http___en.wikipedia.org_wiki_Great_Socialist_People_27s_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya.xml
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Муамар Кадафи Муамар Кадафи (на арабски: معمر القذافي, Муа́ммар ал-Кадда́афи) е либийски военен, полковник и политик. Роден е на 7 юни 1942 г. в района на град Сирт и е де факто ръководител на Либия от 1 септември 1969 година до кончината си през 2011.[3] Председател на Революционното командване на Либия (1969—1977), министър-председател и министър на отбраната на Либия (1970—1972), генерален секретар на Общия народен конгрес (1977—1979). След това се отказва от официалните постове в държавата и се титулува като „Лидер на Революцията“ в официалните изявления на правителството.[4] Като част от управленческата си програма, през 1970-те Кадафи национализира всички частни предприятия, включително селскостопанските площи, петролната индустрия и банките, и позволява развитието само на малък семеен бизнес.[5] По време на управлението си в рамките на няколко десетилетия, той издига своите възгледи за идеалното развитие на социализъм в държавите от Третия свят, формулирайки „трета световна теория“ и нова система на държавно управление, наречена „джамахирия“. В годините, непосредствено след като взема властта, образът му на бунтовник и военен, лявата му политика срещу Запада и срещу колониализмa и несправедливото разпределение на богатствата му дават прякора „арабски Че Гевара“.[6] Предявявайки претенции да бъде наследник на египетския лидер Гамал Абдел Насър като ръководител на панарабисткото и арабското социалистическо движение, между 1972 и 1977 година Кадафи се опитва неведнъж, безуспешно, да обедини Либия с други арабски страни, като Египет, Судан, Сирия и Ирак, с цел формиране на федерация на арабските републики. Кадафи се позиционира и като наследник на Йосип Броз Тито и Джавахарлал Неру в Движението на необвързаните страни и става лидер на тази организация на страните от Третия свят, отхвърлящи както американския капитализъм, така и съветския комунизъм. С годините Кадафи неколкократно променя своята геополитическа ориентация. В началото неговият режим съхранява близостта с Франция, но впоследствие застава на страната на Съюза на Съветските Социалистически Републики (СССР).[7][8] Кадафи последователно се обръща към панарабизма, антикомунизма, просъветската политика, панислямизма, войнствения интервенционизъм и панафриканския пацифизъм, превръщайки се в архитект на Африканския съюз.[5] През 1980-те години е обект на няколко опита за преврат от страна на Съединените щати.[9] През 1979 година той изпраща около 3000 войници в помощ на правителството на Иди Амин в Уганда по време на Угандийско-танзанийската война. В края на 70-те и началото на 80-те години, Кадафи ръководи и военна намеса в Чад, опитвайки се да наложи контрол върху богатата на уранови находища ивица Аузу и да свали чадския диктатор Хисен Хабре. През 1990-те и началото на 2000 г., изоставяйки спонсорството на тероризъм в други страни и програмите си за оръжия за масово поразяване, Кадафи постига реабилитация от западните сили, като страната му от „престъпна държава“ става пълноправен член на т. нар. международна общност, в резултат на което Либия е посетена от водещи политически лица от САЩ, Великобритания, Франция, Италия и Германия. Поради своите разнообразни политически възгледи и управление, Кадафи бива възприеман както като революционен лидер и идеалист, така и като непредсказуем и страховит деспот.[10] С почти 42 години във властта, Кадафи е най-дълго управлявалият арабски ръководител, и сред най-дълго управлявалите ръководители в историята, които не са монарси.[11] На 27 юни 2011 г. Международния наказателен съд издава заповед за арест на Муамар Кадафи за престъпления срещу човечеството. Заповед за арестуване е издадена и за неговия син Саиф ал-Ислам и ръководителя на либийското разузнаване Абдула ал-Сенуси. След избухването на гражданската война се заклева да остане в Либия и да се бие до последно.[12] Муамар Кадафи загива след едномесечни сражения за родния си град Сирт на 20 октомври 2011 година.[13] Съдържание - 1 Ранни години и военна кариера - 2 Военен преврат и управление - 3 Характер и личен живот - 4 Награди и отличия - 5 Библиография - 6 Бележки - 7 Външни препратки Ранни години и военна кариера[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Муамар Кадафи е роден през 1940[14] или 1942[15] година в бедуинска шатра на около 30 километра на юг от Сирт в семейство на арабизирани бербери от племето кадафа.[16] Дядо му е убит през 1911 година в сражения с италианските колонисти.[17] Според една от версиите, баща му е бил френски пилот.[18] На 9-годишна възраст започва да посещава ислямско начално училище в Сирт. В този период редица важни събития в арабския свят повлияват на възгледите на младия Кадафи, като израелско-арабският конфликт и идването на власт в Египет на Гамал Абдел Насър, комуто Кадафи се възхищава.[19] Още като млад участва в антиизраелските протести по време на Суецката криза през 1956 година.[20] През 1959 година става политически активист в Сабха, и през 1961 година организира протестна демонстрация срещу оттеглянето на Сирия от Обединената арабска република, което довежда до изключването му от училище.[21][22] Малко след първата демонстрация в Сабха, Кадафи организира второ шествие против монархическия строй в Либия. Организира и демонстрации в подкрепа на алжирската революция. След това се премества в Мисрата, където завършва средното си образование през 1963, наблягайки на изучаването на история.[21][23] През 1965 завършва военен колеж в Бенгази и получава чин лейтенант.[21][14] През 1966 година заминава за допълнителна военна подготовка във Великобритания,[14] където получава званието капитан.[15] Още в колежа Кадафи започва да планира свалянето на монархията в Либия, а загубата на арабските сили от Израел през 1967 допълнително засилват чувствата на арабски национализъм и в него и приближените му. Военен преврат и управление[редактиране | редактиране на кода] На 1 септември 1969 година, на 27-годишна възраст, Муамар Кадафи заедно с група приближени офицери организира военен преврат срещу 80-годишния крал Идрис, който в този момент е на лечение в Турция. Неговият наследник, принц Хасан Реда ал-Сануси, е трябвало да се възкачи на престола на 2 септември, когато обявената на 4-ти август абдикация на краля е трябвало да влезе в сила.[24] Принц Хасан е вкаран в затвора след обявяването на страната за република. Вследствие на преврата Кадафи сам се повишава от капитан в полковник. Джамахирията[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Непосредствено след идването си на власт Кадафи започва да преустройва Либия според своите виждания. Първоначално близките му отношения с Насър в Египет дават почва по-скоро за развитието на традиционен арабски социализъм, но след смъртта на египетския лидер и охлаждането на отношенията между Египет и Либия по времето на Ануар Садат през 1970-те принуждават Кадафи да приложи своите политически теории на практика. Той измисля нов вид държавно устройство, включващо концепциите на арабския национализъм,[25] държавата на всеобщото благоденствие,[26][27][28] народната демокрация, ислямския морал и патриотизма. Отделно Кадафи включва и някои размишления на руските анархисти Михаил Бакунин и Пьотр Кропоткин. Тази своя система Кадафи нарича „джамахирия“, буквално преведено като „власт на народните маси“. Думата произхожда от арабското дхумхурия (република) и джамахир (маси). На 2 март 1977 година на извънредно заседание на Всеобщия народен конгрес на Либия в град Сабха бива обнародвана Декларацията от Сабха, която провъзгласява налагането на джамахирията като обществен строй, а страната получава названието „Велика социалистическа либийско-арабска народна джамахирия“.[29] Характерното за джамахирията като форма на държавно управление е, че в него участва цялото пълнолетно население на страната, обединено в първични (основни) народни конгреси. Народните конгреси избират свои изпълнителни органи (народни комитети), чиито членове автоматично стават делегати на народните конгресови провинции. Върховният законодателен орган е Всеобщият народен конгрес, а върховният орган на изпълнителната власт — Висшият народен комитет. Кадафи разпуска министерствата и на тяхно място се появяват народни секретариати. Държавни глави няма, тъй като според теорията на джамахирията цялата власт е в ръцете на народа. Към тези структури обаче се прибавят и революционни комитети, които следят за изпълнението на политическата линия в страната. Муамар Кадафи, въпреки че не заема никакви държавни постове, като „ръководител на Революцията“ на практика упражнява силна власт върху революционните комитети, а чрез тях и върху държавната политика. Идеологическите принципи на джамахирията до голяма степен определят външната и вътрешната политика на Либия през целия му период на управление. Вътрешна политика[редактиране | редактиране на кода] В първите си години Кадафи се вдъхновява от Египет на Насър и моделира правителството си по подобие на египетската насъристка система. Още отначало той заема силни антизападни позиции и изгонва американските и британските военни контингенти от територията на страната. Кадафи заплашва да изгони и чуждите петролни компании, ако не дадат по-голям процент от печалбата си на либийската държава. Впоследствие петролните компании се съгласяват да делят печалбите от 50:50 на 79:21 в полза на Либия.[30] Кадафи също така изгонва всички италианци (около 20 000[31][32]) през 1970 година[33] и конфискува имуществото им.[34] Това е в съответствие с петте му основни принципа, които той обявява при идването си на власт: изгонване на чуждите военни, национално единство, арабско единство, позитивен неутралитет и забрана на политическите партии.[35] Той сменя християнския календар с мюсюлмански, започващ своето летоброене от годината на смърт на пророка Мохамед.[36][37] Част от месеците с римски имена са преименувани — например август е преименуван на ханибал, а юли — на насър.[38] Новото либийско законодателство е основано на шериата,[39] а алкохолът и хазартните игри биват забранени.[40] През 1973 година Кадафи обявява „културна революция“, включваща пет точки:[41] - анулиране на всички съществуващи закони от времето на монархията; - чистка на политическите опозиционери — консерватори, комунисти, атеисти, членове на „Мюсюлмански братя“, защитници на капитализма и „агенти на западната пропаганда“; - въоръжаване на народни отряди с цел защита на революцията; - административна реформа, съкращаване на размера и правомощията на бюрокрацията; - поощрение на ислямската мисъл и противопоставяне на идеите, противоречащи на нея. Още през 1969 година група офицери организират заговор за свалянето на Кадафи от власт, но египетското разузнаване го уведомява за техните планове.[42] Заради проваления заговор той забранява политическата опозиция и дава високи държавни постове само на семейството си и на най-близките си приближени. От 1971 до 1977 той одобрява само Арабския Социалистически Съюз на Либия да съществува като партия в страната.[43] През 1973 година Кадафи се заема да изгради мрежа за вътрешна сигурност срещу опозицията в страната под формата на т. нар. революционни комитети. Между 10% и 20% от населението е участвало под някаква форма в тази доносническа мрежа,[44] и много опозиционери са обесени, а част от екзекуциите са излъчвани по телевизията.[44] Много ислямски фундаменталисти, особено от групировката Хизбут Тахрир, са екзекутирани.[45] Либийското разузнаване се заема да елиминира и дисиденти в чужбина, като между 1980 и 1987 са убити общо 25 дисиденти в различни държави.[44] Тази политика продължава и до началото на първото десетилетие на 21 век, когато за убийството на един журналист е обявена награда от $1 милион.[46] През 1970-те Кадафи активно превъоръжава Либия. Той закупува танкове, артилерия, изтребители, бомбардировачи и зенитно-ракетни комплекси от СССР. През 1972 година се свързва с Китай и настоява да закупи китайска атомна бомба. Китайците отказват, което принуждава Кадафи да се обърне със същата молба към Пакистан, но пакистанското правителство прекъсва дипломатическите си отношения с Либия преди да се сдобие с ядрено оръжие.[47] Либия впоследствие разработва химически оръжия и се сдобива с балистични ракети тип „Скъд“. През 1980-те се сдобива и с ракети Родон-1 от Северна Корея, които поставят южна Европа в обсега на либийската войска. Увеличените приходи от петрола през 1980-те му позволяват както да натрупа голямо лично състояние,[48] така и да наблегне на развитието на социалния апарат и образованието. Това са и двата основни приоритета в идеологическо отношение на джамахирията. В либийските училища от 1980-те години като основен чужд език се преподава английски,[49] въпреки че е имало и отменен опит английския да бъде заменен с руски през 80-те.[50] През 1980-те години правителството отделя до 20% от държавния бюджет за образование.[51] Кадафи установява планова икономика и обещава „дом за всеки либиец“. Цели градове, чиито жители са обитавали кирпичени колиби, са преместени в нови апартаменти с вода, ток и сателитна телевизия.[52] Последователната политика на Кадафи в социалната област е причина преди началото на гражданската война Либия да има най-високият номинален БВП в Африка,[53] най-високият образователен индекс,[54] най-високият индекс на човешкото развитие,[55] и някои от най-високите показатели по отношение на здравеопазването на континента.[56][57][58] Един от най-значителните проекти, осъществен по времето на Кадафи, е т. нар. Велика ръкотворна река. Това е система от общо 2820 километра подземни тръби и резервоари, които снабдяват с питейна вода големи части от Либия.[59] Това е най-голямото напоително съоръжение в света.[60] Великата ръкотворна река има дневен дебит от 6 500 000 кубични метра, и изпомпва достатъчно количество подземна вода, за да захрани градовете Триполи, Бенгази и Сирт. Друг значим проект на Кадафи е Либийският Национален Проект за Телескоп, който включва изграждането на роботизирана астрономическа обсерватория за 10 милиона евро в пустинята Сахара, със собствена климатизация и метеорологична система, предупреждаваща за пясъчни бури.[61] На 4 март 2008, в унисон с политиката си на отваряне към Запада и реформиране на държавния апарат, Кадафи обявява разпускането на държавната администрация и преразпределянето на петролните приходи директно за народа.[62] В обръщение към народа, предизвикало бурни реакции,[63] Кадафи обявява, че Либия навлиза в нов период на политическо развитие и че ще бъдат насрочени демократични избори за министър-председател с участието на международни наблюдатели. Външна политика[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Почти веднага след идването си на власт, Муамар Кадафи, воден от идеите на панарабизма, поема курс към обединение със съседните арабски страни. На 27 декември 1969 се състои среща между Кадафи, египетският президент Гамал Абдел Насър и премиерът на Судан Джафар Нимейри, в резултат на която е подписана „Триполитанска харта“, която посочва главните идеи за обединението на трите страни. На 8 ноември 1970 е приета Декларацията от Кайро относно създаването на Федерацията на арабските републики (ФАР), състояща се от Египет, Либия и Судан. Същата година, Кадафи предлага да се осъществи обединение и с Тунис, но тогавашният президент Хабиб Бургиба отхвърля предложението.[64] На 11 юни 1972 Кадафи призовава мюсюлманите да се борят със САЩ и Великобритания, и заявява подкрепата си за чернокожите революционери в САЩ, за ИРА, и за арабите, които искат да се присъединят към борбата за освобождение на Палестина. На 2 август по време на среща в Бенгази либийският ръководител и египетският президент Ануар Садат се съгласяват да започнат поетапно обединение на двете страни, насрочено да приключи на 1 септември 1973. Кадафи показва по-голям ентусиазъм от Садат, и с цел да окаже натиск върху египетското правителство, той организира 40-хилядно шествие към Кайро, но шествието е спряно на 300 километра от града.[65] Съюзът между Либия и Египет не се случва. Последвалите събития довеждат само до влошаване на египетско-либийските отношения и по-късно прерастват във въоръжен конфликт. През януари 1974 г., Тунис и Либия обявяват сливането си и учредяването на Арабска ислямска република, но референдум по този въпрос не се състои.[64] По време на посещението си в Алжир през май-юни 1978, Кадафи предлага сливане на Либия, Алжир и Тунис.[66] През август 1978 г. по официална покана на либийското ръководство в страната с двама спътници пристига лидерът на ливанските шиити имам Муса ал-Садр, който впоследствие мистериозно изчезва. През 2008, Ливан обвинява Кадафи в заговор за отвличане и незаконно лишаване от свобода на духовния лидер на ливанските шиити, и поисква ареста на ръководителя на Либия.[67] Според ливанските власти полковник Кадафи „спомага за отприщването на гражданската война в Ливан и въоръжения конфликт между религиите“.[68] Либия отрича обвиненията за участие в изчезването на ал-Садр и твърди, че имамът и другарите му са напуснали Либия в посока Италия.[67][68][69] На 13 август 1983, по време на посещението си в Мароко, Муамар Кадафи и мароканският крал Хасан II подписват споразумение за учредяване на Арабско-африкански съюз и съюзна либийско-мароканска държава като първа стъпка към създаването на Велик магребски арабски съюз.[70] На 31 август, на референдум в Мароко 99,97% от гласувалите одобряват договора, а либийския Всеобщ народен конгрес го одобрява единодушно.[70] Подписването на договора ознаменува и края на либийските помощи за антимароканския фронт Полисарио.[70][71] Съюзът се разпада през 1985, когато Либия подписва пакт с Иран, а Кадафи разкритикува политиката на сближаване на мароканския крал със Запада и Израел. Крал Хасан II разваля окончателно съюза през 1986.[64] В същото време падането на режима на Нимейри в Судан довежда до затоплянето на отношенията на тази страна с Либия. Кадафи спира подкрепата си за Суданската народна освободителна армия и приветства новото правителство на генерал Абдел Рахман Суар ал-Дагаба.[72] През 1985 г. Кадафи обявява създаването на „Национално (регионално) командване на революционните арабски сили“ с цел „извършване на въоръжени преврати в реакционните арабски страни и постигането на арабско единство“ и за „унищожаване на посолства, съоръжения и други обекти на САЩ и Израел в страни, провеждащи антилибийска политика“. В следващата година на Международния народен конгрес, състоял се в Либия, полковник Кадафи е обявен за командир на единна панарабска армия и идеологически лидер на освободителните движения по света.[73] Муамар Кадафи посещава Съветския съюз три пъти — през 1976, 1981 и 1986 г. и се среща с Леонид Брежнев и Михаил Горбачов. Кадафи заема твърда позиция спрямо Израел. На 2 март 1970 той се обръща към 35 държави-членки на Организацията за африканско единство с призив за скъсване на отношенията с Израел.[74] През октомври 1973 г. избухва войната Йом Кипур. На 16 октомври Саудитска Арабия, Иран, ОАЕ, Кувейт и Катар едностранно повишават цената на петрола със 17% — до $ 3,65.[75] След три дни в знак на протест срещу подкрепата за Израел във войната, Либия обявява ембарго върху доставките на петрол за САЩ. Саудитска Арабия и други арабски страни последват примера ѝ. Либия бива заподозряна за минирането на Червено море през 1984 г., което довежда до щети по 18 плавателни съда. По време на Угандийско-танзанийската война от 1978-79 година, Либия изпраща 2500 войници в помощ на угандийския диктатор Иди Амин.[76] Около 600 от тях загиват.[77] В последвалите години Кадафи организира тренировъчни лагери за бунтовнически групи от цяла Западна Африка, включително туарегите. През 1981 г., Сомалия прекратява дипломатическите си отношения с Либия, обвинявайки либийския лидер в подкрепа на бунтовническите групировки Демократичен фронт за Спасение и Национални движение на Сомалия.[78] Кадафи финансира и редица бунтовнически и освободителни движения, като Сандинистски фронт за национално освобождение, Фатах, Фронт за освобождение на Мали, СУАПО, ФРЕЛИМО, ЗАНУ, ЗАПУ, Народен фронт за освобождение на Бахрейн и Африкански национален конгрес. Кадафи основава и политическа академия край Бенгази, наречена Световен революционен център.[79] Блез Компаоре от Буркина Фасо и Идрис Деби от Чад са завършили академията, и понастоящем са ръководители на своите страни.[80] Кадафи също обучава и подкрепя Чарлз Тейлър в Либерия, Фодай Санко, основател на Революционния обединен фронт в Сиера Леоне, Менгисту Хайле Мариам в Етиопия и Жан-Бедел Бокаса в Централна Африка. В началото на 1980-те години САЩ обвиняват либийския режим в намеси във вътрешните работи на не по-малко от 45 страни,[81] а заради финансирането на редица екстремистки организации, впоследствие включват Либия в списъка на страните, поддържащи тероризма.[82] В ексклузивно интервю за Вашингтон Поуст, дадено през 2003 г., Кадафи заявява:[83] Подкрепа за екстремистки организации и атентати[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Към края на 1970-те и през 1980-те години Муамар Кадафи бива обвиняван в подпомагане не само на бунтовнически, но и на екстремистки и терористични групи с антизападна насоченост,[84] както и в организирането на терористична дейност по света. Част от спонсорираните от него организации са ИРА, ЕТА, Червените бригади[22] и вероятно Японската червена армия.[85] Само на ИРА той изпраща 300 тона експлозиви и оръжия, както и втора пратка със 120 тона оръжия, която бива засечена и спряна от Франция.[86] През 1985 той обявява, че ще спонсорира тези групировки докато европейските страни не спрат да оказват подкрепа на либийските дисиденти в чужбина. Кадафи спонсорира екстремистки групировки и в други страни, като например Филипините[84][87] и Индонезия, финансира управляващата партия на Вануату[88] и Работническата революционна партия на Нова Зеландия,[89][90] и прави опити да радикализира аборигените и арабите в Австралия[89] и маорите в Нова Зеландия.[88] Кадафи развива и връзки с колумбийската ФАРК, но не ги спонсорира и подкрепя открито.[79][80] През 1986 година либийски агенти организират бомбен атентат в дискотека „Ла Бел“ в Западна Германия. Дискотеката е посещавана най-вече от американски войници, и при бомбеният атентат загиват трима души, а 229 са ранени. Либийското разузнаване уведомява правителството на ГДР и поема отговорност за атентата, но съобщението е прихванато от американските тайни служби. В отговор администрацията на президента Роналд Рейгън разпорежда срещу резиденцията на Кадафи — Баб ал-Азизия в Триполи да бъде проведен въздушен удар (Операция Елдорадо каньон). Кадафи е предупреден от председателя на съвета на министрите на Италия Бетино Кракси един ден преди въздушния удар,[91] и Кадафи напуска резиденцията и се спасява. Извършителите на атентата са осъдени от германските власти след обединението на Германия през 1990 година.[92] В отговор на въздушните удари Кадафи започва да полага още повече усилия да упражнява терор над американски граждани и да саботира интересите на САЩ. Той започва да финансира ислямската организация от Детройт „Нация на исляма“, която през 1986 бива уличена в заговор да взриви няколко правителствени сгради в САЩ.[93] Същата година либийското правителство подновява и сътрудничеството си с ИРА в отговор на политиката на британското правителство да дава въздушното си пространство за американски бойни самолети.[94] Атентатът над Локърби обаче е най-известният от серията терористични нападения, извършени от Либия в този период. На 21 декември 1988 г. самолет на американската компания „Пан Ам“ — полет 103, експлодира във въздуха над Локърби, Шотландия. Загиват 270 души от 21 страни, включително 11 жители на Локърби. Повечето от пътниците са американски граждани, а четирима от тях са агенти от американските тайни служби, което поражда редица конспиративни теории около инцидента.[95] Обвинени за атентата са двама либийски граждани — Абделбасет ал-Меграхи и Ламин Халифа Фхима, който впоследствие е оправдан.[96] Кадафи разпорежда и взривяването на друг самолет — полет 772 на френската авиокомпания UTA от Бразавил до Париж, при който загиват 170 души.[22] Чадско-либийски конфликт[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Либийското вмешателство в Чад започва още по времето на крал Идрис, който спонсорира бунтовнически групировки в северната част на страната, но до военни действия се стига едва по времето на Кадафи. През 1973 година той анексира ивицата Аузу.[97] През 1980 година чадският президент Гукуни Уедеи обявява обединяването на Чад и Либия.[98] Уедеи и Кадафи публикуват съвместно комюнике в което посочват, че Чад и Либия се споразумяват да работят за осъществяването на пълно обединение на двете страни.[99] Заради последвалите събития обединението не се случва. След намесата на ОАЕ в конфликта на 16 ноември 1981 либийските войски са принудени да напуснат Чад. След завръщането на либийските войници Кадафи обявява, че армията му е убила 3000 „врагове“ и са загинали 300 либийци, но други източници посочват много по-голям брой жертви за Либия. Без подкрепата на либийските сили Уедеи не е в състояние да спре настъплението на Хабре, който през юни 1982 достига Нджамена и сваля неговото правителство. През лятото на 1983 г. либийската армия отново се намесва в конфликта, но този път Уедеи е в ролята на бунтовнически ръководител срещу централната власт, водена от Хабре. Последвалата намеса на френски и заирски войски фактически довежда до разделянето на страната на две части, като либийските и бунтовническите сили владеят територията на север от 16-тия паралел. В съответствие със споразумение за взаимно оттегляне от Чад, Франция оттегля войските си през ноември 1984 г., но Либия не изпълнява своята част от споразумението и остава в Чад. През 1987 г. чадските войски с подкрепа от Франция настъпват на север и нанасят редица поражения на либийските войски, и дори навлизат на либийска територия, където нападат военновъздушната база Маатен ес-Сара. Скоро след този разгром Кадафи и чадското правителство подписват споразумение за примирие. Либия загубва 7500 войници и оборудване на стойност $1,5 милиарда, а Чад губи едва 1000 от своите бойци. Въпросът за териториалната принадлежност на ивицата Аузу е разрешен при среща на Международния съд в Хага, който през 1994 г. се произнася в полза на Чад, и Либия окончателно изтегля войските си от региона. Отваряне към Запада и разоръжаване[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1980-те години ООН налага санкции на Либия заради участието ѝ в терористична дейност и опитите да разработва оръжия за масово поразяване. След разпадането на СССР Кадафи и либийското ръководство започват да преосмислят външната политика Либия и дават началото на дълъг процес на затопляне на отношенията със Запада.[100] Кадафи променя позицията си по отношение на атентата в Локърби, а Нелсън Мандела започва преговори със САЩ от негово име и убеждава Кадафи да предаде двамата атентатори на шотландския съд. Единият от агентите е оправдан, а другият — Абделбасет ал-Меграхи, получава доживотна присъда.[101] Заради съдействието на Кадафи ООН частично сваля санкциите над Либия през 2001 година. Той също така се съгласява да изплати $2,7 млн. обезщетения на близките на жертвите и изплаща сумите до 2003 година. Същата година Великобритания и България съвместно подават резолюция, с която санкциите на Либия да бъдат свалени напълно.[102] През 2004 тогавашният премиер на Либия Шукри Ганем обявява, че Кадафи просто „плаща за мира“ и поема отговорността за атентата само формално.[103] През 1990-те започва и сътрудничество със западните тайни служби, най-вече ЦРУ и МИ-6 в борбата срещу ислямския фундаментализъм. През 1998 година Либия издава заповед за арест на Осама бин Ладен.[104] Кадафи заклеймява атентатите от 11 септември и се включва на страната на САЩ в международната война срещу тероризма. Малко след свалянето на Саддам Хюсеин от власт по време на войната в Ирак през 2003 година, либийското правителство обявява прекратяването на всички програми за оръжия за масово поразяване.[105] През 2004 година Тони Блеър се среща с Кадафи и го обявява за съюзник на Великобритания в борбата срещу международния тероризъм, и лобира за петролна сделка между Либия и Royal Dutch Shell на стойност $500 милиона. Приблизително по същото време САЩ възстановяват дипломатическите си отношения с Либия и я изваждат от списъка на страните, поддържащи тероризма.[106] В страната са допуснати оръжейни инспектори,[107] които потвърждават, че Либия разполага с 23 тона отровен газ. През 2007 година приключва процесът срещу българските лекари, след като представители на Европейския съюз заявяват, че освобождаването на лекарите е необходимо условие за нормализиране на отношенията между Либия и ЕС. Малко след връщането на медиците в България френският президент Никола Саркози посещава Кадафи, и сключва редица двустранни споразумения, включително за построяването на ядрена инсталация за обезсоляване на морска вода.[108] Следващата година Кадафи се среща и с Владимир Путин, а двамата обсъждат създаването на руска военна база в Либия.[109] През 2008 година той се среща със Силвио Берлускони и Кондолиза Райс, като при втората среща се съгласява да изплати напълно обезщетенията на близките на жертвите от атентата в Ла Бел, Локърби и на двамата американски граждани, загинали при взривяването на френския самолет над Нигер. В отговор Джордж Буш възстановява имунитета на либийското правителство срещу съдебни процеси, свързани с подкрепа на терористична дейност.[110] През 2009 година Кадафи присъства на срещата на Г-8 в Италия, където, в нарушение на протокола, Силвио Берлускони лично го кани да седне до него.[111][112][113][114] Кадафи се среща и с Джон Маккейн и Барак Обама. През 2010 се съгласява да изплати и $3,2 милиарда пострадали от атаки на ИРА през 1980-те години.[115] Панафриканизъм[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Характерно за Кадафи е застъпването на идеята за арабско и африканско единство, където Либия да играе лидерска роля. Плод на тези усилия е създаването на Африканския съюз в опит да следва примера на европейска интеграция. През 1998 година Кадафи окончателно изоставя панарабистките си идеи. По отношение на този въпрос, той казва:[116] През 2009 година той организира форум на всички африкански крале и принцове в Уганда, но угандийското правителство го отменя от съображения за сигурност и опасения, че подобна среща може да доведе до вътрешна нестабилност.[117] Кадафи често е наричан от африканските политици „крал на кралете“ заради обширното си влияние на континента и дългогодишното си управление.[118] В периода 2 февруари 2009 — 31 януари 2010 г. е избран за председател на Африканския съюз.[119] На общо събрание на ръководителите на съюза той казва, че ще продължи да настоява „суверенните ни нации да сформират Съединени африкански щати“.[120] Гражданска война[редактиране | редактиране на кода] На 17 февруари 2011 година в Либия избухват протести срещу управлението на Кадафи, под влиянието на революциите в арабските страни. Протестите бързо набират сила, и скоро голяма част от страната изпада в хаос.[121] Кадафи се опитва да възвърне контрола на правителството в размирните зони по военен път, използвайки войски срещу протестиращите. Надигащата се вълна от въоръжени бунтовници започва да установява свой контрол върху много от размирните градове в източна Либия, а Кадафи ги обявява за поддържани от Саудитска Арабия и Ал-Кайда екстремисти, които са „дрогирани“.[122] Много от войниците в либийската армия дезертират и се присъединяват към бунтовническата вълна, в отговор на което Кадафи вкарва в страната наемници от Африка,[123] Сърбия,[124][125][125][126] Беларус[127][128] и Украйна. В знак на протест срещу използването на въоръжените сили срещу протестите, много дипломати и министри напускат Кадафи и минават на страната на бунтовниците.[121] След бързо настъпление на въстаническите войски из Либия, Кадафи успява да си върне контрола над почти цяла Либия. Малко преди войските му да навлязат в Бенгази, центърът на протестните действия, ООН гласува резолюция 1973, налагаща забранена за полети зона над страната с цел да се защити цивилното население от въздушни удари.[129] В следващите месеци НАТО активно подпомага бунтовническата офанзива от въздуха, нанасяйки въздушни удари по редица цели в Либия. Русия и Китай се въздържат от гласуване на резолюцията и отказват да подкрепят коалицията.[130] Международният съд определя бомбардировките над протестиращите тълпи като „престъпления срещу човечеството“.[131] На 27 юни 2011 по тези обвинения Международният съд издава заповед за арест на Кадафи, на сина му Саиф ал-Ислам и на шефа на разузнаването Абдула ал-Сенуси.[132][133] Кадафи изгубва признанието на редица страни заради тези обвинения. В края на август 2011 бунтовниците достигат до Триполи, и след няколко дни сражения завземат почти изцяло града, включително резиденцията на Кадафи. Част от семейството му впоследствие избягва в съседните страни, а до есента единствените градове под контрола на джамахирията остават Сирт и Бани Уалид. След едномесечни тежки сражения Сирт е превзет. На 20 октомври 2011 г. Муамар Кадафи е заловен ранен, при опит да напусне Сирт. По първоначални данни умира от прострелна рана. По-късно ръководителят на Преходния съвет Махмуд Джибрил казва, че Кадафи е бил измъчван и убит под натиск от определени страни, за да „останат тайните му с него“. Преходният национален съвет не е издавал заповед за убийството му.[134] Синът му Мутасим загива в боевете. Погребан[135][136] на 25 октомври 2011 г., заедно със сина си Мутасим и министъра на отбраната Абу Бакр Юнис, в пустинята, някъде в южната част на страната. Характер и личен живот[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Муамар Кадафи е известен с непредвидимото си и ексцентрично поведение. По време на посещенията си в Рим, Лондон, Москва, Париж и Ню Йорк, той пренася бедуинската си палатка и винаги отсяда в нея.[137][138][139][140][141] Облича се в екстравагантни костюми с традиционни африкански и бедуински мотиви, и обича да носи скъпи слънчеви очила. От 1980-те години насам той не пътува в чужбина без своята гвардия от „амазонки“ — специално обучени млади жени, дали обет да защитават живота му. По време на едно от посещенията си в Италия през 2009 година, той плаща на агенция за модели да намери 200 млади жени, които да присъстват на негова лекция, в която ги призовава да приемат исляма.[142] Заради бурния му нрав западните медии дълго време спекулират, че той е болен от биполярно разстройство или шизофрения. Роналд Рейгън го нарича „бясното куче на Близкия изток“.[6] Ануар Садат го определя като „неуравновесен и незрял“, а Джафар Нимейри го нарича „зъл“. Фидел Кастро го нарича „безразсъден“, но казва, че „ако устои и не се пречупи под натиска [на бунтовниците и НАТО], ще остане в историята като един от великите арабски ръководители“.[143] Самият Кадафи възприема себе си като интелектуалец и философ.[144] Той е оцелял след множество опити за покушение. През 1969 година Великобритания планира да го убие и да възстанови монархията, но САЩ оказват натиск, считайки Кадафи за анти-марксист и заговорът не е изпълнен. През 1976 година сам нападател стреля срещу него, но нито един от изстрелите не го улучва. През 1981 Франция също планира покушение срещу Кадафи, но планът е изоставен след края на мандата на Валери Жискар д'Естен. През 1993 година близо 2000 войници от племето уарфала планират да свалят и убият Кадафи, но въстанието е смазано чрез въздушни удари, при което загиват хиляди. Три години по-късно ислямисти нападат колоната от автомобили на Кадафи близо до Сирт, но без успех. Последният опит е през 1998 година, когато ислямски фундаменталисти отново откриват огън срещу неговият автомобил. Една от амазонките на Кадафи се жертва, заставайки на пътя на куршумите и спасява живота му. Според очевидци Кадафи бива ранен в бедрото.[145] През 1969 година Кадафи се жени за Фатиха ал-Нури, от която има един син. Двамата се развеждат през 1970. През 1971 той се жени са Сафия Фаркаш, която е с унгарски произход.[146] Има общо осем биологични деца, от които 7 са синове: - Мохамед Кадафи (р. 1970) е единственото му дете от първия брак. Мохамед ръководи олимпийския комитет на страната и е пленен за кратко по време на битката за Триполи през 2011 година, след което успява да избяга. - Саиф ал-Ислам Кадафи (р. 1972) е архитект и е възприеман от мнозина като потенциален наследник. Той е с умерени политически виждания и е лице на диалога между Либия и Западния свят. През 2006, след противоречия с баща си, напуска за кратко Либия. - Саади Кадафи (р. 1973) е професионален футболист. - Ханибал Муамар Кадафи (р. 1975) е бивш служител на една от големите либийски компании за износ на петрол. Известен е с няколко инцидента в чужбина — нападение над италиански полицаи през 2001 година, шофиране в пияно състояние през 2004 година, и побой над приятелката си в Париж през 2005.[147] През 2008 е арестуван в Швейцария заради сбиване. - Аиша Кадафи (р. 1976) е единствената дъщеря на Муамар. По професия е адвокат. - Ал-Мутасим Билах Кадафи (р. 1977) е военен офицер в либийската армия. Убит при отбраната на Сирт през октомври 2011. - Саиф ал-Араб Кадафи (р. 1982) е командир в либийската армия. Счита се за загинал при бомбен удар на 30 април 2011, но потвърждение за смъртта му няма. - Хамис Кадафи (р. 1983) е офицер в либийската армия, ръководител на елитната бригада „Хамис“. През 2011 е обявен за загинал при бунтовническия нападения няколко пъти, но потвърждение за смъртта му няма. Муамар Кадафи осиновява две други деца — Хана и Милад.[148][149] Информацията около Хана Кадафи е противоречива — някои сведения посочват, че тя е убита при американския бомбен удар през 1986. Възможно е тя да не е загинала, или да е загинала и Кадафи да осиновява друга дъщеря, на която дава същото име.[150] Очевидно тя не е била убита при въздушното нападение, тъй като години по-късно се появяват нейни снимки и информация, че тя работи като лекар в болница в Триполи.[151] Шуреят на Кадафи — Абдула ал-Сенуси, е началник на военното разузнаване на Либия.[152] Награди и отличия[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Български - Орден "Стара планина" с лента (през 1978 г.) - Почетен гражданин на София и почетен златен знак на София (от 16 юни 1978, почетният знак е отнет на 15 май 2007[153]) - Почетен знак "Ключ на град Варна" със златната значка (от 1983 г.) - Почетен гражданин на Сливен и златна значка на града с лента (от 1983 г.) - Други - Белградският университет „Мегатренд“ на тържество в град Сабха го удостоява на 28 февруари 2007 с титлата „доктор хонорис кауза“[6] за „борбата му в защита на човешките права за свобода и независимост, на правото за власт на народите, благосъстояние и съпротива и на вечната световна ценност на „Зелената книга“ и мощта на Джамахирията“. Според либийската информационна агенция „Джана“ почетната титла „доктор на науките“ от университета „Мегатренд“ се прибавя към десетината докторски титли, с които либийският ръководител е удостоен от множество големи университети от цял свят[154]. Библиография[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Simons, Geoff (2004). Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie. Tauris. - Pollack, Kenneth M. Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. University of Nebraska Press. - Metz, Helen Chapin (2004). Libya. US GPO. ISBN 1-4191-3012-9. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lytoc.html. Бележки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ↑ Преходният национален съвет на Либия обяви страната за напълно освободена от режима на Муамар Кадафи.. // bnews.bg, 23 окт 2011 г.. - ↑ he day of the death of ousted Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, who Libya's transitional government said was killed on Thursday, is a historic one for the Libyan people, the U.N. chief said.. // Reuters, 20 October 2011. - ↑ The World Factbook — CIA - ↑ Държавен департамент на САЩ - ↑ а б Muammar al- Gaddafi CIDOB - ↑ а б Los crímenes de Gadafi. ABC - ↑ La URSS refuerza su poderío militar en Libia. Ел Паис 1977 'La Unión Soviética ha reforzado su presencia militar en Libia mediante el estacionamiento de aviones de bombardeo de gran autonomía, construyendo aeropuertos y carreteras y sistemas de alarma y de defensa aérea' - ↑ La URSS asegura que honrará sus compromisos con Libia. Ел Паис 1986 - ↑ Centro de Estudios Internacionales de Barcelona (CIDOB) - ↑ BBC, 28 август 2009, Gaddafi: de paria a bienvenido - ↑ Charles Féraud, "Annales Tripolitaines", ("Al Hawliyat Al Libiya"), Tripoli, Libya, vol. 3, стр.797. - ↑ Defiant Gaddafi vows to die as martyr, fight revolt, Ройтерс, 22 февруари 2011 - ↑ Кадафи е убит, Днес.бг, 20 октомври 2011 - ↑ а б в ((ru)) Каддафи Муамар. - ↑ а б ((ru)) Каддафи Муамар. Биографический указатель. // ХРОНОС. - ↑ ((en)) Qadhafi and the Revolutionary Command Council. // Country Studies. - ↑ http://www.newsy.com/videos/amid-unrest-gaddafi-vows-death-before-resignation/ - ↑ ((en)) Aidan Lewis. Profile: Muammar Gaddafi. // BBC News, 28 August 2009. - ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/434599.stm - ↑ а б в {{{title}}}. - ↑ а б в Eugénie Bron. Kadhafi : de la monarchie à la monarchie révolutionnaire. - ↑ Каддафи — правитель Ливии. Сын бедуина — отец нации - ↑ Royal Ark - ↑ The Green Book, Third Volume "The Social Basis of the Third World Theory", The Nation. // Mathaba.net. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ The Green Book, Second Volume "The Solution of the Economic Problem", Need. // Mathaba.net. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ The Green Book, Second Volume "The Solution of the Economic Problem", Housing. // Mathaba.net. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ The Green Book, Second Volume "The Solution of the Economic Problem", Income. // Mathaba.net. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ ((ru)) Александр Сканави. В Ливии отмечают 30 лет со дня провозглашения народовластия. - ↑ http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yXBRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Aw8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=7216,2358896&dq=gaddafi+oil+revenue+60+foreign+corporations&hl=en - ↑ ((en)) ВItalians plan to see Libya once again. // The New York Times, October 22, 2004. - ↑ ((ru)) В память об итальянском вторжении Ливия отрезала себя от внешнего мира. - ↑ Libya cuts ties to mark Italy era.. BBC News. 27 October 2005. - ↑ ((ru)) Каддафи завершил “исторический” визит в Италию. - ↑ Ливийская революция. - ↑ ((en)) Ливия: краткая справка. // Русская служба Би-би-си. - ↑ Hagger, Nicholas. The Libyan Revolution: Its Origins and Legacy. Winchester, UK, O Books, 2009. с. 109. - ↑ ((ru)) Ливия. - ↑ ((en)) Muammar al-Qaddafi. // Encyclopædia Britannica. - ↑ ((en)) Libya. The Cultural Revolution. // www.country-data.com. - ↑ The Green Book, Third Volume "The Social Basis of the Third World Theory", The Social Basis of the Third World Theory. // Mathaba.net. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ http://news.scotsman.com/world/Former-PM-is-latest-senior.6822266.jp - ↑ а б в Mohamed Eljahmi. Libya and the U.S.: Qadhafi Unrepentant. // The Middle East Quarterly, 2006. - ↑ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-1192494/More-make-hair-dye-40-virgin-bodyguards-Gaddafi-murderous-menace.html - ↑ Bright, Martin. Gadaffi still hunts 'stray dogs' in UK. // The Guardian. UK, 28 March 2004. - ↑ Libya Has Trouble Building the Most Deadly Weapons. // The Risk Report Volume 1 Number 10 (December 1995). - ↑ Lesson from Libya: Despotism, Poverty and Risk. // Reuters, March 4, 2011. - ↑ Avi Arditti. English Teaching in the Arab World: Insights From Iraq and Libya. // Voice of America, 2007. - ↑ Helen Chapin Metz. Libya: A Country Study- Education. // US Library of Congress, 1987. - ↑ Статистика за либийското образование - ↑ Salak, Kira. Libya: The Land of Cruel Deaths. // kirasalak.com, 2008. Посетен на 29 August 2011. - ↑ Report for Selected Countries and Subjects - ↑ Human Development Report 2009 - Education index - ↑ http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Lets-Talk-HD-HDI_2010.pdf - ↑ World Population Prospects, the 2010 Revision - ↑ ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/i0876e/i0876e05.pdf - ↑ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2102.html - ↑ Watkins, John. Libya's thirst for 'fossil water'. // London, BBC News, 18 March 2006. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Guinness World Records 2008 Book. - ↑ 卡扎菲千万美元定购望远镜 可能安装在沙漠深处(组图). // 东方军事, 6 January 2005. Посетен на 27 July 2008. - ↑ Libya: Ministries Abolished. // Carnegieendowment.org. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Passed to the Telegraph by WikiLeaks 9:38PM GMT 31 Jan 2011. Al-Qadhafi Suggests Libyan Elections May Be In The Offing. // London, Telegraph, 2011-01-31. - ↑ а б в ((en)) Clyde R. Mark. 93109: Libya. // www.fas.org, December 19, 1996. - ↑ The Middle East and North Africa. Routledge, 2003. - ↑ История Ливии. XX век. Институт востоковедения РАН, 1999. - ↑ а б ((ru)) Gaddafi charged for cleric kidnap. // BBC, 27 August 2008. - ↑ а б ((ru)) В.В. Куделев. Ситуация в Ливии: август 2008 года. // Институт Ближнего Востока, август 2008 года. - ↑ Кадафи на съд - ↑ а б в The Middle East and North Africa 2003. Routledge, 2002. - ↑ ((en)) JOSEPH R. GREGORY. Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West. // The New York Times, July 24, 1999. - ↑ ((en)) Libya — Sudan. // Country Studies. - ↑ История Ливии. XX век. Институт востоковедения РАН, 1999. - ↑ История Ливии. XX век. Институт востоковедения РАН, 1999. - ↑ ((en)) Сергей Минаев. Пусть сильнее грянет баррель!. // Журнал "Коммерсантъ Власть", 29.08.2005. - ↑ Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948-91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002, стр.369-373, ISBN 0-8032-3733-2 - ↑ Joseph T. Stanik. El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's undeclared war with Qaddafi. 2003. - ↑ ((en)) Somalia Relations with Arab Countries. // Country Studies. - ↑ а б Douglas Farah. Harvard for Tyrants. // The Foreign Policy, 4 March 2011. - ↑ а б James Day. Revealed: Colonel Gaddafi's school for scoundrels. // Metro, 15 March 2011. - ↑ ((en)) Dedicated Troublemaker. - ↑ ((en)) Chronology of U.S.-Libyan Relations, 1786-2008. // www.america.gov. - ↑ ((en)) On Saddam, Lockerbie, Bin Laden And Peace. // The Washington Post url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A41436-2003Jan11?language=printer,+, January 12, 2003. - ↑ а б St. John, Ronald Bruce. Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi. // Contemporary Review. 1 December 1992. - ↑ ((en)) ROBERT PEAR. Again Reports Libyan Role in Terrorism. // The New York Times, January 19, 1989. - ↑ Sinn Fein in Gaddafi U-turn: Despot who backed IRA denounced by republicans, Liam Clarke, Belfast Telegraph, 23 février 2011 - ↑ Geoffrey Leslie Simons. Libya: the struggle for survival. с. 281. - ↑ а б A Rogue Returns. // AIJAC, February 2003. - ↑ а б Dictator's useful idiots happy to take his money. // The Australian. 24 February 2011. - ↑ Qaddafi, Vanessa Redgrave, and Their Adventures. // The Weekly Standard, 8 March 2011. - ↑ Italy Warned Libya of Bombing, Saved Qaddafi's Life, 30 октомври 2008 - ↑ Flashback: The Berlin disco bombing. BBC на 13 ноември 2001. - ↑ Yossef Bodansky. Target America & the West: terrorism today. с. 301–303. - ↑ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/libya-will-not-arm-ira-again-gaddafi-aide-says-1414984.html - ↑ Flight from the truth. // Guardian. Посетен на 8 September 2008. - ↑ Fhimah was found "not guilty". - ↑ La Libye face à la France au Tchad : qui perd gagne ?, R. Otayek - ↑ Alain Fogué Tédom, Enjeux géostratégiques et conflits politiques en Afrique noire, éd. - ↑ ((en)) Libyan Intervention in Chad 1980-81. // www.onwar.com. - ↑ Blair, David. Profile: Muammar Gaddafi, Libyan Leader at time of Lockerbie Bombing. // The Daily Telegraph. UK, 13 August 2009. Посетен на 14 April 2011. - ↑ Analysis: Lockerbie's long road. // London, BBC News, 31 January 2001. Посетен на 21 September 2008. - ↑ Libya completes Lockerbie payout. // London, BBC News, 22 August 2003. Посетен на 5 March 2005. - ↑ Radio 4 - Today Programme Iraq Report. - ↑ Richburg, Keith B.. Gaddafi’s Libya reminds U.S. it issued the first bin Laden arrest warrant. // The Washington Post, 5 May 2011. - ↑ Gadhafi: Iraq war may have influenced WMD decision — CNN. - ↑ U.S. to renew full ties with Libya. // London, BBC News, 15 May 2006. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Libya Has Trouble Building the Most Deadly Weapons. // The Risk Report 1 (10). December 1995. - ↑ Sarkozy signs deals with Gaddafi. // London, BBC News, 25 July 2007. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Libya to discuss hosting Russian base. // Financial Times. Архив на оригинала от 2008-11-16. - ↑ Libya compensates terror victims. // London, BBC News, 31 October 2008. Посетен на 1 November 2008. - ↑ Gaddafi comes in from the cold. // Express.co.uk, 11 July 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Gaddafi meets Obama in Aquila. // Afriquejet.com, 1 July 2009. Архив на оригинала от 12 August 2010. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Feeing the hungry to changing the climate – what the G8 did for us. // Euronews.net, 28 June 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Storica stretta di mano fra Obama e Gheddafi. // Unionesarda.ilsole24ore.com, 10 July 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Libya's Gaddafi to pay billions for IRA atrocities | Irish News. // IrishCentral. - ↑ Libya's Gaddafi turns attention to black Africa - ↑ Uganda bars Gaddafi kings' forum. // London, BBC News, 13 January 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Gaddafi: Africa's king of kings. // London, BBC News, 29 August 2008. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Кадафи бе избран за председател на Африканския съюз, Дневник, 2 февруари 2009 - ↑ Gaddafi vows to push Africa unity. // London, BBC News, 2 February 2009. Посетен на 3 February 2009. - ↑ а б Libya protests: Pressure mounts on isolated Gaddafi. // BBC News. 23 February 2011. Посетен на 23 February 2011. - ↑ http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article283687.ece - ↑ Gadhafi Battles to Hang On. // The Wall Street Journal. 22 February 2011. Посетен на 22 February 2011. - ↑ Defying Gadhafi's Crackdown; Analysis With Dr. Drew Pinsky; Interview With Kevin Smith. - ↑ а б Text message from a house in Libya: We are being slaughtered here. // The Telegraph India, 23 February 2011. - ↑ Is Gaddafi turning to foreign mercenaries?. // Trust, 24 February 2011. - ↑ Norton-Taylor, Richard. Libya received military shipment from Belarus, claims EU arms watchdog. // The Guardian. UK, 1 March 2011. - ↑ Serbian TV broadcasts exclusive Gaddafi interview - ↑ Libya: UN approves no-fly zone as British troops prepare for action. // The Telegraph. London, 17 Mar 2011. Посетен на 18 May 2011. - ↑ Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abstentions. // Security Council 6498th Meeting (Night). United Nations Security Council, 17. Посетен на 17 July 2011. - ↑ Libya: Strategy of scorched earth, desire for widespread and systematic elimination. // International Federation for Human Rights, 24 February 2011. - ↑ Matt Steinglass. ICC issues arrest warrant for Gaddafi. // Financial Times (FT.com), 28. Посетен на 16 July 2011. - ↑ War crimes court issues Gaddafi arrest warrant. // The Guardian, 27. Посетен на 16 July 2011. - ↑ Too many powers wanted Gaddafi dead - NTC head, RT, 26 март 2012 - ↑ Gaddafi buried in secret desert location. // reuters, 25 October 2011. - ↑ Погребаха Кадафи на неизвестно място - ↑ Gadaffi's tent finds home on Donald Trump's estate M&G - ↑ Moammar Gadhafi Won't Stay in Bedford Tent After All – ABC News. // Abcnews.go.com, 23 September 2009. Посетен на 28 February 2011. - ↑ Ed Pilkington in New York. New Jersey town outraged over upcoming Gaddafi visit. // Guardian. UK, 25 August 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ Battle, Pat. Gadhafi Cast Out of Garden (State): Source. // Nbcnewyork.com, 28 August 2009. Посетен на 14 February 2010. - ↑ O'Connor, Anahad. Qaddafi Cancels Plans to Stay in New Jersey. // The New York Times. 29 August 2009. Посетен на 28 February 2011. - ↑ Europe should convert to Islam: Gaddafi. // The Times of India. 31 August 2010. Посетен на 30 August 2010. - ↑ Fidel Castro: If Gaddafi resists he will enter history as one of the great figures of the Arab nations. - ↑ BBC News — Profile: Muammar Gaddafi. - ↑ Gaddafi's motorcade ambushed. // The Herald (Glasgow), 12 June 1998. Посетен на 29 August 2011. - ↑ Charkow, Ryab. Moammar Gadhafi and his family. // CBC News. 22 February 2011. Посетен на 22 February 2011. - ↑ Bremner, Charles. Hannibal gives Gaddafi a bad name. // The Times. London, 4 February 2005. Посетен на 13 May 2010. - ↑ Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi v. The Daily Telegraph. Посетен на 9 August 2008. - ↑ The Gaddafi family tree, BBC News, 21 February 2011 - ↑ Dental records for Hana Gaddafi reopen mystery of Libyan leader's daughter |. - ↑ The Irish Times, 26 August 2011 here [2] and here [3] - ↑ Ian Black Middle East editor. Gaddafi's confidant is Abdullah Senussi, a brutal right-hand man. // The Guardian. UK, 22 February 2011. Посетен на 22 February 2011. 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History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi The history of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi spanned a period of over four decades from 1969 to 2011. Gaddafi became the de facto leader of the country on 1 September 1969 after leading a group of young Libyan military officers against King Idris I in a bloodless coup d'état. After the king had fled the country, the Libyan Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) headed by Gaddafi abolished the monarchy and the old constitution and proclaimed the new Libyan African Republic, with the motto "freedom, socialism, and unity".[1] After coming to power, the RCC government initiated a process of directing funds toward providing education, health care and housing for all. Despite the reforms not being entirely effective, public education in the country became free and primary education compulsory for both sexes. Medical care became available to the public at no cost but providing housing for all was a task the RCC government was not able to complete.[2] Under Gaddafi, per capita income in the country rose to more than US $11,000, the fifth highest in Africa.[3] The increase in prosperity was accompanied by a controversial foreign policy, with increased political repression at home.[1][4] During the 1980s and 1990s, Gaddafi openly supported rebel movements like Nelson Mandela's African National Congress, the Palestine Liberation Organization, the Irish Republican Army and the Polisario Front (Western Sahara), which led to a deterioration of Libya's foreign relations with several countries and that culminated in the US bombing of Libya in 1986. After the 9/11 attacks, however, the relations were mostly normalised. In early 2011, a civil war broke out in the context of the wider "Arab Spring". The anti-Gaddafi forces formed a committee named the National Transitional Council, on 27 February 2011. It was meant to act as an interim authority in the rebel-controlled areas. After a number of atrocities were committed by the government,[5][6] with the threat of further bloodshed,[7] a multinational coalition led by NATO forces intervened on 21 March 2011 with the aim to protect civilians against attacks by the government's forces.[8] At the same time, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant against Gaddafi and his entourage on 27 June 2011. Gaddafi was ousted from power in the wake of the fall of Tripoli to the rebel forces on 20 August 2011, although pockets of resistance held by forces loyal to Gaddafi's government held out for another two months, especially in Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte, which he declared the new capital of Libya on 1 September 2011.[9] The fall of the last remaining cities under pro-Gaddafi control and Sirte's capture on 20 October 2011, followed by the subsequent killing of Gaddafi, marked the end of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Contents - 1 Nomenclature - 2 Coup d'état of 1969 - 3 Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977) - 4 Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011) - 4.1 Etymology - 4.3 Military - 4.4 Wars against Chad and Egypt - 5 International relations - 6 Opposition, coups and revolts - 7 2011 civil war and collapse of Gaddafi's government - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 External links Nomenclature[edit] The name of the country was changed several times during Gaddafi's tenure as the leader. At first, the name was the Libyan Arab Republic. In 1977, the name was changed to Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.[10] Jamahiriya was a term coined by Gaddafi,[10] usually translated as "state of the masses". The country was renamed again in 1986 to the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Coup d'état of 1969[edit] The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled the Kingdom of Libya to transition from one of the world's poorest nations to a wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism/socialism throughout North Africa and the Middle East. On 1 September 1969, a group of about 70 young army officers known as the Free Officers Movement and enlisted men mostly assigned to the Signal Corps, seized control of the government and in a stroke abolished the Libyan monarchy. The coup was launched at Benghazi, and within two hours the takeover was completed. Army units quickly rallied in support of the coup, and within a few days firmly established military control in Tripoli and elsewhere throughout the country. Popular reception of the coup, especially by younger people in the urban areas, was enthusiastic. Fears of resistance in Cyrenaica and Fezzan proved unfounded. No deaths or violent incidents related to the coup were reported.[11] The Free Officers Movement, which claimed credit for carrying out the coup, was headed by a twelve-member directorate that designated itself the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). This body constituted the Libyan government after the coup. In its initial proclamation on 1 September,[12] the RCC declared the country to be a free and sovereign state called the Libyan Arab Republic, which would proceed "in the path of freedom, unity, and social justice, guaranteeing the right of equality to its citizens, and opening before them the doors of honorable work." The rule of the Turks and Italians and the "reactionary" government just overthrown were characterized as belonging to "dark ages", from which the Libyan people were called to move forward as "free brothers" to a new age of prosperity, equality, and honor. The RCC advised diplomatic representatives in Libya that the revolutionary changes had not been directed from outside the country, that existing treaties and agreements would remain in effect, and that foreign lives and property would be protected. Diplomatic recognition of the new government came quickly from countries throughout the world. United States recognition was officially extended on 6 September. Post-coup[edit] In view of the lack of internal resistance, it appeared that the chief danger to the new government lay in the possibility of a reaction inspired by the absent King Idris or his designated heir, Hasan ar Rida, who had been taken into custody at the time of the coup along with other senior civil and military officials of the royal government. Within days of the coup, however, Hasan publicly renounced all rights to the throne, stated his support for the new government, and called on the people to accept it without violence. Idris, in an exchange of messages with the RCC through Egypt's President Nasser, dissociated himself from reported attempts to secure British intervention and disclaimed any intention of coming back to Libya. In return, he was assured by the RCC of the safety of his family still in the country. At his own request and with Nasser's approval, Idris took up residence once again in Egypt, where he had spent his first exile and where he remained until his death in 1983. On 7 September 1969, the RCC announced that it had appointed a cabinet to conduct the government of the new republic. An American-educated technician, Mahmud Sulayman al-Maghribi, who had been imprisoned since 1967 for his political activities, was designated prime minister. He presided over the eight-member Council of Ministers, of whom six, like Maghrabi, were civilians and two – Adam Said Hawwaz and Musa Ahmad – were military officers. Neither of the officers was a member of the RCC. The Council of Ministers was instructed to "implement the state's general policy as drawn up by the RCC", leaving no doubt where ultimate authority rested. The next day the RCC decided to promote Captain Gaddafi to colonel and to appoint him commander in chief of the Libyan Armed Forces. Although RCC spokesmen declined until January 1970 to reveal any other names of RCC members, it was apparent from that date onward that the head of the RCC and new de facto head of state was Gaddafi. Analysts were quick to point out the striking similarities between the Libyan military coup of 1969 and that in Egypt under Nasser in 1952, and it became clear that the Egyptian experience and the charismatic figure of Nasser had formed the model for the Free Officers Movement. As the RCC in the last months of 1969 moved vigorously to institute domestic reforms, it proclaimed neutrality in the confrontation between the superpowers and opposition to all forms of colonialism and "imperialism". It also made clear Libya's dedication to Arab unity and to the support of the Palestinian cause against Israel. The RCC reaffirmed the country's identity as part of the "Arab nation" and its state religion as Islam. It abolished parliamentary institutions, all legislative functions being assumed by the RCC, and continued the prohibition against political parties, in effect since 1952. The new government categorically rejected communism – in large part because it was atheist – and officially espoused an Arab interpretation of socialism that integrated Islamic principles with social, economic, and political reform. Libya had shifted, virtually overnight, from the camp of conservative Arab traditionalist states to that of the radical nationalist states. Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977) [edit] الله أكبر Allahu Akbar God is the Greatest Italian Attempted counter-coups[edit] Following the formation of the Libyan Arab Republic, Gaddafi and his associates insisted that their government would not rest on individual leadership, but rather on collegial decision making. The first major cabinet change occurred soon after the first challenge to the government. In December 1969, Adam Said Hawwaz, the minister of defense, and Musa Ahmad, the minister of interior, were arrested and accused of planning a coup. In the new cabinet formed after the crisis, Gaddafi, retaining his post as chairman of the RCC, also became prime minister and defense minister.[13] Major Abdel Salam Jallud, generally regarded as second only to Gaddafi in the RCC, became deputy prime minister and minister of interior.[13] This cabinet totaled thirteen members, of whom five were RCC officers.[13] The government was challenged a second time in July 1970 when Abdullah Abid Sanusi and Ahmed al-Senussi, distant cousins of former King Idris, and members of the Sayf an Nasr clan of Fezzan were accused of plotting to seize power for themselves.[13] After the plot was foiled, a substantial cabinet change occurred, RCC officers for the first time forming a majority among new ministers.[13] Assertion of Gaddafi's control[edit] From the start, RCC spokesmen had indicated a serious intent to bring the "defunct regime" to account. In 1971 and 1972 more than 200 former government officials—including seven prime ministers and numerous cabinet ministers—as well as former King Idris and members of the royal family, were brought to trial on charges of treason and corruption in the Libyan People's Court. Many, who like Idris lived in exile, were tried in absentia. Although a large percentage of those charged were acquitted, sentences of up to fifteen years in prison and heavy fines were imposed on others. Five death sentences, all but one of them in absentia, were pronounced, among them, one against Idris. Fatima, the former queen, and Hasan ar Rida were sentenced to five and three years in prison, respectively. Meanwhile, Gaddafi and the RCC had disbanded the Sanusi order and officially downgraded its historical role in achieving Libya's independence. He also attacked regional and tribal differences as obstructions in the path of social advancement and Arab unity, dismissing traditional leaders and drawing administrative boundaries across tribal groupings. The Free Officers Movement was renamed "Arab Socialist Union" (ASU) in 1971, modeled after Egypt's Arab Socialist Union, and made the sole legal party in Gaddafi's Libya. It acted as a "vehicle of national expression", purporting to "raise the political consciousness of Libyans" and to "aid the RCC in formulating public policy through debate in open forums".[14] Trade unions were incorporated into the ASU and strikes outlawed. The press, already subject to censorship, was officially conscripted in 1972 as an agent of the revolution. Italians and what remained of the Jewish community were expelled from the country and their property confiscated in October 1970. In 1972, Libya joined the Federation of Arab Republics with Egypt and Syria but the intended union of pan-Arabic states never had the intended success, and was effectively dormant after 1973. As months passed, Gaddafi, caught up in his apocalyptic visions of revolutionary pan-Arabism and Islam locked in mortal struggle with what he termed the encircling, demonic forces of reaction, imperialism, and Zionism, increasingly devoted attention to international rather than internal affairs. As a result, routine administrative tasks fell to Major Jallud, who in 1972 became prime minister in place of Gaddafi. Two years later Jallud assumed Gaddafi's remaining administrative and protocol duties to allow Gaddafi to devote his time to revolutionary theorizing. Gaddafi remained commander in chief of the armed forces and effective head of state. The foreign press speculated about an eclipse of his authority and personality within the RCC, but Gaddafi soon dispelled such theories by his measures to restructure Libyan society. Alignment with the Soviet bloc[edit] After the September coup, U.S. forces proceeded deliberately with the planned withdrawal from Wheelus Air Base under the agreement made with the previous government. The last of the American contingent turned the facility over to the Libyans on 11 June 1970, a date thereafter celebrated in Libya as a national holiday. As relations with the U.S. steadily deteriorated, Gaddafi forged close links with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries, all the while maintaining Libya's stance as a nonaligned country and opposing the spread of communism in the Arab world. Libya's army—sharply increased from the 6,000-man prerevolutionary force that had been trained and equipped by the British—was armed with Soviet-built armor and missiles. Petroleum politics[edit] The economic base for Libya's revolution has been its oil revenues. However, Libya's petroleum reserves were small compared with those of other major Arab petroleum-producing states. As a consequence, Libya was more ready to ration output in order to conserve its natural wealth and less responsive to moderating its price-rise demands than the other countries. Petroleum was seen both as a means of financing the economic and social development of a woefully underdeveloped country and as a political weapon to brandish in the Arab struggle against Israel. The increase in production that followed the 1969 revolution was accompanied by Libyan demands for higher petroleum prices, a greater share of revenues, and more control over the development of the country's petroleum industry. Foreign petroleum companies agreed to a price hike of more than three times the going rate (from US$0.90 to US$3.45 per barrel) early in 1971. In December, the Libyan government suddenly nationalized the holdings of British Petroleum in Libya and withdrew funds amounting to approximately US$550 million invested in British banks as a result of a foreign policy dispute. British Petroleum rejected as inadequate a Libyan offer of compensation, and the British treasury banned Libya from participation in the sterling area. In 1973, the Libyan government announced the nationalization of a controlling interest in all other petroleum companies operating in the country. This step gave Libya control of about 60 percent of its domestic oil production by early 1974, a figure that subsequently rose to 70 percent. Total nationalization was out of the question, given the need for foreign expertise and funds in oil exploration, production, and distribution. 1973 oil crisis[edit] Insisting on the continued use of petroleum as leverage against Israel and its supporters in the West, Libya strongly urged the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to take action in 1973, and Libyan militancy was partially responsible for OPEC measures to raise oil prices, impose embargoes, and gain control of production. On 19 October 1973, Libya was the first Arab nation to issue an oil embargo against the United States after US President Richard Nixon announced the US would provide Israel with a $2.2 billion military aid program during the Yom Kippur War.[15] Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil producing nations in OPEC would follow suit the next day.[15] While the other Arab nations lifted their oil embargoes on 18 March 1974,[15] the Gaddafi regime refused to do so.[16] As a consequence of such policies, Libya's oil production declined by half between 1970 and 1974, while revenues from oil exports more than quadrupled. Production continued to fall, bottoming out at an eleven-year low in 1975 at a time when the government was preparing to invest large amounts of petroleum revenues in other sectors of the economy. Thereafter, output stabilized at about two million barrels per day. Production and hence income declined yet again in the early 1980s because of the high price of Libyan crude and because recession in the industrialized world reduced demand for oil from all sources. Libya's Five-Year Economic and Social Transformation Plan (1976–80), announced in 1975, was programmed to pump US$20 billion into the development of a broad range of economic activities that would continue to provide income after Libya's petroleum reserves had been exhausted. Agriculture was slated to receive the largest share of aid in an effort to make Libya self-sufficient in food and to help keep the rural population on the land. Industry, of which there was little before the revolution, also received a significant amount of funding in the first development plan as well as in the second, launched in 1981. Transition to the Jamahiriya (1973–1977)[edit] The "remaking of Libyan society" contained in Gaddafi's ideological visions began to be put into practice formally beginning in 1973 with a so-called cultural or popular revolution. This revolution was designed to combat bureaucratic inefficiency, lack of public interest and participation in the subnational governmental system, and problems of national political coordination. In an attempt to instill revolutionary fervor into his compatriots and to involve large numbers of them in political affairs, Gaddafi urged them to challenge traditional authority and to take over and run government organs themselves. The instrument for doing this was the people's committee. Within a few months, such committees were found all across Libya. They were functionally and geographically based and eventually became responsible for local and regional administration. People's committees were established in such widely divergent organizations as universities, private business firms, government bureaucracies, and the broadcast media. Geographically based committees were formed at the governorate, municipal, and zone (lowest) levels. Seats on the people's committees at the zone level were filled by direct popular election; members so elected could then be selected for service at higher levels. By mid-1973 estimates of the number of people's committees ranged above 2,000. In the scope of their administrative and regulatory tasks and the method of their members' selection, the people's committees purportedly embodied the concept of direct democracy that Gaddafi propounded in the first volume of The Green Book, which appeared in 1976. The same concept lay behind proposals to create a new political structure composed of "people's congresses." The centerpiece of the new system was the General People's Congress (GPC), a national representative body intended to replace the RCC. Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)[edit] al-Jamāhīrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Lībīyah ash-Sha‘bīyah al-Ishtirākīyah al-‘Uẓmá الله أكبر "Allahu Akbar" (English: "God is Great") On 2 March 1977, the GPC, at Gaddafi's behest, adopted the "Declaration of the Establishment of the People's Authority"[18][19] and proclaimed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (Arabic: الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية[20] al-Jamāhīrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Lībīyah ash-Sha‘bīyah al-Ishtirākīyah). In the official political philosophy of Gaddafi's state, the "Jamahiriya" system was unique to the country, although it was presented as the materialization of the Third International Theory, proposed by Gaddafi to be applied to the entire Third World. Gaddafi was designated the "Leader" (Qā’id) of the Libyan state and was accorded the honorifics "Brotherly Leader and Guide to the First of September Great Revolution of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". The Libyan government stated that the Libyan Jamahiriya was a direct democracy without any political parties, governed by its populace through local popular councils and communes (named Basic People's Congresses). Official rhetoric disdained the idea of a nation state, tribal bonds remaining primary, even within the ranks of the military of Libya.[21] Etymology[edit] Jamahiriya (Arabic: جماهيرية jamāhīrīyah) is an Arabic term generally translated as "state of the masses"; Lisa Anderson [22] has suggested "peopledom" or "state of the masses" as a reasonable approximations of the meaning of the term as intended by Gaddafi. The term does not occur in this sense in Muammar Gaddafi's Green Book of 1975. The nisba-adjective jamāhīrīyah ("mass-, "of the masses") occurs only in the third part, published in 1981, in the phrase إن الحركات التاريخية هي الحركات الجماهيرية (Inna al-ḥarakāt at-tārīkhīyah hiya al-ḥarakāt al-jamāhīrīyah), translated in the English edition as "Historic movements are mass movements". The word jamāhīrīyah was derived from jumhūrīyah, which is the usual Arabic translation of "republic". It was coined by changing the component jumhūr — "public" — to its plural form, jamāhīr — "the masses". Thus, it is similar to the term People's Republic. It is often left untranslated in English, with the long-form name thus rendered as Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. After weathering the 1986 bombing by the Reagan administration, Gaddafi added the specifier "Great" (العظمى al-‘Uẓmá) to the official name of the country. Gaddafi as permanent "Leader of the Revolution"[edit] The changes in Libyan leadership since 1976 culminated in March 1979, when the GPC declared that the "vesting of power in the masses" and the "separation of the state from the revolution" were complete. Gaddafi relinquished his duties as general secretary of the GPC, being known thereafter as "the leader" or "Leader of the Revolution." He remained supreme commander of the armed forces. His replacement was Abdallah Ubaydi, who in effect had been prime minister since 1979. The GPC also adopted resolutions designating Gaddafi as its general secretary and creating the General Secretariat of the GPC, comprising the remaining members of the defunct RCC. It also appointed the General People's Committee, which replaced the Council of Ministers, its members now called secretaries rather than ministers. The government was divided into two parts. The "Jamahiriya sector" composed the General People's Congress, the General People's Committee, and the local Basic People's Congresses. It was overseen by the "revolutionary sector," headed by Gaddafi and the surviving members of the RCC. They held office owing to their role in the 1969 coup--officially called "the Revolution"--and were therefore not subject to election. They oversaw the "revolutionary committees," which were nominally grass-roots organizations that helped keep the people engaged. As a result, although Gaddafi held no formal office after 1980, he retained absolute control of the government and the country. Administrative reforms[edit] All legislative and executive authority was vested in the GPC. This body, however, delegated most of its important authority to its general secretary and General Secretariat and to the General People's Committee. Gaddafi, as general secretary of the GPC, remained the primary decision maker, just as he had been when chairman of the RCC. In turn, all adults had the right and duty to participate in the deliberation of their local Basic People's Congress (BPC), whose decisions were passed up to the GPC for consideration and implementation as national policy. The BPCs were in theory the repository of ultimate political authority and decision making, being the embodiment of what Gaddafi termed direct "people's power." The 1977 declaration and its accompanying resolutions amounted to a fundamental revision of the 1969 constitutional proclamation, especially with respect to the structure and organization of the government at both national and subnational levels. Continuing to revamp Libya's political and administrative structure, Gaddafi introduced yet another element into the body politic. Beginning in 1977, "revolutionary committees" were organized and assigned the task of "absolute revolutionary supervision of people's power"; that is, they were to guide the people's committees, "raise the general level of political consciousness and devotion to revolutionary ideals". In reality, Gaddafi's revolutionary committees were used to survey the population and repress any political opposition to Gaddafi's autocratic rule. Reportedly 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Ba'athist Iraq or North Korea.[24] Filled with politically astute zealots, the ubiquitous revolutionary committees in 1979 assumed control of BPC elections. Although they were not official government organs, the revolutionary committees became another mainstay of the domestic political scene. As with the people's committees and other administrative innovations since the revolution, the revolutionary committees fit the pattern of imposing a new element on the existing subnational system of government rather than eliminating or consolidating already existing structures. By the late 1970s, the result was an unnecessarily complex system of overlapping jurisdictions in which cooperation and coordination among different elements were compromised by ill-defined grants of authority and responsibility. The RCC was formally dissolved and the government was again reorganized into people's committees. A new General People's Committee (cabinet) was selected, each of its "secretaries" becoming head of a specialized people's committee; the exceptions were the "secretariats" of petroleum, foreign affairs, and heavy industry, where there were no people's committees. A proposal was also made to establish a "people's army" by substituting a national militia, being formed in the late 1970s, for the national army. Although the idea surfaced again in early 1982, it did not appear to be close to implementation. Economic reforms[edit] Remaking of the economy was parallel with the attempt to remold political and social institutions. Until the late 1970s, Libya's economy was mixed, with a large role for private enterprise except in the fields of oil production and distribution, banking, and insurance. But according to volume two of Gaddafi's Green Book, which appeared in 1978, private retail trade, rent, and wages were forms of "exploitation" that should be abolished. Instead, workers' self-management committees and profit participation partnerships were to function in public and private enterprises. A property law was passed that forbade ownership of more than one private dwelling, and Libyan workers took control of a large number of companies, turning them into state-run enterprises. Retail and wholesale trading operations were replaced by state-owned "people's supermarkets", where Libyans in theory could purchase whatever they needed at low prices. By 1981 the state had also restricted access to individual bank accounts to draw upon privately held funds for government projects. Gaddafi's efforts also improved the average health of Libyans. In 2009, the CIA's World Factbook showed the average life expectancy of a Libyan to be 77 years (only one year less than that of an American citizen). However, the measures created resentment and opposition among the newly dispossessed. The latter joined those already alienated, some of whom had begun to leave the country. By 1982, perhaps 50,000 to 100,000 Libyans had gone abroad; because many of the emigrants were among the enterprising and better educated Libyans, they represented a significant loss of managerial and technical expertise. The government also built a trans-Sahara water pipeline from major aquifers to both a network of reservoirs and the towns of Tripoli, Sirte and Benghazi in 2006–2007, ending the city's water shortages, caused by the rising urban population.[25] It is part of the Great Manmade River project, started in 1984. It is pumping large resources of water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System to both urban populations and new irrigation projects around the country.[26] Libya continued to be plagued with a shortage of skilled labor, which had to be imported along with a broad range of consumer goods, both paid for with petroleum income. This same oil revenue, however, made possible a substantial improvement in the lives of virtually all Libyans. During the 1970s, the government succeeded in making major improvements in the general welfare of its citizens. By the 1980s Libyans enjoyed much improved housing and education, comprehensive social welfare services, and general standards of health that were among the highest in Africa. Military[edit] Wars against Chad and Egypt[edit] As early as 1969, Gaddafi waged a campaign against Chad. Part of his hostility was apparently because Chadian President François Tombalbaye was Christian.[27] Libya was also involved in a sometimes violent territorial dispute with neighbouring Chad over the Aouzou Strip, which Libya occupied in 1973. This dispute eventually led to the Libyan invasion of the country and to a conflict that was ended by a ceasefire reached in 1987. The dispute was in the end settled peacefully in June 1994 when Libya withdrew troops from Chad due to a judgement of the International Court of Justice issued on 13 February 1994.[28] Libyan military adventures in Chad failed when the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the Aozou Strip in northern Chad began in 1976 was finally repulsed in 1987, when extensive U.S. and French help to Chadian rebel forces and the government headed by former Defence Minister Hissein Habré finally led to a Chadian victory in the so-called Toyota War. Gaddafi dispatched his military across the border to Egypt in 1977, but Egyptian forces fought back in the Libyan–Egyptian War, both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the President of Algeria Houari Boumediène.[29] Islamic Legion[edit] In 1972, Gaddafi created the Islamic Legion as a tool to unify and Arabize the region. The priority of the Legion was first Chad, and then Sudan. In Darfur, a western province of Sudan, Gaddafi supported the creation of the Arab Gathering (Tajammu al-Arabi), which according to Gérard Prunier was "a militantly racist and pan-Arabist organization which stressed the 'Arab' character of the province."[30] The two organizations shared members and a source of support, and the distinction between the two is often ambiguous. This Islamic Legion was mostly composed of immigrants from poorer Sahelian countries,[31] but also, according to a source, thousands of Pakistanis who had been recruited in 1981 with the false promise of civilian jobs once in Libya.[32] Generally speaking, the Legion's members were immigrants who had gone to Libya with no thought of fighting wars, and had been provided with inadequate military training and had sparse commitment. A French journalist, speaking of the Legion's forces in Chad, observed that they were "foreigners, Arabs or Africans, mercenaries in spite of themselves, wretches who had come to Libya hoping for a civilian job, but found themselves signed up more or less by force to go and fight in an unknown desert."[31] At the beginning of the 1987 Libyan offensive into Chad, it maintained a force of 2,000 in Darfur. The nearly continuous cross-border raids that resulted greatly contributed to a separate ethnic conflict within Darfur that killed about 9,000 people between 1985 and 1988.[33] Janjaweed, a group that is accused by the U.S. of carrying out a genocide in Darfur in the 2000s, emerged in 1988 and some of its leaders are former legionnaires.[34] Attempts at nuclear and chemical weapons[edit] In 1972 Gaddafi tried to get the People's Republic of China to sell him a nuclear bomb. He then tried to get a bomb from Pakistan, but Pakistan severed its ties before it succeeded in building a bomb.[35] In 1978, Gaddafi turned to Pakistan's rival, India, for help building its own nuclear bomb.[36] In July 1978, Libya and India signed a memorandum of understanding to cooperate in peaceful applications of nuclear energy as part of India's Atom of Peace policy.[36] In 1991, then Prime Minister Navaz Sharif paid a state visit to Libya to hold talks on the promotion of a Free Trade Agreement between Pakistan and Libya.[37] However, Gaddafi focused on demanding Pakistan's Prime Minister sell him a nuclear weapon, which surprised many of the Prime Minister's delegation members and journalists.[37] When Prime minister Sharif refused Gaddafi's demand, Gaddafi disrespected him, calling him a "Corrupt politician", a term which insulted and surprised Sharif.[37] The Prime minister cancelled the talks and immediately returned to Pakistan and expelled the Libyan Ambassador from Pakistan.[37] Thailand reported its citizens had helped build storage facilities for nerve gas.[38] Germany sentenced a businessman, Jurgen Hippenstiel-Imhausen, to five years in prison for involvement in Libyan chemical weapons.[35][39] Inspectors from the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) verified in 2004 that Libya owned a stockpile of 23 metric tons of mustard gas and more than 1,300 metric tons of precursor chemicals.[40] Gulf of Sidra incidents and US air strikes[edit] When Libya was under pressure from international disputes, on 19 August 1981, a naval dogfight occurred over the Gulf of Sidra in the Mediterranean Sea. U.S. F-14 Tomcat jets fired anti-aircraft missiles against a formation of Libyan fighter jets in this dogfight and shot down two Libyan Su-22 Fitter attack aircraft. This naval action was a result of claiming the territory and losses from the previous incident. Again, a second dogfight happened on 4 January 1989; U.S. carrier-based jets also shot down two Libyan MiG-23 Flogger-Es in the same place, adding up to a disastrous loss of the enemy's air force. A similar action took place on 23 March 1986; while patrolling the Gulf, U.S. naval forces attacked a sizable enemy naval force and various SAM sites defending Gaddafi's territory. U.S. fighter jets and fighter-bombers destroyed SAM launching facilities and sank various naval vessels, killing 35 seamen. This was a reprisal for terrorist hijackings between June and December 1985. On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents bombed "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin, killing three and injuring 229. Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by several national intelligence agencies and more detailed information was retrieved four years later from Stasi archives. The Libyan agents who had carried out the operation, from the Libyan embassy in East Germany, were prosecuted by the reunited Germany in the 1990s.[41] In response to the discotheque bombing, joint United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps air-strikes took place against Libya on 15 April 1986 and code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon and known as the 1986 bombing of Libya. Air defenses, three army bases, and two airfields in Tripoli and Benghazi were bombed. The surgical strikes failed to kill Gaddafi but he lost a few dozen military officers. Gaddafi then spread propaganda how it had killed his "adopted daughter" and how victims had been all "civilians". Despite the variations of the stories, the campaign was successful, and a large proportion of the Western press reported the government's stories as facts.[42] Following the 1986 bombing of Libya, Gaddafi intensified his support for anti-American government organizations. He financed Jeff Forts Al-Rukn faction of the Chicago Black P. Stones gang, in their emergence as an indigenous anti-American armed revolutionary movement.[43] Members of Al-Rukn were arrested in 1986 for preparing to conduct strikes on behalf of Libya, including blowing up U.S. government buildings and bringing down an airplane; the Al-Rukn defendants were convicted in 1987 of "offering to commit bombings and assassinations on U.S. soil for Libyan payment."[43] In 1986, Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests. He began financing the IRA again in 1986, to retaliate against the British for harboring American fighter planes.[44] Gaddafi announced that he had won a spectacular military victory over the U.S. and the country was officially renamed the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah".[45] However, his speech appeared devoid of passion and even the "victory" celebrations appeared unusual. Criticism of Gaddafi by ordinary Libyan citizens became more bold, such as defacing of Gaddafi posters.[45] The raids against Libyan military had brought the government to its weakest point in 17 years.[45] International relations[edit] Africa[edit] Gaddafi was a close supporter of Ugandan President Idi Amin.[46] Gaddafi sent thousands of troops to fight against Tanzania on behalf of Idi Amin. About 600 Libyan soldiers lost their lives attempting to defend the collapsing presidency of Amin. Amin exiled from Uganda to Libya before settling in Saudi Arabia.[47] Gaddafi also aided Jean-Bédel Bokassa, the Emperor of the Central African Empire.[47][48] He also intervened militarily in the renewed Central African Republic in 2001 to protect his ally Ange-Félix Patassé. Patassé signed a deal giving Libya a 99-year lease to exploit all of that country's natural resources, including uranium, copper, diamonds, and oil.[49] Gaddafi supported Soviet protégé Haile Mariam Mengistu.[48] Gaddafi opposed apartheid in South Africa and forged a good relationship with Nelson Mandela, who named his grandson after Gaddafi and called Gaddafi one of the 20th century’s greatest freedom fighters, and insisted the eventual collapse of the apartheid system owed much to Gaddafi and Libyan support.[50][51] In turn, Mandela later played a key role in helping Gaddafi gain mainstream acceptance in the Western world later in the 1990s.[52][53] Over the years, Gaddafi came to be seen as a hero in much of Africa due to his revolutionary image.[54] Gaddafi was a strong supporter of Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe.[55] Gaddafi's World Revolutionary Center (WRC) near Benghazi become a training center for groups backed by Gaddafi.[49] Graduates in power as of 2011 include Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso and Idriss Déby of Chad.[56] Gaddafi trained and supported Liberian warlord-president Charles Taylor, who was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict in Sierra Leone.[57] Foday Sankoh, the founder of Revolutionary United Front, was also Gaddafi's graduate. According to Douglas Farah, "The amputation of the arms and legs of men, women, and children as part of a scorched-earth campaign was designed to take over the region's rich diamond fields and was backed by Gaddafi, who routinely reviewed their progress and supplied weapons".[56] Gaddafi's strong military support and finances gained him allies across the continent. He had himself crowned with the title "King of Kings of Africa" in 2008, in the presence of over 200 African traditional rulers and kings, although his views on African political and military unification received a lukewarm response from their governments.[58][59][60] His 2009 forum for African kings was canceled by the Ugandan hosts, who believed that traditional rulers discussing politics would lead to instability.[61] On 1 February 2009, a 'coronation ceremony' in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, was held to coincide with the 53rd African Union Summit, at which he was elected head of the African Union for the year.[62] Gaddafi told the assembled African leaders: "I shall continue to insist that our sovereign countries work to achieve the United States of Africa."[63] In 1986, 2000, and the months prior to the 2011 civil war, Gaddafi announced plans for a unified African gold dinar currency, to challenge the dominance of the US$ and Euro currencies. The African dinar would have been measured directly in terms of gold.[64][65] Gaddafi and international terrorism[edit] In 1971 Gaddafi warned that if France opposes Libyan military occupation of Chad, he will use all weapons in the war against France including the "revolutionary weapon".[45] On 11 June 1972, Gaddafi announced that any Arab wishing to volunteer for Palestinian terrorist groups "can register his name at any Libyan embassy will be given adequate training for combat". He also promised financial support for attacks.[66] On 7 October 1972, Gaddafi praised the Lod Airport massacre, executed by the communist Japanese Red Army, and demanded Palestinian terrorist groups to carry out similar attacks.[66] Reportedly, Gaddafi was a major financier of the "Black September Movement" which perpetrated the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics.[2] In 1973 the Irish Naval Service intercepted the vessel Claudia in Irish territorial waters, which carried Soviet arms from Libya to the Provisional IRA.[67][68] In 1976 after a series of terror activities by the Provisional IRA, Gaddafi announced that "the bombs which are convulsing Britain and breaking its spirit are the bombs of Libyan people. We have sent them to the Irish revolutionaries so that the British will pay the price for their past deeds".[66] In the Philippines, Libya backed the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, which continues to carry out acts of violence in an effort to establish a separatist Islamic state in the southern Philippines.[69] Libya has also supported the New People's Army[70] and Libyan agents were seen meeting with the Communist Party of the Philippines.[71] Islamist terrorist group Abu Sayyaf has also been suspected of receiving Libyan funding.[72] Gaddafi also became a strong supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organization, which support ultimately harmed Libya's relations with Egypt, when in 1979 Egypt pursued a peace agreement with Israel. As Libya's relations with Egypt worsened, Gaddafi sought closer relations with the Soviet Union. Libya became the first country outside the Soviet bloc to receive the supersonic MiG-25 combat fighters, but Soviet-Libyan relations remained relatively distant. Gaddafi also sought to increase Libyan influence, especially in states with an Islamic population, by calling for the creation of a Saharan Islamic state and supporting anti-government forces in sub-Saharan Africa. In the 1970s and the 1980s, this support was sometimes so freely given that even the most unsympathetic groups could obtain Libyan support; often the groups represented ideologies far removed from Gaddafi's own. Gaddafi's approach often tended to confuse international opinion. In October 1981 Egypt's President Anwar Sadat was assassinated. Gaddafi applauded the murder and remarked that it was a "punishment".[73] In December 1981, the US State Department invalidated US passports for travel to Libya, and in March 1982, the U.S. declared a ban on the import of Libyan oil.[74] Gaddafi reportedly spent hundreds of millions of the government's money on training and arming Sandinistas in Nicaragua.[75] Daniel Ortega, the President of Nicaragua, was his ally. In April 1984, Libyan refugees in London protested against execution of two dissidents. Communications intercepted by MI5 show that Tripoli ordered its diplomats to direct violence against the demonstrators. Libyan diplomats shot at 11 people and killed British policewoman Yvonne Fletcher. The incident led to the breaking off of diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Libya for over a decade.[76] After December 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, which killed 19 and wounded around 140, Gaddafi indicated that he would continue to support the Red Army Faction, the Red Brigades, and the Irish Republican Army as long as European countries support anti-Gaddafi Libyans.[77] The Foreign Minister of Libya also called the massacres "heroic acts".[78] In 1986, Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests.[79] On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents were alleged with bombed "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin, killing three people and injuring 229 people who were spending evening there. Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by Western intelligence. More-detailed information was retrieved years later when Stasi archives were investigated by the reunited Germany. Libyan agents who had carried out the operation from the Libyan embassy in East Germany were prosecuted by reunited Germany in the 1990s.[80] In May 1987, Australia broke off relations with Libya because of its role in fueling violence in Oceania.[70][81][82] Under Gaddafi, Libya had a long history of supporting the Irish Republican Army. In late 1987 French authorities stopped a merchant vessel, the MV Eksund, which was delivering a 150-ton Libyan arms shipment to the IRA.[83] In Britain, Gaddafi's best-known political subsidiary is the Workers Revolutionary Party.[82][84] Gaddafi fueled a number of Islamist and communist groups in the Philippines, including the New People's Army of the Communist Party of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front.[24][69][70][72][77] In Indonesia, the Organisasi Papua Merdeka was a Libyan-backed militant group.[70] Vanuatu's ruling party enjoyed Libyan support.[70] In New Zealand, Libya attempted to radicalize Māoris.[70] In Australia, there were several cases of attempted radicalisation of Australian Aborigines, with individuals receiving paramilitary training in Libya. Libya put several left-wing unions on the Libyan payroll, such as the Food Preservers Union (FPU) and the Federated Confectioners Association of Australia (FCA). Labour Party politician Bill Hartley, the secretary of Libya-Australia friendship society, was long-term supporter of Gaddafi and Saddam Hussein.[70][81][82] In the 1980s, the Libyan government purchased advertisements in Arabic-language newspapers in Australia asking for Australian Arabs to join the military units of his worldwide struggle against imperialism. In part,because of this, Australia banned recruitment of foreign mercenaries in Australia.[82] Gaddafi developed a relationship with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, becoming acquainted with its leaders in meetings of revolutionary groups regularly hosted in Libya.[49][56] Some publications were financed by Gaddafi. The Socialist Labour League's Workers News was one such publication: "in among the routine denunciations of uranium mining and calls for greater trade union militancy would be a couple of pages extolling Gaddafi's fatuous and incoherent green book and the Libyan revolution."[82] International sanctions after the Lockerbie bombing (1992–2003)[edit] Libya was accused in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland; UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. UN Security Council resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in 1992 and 1993 obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the 1990s. The UN sanctions cut airline connections with the outer world, reduced diplomatic representation and prohibited the sale of military equipment. Oil-related sanctions were assessed by some as equally significant for their exceptions: thus sanctions froze Libya's foreign assets (but excluded revenue from oil and natural gas and agricultural commodities) and banned the sale to Libya of refinery or pipeline equipment (but excluded oil production equipment). Under the sanctions Libya's refining capacity eroded. Libya's role on the international stage grew less provocative after UN sanctions were imposed. In 1999, Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the Netherlands. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. UN sanctions against Libya were subsequently suspended. The full lifting of the sanctions, contingent on Libya's compliance with the remaining UNSCRs, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation, was passed 12 September 2003, explicitly linked to the release of up to $2.7 billion in Libyan funds to the families of the 1988 attack's 270 victims. In 2002, Gaddafi paid a ransom reportedly worth tens of millions of dollars to Abu Sayyaf, a Filipino Islamist militancy, to release a number of kidnapped tourists. He presented it as an act of goodwill to Western countries; nevertheless the money helped the group to expand its operation.[24] Normalization of international relations (2003–2010)[edit] In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism, and Gaddafi made significant strides in normalizing relations with western nations. He received various Western European leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to Brussels in April 2004. Libya responded in good faith to legal cases brought against it in U.S. courts for terrorist acts that predate its renunciation of violence. Claims for compensation in the Lockerbie bombing, LaBelle disco bombing, and UTA 772 bombing cases are ongoing. The U.S. rescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In late 2007, Libya was elected by the General Assembly to a nonpermanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for the 2008–2009 term. Currently, Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara is being fought in Libya's portion of the Sahara Desert. Purification laws[edit] In 1994, the General People's Congress approved the introduction of "purification laws" to be put into effect, punishing theft by the amputation of limbs, and fornication and adultery by flogging.[85] Under the Libyan constitution, homosexual relations are punishable by up to five years in jail.[86] Opposition, coups and revolts [edit] Throughout his long rule, Gaddafi had to defend his position against opposition and coup attempts, emerging both from the military and from the general population. He reacted to these threats on one hand by maintaining a careful balance of power between the forces in the country, and by brutal repression on the other. Gaddafi successfully balanced the various tribes of Libya one against the other by distributing his favours. To forestall a military coup, he deliberately weakened the Libyan Armed Forces by regularly rotating officers, relying instead on loyal elite troops such as his Revolutionary Guard Corps, the special-forces Khamis Brigade and his personal Amazonian Guard. Political repression and "Green Terror"[edit] The term "Green Terror" is used to describe campaigns of violence and intimidation against opponents of Gaddafi, particularly in reference to wave of oppression during Libya's cultural revolution, or to the wave of highly publicized hangings of regime opponents that began with the Execution of Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy. Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973.[24] Reportedly 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees[citation needed], a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong Il's North Korea. The surveillance took place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.[24] Following an abortive attempt to replace English foreign language education with Russian,[87] in recent years English has been taught in Libyan schools from a primary level, and students have access to English-language media.[88] However, one protester in 2011 described the situation as: "None of us can speak English or French. He kept us ignorant and blindfolded".[89] Prisons are run with little or no documentation of the inmate population or of such basic data as prisoner's crime and sentence.[24] According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa.[90] Opposition to the Jamahiriya reforms[edit] During the late 1970s, some exiled Libyans[who?] formed active opposition groups. In early 1979, Gaddafi warned opposition leaders to return home immediately or face "liquidation." When caught, they could face being sentenced and hanged in public.[91] It is the Libyan people's responsibility to liquidate such scums who are distorting Libya's image abroad.—Gaddafi talking about exiles in 1982.[45] Gaddafi employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of his critics around the world. Amnesty International listed at least twenty-five assassinations between 1980 and 1987.[24][81] Gaddafi's agents were active in the U.K., where many Libyans had sought asylum. After Libyan diplomats shot at 15 anti-Gaddafi protesters from inside the Libyan embassy's first floor and killed a British policewoman, the U.K. broke off relations with Gaddafi's government as a result of the incident. Even the U.S. could not protect dissidents from Libya. In 1980, a Libyan agent attempted to assassinate dissident Faisal Zagallai, a doctoral student at the University of Colorado at Boulder. The bullets left Zagallai partially blinded.[92] A defector was kidnapped and executed in 1990 just before he was about to receive U.S. citizenship.[24] Gaddafi asserted in June 1984 that killings could be carried out even when the dissidents were on pilgrimage in the holy city of Mecca. In August 1984, one Libyan plot was thwarted in Mecca.[45] As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for heads of critics, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.[93] There is indication that between the years of 2002 and 2007, Libya's Gaddafi-era intelligence service had a partnership with western spy organizations including MI6 and the CIA, who voluntarily provided information on Libyan dissidents in the United States and Canada in exchange for using Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions. This was done despite Libya's history of murdering dissidents abroad, and with full knowledge of Libya's brutal mistreatment of detainees.[94][95][96] Political unrest during the 1990s[edit] In the 1990s, Gaddafi's rule was threatened by militant Islamism. In October 1993, there was an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Gaddafi by elements of the Libyan army. In response, Gaddafi used repressive measures, using his personal Revolutionary Guard Corps to crush riots and Islamist activism during the 1990s. Nevertheless, Cyrenaica between 1995 and 1998 was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops.[97] 2011 civil war and collapse of Gaddafi's government[edit] A renewed serious threat to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya came in February 2011, with the Libyan Civil War. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests in Benghazi on 15 February. Inspiration for the unrest is attributed to the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, connecting it with the wider Arab Spring.[98] On 22 February, The Economist described the events as an "uprising that is trying to reclaim Libya from the world's longest-ruling autocrat."[99] Gaddafi had referred to the opposition variously as "rats", "cockroaches", and "drugged kids" and accused them of being part of al-Qaeda.[100][101] In the east, the National Transitional Council was established in Benghazi. Gaddafi's son, Khamis, controlled the well-armed Khamis Brigade and alleged to possess large number of mercenaries.[102][103] Some Libyan officials had sided with the protesters and requested help from the international community to bring an end to the massacres of civilians. The government in Tripoli had lost control of half of Libya by the end of February,[104][105] but as of mid-September Gaddafi remained in control of several parts of Fezzan. On 21 September, the forces of NTC captured Sabha, the largest city of Fezzan, reducing the control of Gaddafi to limited and isolated areas. Many nations condemned Gaddafi's government over its use of force against civilians. Several other nations allied with Gaddafi called the uprising and intervention a "plot" by Western powers to loot Libya's resources.[106] The United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to enforce a no-fly zone over Libyan airspace on 17 March 2011.[107] The UN resolution authorised air-strikes against Libyan ground troops and warships that appeared to threaten civilians.[108] On 19 March, the no-fly zone enforcement began, with French aircraft undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the British Royal Navy.[109] Eventually, the aircraft carriers USS Enterprise and Charles de Gaulle arrived off the coast and provided the enforcers with a rapid-response capability. U.S. forces named their part of the enforcement action Operation Odyssey Dawn, meant to "deny the Libyan regime from using force against its own people".[110] said U.S. Vice Admiral William E. Gortney. More than 110 "Tomahawk" cruise missiles were fired in an initial assault by U.S. warships and a British submarine against Libyan air defences.[111] The last government holdouts in Sirte finally fell to anti-Gaddafi fighters on 20 October 2011, and, following the controversial death of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya was officially declared "liberated" on 23 October 2011, ending 42 years of Gaddafi's leadership in Libya.[112] Political scientist Riadh Sidaoui suggested in October 2011 that Gaddafi "has created a great void for his exercise of power: there is no institution, no army, no electoral tradition in the country", and as a result, the period of transition would be difficult in Libya.[113] See also[edit] - Day of Revenge (Libya) - Politics of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi - Foreign relations of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi - Human rights in Libya - Institutions of governance under Gaddafi - Basic People's Congress (country subdivision) - Basic People's Congress (political) - General People's Committee - General People's Congress (Libya) - Post-Gaddafi References[edit] - ^ a b "Libya: History". 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External links[edit] - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm - Qaddafi, Libya, and the United States from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives - The Road to people's authority: a collection of historical speeches and documents Includes the initial RCC communique and the "Declaration of Peoples Authority". - Ancient - Roman - Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica - Spanish - Order of Saint John - Ottoman - Italian colony - Italian Libya - Allied occupation - Kingdom - Libya under Gaddafi - State of Libya - Libyan Civil Wars - History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi - Domestic politics - Foreign relations - Third International Theory - Escape to Hell - The Green Book - Death - Fathia Khaled (1969–1971 divorced) - Safia Farkash (1971–2011) - Muhammad Gaddafi (first son) - Saif al-Islam Gaddafi (second son) - Al-Saadi Gaddafi (third son) - Mutassim Gaddafi (fourth son) - Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi (fifth son) - Ayesha Gaddafi (daughter) - Saif al-Arab Gaddafi (sixth son) - Khamis Gaddafi (seventh son) - Former polities of the Cold War - Former countries in Africa - States and territories established in 1969 - States and territories disestablished in 1977 - States and territories established in 1977 - States and territories disestablished in 2011 - History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi - 20th century in Libya - 21st century in Libya