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Исак Нютон Исак Нютон (на английски: Isaac Newton, произнася се Айзък Нютън) е английски физик, математик, астроном, философ, алхимик и богослов. Приносът на Нютон в развитието на математиката и различни области на физиката изиграва важна роля в Научната революция и той е „смятан от мнозина за най-великият и най-влиятелен учен живял някога“.[5] В областта на механиката Нютон открива закона за всемирното привличане и чрез предложените Закони за движение поставя основите на класическата механика. Освен това той формулира принципа за запазване на импулса и момента на импулса и пръв показва, че движението на небесните тела и на предметите на Земята се подчинява на общи закони, демонстрирайки съответствието между законите на Кеплер за движението на планетите и собствената му теория за гравитацията и премахвайки последните съмнения към хелиоцентричната теория. Сред многобройните проблеми, които изследва Нютон, са също разлагането и природата на светлината, скоростта на звука, охлаждането, произходът на звездите, хронологията на Библията, природата на Светата Троица. Той конструира първия действащ рефлекторен телескоп и развива своя теория за цветовете, основана на наблюденията на разлагането на бялата светлина с призма. Работейки над проблемите на физиката, Исак Нютон поставя началото, едновременно и независимо от Готфрид Лайбниц, на математическия анализ, който е в основата на развитието на науката до наши дни. Той също така описва разлагането на бином, повдигнат на степен, създава числен метод за намиране на корените на функция и допринася за изследванията на степенните редове.[6] Нютон е силно религиозен, придържа се към неортодоксални християнски възгледи и освен на научна тема пише текстове и в областта на библейската херменевтика и окултизма. Той отказва да стане свещеник и да получи последно причастие, като вероятно отхвърля догмата за Светата Троица.[7] Съдържание Кратка хронология[редактиране | edit source] - 25 декември 1642 (нов стил 4 януари 1643) — Исак Нютон се ражда в Улсторп при Колстъруърт, Линкълншир - 1655-1661 — Учи в Кралското училище в Грантъм - 1661-1665 — Учи в Кеймбриджкия университет - 1669-1701 — Лукасов професор в Кеймбриджкия университет - 1669 — Първи публикации в областта на математическия анализ („De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas“) - 1671 — Публикува метода на флуксиите („Method of Fluxions“) - 1671 — Конструира първия си рефлекторен телескоп - 1684 — Обосновава теоретично Законите на Кеплер („De Motu Corporum in Gyrum“) - 1687 — Излага основите на класическата механика – Законите на Нютон и теорията за гравитацията („Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica“) - 1696-1699 — Управител на Монетния двор - 1699-1727 — Магистър на Монетния двор - 1704 — Публикува изследванията си в областта на оптиката и своята теория за светлината („Opticks“) - 31 март 1727 — Исак Нютон умира в Лондон Биография[редактиране | edit source] Ранни години[редактиране | edit source] Нютон е роден на 25 декември 1642 година в Улсторп при Колстъруърт, селце близо до град Грантъм в английското графство Линкълншир. По това време в Англия все още не е въведен Григорианския календар и в регистрите раждането му е отнесено към 25 декември, Коледа. Нютон се ражда три месеца след смъртта на баща си, заможен селянин, който също се казва Исак Нютон и който умира по време на Английската гражданска война. Раждането му е преждевременно и той е дребно бебе, като според майка му, Хана Ейскоф, халба от една кварта. През 1646 година майката на Нютон се жени повторно за Барнабас Смит, възрастен свещеник в съседното село Норт Уитъм. Тя отива да живее при новия си съпруг, като оставя сина си в Улсторп при своята майка Марджъри Ейскоф. Малкият Исак не харесва доведения си баща и по-късно отбелязва в списък с греховете си, че е заплашвал Смит и майка си, че ще ги изгори, заедно с къщата им.[8] Барнабас Смит е сравнително заможен и подпомага финансово поддръжката на имението в Улсторп. Той умира през 1653 и майката на Нютон се връща в Улсторп с три деца от него. Исак Нютон започва образованието си около 1655 година в Кралското училище в Грантъм, където показва необикновени способности, най-вече в конструирането на различни механизми. Според някои изследователи в града той живее при местния аптекар Уилям Кларк, като се сгодява за дъщеря му, но по-късно двамата се разделят и Нютон не се жени до края на живота си.[9][10] През 1659 година той е отстранен от училището и се връща в Улсторп, като майка му се надява той да поеме управлението на семейната ферма, но самият Нютон мрази земеделската работа.[11] Нейният брат, който е посещавал Кеймбриджкия университет, и учителят на Нютон от Грантъм Хенри Строукс успяват да я убедят, че той трябва да продължи образованието си. Строукс дори поема част от разходите по престоя на Нютон в Грантъм, където той довършва обучението си, подготвяйки се за Кеймбридж.[12] През юни 1661 година Исак Нютон е приет в Тринити Колидж в Кеймбриджкия университет, където работи, за да покрива част от разходите за обучението си.[13] По това време там се изучава главно Аристотел, но той предпочита по-нови философи, като Рене Декарт, и астрономи, като Галилео Галилей, Николай Коперник и Йоханес Кеплер. Скоро след като се дипломира през август 1665 година, университетът е затворен като предпазна мярка против започналата чумна епидемия. Макар че не се проявява особено в университета,[14] през следващата година и половина Нютон се занимава самостоятелно с математика,[15] оптика и теорията за гравитацията. Преподавател в Кеймбридж[редактиране | edit source] През 1667 година Исак Нютон се връща в Тринити Колидж в Кеймбридж като преподавател. През 1669 година публикува първите си изследвания върху своя метод на флуксиите, станал основа за математическия анализ. През същата година Айзък Бароу, първият Лукасов професор по математика, му отстъпва този пост. По времето на Нютон е прието преподавателите в Кеймбриджкия и Оксфордския университет да имат духовен сан в Англиканската църква, нещо, което той се опитва да избегне, заради своите неортодоксални религиозни възгледи. За негов късмет за получаването на свещенически сан няма строго определен срок, така че то може да се отлага на практика без ограничение. Положението на Нютон се усложнява, след като е избран за Лукасов професор, тъй като постът е с голямо значение и заемащият го привлича вниманието на по-широка публика. В същото време заемащите поста на Лукасов професор не трябва да са активно ангажирани с църковни функции, за да имат повече време за научна работа. Нютон използва този факт и със съдействието на Айзък Бароу, вече на поста кралски капелан, успява да си издейства от крал Чарлз II изключение от правилото за заемане на духовна длъжност. Така той не става свещеник, което предотвратява евентуален конфликт между религиозните му възгледи и църковната ортодоксалност. От 1670 до 1672 година Нютон чете лекции по оптика. През 1671 година Айзък Бароу демонстрира направения от Нютон рефлекторен телескоп пред Кралското научно дружество, след което Нютон е избран за член на дружеството. Още преди това шотландският учен Джеймс Грегъри публикува подобна конструкция на телескоп, но Нютон пръв успява да осъществи идеята, като без чужда помощ прави действащ прототип с 40-кратно увеличение. През 1679 година Нютон се връща към работата си по гравитацията и нейното влияние върху орбитите на планетите, като се консултира по темата с Робърт Хук и Джон Фламстед. През 1684 година той публикува резултатите от работата си в „De Motu Corporum“. През 1687 година издава и най-известния си труд „Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica“, в който обобщава Законите за движение, които стават основа на класическата механика. С издаването на „Principia“ Нютон получава международно признание, като си създава кръг от почитатели. Сред тях е швейцарският математик Никола Фасио дьо Дюилие, с когото поддържа оживена връзка до 1693 година. Краят на приятелството им довежда Нютон до нервен срив.[16] Политическа кариера[редактиране | edit source] От 1689 до 1690 година и отново през 1701 година Нютон е член на Парламента, но единственият запис, свързан с него, е оплакване от течението в залата и молба да бъде затворен прозореца.[17] През 1696 година, с препоръка от Чарлз Монтагю, тогава канцлер на хазната, Исак Нютон заема поста управител на Кралския монетен двор и се премества да живее в Лондон. През 1699 година става магистър на Монетния двор, какъвто остава до края на живота си, като през 1701 година напуска и официално Кеймбриджкия университет. През 1703 година Нютон е избран за председател на Британското кралско научно дружество и за член-кореспондент на Френската академия на науките. На този пост той разваля отношенията си с кралския астроном Джон Фламстед, след като публикува преждевременно подготвян от него звезден каталог.[18] Назначението на Нютон в Монетния двор е направено с цел да му се осигури почетна длъжност и редовен доход, но той се заема активно с новите си задължения. Той участва в голямата подмяна на монетите в обращение в страната. В хода на подмяната се установява, че 20% от монетите в обращение са фалшифицирани. Според тогавашното законодателство, фалшифицирането на пари се третира като държавна измяна и се наказва със смърт. Нютон развива активна дейност по преследване на фалшификаторите, като благодарение на усилията му много от тях са осъдени. Той лично събира доказателства, като преоблечен обикаля кръчмите. Кралят му предоставя права на обвинител и той води няколкостотин разпита на свидетели, информатори и заподозрени. Сред най-големите му успехи е осъждането на смърт за фалшификация на Уилям Чалонър, известен гражданин, който преди това го обвинява в съучастие с фалшификаторите.[19] Под ръководството на Нютон става преминаването на британския паунд към златен стандарт през 1717 година, важна реформа, която оказва влияние върху икономиката на Великобритания през следващите десетилетия. За заслугите си като магистър на Монетния двор Нютон е удостоен с благородническа титла от кралица Анна през 1705 година.[20] Исак Нютон умира в Лондон през 1727 година и е погребан в Уестминстърското абатство. Нютон, който не се жени и няма деца, умира, без да остави завещание. Значителното му движимо имущество е разделено по равно между неговите осем полуплеменници, сред които Кетрин Бартън Кондюит, която се грижи за домакинството му в Лондон.[21] Имението му в Улсторп получава старшият му наследник Джон Нютон. След смъртта на Нютон се установява, че в тялото му има значителни количества живак. Това вероятно се дължи на неговите занимания с алхимия и може би обяснява ексцентричностите в края на живота му.[22] Научна дейност[редактиране | edit source] Математика[редактиране | edit source] За дейността на Нютон се казва, че „видимо придвижва напред всеки клон на математиката, изучаван по това време“.[23] Най-важният принос на Исак Нютон към математиката е разработването на метода на флуксиите, който по-късно ще се превърне в математически анализ. Първата му публикация по темата е „De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas“ (1669, „Върху анализа с безкрайни редове“). Писана през 1666 година, тя е изпратена от Айзък Бароу на математика Джон Колинс през юни 1669 година, а Нютон е описан от Бароу като „преподавател в нашия колеж, много млад... но с извънреден гений и плодовитост в тези неща“.[24] Исак Нютон и Готфрид Лайбниц развиват независимо един от друг теорията на математическия анализ, използвайки различни означения. Макар че хронологично Нютон разработва метода си първи, той не публикува почти нищо до 1693 година, като в пълен обем работите му в тази област са публикувани едва през 1704 година. В същото време Лайбниц започва да публикува през 1684 година. В крайна сметка означенията на Лайбниц стават общоприети в Континентална Европа, а след 1820 година – и в Британската империя. През 1699 година някои членове на Кралското научно дружество обвиняват Лайбниц в плагиатство. След 1711 година спорът между Нютон и Лайбниц се разгаря с пълна сила, отравяйки живота и на двамата до смъртта на Лайбниц през 1716 година.[25] Този спор предизвиква разрив между британските и континенталните математици, който забавя развитието на британската математика в продължение на столетие. Повечето съвременни изследователи смятат, че двамата развиват метода независимо един от друг. През 1665 година Исак Нютон доказва обобщената биномна теорема, валидна за произволна степен. Той извежда метода на Нютон, изследва кубичните повърхнини, допринася за развитието на теорията на крайните разлики и пръв използва дробни индекси и координатна геометрия, за да получи решения на диофантовите уравнения. Нютон открива и нова формула за изчисляване на пи. Механика[редактиране | edit source] През 1684 година Исак Нютон публикува „De Motu Corporum“, която съдържа в начална форма Законите за движение. В нея той обосновава теоретично Закона на Кеплер, според който планетите в Слънчевата система се движат по елиптични орбити. Той смята също, че действащата върху тях центростремителната сила е пропорционална на разстоянието им до Слънцето. Принципите на механиката са доразвити във „Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica“, публикувана на 5 юли 1687 година с моралната и финансова помощ на Едмънд Халей. В този труд Нютон формулира трите фундаментални Закона за движение, които са в основата на класическата механика и се използват без промени през следващите два века: - Първият закон на Нютон гласи, че телата остават в покой или запазват праволинейното си движение с постоянна скорост, ако върху тях не въздейства външна сила. - Вторият закон на Нютон гласи, че сила , приложена върху тяло, е равна на степента на изменение във времето на неговия импулс . Математически, това се записва като Ако масата се приеме за постоянна, първият член отпада, а дефинирайки ускорението като , се получава известното уравнение , според което ускорението на дадено тяло е правопропорционално на силата, действаща върху него, и обратнопропорционално на неговата маса. - Третият закон на Нютон гласи, че на всяко въздействие съответства равно по сила и противоположно по посока противодействие. Исак Нютон формулира и закона за всеобщото привличане, като използва за него латинската дума „gravitas“ („тегло“), от която идва и българската форма „гравитация“. В същата книга определя аналитично и скоростта на звука във въздуха, изхождайки от Закона на Бойл. Оптика[редактиране | edit source] Още в средата на 60-те години, преди да започне да преподава оптика, Нютон изследва пречупването на светлината, демонстрирайки, че със стъклена призма бялата светлина се разлага на отделни цветове, които с леща и втора призма могат отново да съставят бяла светлина. Като отделя оцветен лъч и го насочва към различни предмети, той показва, че отделните цветове могат да се отразяват, пречупват и разсейват, но винаги остават същия цвят.[26] Изводът му е, че цветът е резултат на това как предметите взаимодействат с вече оцветената светлина, а не се поражда от самите тях.[27] На тази основа той изгражда цялостна теория за цветовете, която е критикувана от по-късни теоретици, най-известен от които е Йохан Волфганг фон Гьоте. От изследванията си върху пречупването на светлината Нютон прави извода, че всеки рефракторен телескоп ще има като недостатък дисперсията на светлината в цветове и изобретява рефлекторния телескоп с отражателна оптика, за да избегне този проблем.[28] Полирайки сам огледалата му, той използва пръстените от интерференция на светлината (Нютонови пръстени) за окачествяване. Така създава телескоп, по-добър от съществуващите тогава рефракторни модели, главно заради по-големия диаметър на огледалото. Много по-късно, с откриването на стъкла с различни рефрактивни свойства, става възможно изработването на ахроматични лещи, решаващи проблема с дисперсията при рефракторните телескопи. Исак Нютон демонстрира рефлекторния телескоп пред Кралското научно дружество през 1671 година.[29] Предизвиканият интерес го окуражава да публикува своите бележки „За цвета“ („On Colour“), които по късно доразвива в „Оптика“ (1704; „Opticks“), която включва и идеята за корпускулярната природа на светлината. Работите му са сериозно критикувани от Робърт Хук, след което Нютон е много обиден и се оттегля от публичен спор, а двама остават врагове до смъртта на Хук.[30] Според теорията на Нютон светлината е съставена от частици, но той е принуден да им придаде вълнови свойства, за да обясни дифракцията. В началото на 19 век Томас Юнг и Огюстен Френел разглеждат светлината като чисто вълново явление и теорията на Нютон е отхвърлена. Съвременната теория за фотоните отново обединява свойствата на частица и вълна, макар и по начин, различен от теорията на Нютон. Теология[редактиране | edit source] Въпреки че Нютон става известен със Законите за движение и всеобщото привличане, самият той предупреждава, че от тях не следва Вселената да се разглежда като механизъм. Той казва: „Гравитацията обяснява движенията на планетите, но тя не може да обясни кой е задвижил планетите. Господ управлява всички неща и знае всичко, което е или може да бъде направено.“ Той отделя голяма част от времето си на изследвания на Библията и на текстовете на Отците на Църквата, като заявява: „Аз имам фундаментална вяра в Библията, като Божие слово, записано от вдъхновените. Аз изучавам Библията всеки ден.“[31] От последното десетилетие на 17 век Нютон пише редица религиозни трактати с интерпретация на библейски текстове, като повечето са публикувани след смъртта му. В резултат на проучванията си той определя една от широко приетите дати на разпъването на Исус Христос – 3 април 33.[32] Разглеждайки пророчествата на „Даниил“ и „Откровението“ като едно цяло, той пише книгата „Наблюдения върху пророчествата на Даниил и Откровението на Йоан“ („Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John“), която е публикувана през 1733 година, шест години след смъртта му. Нютон изтъква, че в книгата „Даниил“ се намира ключът за всички други пророчества и че „отхвърлянето на неговите пророчества би означавало отхвърляне на християнската религия“. Религиозните идеи на Нютон по всяка вероятност са повлияни от вярата на Хенри Мор в безкрайността на Вселената, както и от отхвърлянето на Декартовия дуализъм. В ръкопис, който изпраща на Джон Лок, но по-късно се отказва да публикува, той оспорва съществуването на Светата Троица, смятайки, че тя е въведена през 4 век чрез фалшификация на библейски текстове.[4] Алхимия[редактиране | edit source] Нютон живее по време, когато не се прави разлика между наука и алхимия. В Англия от онова време заниманията с алхимия са забранени и уличените подлежат на публично наказание, включително обесване. Интересът му към алхимията произтича от връзката му с Хенри Мор и Кеймбриджките платоници и е свързан основно с опити за откриване на Философския камък[33] и еликсира на безсмъртието, но приживе той не е публикувал свои трудове в тази област. Данни за работата му се появяват едва през 20 век при публична разпродажба на негови документи, голяма част от които закупува Джон Мейнард Кейнс и ги завещава на Кингс Колидж (Кеймбридж)[34]. В своята „Хипотеза за светлината“ (1675; „Hypothesis of Light“) Нютон предполага, че светлината е съставена от съвсем малки частици, а обикновената материя – от по-големи. Според него съществува световен етер, който предава взаимодействията между частиците и телата и светлината могат да бъдат преобразувани едно в друго по алхимичен път, а телата дължат активността си на частиците светлина, влизащи в състава им.[35] Според някои тълкувания, това е първото формулиране на идеята за взаимозаменяемост на маса и енергия. Нютон дори успява да направи прост фрикционен електростатичен генератор, като използва за тази цел стъклена сфера. В своята окултна теория той заменя етера с окултни сили, основавайки се на херметичните идеи за привличане и отблъскване между частиците. Ако не бе разработвал окултната идея за взаимодействие от разстояние, вероятно не би разработил и теорията на гравитацията. Кейнс, който притежава много от алхимичните трудове на Нютон, казва, че „Нютон не е първият човек от века на Просвещението, той е последният от магьосниците“.[36] Макар че интересът на Нютон към алхимията оказва влияние върху научната му дейност, с времето той изоставя алхимичните си занимания.[3] Влияние върху философията[редактиране | edit source] Нютоновата концепция за Вселената, следваща естествени и рационално познаваеми закони, залята в основите на идеологията на Просвещението.[37] Джон Лок и Волтер прилагат идеята за природни закони към политическото устройство, поддържайки наличието на естествени права на хората. Физиократите и Адам Смит разглеждат икономиката в контекста на естествения личен интерес и психологически особености, а социолозите критикуват обществения ред за това, че се опитва да вмести исторически напластявания в естествения ход на прогреса. Религиозни философи, като Джеймс Бърнет и Самюъл Кларк, също успяват да интерпретират изводите на Нютон по начин, съвместим с техните възгледи за природата. Книги от Исак Нютон[редактиране | edit source] - „Method of Fluxions“ (1671) - „De Motu Corporum in Gyrum“ (1684) - „Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica“ (1687) - „Opticks“ (1704) - „Reports as Master of the Mint“ (1701-1725) - „Arithmetica Universalis“ (1707) - „Short Chronicle“, „The System of the World“, „Optical Lectures“, „The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended“ и „De mundi systemate“ са издадени посмъртно през 1728 - „Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. - „An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture“ (1754) Други[редактиране | edit source] - Популярната история за ябълката и Нютон вероятно води началото си от разказа на един съвременник, Уилям Стъкли, който в неговите „Спомени за сър Исак Нютон“ възпроизвежда един разговор с Нютон в дома му в Кенсингтън на 15 април 1726, в който Нютон си спомня как му е дошла на ум идеята за гравитацията. Това станало при падането на една ябълка, докато той се бил замислил нещо. Запитал се защо ябълката пада винаги перпендикулярно на земята, а не се отклонява настрани или пък нагоре, а винаги сочи центъра на Земята. Историята се среща и при други автори, но днес се счита, че вероятно е измислена от самия Нютон по-късно, за да покаже как и най-ежедневните неща са го вдъхновявали. Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Feingold 2007. - ↑ Gjersten 1986. - ↑ а б Westfall 1983, с. 530-531. - ↑ а б Snobelen 1999, с. 381–419. - ↑ Bŀaszczyk 2012. - ↑ Christianson 1996, с. 74. - ↑ Cohen 1970, с. 43. - ↑ Newton 1967, с. 8. - ↑ Westfall 1994, с. 16-19. - ↑ White 1997, с. 22. - ↑ White 1999, с. 46. - ↑ Hoskins 1997, с. 159. - ↑ Newton 2012. - ↑ Westfall 1983, с. 493–497. - ↑ Westfall 1994, с. 245. - ↑ Westfall 1983, с. 870. - ↑ Weisstein 2007. - ↑ Gjertsen 1986, с. 149. - ↑ Iliffe 2007. - ↑ Tiner 1975. - ↑ "Isaac Newton, World's Most Famous Alchemist", Jane Bosveld, Discover Magazine, July/August, 2010 - ↑ Newton project. // Посетен на 30 май 2014. - ↑ Gribbin 2002, с. 241. Източници[редактиране | edit source] - ((en)) Ball, W.W. Rouse. A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York, Dover, 1908. - ((en)) Bell, E.T. Men of Mathematics. Touchstone edition. New York, Simon & Schuster, 1986, [1937]. - ((en)) Bŀaszczyk, Piotr и др. Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking. // Foundations of Science. 2012. - ((en)) Burt, Daniel S. The biography book: a reader's guide to nonfiction, fictional, and film biographies of more than 500 of the most fascinating individuals of all time. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. - ((en)) Christianson, Gale E. Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution. Oxford University Press, 1996. - ((en)) Cohen, I.B. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970. - ((en)) Dobbs, J.T.. Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter. December 1982. - ((en)) Feingold, Mordechai. Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677). // Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2007. Посетен на 24 февруари 2009. - ((en)) Gjersten, Derek. The Newton Handbook. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. - ((en)) Gribbin, John. Science: A History 1543-2001. 2002. - ((en)) Hoskins, Michael (редактор). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy. Cambridge University Press, 1997. - ((en)) Iliffe, Robert. Newton. A very short introduction. Oxford University Press, 2007. - ((en)) Keynes, John Maynard. Newton, The Man. // The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. 1972. - ((en)) Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew, v. 1. 1991. - ((en)) Newton, Isaac и др. The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton: 1664–1666. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1967. - ((en)) Newton, Isaac. Waste Book. // Cambridge University Digital Library, 2012. - ((en)) Snobelen, Stephen D. Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite. // British Journal for the History of Science 32. 1999. - ((en)) Tiner, J.H. Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S., Mott Media, 1975. - ((en)) Weisstein, Eric W. // Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. 2007. Посетен на 30 август 2006. - ((en)) Westfall, Richard S.. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, [1980]. - ((en)) Westfall, Richard S. The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press, 1994. - ((en)) White, Michael. Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited, 1997. - ((en)) White, Michael. Isaac Newton. 1999. Вижте още[редактиране | edit source] - Гравитация - Закони на Нютон - Оптика - Алгоритъм на Гаус-Нютон - Нютонов фрактал - Кратери наречени Нютон има на Луната и на Марс Външни препратки[редактиране | edit source] - Нютон и класическата физика - Произведения на Исак Нютон в проекта Гутенберг - ((en)) Newton Project - проект, целящ да публикува всички трудове на Нютон онлайн
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Isaac Newton Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727])[1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."[7] His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution. The Principia is generally considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written, due, independently, to the specific physical laws the work successfully described, and for the style of the work, which assisted in setting standards for scientific publication down to the present time. Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope[8] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the study of power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[9] Newton was also highly religious. He was an unorthodox Christian, and wrote more on Biblical hermeneutics and occult studies than on the subjects of science and mathematics. Newton secretly rejected Trinitarianism, fearing to be accused of refusing holy orders.[10] Life Early life Isaac Newton was born on what is retroactively considered 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[11] While Newton was once engaged in his late teens to a Miss Storey, he never married, being highly engrossed in his studies and work.[12][13][14] From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham (where his alleged signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He hated farming.[15] Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.[16] The Cambridge psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen considers it "fairly certain" that Newton suffered from Asperger syndrome.[17] In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge as a sizar – a sort of work-study role.[18] At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle,[19] whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers, such as Descartes, and astronomers such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became infinitesimal calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,[20] Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,[21] optics and the law of gravitation. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.[22] Fellows were required to become ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific deadline for ordination and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigious Lucasian Chair. For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II (see "Middle years" section below). Middle years Mathematics Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".[23] His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers,[24] the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, Barrow identified to Collins in August of that year as:[25] Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things. Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus. Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus independently, although with very different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a suggestion, however, fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself (published 1687) and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the motion of bodies in orbit"), of 1684. The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But his work extensively uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities: in the Principia itself Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'[26] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[27] remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles'. Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[28] and "lequel est presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time.[29] His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684[30] and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".[31] Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.[32] He had a very close relationship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who from the beginning was impressed by Newton's gravitational theory. In 1691, Duillier planned to prepare a new version of Newton's Principia, but never finished it. However, in 1693 the relationship between the two men changed. At the time, Duillier had also exchanged several letters with Leibniz.[33] Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. The Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.[34] Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow's recommendation. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford was required to become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.[35] Optics From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[37] During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light.[38] He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[39] From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using a mirror as the objective to bypass that problem.[40] Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope,[40] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668[41] he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.[42] Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,[43] which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.[44] Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of ‘fits’ that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns, and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light. In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."[45] Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.[5] This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.) In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[46] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query). In an article entitled "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers[47] it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes, via diagrams, the use of multiple-prism arrays. Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[47] Mechanics and gravitation In 1679, Newton returned to his work on (celestial) mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[43] Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[48] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about 9 sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[49] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia. The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that enabled many of the advances of the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years, and are still the underpinnings of the non-relativistic technologies of the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis by 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of the spheroidal figure of the Earth, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more. Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the solar system – developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the solar system.[50] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[51] Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[52] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression Hypotheses non fingo). With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[53] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693, when it abruptly ended, at the same time that Newton suffered a nervous breakdown.[54] Later life In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the Universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works – The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) – were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above). Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.[55] Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower (and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.[56][57] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 in the "Law of Queen Anne" Newton moved the Pound Sterling de facto from the silver standard to the gold standard by setting the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in favour of gold. This caused silver sterling coin to be melted and shipped out of Britain. Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.[58] In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.[60] Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Sir Francis Bacon. Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her husband, until his death in 1727.[61] His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[62] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle,"[63] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox. Newton died in his sleep in London on 31 March 1727 [OS: 20 March 1726],[1] and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Newton, a bachelor, had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[64] After death Fame French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[65] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph: Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night; God said "Let Newton be" and all was light. Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676: If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.[66] Two writers think that the above quote, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than – or in addition to – a statement of modesty.[67][68] On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants published among others by 17th-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'. In a later memoir, Newton wrote: I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.[69] Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.[70] Newton remains influential to today's scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.[71] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[72] Commemorations Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent. The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[73] The Latin inscription on the base translates as: Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7. — Translation from G.L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–4.[73] From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.[74] A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. In popular culture Religious views According to most scholars, Newton was a monotheist who believed in biblical prophecies but was Antitrinitarian.[6][75] 'In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin'.[76] Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs."[6] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.[6] In an age notable for its religious intolerance, there are few public expressions of Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to take holy orders and his refusal, on his death bed, to take the sacrament when it was offered to him.[6] In a view disputed by Snobelen,[6] T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Arian view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans and most Protestants.[77] Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."[78] Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.[79] He also tried unsuccessfully to find hidden messages within the Bible. Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[80] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[81] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[82] Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work "Celestial Mechanics" had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don't require periodic divine intervention.[83] Effect on religious thought Newton and Robert Boyle's mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[84] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[85] and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion". The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.[86] Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.[87] These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed people to pursue their own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect themselves with their own rational powers.[88] Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[89][90][91] His spokesman, Clarke, rejected Leibniz' theodicy which cleared God from the responsibility for l'origine du mal by making God removed from participation in his creation, since as Clarke pointed out, such a deity would be a king in name only, and but one step away from atheism.[92] But the unforeseen theological consequence of the success of Newton's system over the next century was to reinforce the deist position advocated by Leibniz.[93] The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.[94] End of the world In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."[95] Enlightenment philosophers Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors — Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally — as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[96] It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[97] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature. Counterfeiters As warden of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during The Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon's being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult. However, Newton proved to be equal to the task.[98] Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.[99] For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties - there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton's personal first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time.[100] Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[101] One of Newton's cases as the King's attorney was against William Chaloner.[102] Chaloner's schemes included setting up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turning in the hapless conspirators whom he had entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins.[103] Newton put Chaloner on trial for counterfeiting and had him sent to Newgate Prison in September 1697. But Chaloner had friends in high places, who helped him secure an acquittal and his release.[102] Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at Tyburn gallows.[104] Laws of motion The famous three laws of motion (stated in modernised form): Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. The meaning of this law is the existence of reference frames (called inertial frames) where objects not acted upon by forces move in uniform motion (in particular, they may be at rest). Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, , on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, , with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as If applied to an object with constant mass (dm/dt = 0), the first term vanishes, and by substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic form The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed in order to change an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the newton, named in Newton's honour. Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two ice skaters pushing against each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the recoil of a firearm, in which the force propelling the bullet is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil). Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law applies both to a planet and to a falling stone. The vector nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the Sun would need a forward force to keep it moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the Sun. Even many decades after the publication of the Principia, this counterintuitive idea was not universally accepted, and many scientists preferred Descartes' theory of vortices.[105] Apple incident Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[106] Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment,[107] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account, published in 1752, has been made available by the Royal Society)[108] do in fact confirm the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[109] We went into the garden, & drank tea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths centre, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the centre. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple." John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[110] In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition. In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[111] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation". Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree [112] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale[113] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[114] Writings - Method of Fluxions (1671) - Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[115] - De motu corporum in gyrum (1684) - Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) - Opticks (1704) - Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25) - Arithmetica Universalis (1707) - The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728) - Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733) - An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754) See also Notes - ^ a b c d e During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian or 'Old Style' in Britain and parts of northern Europe (Protestant) and eastern Europe, and the Gregorian or 'New Style', in use in Roman Catholic Europe and elsewhere. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus Newton was born on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 by the Julian calendar, but on 4 January 1643 by the Gregorian. By the time he died, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, prior to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in the UK in 1752, the English new year began (for legal and some other civil purposes) on 25 March ('Lady Day', i.e. the feast of the Annunciation: sometimes called 'Annunciation Style') rather than on 1 January (sometimes called 'Circumcision Style'). Unless otherwise noted, the remainder of the dates in this article follow the Julian Calendar. - ^ Mordechai Feingold, Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007; accessed 24 February 2009; explained further in Mordechai Feingold " Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation"; Isis, Vol. - ^ Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Newton, Isaac, n.4 - ^ Gjersten, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. - ^ a b Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - ^ a b c d e f [page needed]Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite" (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381–419. http://www.isaac-newton.org/heretic.pdf. - ^ Burt, Daniel S. (2001). The biography book: a reader's guide to nonfiction, fictional, and film biographies of more than 500 of the most fascinating individuals of all time. Greenwood Publishing Group. http://books.google.com/books?id=jpFrgSAaKAUC., Extract of page 315 - ^ "The Early Period (1608–1672)". James R. Graham's Home Page. http://etoile.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html. Retrieved 3 February 2009. - ^ Błaszczyk, Piotr; Katz, Mikhail; Sherry, David (2012), "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking", Foundations of Science, arXiv:1202.4153, doi:10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8 - ^ Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution. Oxford University Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=O61ypNXvNkUC&pg=PA74. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons - ^ "Isaac Newton's Life". Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences. http://www.newton.ac.uk/newtlife.html. Retrieved 28 March 2010. - ^ "Isaac Newton". Bellevue College. http://scidiv.bellevuecollege.edu/MATH/Newton.html. Retrieved 28 March 2010. - ^ Newton, Isaac; Derek Thomas Whiteside (1967). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton: 1664–1666. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com/?id=1ZcYsNBptfYC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=isaac+newton+miss+storey&q=miss%20storey. Retrieved 28 March 2010. - ^ Westfall 1994, pp 16–19 - ^ James, Ioan (January 2003). "Singular scientists". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (1): 36–39. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=539373. - ^ Michael White, Isaac Newton (1999) page 46 - ^ Newton's handwritten notes from his "waste book" as an undergraduate at Trinity College reading: Aristotelis Stagiritis - Organo (Aristotle of Stageira, Organon). Cambridge Digital Library. Michael Hoskins (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy, p. 159. Cambridge University Press - ^ Newton, Isaac. "Waste Book". Cambridge University Digital Library. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004/. Retrieved 10 January 2012. - ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. "Newton, Isaac". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press. - ^ W W Rouse Ball (1908), "A short account of the history of mathematics", at page 319. - ^ D T Whiteside (ed.), The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton (Volume 1), (Cambridge University Press, 1967), part 7 "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", at page 400, in 2008 reprint. - ^ D Gjertsen (1986), "The Newton handbook", (London (Routledge & Kegan Paul) 1986), at page 149. - ^ Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, at page 41. - ^ Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, at page 54. - ^ Clifford Truesdell, Essays in the History of Mechanics (Berlin, 1968), at p.99. - ^ In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's Analyse des Infiniment Petits (Paris, 1696). - ^ Starting with De motu corporum in gyrum, see also (Latin) Theorem 1. - ^ D T Whiteside (1970), "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica" in Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol.1, pages 116–138, especially at pages 119–120. - ^ Westfall 1980, pp 538–539 - ^ King, Henry C (2003). ''The History of the Telescope'' By Henry C. King, Page 74. Google Books. http://books.google.com/?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&dq=history+of+the+telescope&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved 16 January 2010. - ^ Newton, Isaac. "Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat". Cambridge University Digital Library. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/. Retrieved 10 January 2012. - ^ a b White 1997, p170 - ^ Hall, Alfred Rupert (1996). '''Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought''', by Alfred Rupert Hall, page 67. Google Books. http://books.google.com/?id=32IDpTdthm4C&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=newton+reflecting+telescope++1668+letter+1669&q=newton%20reflecting%20telescope%20%201668%20letter%201669. Retrieved 16 January 2010. - ^ a b See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 1676–1687' ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document #235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679. - ^ Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007 - ^ Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. MacMillan St. Martin's Press. - ^ Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982). "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter". quoting Opticks - ^ a b Duarte, F. J. (2000). "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers". Optics and Photonics News 11 (5): 24–25. http://www.opticsjournal.com/F.J. - ^ R S Westfall, 'Never at Rest', 1980, at pages 391–2. - ^ D T Whiteside (ed.), 'Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton', vol.6, 1684–1691, Cambridge University Press 1974, at page 30. - ^ See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pages 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989) The General History of Astronomy, Volume, 2A', at page 233. - ^ Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's Principia, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) at pages 232–233. - ^ Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. - ^ Westfall 1980. Chapter 11. - ^ Westfall 1980. pp 493–497 on the friendship with Fatio, pp 531–540 on Newton's breakdown. - ^ "[Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter?]". Science Friday. NPR. - ^ Thomas Levenson (2009). Newton and the counterfeiter : the unknown detective career of the world's greatest scientist. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. - ^ Gerard Michon. "Coat of arms of Isaac Newton". Numericana.com. http://www.numericana.com/arms/index.htm#newton. Retrieved 16 January 2010. - ^ "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." Westfall 1994 p.245 - ^ Yonge, Charlotte M. (1898). "Cranbury and Brambridge". John Keble's Parishes – Chapter 6. www.online-literature.com. http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/. Retrieved 23 September 2009. - ^ Westfall 1980, p. 44. - ^ Westfall 1980, p. 595 Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html. Retrieved 30 August 2006. - ^ Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. - ^ Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in Jean-Pierre Maury (1992) Newton: Understanding the Cosmos, New Horizons - ^ John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 1543–2001, p 164. - ^ Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. - ^ "Einstein's Heroes: Imagining the World through the Language of Mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald - ^ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the public". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=1324&terms=Newton+beats+Einstein+in+polls+of+scientists+and+the+public. - ^ "Opinion poll. Einstein voted "greatest physicist ever" by leading physicists; Newton runner-up". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm. - ^ a b "Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton". Westminster Abbey. http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton. Retrieved 13 November 2009. - ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm. Retrieved 27 August 2009. - ^ Avery Cardinal Dulles. The Deist Minimum. January 2005. - ^ [page needed]Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - ^ Pfizenmaier, T.C. (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1): 57–80. Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media. - ^ John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, pp. 382–402 after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely. - ^ Newton to Richard Bentley 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (1959–77), vol 3, p. 233. - ^ Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31. - ^ H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 11. - ^ Neil Degrasse Tyson (November 2005). "The Perimeter of Ignorance". Natural History Magazine. http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance. - ^ Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720. Cornell University Press. - ^ Westfall, Richard S. (1958). Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale University Press. - ^ Haakonssen, Knud. "The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick ed.. Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - ^ Frankel, Charles (1948). The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment. New York: King's Crown Press. - ^ Germain, Gilbert G.. A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology. - ^ Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953. - ^ A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65. - ^ Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. - ^ H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 14. - ^ Westfall, 1958 p201. - ^ Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989. - ^ "Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070813033620/http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm. Retrieved 1 August 2007. - ^ Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. - ^ "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 1543–2001, p 241 - ^ Newton, Isaac. "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica". Cambridge University Digital Library. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/. Retrieved 10 January 2012. - ^ Westfall 2007, p.73 - ^ a b White 1997, p 269 - ^ Westfall 1994, p 229 - ^ Westfall 1980, pp. 571–5 - ^ Scott Berkun (27 August 2010). The Myths of Innovation. O'Reilly Media, Inc.. http://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&pg=PA4. Retrieved 7 September 2011. - ^ Newton's apple: The real story. New Scientist. 18 January 2010. http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php. Retrieved 10 May 2010 - ^ Hamblyn, Richard (2011). "Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley". The Art of Science. Pan Macmillan. - ^ Conduitt, John. "Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge". Newtonproject. Imperial College London. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167. Retrieved 30 August 2006. - ^ I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2002) p. 6 - ^ Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths, page 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011). - ^ "Brogdale — Home of the National Fruit Collection". Brogdale.org. http://www.brogdale.org/. Retrieved 20 December 2008. - ^ "From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree". http://www.brogdale.org.uk/image1.php?varietyid=1089. Retrieved 10 January 2009. - ^ Newton's alchemical works transcribed and online at Indiana University. Retrieved 11 January 2007. References - Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. - Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics - Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". - Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 18 (2): 136–145. - Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. - Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. - Westfall, Richard S. (1980, 1998). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. - Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. - Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. - White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. Further reading - Andrade, E. N. De C. (1950). Isaac Newton. New York: Chanticleer Press. - Bardi, Jason Socrates. The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time. 277 pp. excerpt and text search - Bechler, Zev (1991). Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution. Springer. - Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. 256 pp. excerpt and text search ISBN 0-684-84392-7 - Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy. MIT Press, 2001. 354 pp. excerpt and text search "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 42 (1): 35–52. - Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution. Oxford University Press. See this site for excerpt and text search. - Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. - Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. - Dampier, William C.; Dampier, M. (1959). Readings in the Literature of Science. New York: Harper & Row. - de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. - Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions 186: 291–297. - Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein - Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press. - Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-00189-X. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers. Newtonian Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. - Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California (1999) - Pemberton, H. (1728). A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy. London: S. Palmer. - Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.. - Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147–9; "Discoveries" pp. 150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946). The Giant Book of Scientists – The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time. Sydney: The Book Company. - Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A. H. White; originally published in 1752) - Westfall, R. S. (1971). Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century. London: Macdonald. Religion - Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism - Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts - Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" British Journal for the History of Science 34: 417–438. in JSTOR, argues that his calculus had a theological basis - Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. - Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite". British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381–419. - Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (January 1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1): 57–80. - Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries. (1996) 214pp, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp 77–93 on Newton excerpt and text search, Primary sources - Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999). - Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, 1996. - Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672. Cambridge U. Press, 1984. - Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications. - Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press. - Whiteside, D. T. (1967–82). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – 8 volumes - Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77) - Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), online edition - Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton, 1850. – Google Books - Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse. Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson. External links - Newton's Scholar Google profile - ScienceWorld biography by Eric Weisstein - Dictionary of Scientific Biography - The Newton Project - The Newton Project – Canada - Rebuttal of Newton's astrology (via archive.org) - Newton's Religious Views Reconsidered - Newton's Royal Mint Reports - Newton's Dark Secrets NOVA TV programme - from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: - Isaac Newton, by George Smith - Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, by George Smith - Newton's Philosophy, by Andrew Janiak - Newton's views on space, time, and motion, by Robert Rynasiewicz - Newton's Castle Educational material - The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Research on his Alchemical writings - FMA Live! Program for teaching Newton's laws to kids - Newton's religious position - The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia - Kandaswamy, Anand M. The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context - Newton's First ODE – A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series - O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Isaac Newton", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html. - Isaac Newton at the Mathematics Genealogy Project - The Mind of Isaac Newton Images, audio, animations and interactive segments - Enlightening Science Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion - Newton biography (University of St Andrews) - Chisholm, Hugh, ed. "Newton, Sir Isaac". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - and see at [1] for the following works about him: - “Newton, Sir Isaac” in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John William Cousin, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910. - “Newton, Isaac,” in Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith, Elder, & Co., (1885-1900) - Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's life by William Stukeley, 1752 Writings by him - Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project - The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel - the collection of all his religious writings - Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg - Newton's Principia – read and search - Descartes, Space, and Body and A New Theory of Light and Colour, modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett - Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light, full text on archive.org - Newton Papers, Cambridge Digital Library - and see at [2] for the following works by him: - Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica - Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light - Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John - New Theory About Light and Colour - An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture - 1642 births - 1727 deaths - 17th-century English people - 17th-century Latin-language writers - 17th-century mathematicians - 18th-century English people - 18th-century Latin-language writers - 18th-century mathematicians - Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge - Antitrinitarians - Post-Reformation Arian Christians - Ballistics experts - Burials at Westminster Abbey - Cambridge mathematicians - Christian mystics - Color scientists - English alchemists - English Anglicans - English astronomers - English Christian theologians - English inventors - English mathematicians - English physicists - Experimental physicists - Fellows of the Royal Society - Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge - Hermeticists - History of calculus - Isaac Newton - Knights Bachelor - Lucasian Professors of Mathematics - Masters of the Mint - Members of Parliament for the University of Cambridge - Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) - Optical physicists - People from South Kesteven (district) - Philosophers of science - Presidents of the Royal Society - Scientific instrument makers - People educated at The King's School, Grantham - Natural philosophers - Apocalypticists - Enlightenment scientists - Theoretical physicists