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Изолирани езици Изолираните езици (език-изолат) са онези, които според родословното дърво на езиците не принадлежат към никое от познатите езикови семейства. В този смисъл, на практика, всеки изолиран език представлява отделно семейство, състоящо се само от този език. Изолираните езици са онези, за които има достатъчно данни и отнасянето им към езиково семейство не е доказано, дори и след интензивни опити и усилия това да бъде сторено от лингвистите. В противен случай, онези езици за които просто няма достатъчно данни (примерно хазарски език), се наричат некласифицирани (въпреки че, понякога се групират на база хипотеза по косвени признаци). Изолираните езици (при всяка вероятност) са част от дълбоки езикови сдружения, макросемейства и хиперсемейства, но те като правило се явяват изолати, т.е. не е установена и/или доказана родствената им връзка с друг/други езици и езиково семейство. От друга страна, в съотватстващ контекст, терминът "изолиран език" може да се използва по отношение на отделен език в рамките на езиково семейство, който обаче формира отделна самостоятелна група, състояща се само от този език (например албански, фригийски, венетски в индо-европейското езиково семейство, като в такъв случай за обозначение също се използва терминът "моногрупа"). Без подходящ конкретен контекст, терминът "изолиран език" обичайно се изпълва по принцип с "абсолютен" смисъл (примерно за шумерския). В действителност, някои езици може да бъде изолирани в малки семейства, състоящи се от няколко езика, които предходно са били считани като/за диалекти. Такива са например японското езиково семейство, айнуто езиково семейство, тиренското езиково семейство и т.н. Изолираните езици са такива езици, на които сродните им езици са изчезнали в исторически времена, но те са се съхранили през по-продължителен период от време. Изолираните езици могат да се разглеждат и като специален случай на некласифицирани езици, дори и след активизиране на усилията да се докаже връзката им с други езици. В някои случаи, тези усилия в крайна сметка водят до успех, след което, съответния език престава да се разглежда като изолат. Няколко са причините за съществуването на езици-изолати: - Липсата на живи родствени езици. В този случай изолираният език не може да бъде свързван с друг език/други езици, тъй като неговите родствени са мъртви езици, без да са оставили следа в историята; - Продължителното пребиваване/съществуване в изолация. Ако един език по някакава причина се е отделил от праезика за дълго време, той може да придобие черти/характеристики много различни от другите му сродствени езици, от които са произлезли като общ произход. Това е особен частен случай на езици, свързани не на ниво езиково семейство, но класифицирани на макро или хипер езиково ниво. Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ↑ Trask L.R. The History of Basque. London; New York, 1997; Dalby D. Linguasphere Register. 2000 Вижте също[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Литература[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Campbell, Lyle. American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. - Goddard, Ives (Ed.). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. - Goddard, Ives. Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). - Grimes, Barbara F. Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. (Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/). - Mithun, Marianne. The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Sturtevant, William C. Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
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Language isolate A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or "genetic") relationship with other languages, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language. Language isolates are in effect language families consisting of a single language. Commonly cited examples include Basque, Korean, Ainu, and Burushaski, though in each case a minority of linguists claim to have demonstrated a relationship with other languages. Some sources use the term "language isolate" to indicate a branch of a larger family with only one surviving daughter. For instance, Albanian, Armenian and Greek are commonly called Indo-European isolates. While part of the Indo-European family, they do not belong to any established branch (like the Romance, Indo-Iranian, Slavic or Germanic branches), but instead form independent branches of their own. Similarly, within the Romance languages, Sardinian is a relative isolate. However, without a qualifier, isolate is understood to be in the absolute sense. Some languages became isolates after all their demonstrable relatives went extinct. The Pirahã language of Brazil is one such example, the last surviving member of the Mura family. Others, like Basque, have been isolates for as long as their existence has been documented. The opposite also occurs; languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families. This happened with Japanese (now included in the Japonic family along with Ryukyuan languages such as Okinawan) and Georgian (now the most dominant or standard of the Kartvelian languages). The Etruscan language of Italy was long considered an isolate, but is now believed to be related at least to an extinct family of closely related ancient languages proposed by Helmut Rix (1998), which would also include the Raetic language of the Alps and the Lemnian language of the Aegean Sea. Language isolates may be seen as a special case of unclassified languages that remain unclassified even after extensive efforts. If such efforts eventually do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one, as happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia, which has been placed in the Pama–Nyungan family. Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language is an isolate or not. Contents - 1 "Genetic" or "genealogical" relationships - 2 Looking for relationships - 3 Extinct isolates - 4 Sign language isolates - 5 List of oral language isolates by continent - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 External links - 9 Bibliography "Genetic" or "genealogical" relationships[edit] The term "genetic relationship" is meant in the genealogical sense of historical linguistics, which groups most languages spoken in the world today into a relatively small number of families, according to reconstructed descent from common ancestral languages. For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin is related to other Sino-Tibetan languages. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own, which explains the exceptional interest that these languages have received from linguists. Looking for relationships[edit] It is possible that all oral languages spoken in the world today are related by direct or indirect descent from a single ancestral tongue. The established language families would then be only the upper branches of the genealogical tree of all (or most) languages, or, equally, lower progeny of a parent tongue. For this reason, language isolates have been the object of numerous studies seeking to uncover their genealogy. For instance, Basque has been compared with every living and extinct Eurasian language family known, from Sumerian to South Caucasian, without conclusive results. There are some situations in which a language with no ancestor might arise. This frequently happens with sign languages, most famously in the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language, where deaf children with no language were placed together and developed a new language. Similarly, if deaf parents were to raise a group of hearing children who have no contact with others until adulthood, they might develop an oral language among themselves and keep using it later, teaching it to their children, and so on. Eventually, it could develop into the full-fledged language of a population. With oral languages, this is not very likely to occur at any one time but, over the tens of thousands of years of human prehistory, the likelihood of this occurring at least a few times increases. There are also creole languages and constructed languages such as Esperanto, which do not descend directly from a single ancestor but have become the language of a population; however, they do take elements from existing languages. Extinct isolates[edit] Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as isolates. Despite its great age, Sumerian can be safely classified as an isolate, as the language is well enough known that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related. However, many extinct languages are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them. Etruscan, for example, is sometimes claimed to be Indo-European. Although most historical linguists believe this is unlikely, it is not yet possible to resolve the issue. Similar situations pertain to many extinct isolates of the Americas such as Beothuk and Cayuse. A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be relatable to other languages once enough material is recovered, but material is unlikely to be recovered if a language was not written. Sign language isolates[edit] There is direct evidence that a large number of sign languages have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are true language isolates. The most famous of these is the Nicaraguan Sign Language, a well documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries. In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, and seven sign languages, none with any known connection to anything else in the world.[1] The disregard shown to such languages, which students may be punished for using, and that schools may deny even exist, makes it difficult to list sign language isolates the way oral language isolates are listed in the tables below.[citation needed] Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness. Such languages include Kata Kolok in Bali, the Adamorobe Sign Language in Ghana, the Urubú Sign Language in Brazil, several Mayan sign languages, and half a dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand, such as the Ban Khor Sign Language. These and more are all presumed isolates or small local families, because many deaf communities are made up of people who do not have sign language–speaking parents, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the often recorded history of these languages.[citation needed] List of oral language isolates by continent[edit] Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages or language families. - In the Status column, "vibrant" means that a language is in full use by the community and being acquired as a first language by children. "Moribund" means that a language is still spoken, but only by older people; it is not being acquired by children, and without efforts to revive it will become extinct when current speakers die. "Extinct" means a language is no longer spoken. The terms "living" and "endangered" are defined by the classification of "Language Types" in ISO 639-3; "vibrant" is equivalent to "living" or sometimes "endangered" in ISO, depending on efforts to preserve the language, and "moribund" is "endangered" in ISO. Africa[edit] Data for several African languages is not sufficient for classification. In addition, Jalaa, Shabo, Laal, Kujarge, and a few other languages within Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic-speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation. Defaka, Ega, and Bijogo are highly divergent languages located within Niger-Congo-speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates according to Roger Blench. Asia[edit] Australasia and Oceania[edit] The languages of New Guinea are poorly studied, and candidates for isolate status are likely to change when more becomes known about them. Europe[edit] North America[edit] South America[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] - ^ Tanzanian Sign Language (TSL) Dictionary. H.R.T. Muzale, University of Dar es Salaam, 2003 External links[edit] Bibliography[edit] - Campbell, Lyle. American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. - Goddard, Ives (Ed.). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. - Goddard, Ives. Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). - Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. (Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/). - Mithun, Marianne. The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).