacy[edit] Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged the Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Accomplishments[edit] Although the territorial gains produced by his defeat of the Persians were lost to the advance of the Muslims, Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman Emperors. His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas' reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt.[57] The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering around the understanding of the true nature of Christ. Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon.[58] Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism; however, this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned.[58] One of the most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek in 620.[59] The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius.[60] The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626).[60][61] At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats, who practiced Slavic paganism.[62] He also created the office of sakellarios, a comptroller of the treasury.[63] Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II.[64] Edward Gibbon in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In the first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by the exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal, no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire.[65] Recovery of the True Cross[edit] Despite his actual Orthodox theology, Heraclius was long remembered favourably in the Western church for his reputed feat in recovering the True Cross, which had been captured by the Persians. As Heraclius approached the capital, Khosrau fled from his favourite residence, Dastgerd (near Baghdad), without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed his eldest son Kavadh II, whom Khosrau II had imprisoned, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628.[66] Kavadh however was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent the True Cross with a peace negotiator to sue for peace in 628.[35] After a tour of the Empire he returned the cross on March 21, 629.[67] The story was included in the Golden Legend, the famous 13th century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo, and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer (Städel, Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I's mother Saint Helena, traditionally responsible for the excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord. Probably because he was one of the few Eastern Roman Emperors widely known in the West, the Late Antique Colossus of Barletta was considered to depict Heraclius. Family[edit] Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia, a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina. He had two children with Fabia and at least nine with Martina, most of whom were sickly children.[A 5][70] Of Martina's children at least two were disabled, which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage, and may in fact have been caused by inbreeding: Fabius (Flavius) had a paralyzed neck and Theodosios, who was a deaf-mute, married Nike, daughter of Persian general Shahrbaraz or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius' children would become Emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III), his son from Eudokia, from 613 – 641, and Martina's son Constantine Heraclius (Heraklonas), from 638 – 641.[70] Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos, who conspired a plot against Heraclius with his cousin, the magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni.[A 6] When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos' nose and hands cut off, and he was exiled to Prinkipo, one of the Princes' Islands.[74] Theodorus had the same treatment but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern day Gozo Island) with additional instructions to cut off one leg.[74] During the last years of Heraclius' life, it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraklonas in line for the throne. When Heraclius died, he willed the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraklonas to rule jointly with Martina as Empress.[70] Family tree[edit] See also[edit] - Flavia (gens) - Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era - Hadith of the prediction in Sura al-Rum - Revolt against Heraclius Annotations[edit] - ^ Byzantine Empire is a relatively modern term for what in Heraclius' time was referred to the Roman Empire or Eastern Roman Empire.[1] The earliest use of the term, "Byzantine" was 900 years after Heraclius' death. It first appeared in 1557, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf coined the term when he published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ. Later French historians popularized the term.[1] Other civilizations of the time referred to Byzantine Empire as the Eastern Roman Empire or just the Roman Empire. In the Persian, Islamic, and Slavic worlds, the Empire's Roman identity was generally accepted. In the Islamic world it was known primarily as روم (Rûm "Rome").[2][3] For more information see Nomenclature of the Byzantine Empire - ^ His father referred to retrospectively as Heraclius the Elder - ^ Also referred to as Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" (in Persian: خسرو پرویز) - ^ The mint of Nicomedia ceased operating in 613, and Rhodes fell to the invaders in 622/623.[21] - ^ The number and order of Heraclius' children by Martina is unsure. Some sources say nine children [68] and others saying ten.[69] - ^ The illegitimate son is recorded by a number of different spellings including: Atalarichos,[71] Athalaric,[72] At'alarik,[73] etc Notes[edit] - ^ a b Fox, Clifton R. (March 29, 1996). "What, if anything, is a Byzantine?". Lone Star College–Tomball. Retrieved October 21, 2009. - ^ El-Cheikh 2004, p. 22. - ^ Seleznyov N.N. "Heraclius and Ishoʿyahb II", Simvol 61: Syriaca-Arabica-Iranica. - ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p. 18. - ^ Walter Emil Kaegi (27 March 2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 23 March 2013. - ^ Shahid, Irfan Shahid (1986), Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, Journal of the American Oriental Society 106 (3): 531, JSTOR 602109 - ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 287. - ^ "Sasanian Dynasty". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 August 2013. - ^ a b Kaegi 2003, pp. 24 – 25. - ^ a b Mitchell 2007, p. 411. - ^ Charles 2007, p. 177 - ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 106. - ^ a b c Gibbon 1998, p. 777 - ^ a b Speck 1984, p. 178. - ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, pp. II, 194–195. - ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. - ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. - ^ Gibbon 1998, p. Chapter 46 - ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. - ^ Cameron 1979, p. 23. - ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 294. - ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. - ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, pp. II, 202–205. - ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, article Cartagena, p.384 - ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 298. - ^ a b Baynes 1912, p. 288 - ^ Baynes 1912, passim. - ^ Kouymjian 1983, pp. 635–642. - ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 121 - ^ Milani 2004, p. 15 - ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 230. - ^ a b c El-Cheikh 1999, p. 10. - ^ a b El-Cheikh 1999, p. 7. "Translations of the Qur'an, Surah 30:". Qur'an. United Submitters International. Retrieved July 5, 2010. - ^ Summary of the plot of the poem at the Swahili Manuscripts Project at the School of Oriental and African Studies of London. - ^ a b El-Cheikh 1999, p. 9. - ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p. 12. - ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 1, Hadith 7, http://sunnah.com/bukhari/1 - ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p.14 - ^ a b Bury 2005, p. 251. - ^ a b Kaegi, p. 319 - ^ De Administrando Imperio, ch. 32 [Of the Serbs and of the country they now dwell in.]: "the emperor brought elders from Rome and baptized them and taught them fairly to perform the works of piety and expounded to them the faith of the Christians." - ^ Deanesly 1969, p. 491. - ^ Haldon 1997, p. 208ff. - ^ Milman-Guizot 1862, p. 398. - ^ Alexander 1977, p. 230 - ^ Spatharakis 1976, p. 19 - ^ a b c Bellinger-Grierson 1992, p. 385. - ^ Charanis 1959, p. 34 - ^ Sebeos; Translated from Old Armenian by Robert Bedrosian. "Sebeos History:A History of Heraclius". History Workshop. Retrieved October 22, 2009. "Chapter 29" - ^ a b Nicephorus 1990, p.73. References[edit] - Alexander, Suzanne Spain (April 1977). "Heraclius, Byzantine Imperial Ideology, and the David Plates". Medieval Academy of America 52 (2): 217–237. - Baynes, Norman H. (1912). "The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem". The English Historical Review 27 (106): 287–299. - Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip. Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, Volume 2, Parts 1–2 (1992 ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. - Bury, John Bagnell. A history of the later Roman empire from Arcadius to Irene (2005 ed.). Adamant Media Corporation. - Total pages: 579 - Cameron, Averil (1979). "Images of Authority: Elites and Icons in Late Sixth-century Byzantium". Past and Present 84: 3. - Charles, Robert Henry. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text (2007 ed.). Arx Publishing. - Total pages: 216 - Charanis, Peter (1959). "Ethnic Changes in the Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century". Dumbarton Oaks Papers (Trustees for Harvard University) 13 (1): 23–44. - Collins, Roger. Visigothic Spain, 409–711 (2004 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. - Total pages: 263 - Conrad, Lawrence I (2002). Heracluius in early Islamic Kerygma In "The reign of Heraclius (610-641): crisis and confrontation" (2002 ed.). Peeters Publishers. - Total pages: 319 - Davis, Leo Donald. The first seven ecumenical councils (325–787): their history and theology (1990 ed.). Liturgical Press. - Total pages: 342 - Davies, Norman. Europe: A History (January 1, 1996 ed.). Oxford University Press. - Total pages: 1384 - Deanesly, Margaret. A history of early medieval Europe, 476 to 911 (July 1969 ed.). Methuen young books. - Total pages: 636 - Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD). Routledge. - El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (1999). "Muḥammad and Heraclius: A Study in Legitimacy". Studia Islamica (Maisonneuve & Larose) 62 (89): 5–21. - El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria. Byzantium viewed by the Arabs (2004 ed.). Harvard CMES. - Total pages: 271 - Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity". The English Historical Review 90: 721–47. - Gibbon, Edward (1998). Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1998 ed.). Wordsworth Editions. - Total pages: 1089 - Grabar, André (1984). L'Iconoclasme Byzantin: le Dossier Archéologique. Flammarion. - Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1994). The Life of Muhammad (1994 ed.). The Other Press. - Total pages: 639 - Kaegi, Walter Emil. Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium (2003 ed.). Cambridge University Press. - Total pages: 359 - Haldon, John (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge. - Kouymjian, Dickran. "Ethnic Origins and the 'Armenian' Policy of Emperor Heraclius". Revue des Études Arméniennes (vol. XVII, 1983 ed.). - Lewis, Bernard. The Arabs in History (2002 ed.). Oxford University Press. - Total pages: 240 - Milani, Abbas (2004). Lost wisdom: rethinking modernity in Iran (2004 ed.). Mage Publishers. - Total pages: 168 - Milman, Henry Hart; Guizot, François M. The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 5 (1862 ed.). Murray. - Total pages: 421 - Mitchell, Stephen. A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world (2007 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. - Total pages: 469 - Nicephorus; Translated by Cyril Mango (1990). Short history (1990 ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. - Total pages: 247 - Olster, David Michael. The politics of usurpation in the seventh century: rhetoric and revolution in Byzantium (1993 ed.). A.M. Hakkert. - Total pages: 209 - Spatharakis, Iohannis (1976). The portrait in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts (1976 ed.). Brill Archive. - Total pages: 287 - Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4). Rudolf Halbelt. - Tarasov, Oleg (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia (January 3, 2004 ed.). Reaktion Books. - Total pages: 448 - Theophanes the Confessor — Cyril Mango (trans.) & Roger Scott (trans.). The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (July 10, 1997 ed.). Oxford University Press. - Total pages: 848 - Thomson, Robert W.; Howard-Johnston, James & Greenwood, Tim. The Armenian history attributed to Sebeos (1999 ed.). Liverpool University Press. - Total pages: 364 - Treadgold, Warren. A History of Byzantine State and Society (1997 ed.). University of Stanford Press. - Total pages: 1019 Further reading[edit] - Kazhdan, Alexander P.. The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium, Volumes 1–3 (1991 ed.). Oxford University Press. Total pages: 728