http___en.wikipedia.org_wiki_Johannes_Gutenberg_3.xml
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Йоханес Гутенберг Йоханес Генсфлайш цур Ладен цум Гутенберг (на немски: Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg) е германски златар и печатар, основоположник на съвременното книгопечатане. Изобретеният от него машинен печат с подвижен набор поставя началото на революция в печатането и често е определяно като едно от най-важните събития на Новото време.[1][2] Изобретението му оказва силно влияние върху развитието на Ренесанса, Реформацията и Научната революция и поставя материалните основи на съвременната икономика на знанието и демократизация на образованието.[3][4][5][6] Гутенберг за пръв път в Европа използва подвижен набор за печатане около 1439 година и пръв в света конструира механично задвижвана печатна преса. Сред многобройните му приноси към печатането са създаването на технология за масово производство на елементи за подвижен набор, използването на мастило на маслена основа и въвеждането на дървена печатна преса, подобна на винтовите преси, използвани в земеделието по това време. Но най-значимото му изобретение е съчетаването на тези елементи в практична система, която дава възможност за масово производство на печатни книги и която се оказва икономически изгодна както за печатарите, така и за читателите. Най-представителната му работа, Гутенберговата Библия, е високо оценявана за нейните естетически и технически качества. Съдържание Биография[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Детство и младост[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Йоханес Гутенберг е роден около 1398 година в германския град Майнц. Той е най-малкият син на богатия търговец Фриле Генсфлайш цур Ладен и неговата втора съпруга Елзе Вюрих, дъщеря на собственик на магазин. Според някои сведения бащата е златар, работил за майнцките архиепископи, които са и курфюрсти на Свещената Римска империя, но е по-вероятно да се е занимавал с търговия с платове.[7] Гутенберг принадлежи към фамилията Генсфлайш, един от патрицианските родове във Майнц, извеждащ родословието си от 13 век.[2] Фамилията Генсфлайш е тясно свързана с майнцкия монетен двор, като редица нейни представители го ръководят през 14 и 15 век.[2] Самият Йоханес Гутенберг от ранна възраст придобива познания в областта на златарството.[8] Името Гутенберг, с което Йоханес остава известен в историята, идва от наименованието на къщата, в която живее клонът на Генсфлайш, от който той произлиза.[7] Името „цум Гутенберг“ фамилията си въвежда едва през 20те години на 15 век. През 1411 година в Майнц избухва бунт срещу аристокрацията и 117 патрициански фамилии са принудени да напуснат града. Семейството на Гутенберг изглежда се премества за късо време в Елтвил (Алта Вила), градче на отсрещния бряг на Рейн, където майка му притежава наследствено имение. През 1413 година избухват гладни бунтове и фамилията отново напуска Майнц. Като син на богат патриций Гутенберг посещава вероятно латинското училище в манастира „Св. Виктор пред Майнц“. Фамилията има тесни отношения към манастира „Свети Виктор пред Майнц“ и Гутенберг по-късно влиза в Св.-Виктор-Брудершафт. Сведенията за Йоханес Гутенберг през следващите две десетилетия са изключително оскъдни. През летния семестър 1418 година в Ерфуртския университет се споменава записалият се студент на име Йоханес де Алта Вила (Елтвил), за когото се допуска, че може би е Гутенберг. През 1419 година баща му умира и той е споменат в документи, свързани с наследството му. Един пръв документ, който споменава с име Гутенберг, е от 1420 година. Бележката разказва за наследствени недоразумения на братята и сестрите Гутенберг и една полусестра след смъртта на Фриле Генсфлайш сеньор 1419 година. Документът показва, че Гутенберг по това време е по-стар от 14 години, понеже не е бил представен от друг. Къде и с какво се занимава фамилията Гутенберг през 1420те години е неизвестно. През 1429 година те не са в Майнц, поради отново избухнали бунтове. Със сигурност е известно, че през 1430 година той не е в Майнц. През 1430 година е споменат в един договор на Майнцския архиепископ Конрад III, който предлага завръщането на избягалите. Гутенберг отказва предложението и остава далече от Майнц. В Страсбург[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Тъй като политическата обстановка не позволява на Гутенберг да се върне в Майнц, биографите му предполагат, че в определен неизвестен момент той се установява в Страсбург, където живеят негови роднини по майчина линия. През 1434 година той вече е в Страсбург, като изглежда се занимава със златарство и е записан в градската милиция. Според някои свидетелства, през 1437 година той обучава Андреас Дритцен, някакъв богат търговец как да полира скъпоценни камъни, но не е известно откъде е придобил тези умения. По това време името му се споменава и в съдебните архиви във връзка с нарушено обещание за брак, дадено на жена от Страсбург на име Енелин.[9] Няма сведения дали в крайна сметка бракът е сключен. Съществуват предположения, че по това време Гутенберг се запознава със съществуващите по това време печатни техники. Някои изследователи дори смятат, че той е изработвал гравюри върху мед с анонимния художник, известен като Майсторът на карти за игра.[10] През 1439 година Гутенберг участва с Андреас Дритцен в неуспешно търговско начинание, свързано с изработването на полирани метални огледала, за които се вярвало, че улавят свещената светлина от религиозните реликви, и които той планирал да продава на поклонниците в Аахен. През тази година градът планирал да изложи своята сбирка от реликви на император Карл Велики, но събитието било отложено с една година, заради избухнала чумна епидемия. Андреас Дритцен умира 1439 година и братята му се опитват да получат част от вложения капитал. Гутенберг не можел да възстанови инвестираните в огледала средства. Когато инвеститорите в начинанието започват да търсят парите си, той им обещал да ги компенсира с някаква „тайна“. Широко разпространени са предположенията, че тази тайна е идеята за печатане с подвижен набор.[11] През 1440 година Йоханес Гутенберг усъвършенства и разкрива пред публиката тайната на печатането, основана на неговите изследвания, мистериозно наречени от него Kunst und Aventur. Не е известно с какво се е занимавал той по това време, нито дали е правил някакви първи опити за печатане с подвижен набор. Той остава в Страсбург поне до 1444 година. Печатната преса[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1448 година Гутенберг отново е в Майнц, където взема заем от 150 гулден от своя роднина Арнолд Гелтус, изглежда за изработване на печатна преса в сградата Хумбрехтхоф в старата част на Майнц. През 1450 година пресата вече работи и с нея е отпечатано едно стихотворение на немски, може би първият текст, отпечатан от Гутенберг. Той успява да убеди богатия гражданин Йохан Фуст да му даде заем от 800 гулдена. Към начинанието се присъединява и бъдещият зет на Фуст Петер Шьофер. Шьофер е работил като преписвач на ръкописи в Париж и вероятно изработва някои от първите печатни набори. Гутенберг установява ателието си в Хоф Хумбрехт, собственост на негов далечен роднина. Не е ясно кога точно замисля проекта за отпечатване на Библията, но това е основната цел на заема от Фуст, а същинската работа започва през 1452 година. В същото време с пресата се печатат и други по-доходни книги, може би латински граматики. Съществуват и предположения, че пресите са две - една за ежедневни нужди и друга за Библията. Сред доходните приложения на новата преса е отпечатването през 1454-1455 година на хиляди индулгенции за нуждите на Католическата църквата. През 1455 година Гутенберг издава своята „42-редова Библия“, известна и като Гутенбергова Библия. Отпечатани са около 180 копия, повечето на обикновена хартия, но някои на велен. През същата година започва спор между Гутенберг и Фуст, като Фуст си иска обратно парите, обвинявайки Гутенберг в злоупотреби с тях. Междувременно разходите по проекта с Библията нарастват, а дълговете на Гутенберг вече надхвърлят 2000 гулдена. Фуст завежда дело в съда, който през ноември 1455 година установява, че двамата са създали съдружие за издаване на книги, а Гутенберг е използвал парите за други цели. Фуст получава печатарското ателие и половината от вече отпечатаните Библии. Макар че е на практика фалирал, Гутенберг изглежда запазва или създава наново малка печатарска работилница. През 1459 година той участва в отпечатване на Библията в Бамберг, като поне доставя печатните набори. Тъй като отпечатаните от него книги не носят името му, нито са датирани, е трудно да бъдат идентифицирани работите му след „42-редовата Библия“. Възможно е сред тях да е и големият религиозен речник „Католикон“, отпечатан през 1460 година в Майнц в 300 копия по 754 страници. Междувременно печатницата на Фуст и Шьофер става първата в Европа, която издава книга с името на печатницата и датата на отпечатването - „Майнцкия Псалтир“ от август 1457 година. Макар че в него е отбелязан механичният процес, чрез който е произведен, името на Гутенберг не се споменава. Последни години[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През 1462 година, по време на конфликт между двама претенденти за архиепископския пост, Майнц е разграбен от войските на Адолф Насауски, а Гутенберг отново е изпратен в изгнание. Вече възрастен човек, той се премества в Елтвил, където може би основава и ръководи нова печатница, принадлежаща на братята Бехтермюнце. През януари 1465 година Адолф Насауски разрешава на Йоханес Гутенберг да се върне в Майнц. Като признание за заслугите му той му дава титлата хофман (придворен) и му отпуска пенсия. Той живее до смъртта си в Алгесхаймер Хоф съвсем наблизо до родната си къща Хоф цум Гутенберг и неговата кръщелна църква Св. Христоф в стария град на Майнц. Йоханес Гутенберг умира на 3 януари 1468 и е погребан в църквата на францисканците в Майнц. По-късно тя е разрушена през 18 век и гробът на Гутенберг е изгубен. Наследство[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Непосредствено след смъртта на Гутенберг приносът му към печатарската техника е почти неизвестен. През 1504 година той е споменат като изобретател на типографията в книга на професор Иво Витиг. Най-старият портрет на Гутенберг е нарисуван едва през 1567 година, почти сигурно като въображаема реконструкция, и се появява в сборника с биографии на известни германци на Хайнрих Панталеон. Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - ↑ ((de)) Gutenberg 2000. // mainz.de. Посетен на 4 октомври 2010. - ↑ а б в ((en)) Wallau, Heinrich. Johann Gutenberg. // The Catholic Encyclopedia. Kevin Knight, 2010. Посетен на 4 октомври 2010. - ↑ ((en)) McLuhan, Marshall. The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. 1st. University of Toronto Press, 1962. - ↑ ((en)) Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge University Press, 1980. - ↑ ((en)) Febvre, Lucien и др. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800. London, Verso, 1997. - ↑ ((en)) Man, John. The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World. London, Headline Review, 2002. - ↑ а б ((en)) Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria. Gutenberg and Mainz. // Посетен на 24 ноември 2006. - ↑ ((en)) Lienhard, John H. No.753: Johann Gutenberg. // Engines of Our Ingenuity. uh.edu, 1997. Посетен на 20 април 2011. - ↑ ((de)) Gutenberg und seine Zeit in Daten. // Gutenberg Museum. mainz.de. Посетен на 24 ноември 2006. - ↑ ((en)) Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut. Gutenberg and the Master of the Playing Cards. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966. - ↑ ((en)) Burke, James. Connections. London, Macmillan Publishers, 1978. Литература[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Stephan Füssel: Johannes Gutenberg. 3. Auflage. Rowohlt Verlag, Reinbek 2003, ISBN 3-499-50610-6. - Albert Kapr: Johannes Gutenberg. Persönlichkeit und Leistung. - Andreas Venzke: Johannes Gutenberg-Der Erfinder des Buchdrucks und seine Zeit. Piper-Verlag, München 2000, ISBN 3-492-22921-2. Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] - Gutenbergs Leben und Werk auf der Homepage des Gutenberg-Museums - Beinert, Wolfgang: Johannes Gutenberg, Kurzbiografie - Göttinger Gutenberg-Bibel in digitalisierter Form
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Johannes Gutenberg Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg ( /joʊˌhɑːnɨs ˈɡuːtənbɜrɡ/ yoh-HAH-nəs GOO-tən-burɡ; c. 1398 – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His invention of mechanical movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period.[1] It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.[2] Gutenberg was the first European to use movable type printing, in around 1439. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system which allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world. His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Early life Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the upper-class merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his second wife Else Wyrich, who was the daughter of a shopkeeper. According to some accounts Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, but most likely, he was involved in the cloth trade.[3] Gutenberg's year of birth is not precisely known but was most likely around 1398. John Lienhard, technology historian, says "Most of Gutenberg's early life is a mystery. His father worked with the ecclesiastic mint. Gutenberg grew up knowing the trade of goldsmithing."[4] This is supported by historian Heinrich Wallau, who adds, "In the 14th and 15th centuries his [descendants] claimed a hereditary position as ...the master of the archiepiscopal mint. In this capacity they doubtless acquired considerable knowledge and technical skill in metal working. They supplied the mint with the metal to be coined, changed the various species of coins, and had a seat at the assizes in forgery cases."[5] Wallau adds, "His surname was derived from the house inhabited by his father and his paternal ancestors 'zu Laden, zu Gutenberg'. The house of Gänsfleisch was one of the patrician families of the town, tracing its lineage back to the thirteenth century."[5] Patricians (aristocrats) in Mainz were often named after houses they owned. Around 1427, the name zu Gutenberg, after the family house in Mainz, is documented to have been used for the first time.[3] In 1411, there was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, and more than a hundred families were forced to leave. As a result, the Gutenbergs are thought to have moved to Eltville am Rhein (Alta Villa), where his mother had an inherited estate. According to historian Heinrich Wallau, "All that is known of his youth is that he was not in Mainz in 1430. It is presumed that he migrated for political reasons to Strassburg (Strasbourg), where the family probably had connections."[5] He is assumed to have studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a record of the enrolment of a student called Johannes de Altavilla in 1418—Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein.[6][7] Nothing is now known of Gutenberg's life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother's side. He also appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, but where he had acquired this knowledge is unknown. In 1436/37 his name also comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin.[8] Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following his father's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings. Printing press "All that has been written to me about that marvelous man seen at Frankfurt [sic] is true. I have not seen complete Bibles but only a number of quires of various books of the Bible. The script was very neat and legible, not at all difficult to follow—your grace would be able to read it without effort, and indeed without glasses." Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from Emperor Charlemagne but the event was delayed by one year due to a severe flood and the capital already spent could not be repaid. When the question of satisfying the investors came up, Gutenberg is said to have promised to share a "secret". It has been widely speculated that this secret may have been the idea of printing with movable type.[11] Legend has it that the idea came to him "like a ray of light".[12] Until at least 1444 he lived in Strasbourg, most likely in the St. Arbogast parish. It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that Gutenberg is said to have perfected and unveiled the secret of printing based on his research, mysteriously entitled Kunst und Aventur (art and enterprise). It is not clear what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type may have been conducted there. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was back in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, quite possibly for a printing press or related paraphernalia. By this date, Gutenberg may have been familiar with intaglio printing; it is claimed that he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as the Master of Playing Cards.[13] By 1450, the press was in operation, and a German poem had been printed, possibly the first item to be printed there.[14] Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust for a loan of 8000 guilders. Peter Schöffer, who became Fust's son-in-law, also joined the enterprise. Schöffer had worked as a scribe in Paris and is believed to have designed some of the first typefaces. Gutenberg's workshop was set up at Hof Humbrecht, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is not clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, but for this he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more lucrative texts (possibly Latin grammars). There is also some speculation that there may have been two presses, one for the pedestrian texts, and one for the Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was the printing of thousands of indulgences for the church, documented from 1454–55.[citation needed] In 1455 Gutenberg completed his 42-line Bible, known as the Gutenberg Bible. About 180 copies were printed, most on paper and some on vellum. Court case Some time in 1456, there was a dispute between Gutenberg and Fust, and Fust demanded his money back, accusing Gutenberg of misusing the funds. Meanwhile the expenses of the Bible project had proliferated, and Gutenberg's debt now exceeded 20,000 guilders. Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A November 1455 legal document records that there was a partnership for a "project of the books," the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favor of Fust, giving him control over the Bible printing workshop and half of all printed Bibles. Thus Gutenberg was effectively bankrupt, but it appears he retained (or re-started) a small printing shop, and participated in the printing of a Bible in the town of Bamberg around 1459, for which he seems at least to have supplied the type. But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is difficult to be certain, and there is consequently a considerable scholarly debate on this subject. It is also possible that the large Catholicon dictionary, 300 copies of 754 pages, printed in Mainz in 1460, may have been executed in his workshop. Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop was the first in Europe to bring out a book with the printer's name and date, the Mainz Psalter of August 1457, and while proudly proclaiming the mechanical process by which it had been produced, it made no mention of Gutenberg. Later life In 1462, during a conflict between two archbishops, Mainz was sacked by archbishop Adolph von Nassau, and Gutenberg was exiled. An old man by now, he moved to Eltville where he may have initiated and supervised a new printing press belonging to the brothers Bechtermünze.[citation needed] In January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized and he was given the title Hofmann (gentleman of the court) by von Nassau. This honor included a stipend, an annual court outfit, as well as 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax-free. It is believed he may have moved back to Mainz around this time, but this is not certain.[citation needed] Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried in the Franciscan church at Mainz, his contributions largely unknown. This church and the cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is now lost. In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of typography in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the first portrait of Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon's biography of famous Germans.[citation needed] Printed books Between 1450 and 1455, Gutenberg printed several texts, some of which remain unidentified; his texts did not bear the printer's name or date, so attribution is possible only from typographical evidence and external references. Certainly several church documents including a papal letter and two indulgences were printed, one of which was issued in Mainz. Realizing the value of printing in quantity, seven editions in two styles were ordered, resulting in several thousand copies being printed.[15] Some printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus may have been printed by Gutenberg; these have been dated either 1451–52 or 1455. In 1455, Gutenberg completed copies of a beautifully executed folio Bible (Biblia Sacra), with 42 lines on each page. Copies sold for 30 florins each,[16] which was roughly three years' wages for an average clerk. Nonetheless, it was significantly cheaper than a manuscript Bible that could take a single scribe over a year to prepare. After printing the text, some copies were rubricated or hand-illuminated in the same elegant way as manuscript Bibles from the same period. 48 substantially complete copies are known to survive, including two at the British Library that can be viewed and compared online.[17] The text lacks modern features such as pagination, indentations, and paragraph breaks. An undated 36-line edition of the Bible was printed, probably in Bamberg in 1458-1460, possibly by Gutenberg. A large part of it was shown to have been set from a copy of Gutenberg's Bible, thus disproving earlier speculation that it may have been the earlier of the two.[18] Printing method with movable type Gutenberg's early printing process, and what tests he may have made with movable type, are not known in great detail. His later Bibles were printed in such a way as to have required large quantities of type, some estimates suggesting as many as 100,000 individual sorts.[19] Setting each page would take, perhaps, half a day, and considering all the work in loading the press, inking the type, pulling the impressions, hanging up the sheets, distributing the type, etc., it is thought that the Gutenberg–Fust shop might have employed as many as 25 craftsmen. Gutenberg's technique of making movable type remains unclear. In the following decades, punches and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly disseminating printing presses across Europe. Whether Gutenberg used this sophisticated technique or a somewhat primitive version has been the subject of considerable debate. In the standard process of making type, a hard metal punch (made by punchcutting, with the letter carved back to front) is hammered into a softer copper bar, creating a matrix. This is then placed into a hand-held mould and a piece of type, or "sort", is cast by filling the mould with molten type-metal; this cools almost at once, and the resulting piece of type can be removed from the mould. The matrix can be reused to create hundreds, or thousands, of identical sorts so that the same character appearing anywhere within the book will appear very uniform, giving rise, over time, to the development of distinct styles of typefaces or fonts. After casting, the sorts are arranged into type-cases, and used to make up pages which are inked and printed, a procedure which can be repeated hundreds, or thousands, of times. The sorts can be reused in any combination, earning the process the name of "movable type". (For details, see Typography). Was Gutenberg's type produced by punches and copper matrices? The invention of the making of types with punch, matrix and mold has been widely attributed to Gutenberg. However, recent evidence suggests that Gutenberg's process was somewhat different. If he used the punch and matrix approach, all his letters should have been nearly identical, with some variations due to miscasting and inking. However, the type used in Gutenberg's earliest work shows other variations.[citation needed] In 2001, the physicist Blaise Agüera y Arcas and Princeton librarian Paul Needham, used digital scans of a Papal bull in the Scheide Library, Princeton, to carefully compare the same letters (types) appearing in different parts of the printed text.[20][21] The irregularities in Gutenberg's type, particularly in simple characters such as the hyphen, suggested that the variations could not have come from either ink smear or from wear and damage on the pieces of metal on the types themselves. While some identical types are clearly used on other pages, other variations, subjected to detailed image analysis, suggested that they could not have been produced from the same matrix. Transmitted light pictures of the page also appeared to reveal substructures in the type that could not arise from traditional punchcutting techniques. They hypothesized that the method may have involved impressing simple shapes to create alphabets in "cuneiform" style in a matrix made of some soft material, perhaps sand. Casting the type would destroy the mould, and the matrix would need to be recreated to make each additional sort. This could explain the variations in the type, as well as the substructures observed in the printed images. Thus, they feel that "the decisive factor for the birth of typography", the use of reusable moulds for casting type, might have been a more progressive process than was previously thought.[22] They suggest that the additional step of using the punch to create a mould that could be reused many times was not taken until twenty years later, in the 1470s. Others have not accepted some or all of their suggestions, and have interpreted the evidence in other ways, and the truth of the matter remains very uncertain.[23] Other hypotheses about European origins A 1568 history by Hadrianus Junius of Holland claims that the basic idea of the movable type came to Gutenberg from Laurens Janszoon Coster via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in the 1430s and may have brought some of his equipment from Haarlem to Mainz. While Coster appears to have experimented with moulds and castable metal type, there is no evidence that he had actually printed anything with this technology. He was an inventor and a goldsmith. However, there is one indirect supporter of the claim that Coster might be the inventor. The author of the Cologne Chronicle of 1499 quotes Ulrich Zell, the first printer of Cologne, that printing was performed in Mainz in 1450, but that some type of printing of lower quality had previously occurred in the Netherlands. However, the chronicle does not mention the name of Coster,[18][24] while it actually credits Gutenberg as the "first inventor of printing" in the very same passage (fol. 312). The first securely dated book by Dutch printers is from 1471,[24] and the Coster connection is today regarded as a mere legend.[25] The 19th century printer and typefounder Fournier Le Jeune suggested that Gutenberg might not have been using type cast with a reusable matrix, but possibly wooden types that were carved individually. A similar suggestion was made by Nash in 2004.[26] This remains possible, albeit entirely unproven. It has also been questioned whether Gutenberg used movable types at all. In 2004, Italian professor Bruno Fabbiani claimed that examination of the 42-line Bible revealed an overlapping of letters, suggesting that Gutenberg did not in fact use movable type (individual cast characters) but rather used whole plates made from a system somewhat like a modern typewriter, whereby the letters were stamped successively into the plate and then printed. However, most specialists regard the occasional overlapping of type as caused by paper movement over pieces of type of slightly unequal height. Legacy "What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, ... for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored." Although Gutenberg was financially unsuccessful in his lifetime, the printing technologies spread quickly, and news and books began to travel across Europe much faster than before. It fed the growing Renaissance, and since it greatly facilitated scientific publishing, it was a major catalyst for the later scientific revolution. The capital of printing in Europe shifted to Venice, where visionary printers like Aldus Manutius ensured widespread availability of the major Greek and Latin texts. The claims of an Italian origin for movable type have also focused on this rapid rise of Italy in movable-type printing. This may perhaps be explained by the prior eminence of Italy in the paper and printing trade. Additionally, Italy's economy was growing rapidly at the time, facilitating the spread of literacy. Christopher Columbus had a geographical book (printed by movable types) bought by his father. That book is in a Spanish museum. Finally, the city of Mainz was sacked in 1462, driving many (including a number of printers and punch cutters) into exile. Printing was also a factor in the Reformation. Martin Luther's 95 Theses were printed and circulated widely; subsequently he issued broadsheets outlining his anti-indulgences position (certificates of indulgences were one of the first items Gutenberg had printed). The broadsheet contributed to development of the newspaper. In the decades after Gutenberg, many conservative patrons looked down on cheap printed books; books produced by hand were considered more desirable. Today there is a large antique market for the earliest printed objects. Books printed prior to 1500 are known as incunabula. There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany, including the famous one by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1837) in Mainz, home to the eponymous Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz and the Gutenberg Museum on the history of early printing. The later publishes the Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, the leading periodical in the field. Project Gutenberg, the oldest digital library,[30] commemorates Gutenberg's name. In 1961 the Canadian philosopher and scholar Marshall McLuhan entitled his pioneering study in the fields of print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. Gutenberg remains a towering figure in the popular image. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg the No. 1 most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.[1] In space, he is commemorated in the name of the asteroid 777 Gutemberga. A French opera on his life, by Philippe Manoury, was staged in Strasbourg in September 2011.[31] See also References - ^ a b See People of the Millenium for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era. - ^ McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002 - ^ a b Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria. "Gutenberg and Mainz". http://www.mainz.de/gutenberg/english/zeitgum.htm. - ^ Lienhard, John H - ^ a b c Wallau, Heinrich. Johann Gutenberg. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. - ^ Martin, Henri-Jean (1995). "The arrival of print". The History and Power of Writing. University of Chicago Press. - ^ Dudley, Leonard (2008). "The Coin-maker's son". Information revolutions in the history of the West. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. - ^ "Gutenberg und seine Zeit in Daten (Gutenberg and his times; Timeline)". Gutenberg Museum. http://www.mainz.de/gutenberg/zeitgutb.htm. - ^ Childress 2008, p. 62 - ^ Burke, James (1978). Connections. London: Macmillan Publishers. - ^ Burke, James (1985). The Day the Universe Changed. Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company. - ^ Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1966). Gutenberg and the Master of the Playing Cards. New Haven: Yale University Press. - ^ Klooster, John W. (2009). Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. - ^ Meggs, Philip B., Purvis, Alston W. History of Graphic Design. Hoboken, N. - ^ Cormack, Lesley B.; Ede, Andrew (2004). A History of Science in Society: From Philosophy to Utility. Broadview Press. - ^ "Treasures in Full: Gutenberg Bible". British Library. http://prodigi.bl.uk/treasures/gutenberg/search.asp. - ^ a b Kapr, Albert (1996). Johannes Gutenberg: the Man and His Invention. Scolar Press. - ^ Singer, C.; Holmyard, E.; Hall, A.; Williams, T. (1958). A History of Technology, vol.3. Oxford University Press. - ^ Agüera y Arcas, Blaise; Needham, Paul (November 2002). "Computational analytical bibliography". Proceedings Bibliopolis Conference The future history of the book. The Hague (Netherlands): Koninklijke Bibliotheek. - ^ "What Did Gutenberg Invent?". http://www.open2.net/gberg_synopsis.html. Retrieved Aug 16 2011. - ^ Adams, James L. (1991). Flying Buttresses, Entropy and O-Rings: the World of an Engineer. Harvard University Press. - ^ Nash, Paul W. "The 'first' type of Gutenberg: a note on recent research" in The Private Library, Summer 2004, pp. 86-96. - ^ a b Juchhoff 1950, pp. 131f. - ^ Costeriana. While the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the more recent editions of the work attribute it to Gutenberg to reflect, as it says, the common consent that has developed in the 20th century. Typography - Gutenberg and printing in Germany. Encyclopædia Britannica ©2007. - ^ See note 19 - ^ Childress 2008, p. 122 - ^ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the “Rise of the West”: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. - ^ Duchesne 2006, p. 83 - ^ Thomas, Jeffrey (20 June 2007). "Project Gutenberg Digital Library Seeks To Spur Literacy". U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs. http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2007/July/200707201511311CJsamohT0.6146356.html. Retrieved 20 August 2007. - ^ http://www.artsjournal.com/slippeddisc/2011/09/an-opera-that-celebrates-print-media.html Sources - Childress, Diana (2008). Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. - Duchesne, Ricardo (2006). "Asia First?". The Journal of the Historical Society 6 (1): 69–91. - Juchhoff, Rudolf (1950). "Was bleibt von den holländischen Ansprüchen auf die Erfindung der Typographie?". Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 128−133 - Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974). Geschichte der Druckpressen (1st ed.). Frankfurt/Main: Interprint Further reading Standard biographic works on Gutenberg - Albert Kapr, Johann Gutenberg: the Man and his Invention. Translated from the German by Douglas Martin, Scolar Press, 1996. "Third ed., revised by the author for...the English translation. On the effects of Gutenberg's printing - Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980). The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge University Press. - Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (2005). The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2nd, rev. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-60774-4 [More recent, abridged version] - Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997). The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800. London: Verso. The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World. London: Headline Review. - McLuhan, Marshall (1962). The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.). University of Toronto Press. External links - English homepage of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Germany. - The Digital Gutenberg Project: the Gutenberg Bible in 1,300 digital images, every page of the University of Texas at Austin copy. - (French) Biographie de Johannes Gutenberg, inventeur de l'Imprimerie (a biography of Gutenberg at the Histoire et Geographie site). - Treasures in Full – Gutenberg Bible View the British Library's Digital Versions Online - Texts on Wikisource: - "Gutenberg, Johannes". New International Encyclopedia. - "Gutenburg, Johannes". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. - Chisholm, Hugh, ed. "Gutenberg, Johann". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - "Johann Gutenberg". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. - "Gutenberg, Johannes". The New Student's Reference Work. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 1914. - "Gutenberg, Johannes". Encyclopedia Americana. - "Gutenberg, Johannes". Collier's New Encyclopedia.