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Кабул - Вижте пояснителната страница за други значения на Кабул. Кабул (на персийски: کابل Kābul; /kɑː'bol/) (на пущунски: کابل /kɑbəl/) е столицата и най-големият град в Афганистан, с население около 2,5 милиона души. Точният брой на живеещите в града не може да бъде определен, но общото население на провинция Кабул е в порядъка между 3,5 - 5 милиона души. Градът е икономическият и културен център на страната. Разположен е на 1 790 метра надморска височина, в тясна долина, обградена от възвишенията на Хиндукуш и течението на река Кабул. Чрез огромна кръгова магистрала, която се простира в цялата страна, столичният град е свързан с Ганзи, Кандахар, Херат и Мазари Шариф. Шосета свързват Кабул и с Пакистан на изток и югоизток и Таджикистан на север. Основното производство в Кабул се концетрира около оръжейната индустрия, облеклото, мебелната промишленост и отглеждането на захарно цвекло, но от 1978 г. насам Афганистан е в почти непрестанно военно положение, което е ограничило икономиката до минимум. Историята на Кабул се простира в над 3,000 години, и заради стратегическото си положение като част от търговските пътища в Южна и Централна Азия, много битки са се водили за влиянието над града. През 1504, Бабур завладява Кабул и го използва като свой център за действия до 1526, подготвяйки своя план за завладяването на Индия. През 1776, Тимур Шах Дурани обявява Кабул за столицата на съвременен Афганистан. След инвазията на Съветските войски през 80те досега, градът е сцена на усилени военни действия и постоянна битка със съпротивата. Съдържание История[редактиране | edit source] Начало[редактиране | edit source] Предполага се, че Кабул е създаден между 2000 и 1500 година пр.хр. В Риг-веда (написана между 1700-1100 пр.Хр.) се споменава думата Kubhā, която най-вероятно се отнася за река Кабул. Птолемей използва името Кабура, което се свързва със селище създадено от ахеменидите около 400 г.пр.Хр. Александър Македонски завладява Кабул по времето на похода му срещу Персийската империя. По-късно градът влиза в пределите на Селевкидската империя, преди да стане част от Маурийската империя. Близо до Кабул бактрите създават град Паропамисаде, който неколкократно минава под властта на маури и бактри. В началото на 2 век пр.Хр. Гръко-бактрийското царство превзема Кабул, който по това време е под маурийска власт. Към средата на 2 в.пр.Хр. градът става част от Индо-гръцкото царство. Към средата на 1 в.пр.Хр. индо-скитите прокуждат индо-гърците, но един век по-късно губят града след победата на Кушанската империя. Кабул остава под кушанска власт до 3 в.сл.Хр. и е една от двете столици на кушаните. Около 230 г.сл.Хр. кушаните са победени от Сасанидската империя и са изместени от сасанидски васали познати като кушаншани или индо-сасаниди. През 420 г. кушаншаните са прокудени от Афганистан от кидаритите, които към 460 г. са изместени от ефталитите. През 565 ефталитите са победени от коалиралите се тюрско-персийски войски, а после става част от шахийската държава Каприса, която се задържа още около век. Средни векове[редактиране | edit source] През 674 ислямската инвация достига територията на съвременен Афганистан. През 871 въпреки георичната съпротива от страна на хиндушахите Кабул е завладян и Я'куб бин Лаит ас-Сафар не налага исляма в Кабулистан. През следващите векове градът многократно е завладян от различни нашественици: саманиди, газнавиди, гориди, тимуриди, моголи, дурани и баракзаи. През 1220 ордите на Чингиз Хан достигат пределите на Афганистан и много бързо цялата съвременна територия на държавата минава под монголски контрол. Предполага се, че скоро след това градът започва да се нарича Кабул. За това свидетелстват пътеписите на мароканския пътешественик Ибн Батута, който посещава Кабул през 1333 и пише: През втората половина на 14 век Кабул се развива като търговски център под управлението на Тимур, който сключва брак със сестрата на управника на града по това време. Но с отслабването на властта на Тимуридската династия, през 1504 градът е завладян от Бабур и е обявен за столица на неговите владения. Нова история[редактиране | edit source] Персийският шах Надир атакува и пленява Кабул през 1738, но девет години по-късно е убит. Ахмад Шах Дурани, афганистански военен командир и личен телоохранител на Надир, заема трона през 1747 и налага пущунска власт и доразширява новата си Афганистанска империя. Неговият син Тимур Шах Дурани, след като наследява властта, премества столицата от Кандахар в Кабул през 1776. През 1793 Тимур Шах умира и е наследен от сина си Заман Шах Дурани. През 1826 Дост Мохамед Хан предявява претенции върху кралството, но през 1839 то му е отнето от Британско-индийската армия, която поставя на негово място непопулярния сред народа Шах Шуджа, който е политическа марионетка. Местно въстание от 1841 става причина за загубата на британската мисия в Афганистан и последвалото клане на Елфинстонската армия, в което около 16,000 души, включително и цивилни, намират смъртта си при отстъплението си от Кабул към Джелалабад. Година по-късно британците се завръщат, плячкосвайки крепостта Бала Хисар като отмъщение преди да се приберат обратно в Индия. Впоследствие Дост Мохамед се завръща на трона. Британците отново атакуват Кабул през 1878, когато той е под управлението на Шер Али Хан, но британското население е отново избито. На следващата година британците отново нападат града предвождани от генерал Фредерик Робъртс, частично унищожавайки Бала Хисар, но след това напускат оставяйки Амир Абдур Рахман да управлява кралството. В началото на 20 век крал Аманула Хан заема властта и прави редица реформи, сред които електрифицирането на града и създаването на училища за момичета. През 1919, след Третата Англо-Афганистанка война, Аманула обявява независимостта на странаа от външни намеси в джамията Еиджах. През 1929 Аманула Хан напуска Кабул заради местно въстания и брат му Надер Хан поема контрол. През 1933 крал Надер Хан е убит и престолът е зает от 19-годишния му син Захир Шах, който е и най-дълго задържалият се крал на Афганистан. В началото на 30те Кабулският университет отваря врати, а през 40те Кабул започва бързо да се развива като индустриален център. През 50те улиците започват да се павират. Десетилетие по-късно Кабул активно се развива като космополитен град, пример за което е построяването на първия за Централна Азия магазин от веригата „Marks and Spencer”. Националната зоологическа градина е открита през 1967 и е поддържана с помощта на немски зоолози. Размирни години[редактиране | edit source] На 24 декември 1979 Съветските военни сили нахлуват в Афганистан и Червената армия окупира столицата. Те превръщат града в команден център на действията им по време на 10-годишния конфликт между подкрепяното от СССР местно правителство и бунтовниците муджахидини. На 30 януари 1989 американското посолство в Кабул е затворено. През 1992 градът попада в ръцете на местните военни след крахът на про-комунистическото правителство на Мохамед Наджибула. По време на разцеплението на силите във враджуващи фракции градът търпи сериозни поражения. През 1993 електричеството и течащата вода са напълно прекъснати. По това време военните сили на Бурханудин Рабани, оглавяващ Джамиат-и-Ислами, поемат контрол над града, но фракцията на номиналния министър-председател Гулбудин Хекматяр Хезб-и-Ислами започва постепенно отцепване на райони от града, което продължава до 1996. Кабул е раздробен на зони, в които се води ожесточена борба между Джамиат-и-Ислами, Адбул Рашид Достум и политическата фракция Хезбе Уахдат. Жертвите сред мирното население са десетки хиляди, а мнозина напускат града. По данни на Обединените нации около 90% от всички сгради в Кабул са разрушени по време на тези тежки размирици. На 26 септември 1996 Кабул е окончателно завзет от талибаните, които публично линчуват и екзекутират бившия президент Наджибула и неговия брат. С окупирането на столицата талибаните слагат край на битките между враждуващите групи. Бурханудин Рабани, Гулбудин Хекматяр, Абдул Рашид Достум, Ахмед Шах Масуд, всички водачи на различни фракции, избягват от града. Почти пет години след началото на талибанския режим през октомври 2001 САЩ нахлуват в Афганистан. През следващите месеци талибаните напускат Кабул след интензивните бомбардировки над града от страна на американските военновъздушни сили. Същевременно Афганистанкият Северен Алианс (бивши муджахидини) постепенно възвръщат контрол над града. На 20 декември 2001 Кабул става столица на Афганистанската преходна администрация, която се трансформира в сегашното афганистанско правителство. То се ръководи от Хамид Карзай, който от своя страна е подкрепян от Щатите. Климат[редактиране | edit source] Кабул има полупустинен климат с концентрация на валежите през зимата (под формата на сняг) и през пролетните месеци. Летата траят от юни до септември, като най-високите температури не надвишат 30°-35°, а влага е изключително ниска. Есенните месеци са октомври и ноември и температурните максимуми тогава са в порядъка 15°-28° без съществени валежи. Зимите са сурови, снежни и дълги и траят от декември до март. Пролетта в Кабул настъпва в края на март, когато е и най-влажният период в годината със среди валежи от 68-72 mm/m2. Администрация[редактиране | edit source] Град Кабул е един от 15 окръга в провинция Кабул, а от своя страна столицата е разделена на 18 сектора. Всеки сектор включва по няколко квартали. През 2005 броят на секторите е увеличен от 11 на 18. За разлика от повечето градове, в Кабул има два отделни ръководителни съвета: областен и общински. Областният управител който е и губернатор на провинцията, се назначава от Министерството на вътрешните работи, и отговаря за административните и официалните проблеми в цялата провинция. Кметът на Кабул се избира пряко от президентът на Афганистан и отговаря за градоустройствените въпроси. Полицията и службите за сигурност спадат към областната управа и са под прякото подчинение на Министерството на вътрешните работи. Шефът на полицията се избира от Министъра на външните работи и отговаря за сигурността и спазването на закона на територията на Кабул. Сектори в Кабул - Шахри Нау (Новият град) - Уазир Акбар Хан - Макро Рианс (1, 2, 3 и 4) - Хаир Хана (1, 2 и 3) - Дащи Барши - Картей Сахи - Калай Уазир - Хушхал Хан - Афшар - Клола Пуща и Таймани - Картей Паруан - Картей Нау (Новият квартал) - Картей (3 & 4) - Дарул-Аман - Шехстуун - Шендауол - Шахри Кохна (Старият град) - Дех Бури - Биби Махруу Население[редактиране | edit source] Към 1 януари 2009 г. Населението на Кабул е 3,536,300 души. То отразява мулти-етническата, мулти-културната и мулти-религиозната същност на Афганистан. За момента не съществува официална държавна информация относно точната етническа структура на столичния град. Въпреки това персийско-говорещите са реалното мнозинство в Кабул, като сунитите таджики съставляват 45% от населението, превръщайки ги в най-голямата етническа група. Шиитите хазари са с дял от 25% и са втори по многобройност. Пущините, също сунити, формират най-важната и най-силната малцинствена група заради силното им присъствие в афганистанския политически живот и военна структура. В Кабул има и сравнително големи малцинствени групи от узбеки и туркмени. В града живеят големи общности на балочи, пашаи, афгански сикхи и афгански индуси. Транспорт[редактиране | edit source] Национално летище Кабул служи като основният въздухоплавателен център в Афганистан. Летището е дом на националния афганистански авиопревозвач Ариана, както и на Кам Еър, Памир Еъруейс и Сафи Еъруейс. Страната има въздушен обмен с Пакистан, Иран, Индия и още няколко държави, които осъществяват полети до Кабул. Нов международен терминал, построен от японското правителство, е пуснат в експлоатация през 2008. Той е първият от три терминала, които предстоят да бъдат построени след увеличаване на въздушния трафик в страната. Повечето пътници пристигат в Кабул с връзка през Дубай. Международното летище в Кабул служи и като база на Афганистанските военновъздушни сили. НАТО също използва летището, въпреки че по-голямата им дейност е базирана в базата в Баграм, северно от Кабул. Столичният град се свързва с по-голямата част от страната чрез автобусни превози. В града има обществени автобуси, които обслужват повече градски и извънградски маршрути. В момента в движение има около 800 автобуса, но се очаква постепенно увеличаване на броя им. Планира се подновяването на тролейбусния транспорт, който е прекъснат след инвазията на Червената армия в края на 70те. Освен от автобуси Кабул се обслужва и от таксита, които грубо представляват една трета от всички автомобили в града. Броят на частните автомобили постепенно се увеличава, а в града има представителства на Ленд Роувър, БМВ, Тойота, Нисан и Хюндай. С подобряването на пътната инфраструктура все повече афганистанци купуват автомобили. Газстанциите и бензиностанциите се държат изцяло от частни търговци, които изкупуват горивата от Иран. Най-широко разпространеният транспорт все още остава велосипедът.
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Kabul Kabul (Kābul) (/ˈkɑːbəl/, /ˈkɑːbuːl/; Pashto: کابل Kābəl, IPA: [kɑˈbəl]; Persian: کابل, Kābol, IPA: [kɒːˈbol]),[3] also spelled Cabool, Caubul, Kabol, or Cabul, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan. According to a 2012 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,289,000,[2] which included Tajiks, Pashtuns, Hazaras and smaller numbers of Afghans belonging to other ethnic groups.[4] It is the 64th largest[5] and the 5th fastest growing city in the world.[6] Kabul is over 3,500 years old and many empires have controlled the city which is at a strategic location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia. It has been ruled by the Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Seleucid Empire, Maurya Empire, Kushan Empire, the Saffarids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids.[7] Later it was controlled by the Mughal Empire, Afsharid dynasty, Durrani Empire,[8] British Empire[9][10] and the Soviet Union. During the Soviet war in Afghanistan the city continued to be an economic center and was relatively safe. Between 1992 and 1996, a civil war between militant groups devastated Kabul and caused the deaths of thousands of civilians, serious damage to infrastructure, and an exodus of refugees.[11] Since the Taliban's fall from power in November 2001, the Afghan government and other countries have attempted to rebuild the city, although the Taliban insurgents have slowed the re-construction efforts and staged major attacks against the government, the NATO-led forces, foreign diplomats and Afghan civilians.[12] Contents - 1 History - 2 Geography, climate and environment - 3 Government and politics - 4 Demographics - 5 Economy - 6 Communications - 7 Health care - 8 Education - 9 Transportation - 10 Tourism - 11 Twin towns – sister cities - 12 See also - 13 References and footnotes - 14 Further reading - 15 External links History[edit] Antiquity[edit] The word "Kubhā" is mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism, and the Avesta, the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, refers to the Kabul River.[13] The Rigveda praises it as an ideal city, a vision of paradise set in the mountains.[14] The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids. There is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire,[citation needed] which may be the basis for the future use of the name Kabura (KάBoupa) by Ptolemy.[13] It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism.[citation needed] Alexander the Great explored the Kabul valley after his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC but no record has been made of Kabul, which may have been only a small town and not worth writing about.[7] The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was later given to the Indian Maurya Empire. "Alexander took these away from the Aryans and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants."[7]—Strabo, 64 BC–24 AD The Greco-Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC, then lost the city to their subordinates in the Indo-Greek Kingdom around the mid-2nd century BC. Indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BC, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later.[15] Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja (Kamboj).[16][17] It is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings. Hsuan Tsang refers to the name as Kaofu[18] in the 7th century AD, which is the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi who had migrated from across the Hindu Kush into the Kabul valley around the beginning of the Christian era.[19] It was conquered by Kushan Emperor Kujula Kadphises in about 45 AD and remained Kushan territory until at least the 3rd century AD.[20][21] The Kushans were Indo-European-speaking Tocharians from the Tarim Basin.[22] Around 230 AD, the Kushans were defeated by the Sassanid Empire and replaced by Sassanid vassals known as the Indo-Sassanids. During the Sassanian period, the city was referred to as "Kapul" in Pahlavi scripts.[13] In 420 AD the Indo-Sassanids were driven out of Afghanistan by the Xionite tribe known as the Kidarites, who were then replaced in the 460s by the Hephthalites. It became part of the surviving Turk Shahi Kingdom of Kapisa, also known as Kabul-Shahan.[23] According to Táríkhu-l Hind by Al-Biruni, Kabul was governed by princes of Turkic lineage whose rule lasted for about 60 generations. "Kábul was formerly governed by princes of Turk lineage. It is said that they were originally from Tibet. The first of them was named Barhtigín ... and the kingdom continued with his children for sixty generations. The last of them was a Katormán, and his minister was Kalar, a Bráhman. This minister was favored by fortune, and he found in the earth treasures which augmented his power. Fortune at the same time turned her back upon his master. The Katormán's thoughts and actions were evil, so that many complaints reached the minister, who loaded him with chains, and imprisoned him for his correction. In the end the minister yielded to the temptation of becoming sole master, and he had wealth sufficient to remove all obstacles. So he established himself on the throne. After him reigned the Bráhman(s) Samand, then Kamlúa, then Bhím, then Jaipál, then Anandpál, then Narda-janpál, who was killed in A.H. 412. His son, Bhímpál, succeeded him, after the lapse of five years, and under him the sovereignty of Hind became extinct, and no descendant remained to light a fire on the hearth. These princes, notwithstanding the extent of their dominions, were endowed with excellent qualities, faithful to their engagements, and gracious towards their inferiors..."[23]—Abu Rayhan Biruni, 978-1048 AD The Kabul rulers built a long defensive wall around the city to protect it from enemy raids. This historical wall has survived until today. It was briefly held by Tibetan Empire between 801 and 815. Islamization and Mongol invasion[edit] The Islamic conquest reached modern-day Afghanistan in 642 AD, at a time when Kabul was independent.[24] A number of failed expeditions were made to Islamize the region. In one of them, Abdur Rahman bin Samana arrived to Kabul from Zaranj in the late 7th century and managed to convert 12,000 local inhabitants to Islam before abandoning the city. Muslims were a minority until Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar of Zaranj conquered Kabul in 870 and established the first Islamic dynasty in the region. It was reported that the rulers of Kabul were Muslims with non-Muslims living close by. "Kábul has a castle celebrated for its strength, accessible only by one road. In it there are Musulmáns, and it has a town, in which are infidels from Hind."[25]—Istahkrí, 921 AD Over the following centuries, the city was successively controlled by the Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Khwarazmshahs and Khiljis. In the 13th century the Mongol horde passed through and caused massive destruction in the area. Report of a massacre in the close by Bamiyan is recorded around this period, where the entire population of the valley was annihilated by the Mongol troops as a revenge for the death of Genghis Khan's grandson. During the Mongol invasion, many natives of Afghanistan fled to India where some established dynasties in Delhi. It was also ruled by Chagatai Khanate and Kartids, were vassals of Ilkhanate till dissolution of latter in 1335. Following the era of the Khilji dynasty in 1333, the famous Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta was visiting Kabul and wrote: "We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principle mountain is called Kuh Sulayman."[26]—Ibn Battuta, 1304–1369 AD Timurid and Mughal era[edit] In the 14th century, Kabul became a major trading center under the kingdom of Timur (Tamerlane). In 1504, the city fell to Babur from the north and made into his headquarters, which became one of the principal cities of his later Mughal Empire. In 1525, Babur described Kabulistan in his memoirs by writing that: "In the country of Kābul there are many and various tribes. Its valleys and plains are inhabited by Tūrks, Aimāks, and Arabs. In the city and the greater part of the villages, the population consists of Tājiks (called "Sarts" by Babur). Many other of the villages and districts are occupied by Pashāis, Parāchis, Tājiks, Berekis, and Afghans. In the hill-country to the west, reside the Hazāras and Nukderis. Among the Hazāra and Nukderi tribes, there are some who speak the Moghul language. In the hill-country to the north-east lies Kaferistān, such as Kattor and Gebrek. To the south is Afghanistān... There are eleven or twelve different languages spoken in Kābul: Arabic, Persian, Tūrki, Moghuli, Hindi, Afghani, Pashāi, Parāchi, Geberi, Bereki, and Lamghāni..."[27]—Baburnama, 1525 Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a poet from Hindustan who visited at the time wrote: "Dine and drink in Kabul: it is mountain, desert, city, river and all else." It was from here that Babur began his 1526 conquest of Hindustan, which was ruled by the Afghan Lodi dynasty and began east of the Indus River in what is present-day Pakistan. Babur loved Kabul due to the fact that he lived in it for 20 years and the people were loyal to him, including its weather that he was used to. His wish to be buried in Kabul was finally granted. The inscription on his tomb contains the famous Persian couplet, which states: اگرفردوس روی زمین است همین است و همین است و همین است (If there is a paradise on earth, it is this, it is this, it is this!)[28] Durrani Empire[edit] Nine years after Nader Shah and his forces invaded and occupied the city as part of the more easternmost parts of his Empire, he was assassinated by his own officers, causing the rapid disintegration of it. Ahmad Shah Durrani, commander of 4,000 Abdali Afghans, asserted Pashtun rule in 1747 and further expanded his new Afghan Empire. His ascension to power marked the beginning of Afghanistan. His son Timur Shah Durrani, after inheriting power, transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776,[29] and used Peshawar in what is today Pakistan as the winter capital. Timur Shah died in 1793 and was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani. Kabul's first visitor from Europe was Englishman George Forster, who described 18th-century Kabul as "the best and cleanest city in South Asia".[14] In 1826, the kingdom was claimed by Dost Mohammad Khan but in 1839 Shujah Shah Durrani was re-installed with the help of British India during the First Anglo-Afghan War. In 1841 a local uprising resulted in the killing of the British resident and loss of mission in Kabul and the 1842 retreat from Kabul to Jalalabad. In 1842 the British returned to Kabul, plundering Bala Hissar in revenge before fleeing back to British India (now Pakistan). Akbar Khan took to the throne from 1842 to 1845 and was followed by Dost Mohammad Khan. The British-led Indian forces invaded in 1879 when Kabul was under Sher Ali Khan's rule, as the Afghan king initially refused to accept British diplomatic mission and later the British residents were again massacred. The British partially destroyed Bala Hissar fortress before retreating to British India. 20th Century Kabul[edit] In the early 20th century King Amanullah Khan rose to power. His reforms included electricity for the city and schooling for girls.[citation needed] He drove a Rolls-Royce, and lived in the famous Darul Aman Palace. In 1919, after the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Amanullah announced Afghanistan's independence from foreign affairs at Eidgah Mosque. In 1929 King Ammanullah left Kabul due to a local uprising orchestrated by Habibullah Kalakani. After nine months rule, Kalakani was imprisoned and executed by King Nader Khan. Three years later, in 1933, the new king was assassinated by a Hazara student Abdul Khaliq during an award ceremony inside a school in Kabul. The throne was left to his 19-year-old son, Zahir Shah, who became the last King of Afghanistan. During the inter-war period France and Germany worked to help develop the country and maintained high schools and lycees in the capital, providing education for the children of the city's elite families.[30] Kabul University opened in 1932 and by the 1960s western educated Afghans made up the majority of teachers.[31] By the 1960s the majority of instructors at the university had degrees from Western universities.[31] When Zahir Shah took power in 1933 Kabul had the only 6 miles (10 kilometers) of rail in the country and the country had few internal telegraphs, phone lines or roads. Zahir turned to the Japanese, Germans and Italians for help developing a modern transportation and communication network.[32] A radio tower built by the Germans in 1937 in Kabul allowing instant communication with outlying villages.[33] A national bank and state cartels were organized to allow for economic modernization.[34] Textile mills, power plants, carpet and furniture factories were also built in Kabul, providing much needed manufacturing and infrastructure.[34] In 1955, the Soviet Union forwarded $100 million in credit to Afghanistan, which financed public transportation, airports, a cement factory, mechanized bakery, a five-lane highway from Kabul to the Soviet border and dams.[35] In the 1960s the first Marks & Spencer store in Central Asia was built in the city. Kabul Zoo was inaugurated in 1967, which was maintained with the help of visiting German zoologists. Many foreigners began flocking to Kabul and the nation's tourism industry was starting to pick up speed. Kabul experimented with liberalization, dropping laws requiring women to wear burkas, restrictions on speech and assembly were loosened which led to student politics in the capital.[36] Socialist, Maoist and liberal factions demonstrated daily in Kabul while more traditional Islamic leaders spoke out against the failure to aid the Afghan countryside.[36] In 1969 a religious uprising at the Pul-e Khishti Mosque protested the Soviet Union's increasing influence over Afghan politics and religion. This protest ended in the arrest of many of its organizers, including Mawlana Faizani, a popular Islamic scholar. In the early 1970s Radio Kabul began to broadcast in other languages besides Pashto which helped to unify those minorities that often felt marginalized.[citation needed] However, this was put to a stop after Daoud Khan's revolution in 1973.[37] In July 1973, while King Zahir Shah was visiting Europe, his cousin Daoud Khan who served as Prime Minister launched a coup d'état and took over power. This was supported by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a pro-Soviet political party. Daoud named himself President and planned to institute reforms.[38] The BBC has described the period before the April 1978 Revolution as an era when different ethnic groups of Afghanistan lived together harmoniously, intermarried and mixed socially.[14] Kabul during Soviet times[edit] On April 28, 1978, President Daoud and his family along with many of his supporters were assassinated in Kabul. Pro-Soviet PDPA under Hafizullah Amin seized power and slowly began to institute reforms.[39] Private businesses were nationalized in the Soviet manner.[40] Education was modified into the Soviet model, with lessons focusing on teaching Russian, Leninism-Marxism and learning of other countries belonging to the Soviet bloc.[40] Foreign-backed rebel groups and army deserters took up arms in the name of Islam.[40] In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph Dubs was murdered after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnappers. In neighboring Pakistan, President Zulfiqar Bhutto was executed in April 1979. In September 1979 Afghan President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated by a team of Soviet Spetsnaz inside the Tajbeg Palace in Kabul.[41] On December 24, 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and Kabul was heavily occupied by Soviet Armed Forces. The Soviets turned the city of Kabul into their command center during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Kabul was considered moderately safe during that period, as fighting was mostly in the countryside and in other major cities. Kabul was still economically active and women made up 40% of the workforce.[42] However the city was not necessarily calm. Political crime, such as assassinations of PDPA party members and guerilla attacks on military and government targets were quite common. The Soviet Embassy, for example, was attacked 4 times with arms fire in the first five years. In 1983, a report from Izvestia said that most public places such as hospitals and state banks had people with guns in their hands, which was not how it was from 1978-1979. A Western correspondent revisiting Kabul in December 1983 after a year, said that the city was converted into a fortress bristling with weapons, suggesting the increasing sight of guns.[43] But the city's image wasn't negative in everybody's view. American diplomat Charles Dunbar said that the Soviet troops' presence was suprisingly modest. He said in a July 1983 article that whilst Soviet troops are a common sight, they do not give the impression of invaders who are enforcing their occupation at the point of a bayonet. Soviet men and women were very common in the city's shopping roads, with the large availability of Western products.[44] An December 1983 article from Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, where the author stayed two weeks in the city, said that the Soviet soldiers had a friendly atmosphere in which they would greet friends and have a chat with the population.[45] Most Soviet civilians (numbering between 8,000 and 10,000) lived in the north-eastern Microrayan suburb, in an apartment housing complex. It was surrounded by barbed-wire and armed tanks, for their safety. The residents were often unsafe when walking through the streets, receiving verbal abuse, rude gestures and even kidnappings from anti-PDPA/anti-Soviet Afghan civilians. Life for PDPA politicians and their families were also insecure.[46] The population of Kabul increased from around 500,000 in 1978 to 2 million in 1988 as large numbers of civilians in the war-torn countryside moved in.[47] Civil war and Taliban regime[edit] After the fall of Najibullah's[48] Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in April 1992, leaders of the different mujahideen factions were unable to form a government so they resorted to fighting. This marked the start of a dark period of the city, in which over 50,000 civilians were killed. About 80 percent of the city was devastated and destroyed by 1996.[49][50] Despite the 1992 Peshawar Accords the Afghan Civil War continued and the city suffered heavily under a bombardment campaign. In December 1992, the last of the 86 city trolley buses in Kabul came to a halt because of the conflict. A system of 800 public buses continued to provide transportation services to the city. By 1993 electricity and water in the city was completely out. Initially the factions in the city aligned to fight off Hekmatyar but diplomacy inside the capital quickly broke down.[51] Additionally to the bombardment campaign conducted by Hekmatyar and Dostum, tension between the Shi'a Hazara forces of Abdul Ali Mazari and the Wahabi Ittihad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf soon escalated into a second violent conflict. The fighting between the two factions quickly took on aspects of "ethnic cleansing".[52] In January 1994, Dostum joined an alliance with Hekmatyar and conducted the worst bombardment of Kabul during that period, but were eventually repelled by forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud who also bombarded the city to gain control .[53] In late 1994, bombardment of the capital came to a temporary halt.[54][55][56] These forces took steps to restore law and order. Courts started to work again, convicting individuals inside government troops who had committed crimes.[57] Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban from southern Afghanistan to join the process but the idea was rejected by them.[58] The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were repelled at first by Massoud's forces.[55] Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report that "This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city."[55] On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban with military support from Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul and fled north.[59] The Taliban seized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The Taliban imposed on Afghans their political and judicial interpretation of Islam and issued edicts that targeting women.[60] The Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) analyze: "To PHR’s knowledge, no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment."[60] The Taliban conducted amputations against common thieves without proper court proceedings. Taliban hit-squads from the infamous "Ministry for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice" watched the streets conducting arbitrary brutal and public beatings of people.[60] The al-Qaeda of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became a state within the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with Bin Laden controlling Kabul and the eastern city of Jalalabad.[61] NATO presence and the Karzai administration[edit] In October 2001, following US air strikes to support to the Northern Alliance the Taliban began abandoning Kabul. The Karzai administration under President Hamid Karzai officially took over the government and in early 2002, a NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was deployed in the city and from there they spread to other parts of the country. The war-torn city began to see some positive development as many expatriate Afghans returned to the city.[citation needed] The city's population grew from about 500,000 in 2001 to 3 million in 2007.[citation needed] Many foreign embassies re-opened and the Afghan government institutions were also renovated. Since 2008 the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) have been in charge of security in the city.[citation needed] The city is occasionally the scene of deadly suicide bombings and explosions carried out by the Haqqani network, the Taliban's Quetta Shura, Hezbi Islami, al-Qaeda, and other anti-government groups.[62][63][64][65] For example, in September 2011, heavily armed Taliban insurgents wearing suicide vests struck the U.S. Embassy and NATO headquarters.[66][67] In the December 2011 Ashura bombing over 70 civilians were killed and over 160 injured.[12][68][69] Many other similar attacks took place after the 2008 ISAF hand-over of security to Afghan security forces. Geography, climate and environment[edit] Kabul serves as the nation's cultural and learning center, situated 1,791 meters (5,876 feet) above sea level in a narrow valley, wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains along the Kabul River. It is linked with Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif via the circular Highway 1 that stretches across Afghanistan. It is also the start of the main road to Jalalabad and further to Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The Kabul International Airport is located about 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from the center of the city, next to the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood. Bagram Airfield is about 25 miles (40 km) northeast of Kabul.[70] Kabul has a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk) with precipitation concentrated in the winter (almost exclusively falling as snow) and spring months. Temperatures are relatively cool compared to much of Southwest Asia, mainly due to the high elevation of the city. Summer has very low humidity, providing relief from the heat. Autumn features warm afternoons and sharply cooler evenings. Winters are cold, with a January daily average of −2.3 °C (27.9 °F). Spring is the wettest time of the year, though temperatures are generally amiable. Sunny conditions dominate year-round. The annual mean temperature is 12.1 °C (53.8 °F). Neighborhoods[edit] The city of Kabul is one of the 15 districts of Kabul Province, which is further divided into 18 city districts or sectors. Each city district covers several neighbourhoods. The number of districts or sectors in Kabul increased from 11 to 18 in 2005. Below are some of Kabul's neighbourhoods listed: This list is incomplete and may be incorrect. You can help by expanding it. This list might also have issues with phonetically reading from Persian to English. Please discuss this matter on the discussion page and improve North Northeast East - Ahmad Shah Baba Maina (under development) - Char Qala - Karte Naw - Tape Maranjan - Rahman Baba Maina (under development) Southeast South Southwest West Northwest Central - Kharabat, Kabul - Mirwais Nika Maina (under development) - Murad Khane - Tania, Kabul Government and politics[edit] The Mayor of the city is selected by the President of Afghanistan, who engages in planning and environmental work. The police belong to the Afghan Ministry of Interior and are arranged by city districts. The Chief of Police is selected by the Minister of Interior and is responsible for law enforcement and security of the city. Muhammad Yunus Nawandish was appointed as Mayor of Kabul by the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in January, 2010, and governs a City of an estimated five million in population. Since taking office, the Mayor has initiated an aggressive program of municipal improvements in streets, parks, greenery, revenue collection, environmental control, and solid waste management. Demographics[edit] The population of Kabul has fluctuated since the early 1980s to the present period. It was believed to be around 500,000 in 2001 but then many Afghan expats began returning from Pakistan and Iran where they had taken refuge from the decades of wars.[72] In 2009, the World Factbook estimated that Kabul's population was little over 3.5 million.[73] According to Afghan government statistics, it was estimated around 3,289,000 in the year 2012.[2] It should be noted that many Afghans from other provinces stay in Kabul on a temporary basis, to spend time with relatives due to fighting or for other reasons. The population of the city reflects the general multi-ethnic and multi-lingual characteristics of Afghanistan. There is no official government report on the precise ethnic make-over but according to a 2003 map found in the National Geographic Magazine, the population of the city was estimated at 55% Tajiks, 20% Hazaras, 20% Pashtuns, 2% Uzbeks, 1% Baloch, 1% Turkmen, and 1% Hindu.[4] Dari (Afghan Persian) and Pashto are the most widely used languages in the city,[74] although Dari serves as the lingua franca. Nearly all the people of Kabul are Muslims, which includes the majority Sunnis and minority Shias. A small number of Sikhs, Hindus, and Christians are also found in the city. Economy[edit] The Ministry of Finance which is located in Kabul and led by Dr. Hazrat Omar Zakhilwal, is responsible for overseeing the economic infrastructure of Afghanistan.[75] Kabul's main products include fresh and dried fruit, nuts, beverages, Afghan rugs, leather and sheep skin products, furniture, antique replicas, and domestic clothes. The world bank authorized $25 million for the Kabul Urban Reconstruction Project which closed in 2011.[76] Over the last decade, the United States has invested approximately $9.1 billion into urban infrastructure in Afghanistan.[77][78] The wars since 1978 have limited the city's economic productivity but after the establishment of the Karzai administration. Since late 2001, local economic development has included a number of indoor shopping centers. About 4 miles (6 km) from downtown Kabul, in Bagrami, a 22-acre (9 ha) wide industrial complex has completed with modern facilities, which will allow companies to operate businesses there. The park has professional management for the daily maintenance of public roads, internal streets, common areas, parking areas, 24 hours perimeter security, access control for vehicles and persons.[79] A number of factories operate there, including the $25 million Coca-Cola bottling plant and the Omaid Bahar juice factory. According to Transparency International, the government of Afghanistan is the third most-corrupt in the world.[80] Experts believe that the poor decisions of Afghan politicians contribute to the unrest in the region. This also prevents foreign investment in Afghanistan, especially by Western countries. In 2012, there were reportedly $3.9 billion paid to public officials in bribes which contributed to these issues.[81] Da Afghanistan Bank, the nation's central bank, is headquartered in Kabul. In addition, several commercial banks in the city.[82] Development plans[edit] A $1 billion USD contract was signed in 2013 to commence work on the "New Kabul City", which is a major residential scheme that would accommodate 1.5 million people.[83][84] In the meantime, many high rise buildings are being constructed in order to control the overcrowding and also to modernize the city.[85] An initial concept design called the City of Light Development, envisioned by Dr. Hisham N. Ashkouri, for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial, historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul, along the southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue,[86] Communications[edit] In Kabul, Minister Amir Zai Sangin of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology maintains statistics regarding telecommunications in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Afghanistan Information Management Services (AIMS) provides software development, capacity development, information management, and project management services to the Afghan Government and other NGOs, thereby supporting their on-the-ground activities. GSM/GPRS mobile phone services in the city are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan and MTN. In November 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million US dollar deal with ZTE on the establishment of a countrywide fibre optical cable network to help improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services not just in Kabul but throughout the country.[87] Internet cafes were introduced in 2002 and has been expanding throughout the country. As of 2012, 3G services are also available. The city has many local-language radio and television stations, including in Pashto and Dari (Persian). The Afghan government has become increasingly intolerant of foreign channels and the un-Islamic culture they bring, and has threatened to ban some. There are a number of post offices throughout the city. Package delivery services like FedEx, TNT N.V., and DHL are also available. Health care[edit] Presently, there are hospitals throughout the city which include; - French Medical Institute for Children - Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital - Jamhuriat Hospital - Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan Hospital [88] - Jinnah Hospital (under construction) - Wazir Akbar Khan Hospital - Malalai Maternity Hospital - Maywand Hospital - Afshar Hospital Education[edit] The Ministry of Education led by Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak is responsible for the education system in Afghanistan.[89] Public and private schools in the city have reopened since 2002 after they were shut down or destroyed during fighting in the 1980s to the late 1990s. Boys and girls are strongly encouraged to attend school under the Karzai administration but many more schools are needed not only in Kabul but throughout the country. The Afghan Ministry of Education has plans to build more schools in the coming years so that education is provided to all citizens of the country. The most well known high schools in Kabul include: - Habibia High School, a British-Afghan school founded in 1903 by King Habibullah Khan. - Lycée Esteqlal, a Franco-Afghan school founded in 1922. - Amani High School, a German-Afghan school for boys founded in 1924. - Aisha-i-Durani School, a German-Afghan school for girls. - Rahman Baba High School, an American-Afghan school for boys. The city's colleges and universities were renovated after 2002. Some of them have been developed recently, while others have existed since the early 1900s. Universities[edit] - Kabul University - Kabul Health Sciences Institute - Kabul Medical University - Kabul Education University of Rabbani - Afghan National Security University (AFNS) - Afghan University [1] - Afghan Swiss medical university - American University of Afghanistan - Bakhtar University - Computer Based Training Institute - Daneshwaran Afghan Educational Institute - Dawat University - Dunya Institute of Higher Education [2] - Ibne-sina Institure of Higher Education [3] - Kaboora Institute of Higher Education - Kardan University - Karwan University - Kateb Institute of Higher Education - Khana-e-Noor Institute of Higher Education [4] - Maiwand Institute of Higher Education - Mariam Institute of Higher Education - National Military Academy of Afghanistan - Peshgam Institute of Higher Education [5] - Polytechnical University of Kabul - Rana Institute of Higher Education - Salam University [6] Transportation[edit] Airports[edit] Kabul International Airport, located 25 kilometers (16 mi) from the center of Kabul, is the country's main airport. It is a hub to Ariana Afghan Airlines, the national carrier of Afghanistan, as well as private airlines such as Afghan Jet International, East Horizon Airlines, Kam Air, Pamir Airways, and Safi Airways. Regional airlines such as Air India, Emirates, Gulf Air, Pakistan International Airlines, Turkish Airlines and others also have regularly scheduled flights to the airport. A new international terminal was built by the government of Japan and began operation in 2008. It is the first of three terminals to be opened so far with two more scheduled to open once air traffic to the city increases.[citation needed] Most foreign passengers fly into Kabul via Dubai.[citation needed] Kabul Airport also has a military terminal and a section of airport is used by the United States armed forces and the Afghan National Air Force.[citation needed] NATO also uses the Kabul Airport, but most military traffic is based at Bagram Airfield, situated north of Kabul.[citation needed] The Afghan Border Police and the Afghan National Police are in charge of the airport security.[citation needed] Railways[edit] Kabul has no train service but the government plans to build rail lines to connect the city with Mazar-i-Sharif in the north and Jalalabad-Torkham in the east.[citation needed] It also plans to build a metro rail in the future.[citation needed] Road[edit] Long distance road journeys are made by private Mercedes-Benz coach buses or various types of vans, trucks and cars. Although a nation wide bus service is available from Kabul, flying is safer, especially for foreigners. The city's public bus service (Milli Bus / "National Bus") was established in the 1960s to take commuters on daily routes to many destinations. The service currently has about 800 buses, but it is gradually expanding and upgrading the fleet. The Kabul bus system has recently discovered a new source of revenue in whole-bus advertising from MTN similar to "bus wrap" advertising on public transit in more developed nations. There is also an express bus that runs from downtown to Kabul International Airport for Safi Airways passengers. Private vehicles are on the rise in Kabul, with several dealerships in the city. It has been reported that up to 90% of cars in Kabul are Corollas.[90][91] Gas stations are mainly private-owned. Bicycles on the road are a common sight in the city as are white and yellow older model Toyota Corolla taxicab. Tourism[edit] Tourism in Afghanistan is available through the Ministry of Information and Culture, led by Minister Dr. Sayed Makhdoom Raheen of Kabul. In Kabul, there are 5-star hotels which include; The Serena Hotel, built by The Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), and The Marriott Hotel near the U.S. Embassy. The Inter-Continental is also in the process of being redeveloped. The Safi Landmark Hotel is a 4-star hotel located in the Kabul City Center. The old part of Kabul is filled with bazaars nestled along its narrow, crooked streets. Cultural sites include: the National Museum of Afghanistan, notably displaying an impressive statue of Surya excavated at Khair Khana, the ruined Darul Aman Palace, the tomb of Mughal Emperor Babur at Bagh-e Babur, and Chehlstoon Park, the Minar-i-Istiqlal (Column of Independence) built in 1919 after the Third Afghan War, the tomb of Timur Shah Durrani, and the imposing Id Gah Mosque (founded 1893). Bala Hissar is a fort destroyed by the British in 1879, in retaliation for the death of their envoy, now restored as a military college. The Minaret of Chakari, destroyed in 1998, had Buddhist swastika and both Mahayana and Theravada qualities. Other places of interest include Kabul City Center, which is Kabul's first shopping mall, the shops around Flower Street and Chicken Street, Wazir Akbar Khan district, Kabul Golf Club, Kabul Zoo, Abdul Rahman Mosque, Shah-Do Shamshira and other famous mosques, the National Gallery of Afghanistan, the National Archives of Afghanistan, Afghan Royal Family Mausoleum, the OMAR Mine Museum, Bibi Mahro Hill, Kabul Cemetery, and Paghman Gardens. The Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) was also involved in the restoration of the Bagh-e Babur (Babur Gardens). Tappe-i-Maranjan is a nearby hill where Buddhist statues and Graeco-Bactrian coins from the 2nd century BC have been found. Outside the city proper is a citadel and the royal palace. Paghman and Jalalabad are interesting valleys north and east of the city. - Sports complexes - Kabul National Cricket Stadium (under construction) - Ghazi Stadium - Olympic Committee Gymnasium - Parks - Bagh-e Babur (Gardens of Babur) - Baghi Bala Park - Zarnegar Park - Shar-e Naw Park - Bagh-e Zanana - Chaman-e-Hozori - Bibi Mahro Park - Lake Qargha - Mosques - Mausoleums - Mausoleum of Timur Shah Durrani - Mausoleum of Abdur Rahman Khan - Mausoleum of Zahir Shah and Nadir Shah - Mausoleum of Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani - Museums - National Museum of Afghanistan - National Archives of Afghanistan - National Gallery of Afghanistan - Negaristani Milli - Hotels - Serena Hotel (5 star) - Inter-Continental - Safi Landmark Hotel[92] - Golden Star Hotel[93] - Heetal Plaza Hotel[94] Twin towns – sister cities[edit] See also[edit] References and footnotes[edit] - ^ "Demographia World Urban Areas PDF (March 2013)". Demographia. Retrieved 24 November 2013. - ^ a b c Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook 2012/13 (PDF), Central Statistics Office Afghanistan - ^ See National Review, November 20, 2002, Merriam-Webster: Kabul - ^ a b "2003 National Geographic Population Map" (PDF). Thomas Gouttierre, Center For Afghanistan Studies, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Matthew S. Baker, Stratfor. National Geographic Society. November 2003. - ^ "Largest cities in the world and their mayors - 1 to 150". City Mayors. - ^ "World's fastest growing urban areas (1)". City Mayors. - ^ a b c Nancy Hatch Dupree / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād (1972). "An Historical Guide to Kabul – The Story of Kabul". American International School of Kabul. - ^ Louis Dupree, Nancy Hatch Dupree and others. "Last Afghan empire". Online Encyclopædia Britannica. - ^ "The Road to Kabul: British armies in Afghanistan, 1839-1919". National Army Museum. - ^ "Afghanistan 1919-1928: Sources in the India Office Records". British Library. "1919 (May), outbreak of Third Anglo-Afghan War. British bomb Kabul and Jalalabad;" - ^ "History of Kabul". Lonely Planet. - ^ a b Baktash, Hashmat; Rodriguez, Alex (December 7, 2008). "Two Afghanistan bombings aimed at Shiites kill at least 59 people". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 9, 2011. - ^ a b c Nancy Hatch Dupree / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād (1972). "An Historical Guide to Kabul – The Name". American International School of Kabul. - ^ a b c "Kabul: City of lost glories". BBC News. November 12, 2001. - ^ Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1987). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936 2. BRILL. - ^ Levi, P.; Jules Bloch; Jean Przyluski (1993). Pre-Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India. Asian Educational Services. "...they apply to a population of the north-western frontier of India designated by the nickname of "shaved heads," and especially to the Kamboja of the country of Kabul." - ^ Watson, John Forbes; Sir John William Kaye (2007). The people of India: a series of photographic illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the races and tribes of Hindustan 1. Pagoda Tree Press. "The Sanskrit name of Cabul is Kamboj, and a slight transition of sound renders this name so similar to Kumboh." - ^ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and his times (4 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. - ^ "A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.2)". Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard Humanities Institute. - ^ Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD. Draft annotated English translation... Link - ^ A. D. H. Bivar, KUSHAN DYNASTY, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2010 - ^ a b "A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul". Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard Humanities Institute. - ^ Wilson, Horace Hayman (1998). Ariana antiqua: a descriptive account of the antiquities and coins of. Asian Educational Services. - ^ "A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.3)". Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard Humanities Institute. - ^ Ibn Battuta (2004). Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354 (reprint, illustrated ed.). Routledge. - ^ Zahir ud-Din Mohammad Babur (1525). "Events Of The Year 910". Memoirs of Babur. Packard Humanities Institute. - ^ Gall, Sandy (2012). War Against the Taliban: Why It All Went Wrong in Afghanistan. Bloomsbury Publishing. - ^ "Kabul". Online Encyclopædia Britannica. - ^ Anthony Hyman, "Nationalism in Afghanistan" in International Journal of Middle East Studies, 34:2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) 305. - ^ a b Hyman, 305. - ^ Nick Cullather, "Damming Afghanistan: Modernization in a Buffer State" in The Journal of American History 89:2 (Indiana: Organization of American Historians, 2002) 518. - ^ Cullather, 518. - ^ a b Cullather, 519. - ^ Cullather, 530. - ^ a b Cullather, 534. - ^ Hyman, "Nationalism in Afghanistan", 307. - ^ John E. Haynes, "Keeping Cool About Kabul" in World Affairs, 145:4 (Washington, D.C.: Heldref Publications, 1983), 371. - ^ Haynes, 372. - ^ a b c Haynes, 373. - ^ "Nur Muhammad Taraki". Notable Names Database. - ^ http://samaj.revues.org/212 - ^ Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation, By J. Bruce Amstutz - Page 139 - ^ Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation, By J. Bruce Amstutz - Page 139 & 140 - ^ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists - December 1983 issue - ^ Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation, By J. Bruce Amstutz - Page 140 - ^ Afghanistan: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan, By Amin Saikal, William Maley - Page 48 - ^ Bowersox, Gary W. (2004). The Gem Hunter: The Adventures of an American in Afghanistan. GeoVision, Inc.,. - ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=px7rU0i-71UC&pg=PT35&lpg=PT35&dq=80+percent+kabul+destroyed+1992&source=bl&ots=brixhgQ19S&sig=R-W8Izx0hruuCsKptiEA1sk1u7I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=M86EU8u8MaXn7AaQooCQBg&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=80%20percent%20kabul%20destroyed%201992&f=false - ^ Bowersox (p.192) - ^ Nazif M Shahrani, "War, Factionalism and the State in Afghanistan" in American Anthropologist 104:3 (Arlington, Virginia: American Anthropological Association, 2008), 719. - ^ Sidky, "War, Changing Patterns of Warfare, State Collapse, and Transnational Violence in Afghanistan: 1978–2001", 870. - ^ Amin Saikal. Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. - ^ "Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978-2001". Afghanistan Justice Project. - ^ a b c Amnesty International. "DOCUMENT – AFGHANISTAN: FURTHER INFORMATION ON FEAR FOR SAFETY AND NEW CONCERN: DELIBERATE AND ARBITRARY KILLINGS: CIVILIANS IN KABUL." 16 November 1995 Accessed at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA11/015/1995/en/6d874caa-eb2a-11dd-92ac-295bdf97101f/asa110151995en.html - ^ "Afghanistan: escalation of indiscriminate shelling in Kabul". International Committee of the Red Cross. - ^ BBC Newsnight 1995 on YouTube - ^ Marcela Grad. Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader (March 1, 2009 ed.). Webster University Press. - ^ Coll, Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14. - ^ a b c "The Taliban's War on Women. A Health and Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan". Physicians for Human Rights. - ^ "BOOK REVIEW: The inside track on Afghan wars by Khaled Ahmed". Daily Times. - ^ "U.S. blames Pakistan agency in Kabul attack". Reuters. September 22, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011. - ^ "U.S. links Pakistan to group it blames for Kabul attack". Reuters. September 17, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011. - ^ "Clinton Presses Pakistan to Help Fight Haqqani Insurgent Group". Fox News. September 18, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011. - ^ "Pakistan condemns US comments about spy agency". Associated Press. September 23, 2011. Retrieved September 23, 2011. - ^ RUBIN, ALISSA. "U.S. Embassy and NATO Headquarters Attacked in Kabul". nytimes.com. - ^ Holehouse, Matthew (13 September 2011). "Kabul US embassy attack: September 13 as it happened". London: telegraph.co.uk. - ^ "At least 55 killed in Kabul suicide bombing". The Hindu (Chennai, India). December 7, 2008. Retrieved December 9, 2011. - ^ "Photos of the Day: Dec. 8". The Wall Street Journal. December 7, 2008. Retrieved December 9, 2011. - ^ "Rocket Attack on U.S. Base in Afghanistan Kills 2 Troops, Wounds 6 Americans". Foxnews.com. - ^ "Kabul Climate Normals 1956-1983". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 30, 2013. - ^ Urban Development In Kabul: An Overview Of Challenges And Strategies by Dr. Annette Ittig - ^ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. "Kabul under Curfew after Anti-US, anti-Karzai Riots". San Francisco Bay Area Indymedia. - ^ "Ministry of Finance". Mof.gov.af. - ^ "Projects : Kabul Urban Reconstruction Project | The World Bank". Worldbank.org. - ^ "DVIDS - News - US Forces - Afghanistan adjusts its $9.1 billion infrastructure program to meet Afghans' near-term needs". Dvidshub.net. - ^ Afghanistan Industrial Parks Development Authority... Kabul (Bagrami) - ^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results". Transparency International. Retrieved February 27, 2011. "Afghanistan’s Million Dollar Minister". The Daily Beast. - ^ Licensed banks in Kabul include: Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Afghan United Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, Punjab National Bank, Habib Bank and Western Union - ^ Muhammad Hassan Khetab, ed. (4 September 2013). "$1b contract signed to begin work on New Kabul City plan". Pajhwok Afghan News -. - ^ "Welcome to our Official Website". DCDA. - ^ "Onyx Construction Company". Onyx.af. - ^ Kabul – City of Light Project...link - ^ Pajhwok Afghan News – Ministry signs contract with Chinese company - ^ Rivera, Ray; Sahak, Sharifullah (2011-05-21). "Blast Hits Military Hospital in Afghan Capital". The New York Times. - ^ "دپوھنی وزارت". Moe.gov.af. "In Afghanistan, a car for the masses". The Washington Post. - ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Dodgy cars clogging Kabul's roads - ^ "Landmark Hotels and Suites". Lmhotelgroup.com. - ^ "車を高く売るためにこれだけは知ってほしいポイント!". Goldenstarkabul.com. - ^ "Heetal Group of companies". Heetal.com. Further reading[edit] - Canadian Press (October 14, 2007). "Afghanistan Struggles to Preserve Rich Past Despite Ongoing War". Canadian Press. - Tang, Alisa (Associated Press) (January 21, 2008). "Kabul's Old City Getting Face Lift". The Boston Globe. - Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. External links[edit] - Images of Kabul on Panoramio - Map of Kabul City from Afghanistan Information Management Services - Historical Photos of Kabul - Afghanistan 1923 - The story and photo albums of Wilhelm Rieck (at the moment only in German - English will follow.) - People of Kabul - report by Radio France Internationale in English - Ashgabat, Turkmenistan - Astana, Kazakhstan* - Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan - Dushanbe, Tajikistan - Moscow, Russia* - Tashkent, Uzbekistan - Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei - Bangkok, Thailand - Dili, East Timor - Flying Fish Cove, Christmas Island (Australia) - Hanoi, Vietnam - Jakarta, Indonesia* - Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - Manila, Philippines - Naypyidaw, Myanmar - Phnom Penh, Cambodia - Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea - Singapore, Singapore - Vientiane, Laos - West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) - Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates - Amman, Jordan - Ankara, Turkey* - Baghdad, Iraq - Baku, Azerbaijan* - Beirut, Lebanon - Cairo, Egypt* - Damascus, Syria - Doha, Qatar - E. Jerusalem, Palestine † - Episkopi, Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK) - Jerusalem, Israel † - Kabul, Afghanistan - Kuwait City, Kuwait - Manama, Bahrain † Both Israel and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as capital. Tel Aviv is the internationally recognised capital of Israel; Ramallah is the administrative seat of the Palestinian Authority. - Kabul