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Канада - Вижте пояснителната страница за други значения на Канада. Кана̀да (на английски: Canada, [ˈkænədə]; на френски: Canada, [kanad'a]) е най-голямата държава в Северна Америка, простираща се от Атлантическия океан на изток до Тихия на запад и до Северния ледовит на север. Тя е втората по големина страна в света[1], а нейната обща граница със Съединените щати на юг и северозапад е най-дългата в света. Територията на днешна Канада е обитавана от хилядолетия от различни местни етнически групи. От края на 15 век британски и френски експедиции изследват атлантическото крайбрежие, а след това започват и да се заселват там. Повечето френски колонии са отстъпени на Великобритания след края на Седемгодишната война през 1763 година. Канада възниква през 1867 година, когато три от британските колонии са обединени в Канадска конфедерация, федерален доминион, съставен от четири провинции.[2][3] Това поставя началото на продължителен процес на териториално разширение увеличаване на автономията на страната. Основни стъпки в него са Уестминстърския статут от 1931 година и Закона за Канада от 1982 година, който премахва последните остатъци на правна зависимост на Канада от Британския парламент. Федерация, съставена от 10 провинции и 3 територии, Канада е парламентарна монархия в лична уния с Великобритания. Английският и френският са официални езици на федерално ниво. Канада е просперираща развита държава, деветата по големина икономика в света. Канада има развита икономика, основана на изобилните природни ресурси и външната търговия, главно със Съединените щати. Страната се нарежда на високо ниво в степента на човешко развитие, качеството на живот, здравеопазване, продължителност на живота, общественото образование, икономическата свобода и защитата на гражданските свободи и политически права.[4] Страната е член на Г-8, Г-20, НАТО, ОИСР, СТО, Общността на нациите, ОАД, Азиатско-тихоокеанското икономическо сътрудничество, ООН, НАФТА. Съдържание - 1 География - 2 История - 3 Държавно устройство - 4 Демографски показатели - 5 Икономика - 6 Култура - 7 Други - 8 Бележки - 9 Външни препратки География[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Източна Канада е разделена на северната гора и неплодородния Канадски щит (на френски: Bouclier canadien; на английски: Canadian Shield) на север и плодородната долина на река Сейнт Лорънс на юг (където и живее по-голямата част от населението). Големи площи от южна централна Канада са заети от равнини и прерии. Релефът на Западна Канада е най-вече хълмист от двете страни на Скалистите планини. Ръкавът на залива Хъдсън се врязва дълбоко в страната. В източната част са разположени и Големите езера, които са на границата със САЩ. Там се намира и водопадът Ниагара. Канада обхваща почти цялата северна половина на Северна Америка. Ширината на тази необятна земя е повече от 5800 km и включва шест часови пояса. Централната част на страната е доминирана от Канадския щит, образуван от магмени и метаморфни скали през ледниковата епоха, днес покрити от обширни гори. Растителността в тази част на страната, най-вече в северните ѝ райони, е тундрова — има иглолистни гори, както и езера. По-далеч на север, в полярният пояс, който обхваща повече от половината от територията на Канада, преобладава студен континентален климат. Тук е царството на водите и ледовете, което се простира върху площ от над 5 млн km2. История[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Етимология[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Името Канада идва от думата kanata на езика на племето ирокези, която буквално означава „село“ или „селище“. През 1535 г. местните жители от района на сегашния град Квебек използват тази дума, за да упътят френския мореплавател и изследовател Жак Картие как да стигне до селището Стадакона. По-късно Картие употребява думата kanata не само в смисъла на това конкретно селище, а за да обозначи всички земи, владени от вожда Донакона. Към 1545 г. модифицираната форма canada започва да се използва като топоним, отнасящ се за част от територията на съвременна Канада. През 17 век и началото на 18 век Канада се наричат всички земи част от Нова Франция, които се намират по протежението на река Сейнт Лорънс или са част от северните брегове на Големите езера. Този район по-късно е разделен на две британски колонии - Горна и Долна Канада. През 1841 г. колониите са обединени под общото наименование провинция Канада. Когато през 1867 г. чрез конфедеративното обединение на четири провинции е създаден нов британски доминион, чието официално наименование е Канада. До средата на 1950-те най-често използваното име, отнасящо се за страната, е Доминион Канада, но с поетапното издействане на политическа автономия от Обединеното кралство, федералното правителство започва да насърчава използването единствено на името Канада във всички официални документи. През 1982 г. официалният празник на страната е преименуван от Ден на доминиона на Ден на Канада. Коренно население[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Археологически изследвания и генетични проучвания сред коренното население на Канада показват, че Северен Юкон е бил населен от почти 26 500 години, а първите следи от човешко присъствие в Южен Онтарио са от над 9 500 години. Равнините Олд Кроу и пещерите Блуфиш се считат за дом на най-първите заселници на територията на Канада, които често се наричат палео-индианци. Първите местни общества се характеризирали с уседнал начин на живот, земеделие, строителството на обществени и обредни сгради, появата на социално разслоение и развитието на търговия между различни племена. До пристигането през 15 век на първите европейци в Северна Америка голяма част от местните култури вече са били изчезнали и тяхното съществуване е установено благодарение на археологическите открития през 20 век. Няма единодушно мнение за броя на коренното население през вековете, но според различните хипотези то е варирало между 200 хиляди и 2 милиона души към края на 15 век. Европейците донасят със себе си непознати дотогава болести, които според различни източници са отговорни за гибелта на между 40% и 80% от местното население. Аборигенните народи включват Първите народи (индианските племена), инуитите (ескимоси) и метисите. Първите метиси се появяват през 17 век, когато европейци и представители на местните народи започват да сключват бракове помежду си. За разлика от индианските племена инуитите са имали ограничен контакт с новите заселници по времето на европейската колонизация, което до известна степен позволява да запазят културата и начина си на живот векове наред. Европейска колонизация[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Първите европейци, достигнали бреговете на Канада, е предвожданият от Лейф Ериксон норвежки екипаж, който достига до остров Бафинова земя и след това до Лабрадор през 1000 година. Ериксон нарича новооткритите земи Винланд, но след неуспешен опит да създаде постоянна колония, се завръща в Исландия. За следващите пет века няма исторически данни Канада да е била достигана от други европейци. Едва през 1497 г.италианският мореплавател Джовани Кабото, тогава служещ под английски флаг, достига до атлантическото крайбрежие на Канада. Между 1498 и 1521 г. португалски и баски моряци създават по протежението на атлантическото крайбрежие временни лагери, които използват по време на сезонния риболов. През 1534 г. по поръчка на Франция Жак Картие описва и картографира залива Свети Лаврентий и бреговете на река Свети Лаврентий. Френският мореплавател Самюел дьо Шамплен пристига в Канада през 1603 г. и създава първите европейски колонии - Порт Роял (1605 г.) и Квебек (1608 г.). Първите преселници от Франция се заселват по поречието на Свети Лаврентий, в сегашните крайморски провинции Ню Брънзуик, Нова Скотия и Остров Принц Едуард и създават селища на територията на сегашните американски щати Мейн, Върмонт и Ню Хемпшир. От друга страна търговците на кожи и католическите мисионери изучават Големите езера, залива Хъдсън, спускат се по течението на Мисисипи и достигат чак до територията на сегашна Луизиана. Избухналите в средата на 17 век Френско-ирокезки войни (известни още като Боброви войни) поставят край на сравнително спокойното съществуване между заселници и местни. Около 1610 г. англичаните основават първите рибарски селища в Нюфаундленд, а след това на юг създават Тринадесетте колонии. Между 1689 и 1763 г. избухват общо четири колониални войни между Франция и Англия. С Договора от Утрехт (1713) континенталната част на Нова Скотия минава под британски контрол; Парижкият договор от 1763 г. слага край на Седемгодишната война между двете кралства и установява пълен британски контрол над Канада и по-голямата част от Нова Франция. С Кралската декларация от 1763 г. провинция Квебек е извадена от състава на Нова Франция и става самостоятелна част от Канада, а към Нова Скотия е анексиран остров Кейп Бретон. През 1769 г. остров Свети Джон (сега остров Принц Едуард) става отделна колония. За да избегне възможни конфликти в Квебек, британската власт приема през 1774 г. Закона за Квебек, според който територията на провинцията се разширява до Големите езера и долината на река Охайо. С този закон се възстановяват официалният статут на френския език, правото да се изповядва католицизмът и френското гражданско право. Тези реформи пораждат значително недоволство сред англоезичното мнозинство на Тринадесетте колонии и се считат като една от основните предпоставки за избухването на Американската революция. Парижкият договор от 1783 г. официално признава американската независимост и отстъпва всички територии на юг от Големите езера на Съединените американски щати. Около 50 000 верни на британската корона лоялисти бягат от Щатите в Канада. Ню Брънзуик е отделен от Нова Скотия, а провинция Квебек е разделена на две части — Долна Канада (съвременната провинция Квебек) и Горна Канада (сегашната провинция Онтарио). В Горна Канада се заселват голяма част от британските лоялисти. Горна и Долна Канада се оказват основният фронт по време на Войната от 1812 между САЩ и Британската империя. С края на войната към Канада започва масирана имиграция от Великобритания и Ирландия. Между 1825 и 1846 г. в Канада пристигат 626 628 имигранти от Европа. Въстанията от 1837 г. избухват основно поради липсата на отговорно правителство, което реално да управлява в полза на жителите на Доминиона Канада. В Доклада Дърам се препоръчва създаването на отговорно правителство и да се предприемат действия в посока пълната асимилация на френскоговорящите канадци в англоезичното общество. Със Закона за обединение от 1840 г. двете Канади са обединени в една провинция. През 1849 г. е създадено отговорно правителство, което да управлява всички британски северноамерикански провинции. С подписването на Орегонското споразумение от 1846 г. се решава пограничният въпрос с американската територия Орегон и се прокарва граница по протежението на 49-ия паралел в посока запад. Това позволява създаването на колонии в Британска Колумбия и на остров Ванкувър. Териториалната експанзия продължава с експедиции на север и анексирането на днешния канадски Арктически регион и Земя Рупърт, която включва значителна част от северните територии на повечето съвременни провинции. Конфедерация и разширяване[редактиране | редактиране на кода] След поредица от конституционални обсъждания на 1 юли 1867 г. е приет Конституционалният акт, чрез който се създава конфедерацията Доминион Канада, съставен от провинциите Онтарио, Квебек, Нова Скотия и Ню Брънзуик. Земята Рупърт и Северозападната Територия са обединени в Северозападните територии, а през юли 1870 г. е създадена провинцията Манитоба. През 1866 г. Британска Колумбия и остров Ванкувър се обединяват в обща територия и през 1871 г. стават част от Канадската конфедерация. Две години по-късно това прави и Остров Принц Едуард. Първият министър-председател на новосъздадената Канадска конфедерация, Джон А. Макдоналд, приема редица закони, които да защитят и стимулират развитието на производството и търговията в Канада. С построяването на три трансконтинентални железопътни линии (включително и Канадската тихоокеанска линия) западните части на страната стават далеч по-достъпни за заселниците, а приетият през 1872 г. поземлен закон за прериите цели да стимулира заселването на обширните степни райони. През 1898 г., малко след началото на Златната треска в Клондайк, канадското правителство създава територията Юкон. На 23 май 1873 г. е създадена Северозападната конна полиция, чиято основна цел е да поддържа реда в най-новите територии на Канада; през 1920 г. това полицейско формирование се превръща в съвременната Кралска канадска конна полиция или просто канадската полиция. По време на управлението на правителството на либерала Уилфрид Лори Албърта и Саскачеван са официално признати за провинции и през 1905 г. влизат в състава на Канадската конфедерация. Съвременна история[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Включването на Великобритания в Първата световна война на страната на Антантата въвлича и Канада във военния конфликт, защото по това време военната ѝ политика все още е под прекия контрол на Британската империя. Доброволците, изпратени на Западния фронт, формират Канадския военен корпус, който изиграва важна роля в редица битки и в частност в Битката при Вими. От около 625 хиляди канадци, участвали във войната, приблизително 60 хиляди намират смъртта си и още 173 хиляди са ранени. През 1919 г., независимо от Великобритания, Канада става член на Обществото на народите. С Уестминстърския статут от 11 декември 1931 г. Канада получава независимостта си от Обединеното кралство. По времето на Голямата депресия Канада се оказва в тежко икономическо положение, сходно на това в САЩ. По време на Втората световна война Канада участва със собствени военни части, необвързани с английската корона. Правителството на либерала Уилям Лайон Макензи Кинг обявява война на Нацистка Германия на 10 септември 1939 г., три дни след включването на Великобритания в конфликта. Първите канадски военни части пристигат в Европа през декември 1939 г. До края на военните действия Канада мобилизира милион и 140 хиляди души, но изпраща като военна помощ по-малко от половината. Канадските части имат съществено участие в Битката за Диеп, Операция Аваланч, Операция Нептун, Операция Овърлорд и Битката за Шелда. В Канада временно се разполагат нидерландското правителство и кралската фамилия в изгнание; страната изиграва важна роля в освобождаването на Бенелюкс от нацистката окупация. По време на войната канадската икономика изживява разцвет благодарение на производството на военна техника, която се изпраща в Европа, Азия и Съветския съюз. Въпреки няколкото вътрешни сътресения, в края на Втората световна война Канада се оказва на страната на победителите, а икономическото ѝ благосъстояние е второто най-добро в световен мащаб. Нюфаундленд (сега Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор) става част от Канада през 1949 г. Следвоенният икономически разцвет, съчетан с умелата политика на редица либерални правителства, спомагат за формирането на канадското самосъзнание. През 1965 г. е приет сегашният официален флаг на страната, лесно разпознаваем с червеното кленово листо в центъра му. През 1969 г. Канада става двуезична — английският и френският получават еднакъв статут, а през 1971 г. страната официално приема мултикултурализма като определящ обществото ѝ. Предприемат се множество социални промени, сред които общодостъпна безплатна здравна система, канадската пенсионна програма и системата за студентски заеми. След редица обсъждания през 1982 г. действащата дотогава британска конституция е изместена от канадската Харта за права и свободи. През 1999 г. Нунавут става третата канадска територия. През 60-те години в Квебек настъпват съществени социални и икономически промени, познати като Тихата революция. Формира се модерно националистическо движение, чиято основна цел е отделянето на френскоговорящ Квебек от предимно англоговоряща Канада. През 1976 г. националистическата партия Партия на Квебек печели местните избори и организира неуспешен референдум за автономията на провинцията. През 1990 г. правителството на Браян Мълроуни прокарва редица конституционални промени в полза на Квебек, но това не успокоява страстите във френскоговорящата провинция. Тези неуспешни опити за решаване на квебекския въпрос водят до създаването на редица националистически политически партии, които през 1995 г. успяват да издействат провеждането на втори референдум за съдбата на Квебек. Предложението за автономия е отхвърлено със съвсем малка разлика, в негова полза са гласували 49,4% спрямо 50,6% против. През 1997 г. Канадският върховен съд определя за неконституционални всякакви опити за отделянето на Квебек от страната. Това не пречи на канадското правителство през 2000 година да приеме закон, определящ условията за съгласувано отделяне на Квебек от конфедерацията. През 1990 г. Канада се включва във Войната в Персийския залив на страната на водената от САЩ коалиция. През 90-те страната активно участва в редица мироопазващи мисии под егидата на ООН. През 2001 г. Канада изпраща военни части в Афганистан, но две години по-късно твърдо отказва да се включи във водената от Щатите война в Ирак. Държавно устройство[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Канада е едновременно парламентарна демокрация и конституционна монархия, т.е. държавният глава е монарх, като в момента това е кралица Елизабет II. Монархическият представител в Канада е Генералният губернатор. Неговата роля е да одобрява законите, но има и някои други задължения. Административно деление[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Канада е федерация, съставена от десет провинции и три територии, които са групирани в региони. Западна Канада се състои от Британска Колумбия и трите прерийни провинции (Алберта, Съскечуан и Манитоба). В Централна Канада влизат Квебек и Онтарио. Атлантическа Канада се състои от трите морски провинции (Ню Брунсуик, о-в Принц Едуард и Нова Скотия) и Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор. За Източна Канада се считат Централна и Атлантическа Канада, взети заедно. Три територии (Юкон, Северозападните територии и Нунавут) съставляват Северна Канада. Провинциите си служат с повече автономия от териториите. Всяка провинция си има свой собствен герб. Провинциите са отговорни за повечето социални програми на страната (като здравеопазване, образование, социални помощи) и заедно реализират повече приходи отколкото самата държава, почти уникално явление в света. Ползвайки своите права за оползотворяване на средствата, федералното правителство може да инициира национална политика в провинциалните зони, като например Канадския здравен акт; провинциите имат правото да не участват в тях, но рядко го правят. Демографски показатели[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Население[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Според данни от преброяването от 2006 година в Канада живеят общо 31 612 897 души, което е увеличение с 5,4% спрямо 2001 г. Растежът на населението се дължи основно на постоянния имигрантски поток и донякъде и от положителния естествен прираст. Около 4/5 от населението на Канада живее на около 150 km от границата със Съединените американски щати. Приблизително 4/5 от канадците живеят в трите мегаполиса — коридор Квебек - Уиндзор, Лоуър Мейнленд в Британска Колумбия и коридора Калгари - Едмънтън. По данни на преброяването от 2006 г. 32% от всички канадци се самоопределят като етнически канадци, следвани от 21% ентически англичани, 15,8% с френски произход, 15,1% шотландци, 13,9% италианци, 4,3% с китайски произход, аборигенно население 4,0%, 3,9% украинци и 3,3 с холандски корени. Годишният прираст на канадското аборигенно население е два пъти спрямо националния и към 4% от населението на страна са заявили принадлежност към някое от местните малцинства. Други 16,2% от неаборигенното население на Канада са с произход, различен от европейски и се разпределят както следва - 4% от Южна Азия, 3,9% са китайци и 2,5% са чернокожи. През 1961 г. по-малко от 2% от населението на Канада (около 300 хиляди души) е било с неевропейски произход и още около 1% - с аборигенен произход. Към 2006 г. 51% от населението на Ванкувър и 46,9% от населението на Торонто е съставено от представители на неевропейски етнически групи. Преброяването от същата година показва, че на всеки пет канадци поне един е роден извън страната. Около 60% от всички имигранти идват от държави в Азия, включително и Близкия изток. През 2009 г. една трета от всички нови имигранти пристигат от Китай, Филипините и Индия. Според някои прогнози през 2031 г. една трета от всички канадци ще принадлежат към видимите малцинства. Канада е сред държавите с най-голям годишен приток на имигранти, основно заради благоприятните икономически условия и олекотената имиграционна политика. Очаква се през 2011 г. между 240 хиляди и 265 хиляди души да пристигнат в страната като имигранти, тенденция, стабилно запазила се през последните няколко години. Голяма част от новите имигранти се заселват в силно урбанизираните райони на Торонто, Ванкувър и Отава. Канада е известна и като дом на съществен брой бежанци; на всеки десет бежанци поне един е получил убежище в страната. По подобие на други развити държави, населението на Канада е в процес на застаряване, а броят на хората в работоспособна възраст намалява с всяка изминала година. Към 2006 г. средната възраст в национален мащаб е 39,5 години. Последните преброявания показват, че имиграционният поток към страната не успява да разреши проблема с постепенното застаряване на населението. Религия[редактиране | редактиране на кода] По данни на преброяването от 2006 година 77,1% от населението на Канада се идентифицира като християни, като 46,3% са последователи на католицизма, а 29,2% са протестанти. Общо 16,5% от канадците не се причисляват към нито една религия и около 6,3% изповядват религия, различна от християнската. Най-голям от последната категория е броят на мюсюлманите, които съставляват около 2% от населението или 579 хиляди души. Последователите на юдаизма, будизма, хиндуизма и сикхизма си поделят по един процент. Православните християни в Канада са около половин милион човека и са основно хора с източноевропейски произход. Език[редактиране | редактиране на кода] В Канада двата официални езика са английският и френският. Официалното двуезичие в страната се гарантира чрез Канадската харта за правата и свободите, Закона за официалните езици и Регламента за официални езици, а за прилагането му следи Комисарят по официалните езици. Френският и английският са с еднакъв статут в Парламента и всички федерални институции. Гражданите имат правото да комуникират в държавни институции на един от двата езика, като държавата се задължава да осигури служители, владеещи нужния работен език. Държавата се задължава да осигури съществуването на училища за официалните езикови малцинства в райони, където те имат съществено присъствие. Английският и френският са майчини езици съответно на 59,7% и 23,2% от всички жители на Канада и са двата най-говорени езика в домашна среда — съответно от 68,3% и 22,3%. Около 98,5% от всички канадци говорят английски или френски (67,5% владеят само английски, 13,3% говорят само френски и 17,7% са двуезични). Англоезичните и франкофонските езикови общности, определени по владеене на един от двата официални езика, съставляват 73,% и 23,6% от населението на Канада. Хартата за френския език определя френския език като единствен официален език в провинция Квебек. Въпреки че в Квебек живеят 85% от всички френскоговорещи канадци, значителни франкофонски общности съществуват и в провинциите Онтарио, Албърта и Манитоба; в Онтарио живеят над 300 хиляди френскоговорещи. Ню Брънзуик, където франкофоните съставляват 33% от населението на провинцията, е единствената официално двуезична провинция в Канада. Всички останали провинции нямат определен с местен закон официален език, но френският се използва де юре само в държавни институции, в съдилищата на федерално равнище и като език за преподаване в училищата. Английският се явява де факто основният език във всекидневната комуникация, медиите и други аспекти на живота. В Манитоба, Онтарио и Квебек е разрешено двата официални езика да се използват в местното законодателство, а всички промени в закона се издават и на двата езика. В Канада има 11 аборигенни езикови групи и повече от 65 самостоятелни диалекта. От тях единствено крий, инуитския и оджибуай се владеят от достатъчно много хора и се считат от държавата като единствените езици с реални шансове да оцелеят през времето. В Северозападните територии няколко местни езика имат официален статут. Инуитският език се говори от почти 70% от населението на територията Нунавут и там е признат като официален език. Над шест милиона души в Канада са заявили като майчин език език, различен от английски или френски. Повече от един милион човека говорят китайски (основно кантонски) като първи език, италианският се владее от 455 040 човека, немският - от 450 570 души, панджабският език - от 367 505 и испанският - от 345 345 човека. Мнозинството от хора, чийто майчин език не е нито един от официалните, живеят в провинциите Британска Колумбия (около 1,1 милиона) и Онтарио (3,1 милиона). Най-големи метрополни региони[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Почти 55% от населението на Канада живее в 30-те най-големи града в страната. Ако в тези данни се включват и метрополните региони, процентът скача до 70%. Торонто е най-големият град в Канада с население от 2,7 милиона души (2011 г.) и население на метрополния регион над 5,6 милиона (2011 г.). Икономика[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Канада е сред икономически най-развитите държави в света и сред държавите с едни от най-високите доходи на глава от населението. Страната е член на Г8 и на Организацията за икономическо сътрудничество и развитие (ОИСР). Канадската търговия е сред десетте най-големи в световен мащаб, а икономиката ѝ е със смесен характер. Страната е с един от най-големи индекси на икономическа свобода, задминаващ този на САЩ и на повечето западноевропейски държави. Най-големите вносители на стоки, произведени в Канада, са САЩ, Великобритания и Япония. През 2008 г. в Канада са внесени стоки на обща стойност $442,9 милиарда, от които $280,8 милиарда са от САЩ, $11,7 милиарда са от Япония и $11,3 милиарда от Великобритания. През 2009 г. търговският дефицит на страната е 4,8 милиарда канадски долара, а излишъкът се е равнявал на 46,9 милиарда канадски долара. Към октомври 2009 равнището на безработица в национален мащаб е 8,6%, като тази цифра варира от 5,8% в Манитоба до 17% в Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор. В периода октомври 2008 - октомври 2010 канадският трудов пазар губи 162,000 работни позиции на пълен работен ден и 62 хиляди позиции на половин работен ден. За периода 2010-2011 държавният дълг на Канада възлиза на $566.7 милиарда, което е съществено увеличение спрямо $463.7 милиарда от 2008-2009. В началото на 2010 външният дълг на Канада възлиза на $193.8 милиарда. За фискалната 2009-2010 година комбинираният държавен и провинциален финансов дефицит възлиза на приблизително $100 милиарда, от които за годината 2010-2011 федералният дефицит набъбва до 49.2 милиарда канадски долара. През 20-ти век бързото развитие на производството, добивът на полезни изкопаеми и подобряването на сектора за услуги позволява на Канада да се превърне от държава с икономика, силно зависима от земеделието, във високо индустриализирана и силно урбанизирана страна. Канадската икономика е доминирана от сектора на услугите, в който са заети около три четвърти от всички канадци. Канада за разлика от повечето развити държави има особено добре развит първичен сектор, в който дърводобивът и петролната индустрия се ползват с особена важност. Канада е сред малкото развити държави, които изнасят енергия зад граница. Атлантическото крайбрежие на Канада е богато на залежи от природен газ, а на територията на Албърта има големи залежи на природен газ и петрол. Битумните пясъци в Атабаска, провинция Албърта, съхраняват най-големите залежи на петрол в света, задминати единствено от тези в Саудитска Арабия. Канада е един от най-големите износители на земеделска продукция в световен мащаб; Канадските прерии са с особена важност заради големия добив на пшеница, рапица и други зърнени култури. Страната е с най-големия добив на цинк и уран, и също така е със съществени добиви на злато, никел, алуминий и олово. В северната част на Канада повечето малки градчета са се развили като миньорски и дърводобивни центрове. Повечето крупни местни производства се намират в провинциите Квебек и Онтарио, като автомобилостроенето и самолетостроенето заемат особено важни позиции в производството. След края на Втората световна война между икономиките на Канада и САЩ се създава стабилна връзка на взаимна икономическа интеграция, която спомага за лесното движение на стоки и инвестиции. Двете страни са си взаимно най-големите икономически партньори. Споразумението за свободна търговия между Канада и Съединените американски щати (на френски: ALE; на английски: FTA), подписано през 1988 г., се превръща в Северноамериканско споразумение за свободна търговия (на френски: ALÉNA; на английски: NAFTA) след включването на Мексико на 1 януари 1994 г. Култура[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Канадската култура е силно повлияна от британската, френската, ирландската, шотландската и американската, но притежава и много уникални черти. През последните няколко десетилетия се развива все по-ярка и самостоятелна канадска култура, отчасти поради национализма, обхванал Канада през годините около Канадската стогодишнина през 1967 г. Тя е населена от 30,6 милиона души, като повечето от тях живеят в южните територии, до границата със САЩ. Други[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Бележки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ↑ The World Factbook: Canada. // Central Intelligence Agency, 2006-05-16. - ↑ Territorial evolution (html/PDF). // Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. - ↑ Canada: History (html/PDF). // Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. - ↑ Canada: World Audit Democracy Profile. // WorldAudit.org. Посетен на 25 July 2011. Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Официален сайт на канадското правителство - Citoyenneté et Immigration Canada / Citizenship and Immigration Canada (официален сайт) - Канада в сайта Lonely Planet - Антигуа и Барбуда - Барбадос - Бахамски острови - Белиз - Гватемала - Гренада - Доминика - Доминиканска република - Канада - Коста Рика - Куба - Мексико - Нидерландия2 (Бонер - Саба - Синт Еустациус) - Никарагуа - Панама4 - Салвадор - Сейнт Винсънт и Гренадини - Сейнт Китс и Невис - Сейнт Лусия - Съединени американски щати1 - Тринидад и Тобаго - Франция2, 3, 4 (Гваделупа - Мартиника) - Хаити - Хондурас - Ямайка - Американски Вирджински острови (САЩ) - Ангуила (Обединено кралство) - Аруба (Нидерландия) - Бермудски острови (Обединено кралство) - Британски Вирджински острови (Обединено кралство) - Гренландия (Дания) - Кайманови острови (Обединено кралство) - Кюрасао (Нидерландия) - Монсерат (Обединено кралство) - Наваса (САЩ) - Пуерто Рико (САЩ) - Сен Бартелми (Франция) - Сен Мартен (Франция) - Сен Пиер и Микелон (Франция) - Синт Мартен (Нидерландия) - Търкс и Кайкос (Обединено кралство)
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Canada Canada i/ˈkænədə/ is a country in North America consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean. At 9.98 million square kilometres in total, Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area. Its common border with the United States is the world's longest land border shared by the same two countries. The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonies were established on the region's Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various conflicts, the United Kingdom gained and lost North American territories until left, in the late 18th century, with what mostly comprises Canada today. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1, 1867 three colonies joined to form the autonomous federal dominion of Canada. This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the new self-governing dominion. In 1931, Britain granted Canada full independence in most matters with the Statute of Westminster 1931. The Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament. Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries, with a population of approximately 35 million as of December 2012. Its advanced economy is one of the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed trade networks. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the eighth highest per capita income globally, and the eighth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education, and stands among the world's most educated countries- ranking first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education with 51% of adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree (according to the OECD 2012 survey).[10] Canada's participation in economic international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings includes the G8 (Group of Eight); the Group of Ten (economic); the Group of Twenty (G-20 major economies); the North American Free Trade Agreement; and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. Canada's alliances include the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Contents - 1 Etymology - 2 History - 3 Geography - 4 Government and politics - 5 Economy - 6 Demographics - 7 Culture - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 Further reading - 11 External links Etymology The name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[11] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[12] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.[12] In the 17th and early 18th centuries, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. To punish the resistance of the Thirteen Colonies, Canada's territory was vastly expanded by the British in the 1774 Quebec Act to include unsettled territory in the Great Lakes region down to the Ohio river. Part of this arbitrarily added territory was turned over to the new United States in 1783, but all land north of the Great Lakes (making up much of modern Ontario) was retained by British Canada. In 1791 the British designated this region Upper Canada and the traditional French-speaking portion Lower Canada, they were reunified as the Province of Canada in 1841.[13] Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[14] However, as Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.[15] History Aboriginal peoples Archaeological studies and genetic analyses have indicated a human presence in the northern Yukon region from 24,500 BC, and in southern Ontario from 7500 BC.[16][17][18] These first settlers entered Canada through Beringia by way of the Bering land bridge.[19] The Paleo-Indian archaeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[20] The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[21][22] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, and have only been discovered through archaeological investigations.[23] The aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[24] and two million,[25] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[26] As a consequence of the European colonization, Canada's aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), resulting in a forty to eighty percent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival.[24] Aboriginal peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations,[27] Inuit,[28] and Métis.[29] The Métis are a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.[30] In general, the Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.[31] European colonization The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.[32] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.[33] Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.[34] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River, where on July 24 he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France", and took possession of the territory in the name of King Francis I.[35] In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English colony by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I.[36] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603, and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608.[37] Among the French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the St. Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[38] The English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland, beginning in 1610.[39] The Thirteen Colonies to the south were founded soon after.[34] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[40] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.[41] The Royal Proclamation of 1763 created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[15] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[42] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of the American Revolution.[15] The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized American independence and ceded the newly added territories south (but not north) of the Great Lakes to the new United States.[43] New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[44] The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.[25] Between 1825 and 1846, 626,628 European immigrants reportedly landed at Canadian ports.[46] These included Irish immigrants escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[47] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 per cent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[24] The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[15] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.[48] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[49] Confederation and expansion Following several constitutional conferences, the 1867 Constitution Act officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces – Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. [50][51] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[52] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the Confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[53] Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his Conservative government established a National Policy of tariffs to protect the nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.[51] To open the West, the government sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[54][55] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under the Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[53] Early 20th century Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[56] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, around 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.[57] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the vehement objections of French-speaking Quebecers. The Conscription Crisis, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. Borden's Unionist government included many Anglophone Liberals, and it swept to a landslide victory in the 1917 elections. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[56] the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[3] The great depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[58] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[59] Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, seven days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[56] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[56] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied, and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[60] The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[56] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[61] Modern times The financial crisis of the great depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two bitter referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[62] Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[63] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[64] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[65] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[66] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[67] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[68] At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,[69] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[70] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[71][72] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[70] In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[73] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[74] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[75] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.[76] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[77][78] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to join the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[79] In 2009, Canada's economy suffered in the worldwide Great Recession, but it has since rebounded modestly.[80] In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan civil war.[81] Geography Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south (the longest border between two countries in the world) and the US state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.[82] Greenland is to the northeast, while Saint Pierre and Miquelon is south of Newfoundland. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth.[82] The country lies between latitudes 41° and 84°N, and longitudes 52° and 141°W. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141°W longitude,[83] but this claim is not universally recognized. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[84] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 202,080 kilometres (125,570 mi);[82] additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).[85] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.[86] Canada has around 31,700 large lakes,[87] more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.[88] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[89] The volcanic eruption of the Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia. The eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River.[90] Canada's population density, at 3.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (8.5 /sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[91] Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[92] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[93] Government and politics Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[94][95][96][97] The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's ten provinces. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (at present David Lloyd Johnston), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.[98 ][99] The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited.[96][100][101] In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (at present Stephen Harper),[102] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[100] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[103] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[100] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Thomas Mulcair) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[104] Each of the 308 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House.[105] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[106] Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2011 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the New Democratic Party (the Official Opposition), the Liberal Party of Canada, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial. Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[101] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[107] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[108] Law The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[109] Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[110] The Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period. The Indian Act, various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.[111] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[112] These treaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown-in-Council, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law, and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982.[111] These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.[113] The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.[111] Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin (the first female Chief Justice).[114] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[115] Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[116] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[117] However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[118] Foreign relations and military Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of 68,250 active personnel and approximately 47,081 reserve personnel.[119] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2011, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately C$24.5 billion.[120] Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[121] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.[122] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[60] Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[123][124] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in co-operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[125] During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[126] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[56] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[127] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001.[128] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[129] In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force. In all, Canada lost 158 soldiers, one diplomat, two aid workers, and one journalist during the ten year mission,[130] which cost approximately C$11.3 billion.[131] In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.[132] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[133] Between March and October 2011, Canadian forces participated in a UN-mandated NATO intervention into the 2011 Libyan civil war.[134] International organizations Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[135] As well as its membership of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada is a member of regional and other international organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[136] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[137] Provinces and territories Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada ("Eastern Canada" refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare. Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structur 008000 e among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[138] Economy The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country and governed by Stephen Poloz. In addition, the Minister of Finance and Ministry of Industry utilize the Statistics Canada system for financial planning. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the seventh largest exchange in the world having 1,577 companies listed in 2012. Canada is the world's eleventh-largest economy, with a 2012 nominal GDP of approximately US$1.82 trillion.[6] It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8), and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[139][140] Canada is a mixed economy, ranking above the US and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom,[141] and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[142] In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion originated from the United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billion from the United Kingdom.[143] The country's 2009 trade deficit totalled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[144] Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[145] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[146] Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[147] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having 13% of the global oil reserves, the world's third-largest, after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[148] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[149] The Ministry of Natural Resources in Canada provides statistics regarding their major exports, zinc and uranium, and is a leading exporter of many other minerals, such as gold, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron ore, Coking Coal, and lead.[147][150][151] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[152] Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[153] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "Investment Canada", to encourage foreign investment.[154] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994.[149] In the mid-1990s, Jean Chrétien's Liberal government began to post annual budgetary surpluses, and steadily paid down the national debt.[155] The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a major recession, which led to a significant rise in unemployment in Canada.[156] By October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate had reached 8.6 percent, with provincial unemployment rates varying from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.[157] Between October 2008 and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.[158] Canada's federal debt was estimated to total $566.7 billion for the fiscal year 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09.[159] In addition, Canada's net foreign debt rose by $41 billion to $194 billion in the first quarter of 2010.[160] However, Canada's regulated banking sector (comparatively conservative among G8 nations), the federal government's pre-crisis budgetary surpluses, and its long-term policies of lowering the national debt, resulted in a less severe recession compared to other G8 nations.[161] As of 2013, the majority of the Canadian economy has stabilized, although the country remains troubled by slow growth, sensitivity to the Eurozone crisis and higher-than-normal unemployment rates.[162] The federal government and many Canadian industries have also started to expand trade with emerging Asian markets, in an attempt to diversify exports; in 2011, Asia was Canada's second-largest export market, after the United States.[163][164] Widely debated oil pipeline proposals, in particular, are hoped to increase exports of Canadian oil reserves to China.[165][166] Science and technology In 2011, Canada spent approximately C$29.9 billion on domestic research and development.[167] As of 2012, the country has produced fourteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine,[168] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[169] It is additionally home to a number of global technology firms.[170] Canada ranks seventeenth in the world for Internet users as a proportion of the population, with over 28.4 million users, equivalent to around 83 percent of its total 2012 population.[171] The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country to launch a satellite into space after the USSR and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[172] In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first astronaut. As of 2013, nine Canadians have flown into space, over the course of fifteen manned missions.[173] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle. Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[174] Canada has also produced a successful and widely used sounding rocket, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[175] Demographics The 2011 Canadian census counted a total population of 33,476,688, an increase of around 5.9 percent over the 2006 figure.[177][178] By December 2012, Statistics Canada reported a population of over 35 million, signifying the fastest growth rate of any G8 nation.[179] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border.[180] Approximately 80 percent of Canadians live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, the British Columbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[181] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found below the 55th parallel north. In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;[182] by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years.[183] As of 2013, the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81 years.[184] According to the 2006 census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%).[185] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,172,790 people.[186] Canada's aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-aboriginal visible minority.[187] In 2006, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.[188] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[189] By 2007, almost one in five (19.8%) were foreign-born, with nearly 60 percent of new immigrants coming from Asia (including the Middle East).[190] The leading sources of immigrants to Canada were China, the Philippines and India.[191] According to Statistics Canada, visible minority groups could account for a third of the Canadian population by 2031.[192] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[193] driven by economic policy and family reunification. In 2010, a record 280,636 people immigrated to Canada.[194] The Canadian government anticipated between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2013,[195] a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.[196] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[197] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees,[198] accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements.[199] Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. According to the 2011 census, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%). In 2011, about 23.9 percent declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001.[200] The remaining 8.8 percent are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%) and Hinduism (1.5%).[201] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[202] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[82] As of 2011, 88 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 74 percent.[203] In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[204] According to a 2012 NBC report, Canada is the most educated country in the world.[205] The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates that Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading.[206][207] Language Canada's two official languages are English and French, pursuant to Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Federal Official Languages Act. Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[208] English and French are the first languages of 59.7 and 23.2 percent of the population respectively. Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak English or French: 57.8 percent speak English only, 22.1 percent speak French only, and 17.4 percent speak both.[209] The English and French official-language communities, defined by the first official language spoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of the population respectively.[210] The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[211] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[212] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[213] Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[214] There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct dialects.[215] Of these, only the Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway languages have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.[216] Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[217] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[218] In 2011, nearly 6.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue.[219] Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,072,555 first-language speakers), Punjabi (430,705), Spanish (410,670), German (409,200), and Italian (407,490).[220] Culture Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote multiculturalism are constitutionally protected.[221] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a culture of Quebec that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[222] However, as a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic – a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.[223] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, and the legalization of same-sex marriage are further social indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[224] Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, aboriginal peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[225] Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.[67] American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.[226] The preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[227] Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven. Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.[228] The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists – Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley – were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.[229] Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[230] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[231] The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[232] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[233] Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest, The Bold Canadian, was written in 1812.[234] The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.[235] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.[236] The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s.[237] Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[238] Seven of Canada's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg – have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL). Other popular spectator sports in Canada include curling and Canadian football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL). Golf, tennis, baseball, skiing, cricket, volleyball, rugby union, soccer and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.[239] Canada does have one professional baseball team, the Toronto Blue Jays, one professional basketball team, the Toronto Raptors and three Major League Soccer teams, Toronto FC, Vancouver Whitecaps FC and the Montreal Impact. Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since its Olympic debut in 1900, and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, the 1994 Basketball World Championship, the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup, and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.[240] Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, on the penny, and on the Arms of Canada.[241] Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,[241] and more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.[242] See also - Index of Canada-related articles - Outline of Canada - Topics by provinces and territories - Canada at Wikipedia books References - ^ Department of Canadian Heritage. "Royal 'God Save The Queen'". Queen's Printer. Retrieved May 23, 2011. - ^ Kallmann, Helmut. "National and royal anthems". In Marsh, James Harley. Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Historica-Dominion. Retrieved November 27, 2013. - ^ a b Hail, M; Lange, S (February 25, 2010). "Federalism and Representation in the Theory of the Founding Fathers: A Comparative Study of US and Canadian Constitutional Thought". Publius: the Journal of Federalism 40 (3): 366–388. - ^ "Estimates of population, Canada, provinces and territories". 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Further reading External links - Overviews - Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs - Canada at DMOZ - Canada from BBC News - Canada from CIA World Factbook - Canada profile from the OECD - Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada - Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures - Government - Travel - Studies - A Guide to the Sources from International Council for Canadian Studies - Canada - 1867 establishments in Canada - Constitutional monarchies - English-speaking countries and territories - Federal countries - Former British colonies - French-speaking countries and territories - G8 nations - G20 nations - Liberal democracies - Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations - Member states of La Francophonie - Member states of NATO - Member states of the United Nations - States and territories established in 1867 - G7 nations