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Канада - Вижте пояснителната страница за други значения на Канада. Кана̀да (на английски: Canada, [ˈkænədə]; на френски: Canada, [kanad'a]) е най-голямата държава в Северна Америка, простираща се от Атлантическия океан на изток до Тихия на запад и до Северния ледовит на север. Тя е втората по големина страна в света[1], а нейната обща граница със Съединените щати на юг и северозапад е най-дългата в света. Територията на днешна Канада е обитавана от хилядолетия от различни местни етнически групи. От края на 15 век британски и френски експедиции изследват атлантическото крайбрежие, а след това започват и да се заселват там. Повечето френски колонии са отстъпени на Великобритания след края на Седемгодишната война през 1763 година. Канада възниква през 1867 година, когато три от британските колонии са обединени в Канадска конфедерация, федерален доминион, съставен от четири провинции.[2][3] Това поставя началото на продължителен процес на териториално разширение увеличаване на автономията на страната. Основни стъпки в него са Уестминстърския статут от 1931 година и Закона за Канада от 1982 година, който премахва последните остатъци на правна зависимост на Канада от Британския парламент. Федерация, съставена от 10 провинции и 3 територии, Канада е парламентарна монархия в лична уния с Великобритания. Английският и френският са официални езици на федерално ниво. Канада е просперираща развита държава, деветата по големина икономика в света. Канада има развита икономика, основана на изобилните природни ресурси и външната търговия, главно със Съединените щати. Страната се нарежда на високо ниво в степента на човешко развитие, качеството на живот, здравеопазване, продължителност на живота, общественото образование, икономическата свобода и защитата на гражданските свободи и политически права.[4] Страната е член на Г-8, Г-20, НАТО, ОИСР, СТО, Общността на нациите, ОАД, Азиатско-тихоокеанското икономическо сътрудничество, ООН, НАФТА. Съдържание - 1 География - 2 История - 3 Държавно устройство - 4 Демографски показатели - 5 Икономика - 6 Култура - 7 Други - 8 Бележки - 9 Външни препратки География[редактиране | edit source] Източна Канада е разделена на северната гора и неплодородния Канадски щит (на френски: Bouclier canadien; на английски: Canadian Shield) на север и плодородната долина на река Сейнт Лорънс на юг (където и живее по-голямата част от населението). Големи площи от южна централна Канада са заети от равнини и прерии. Релефът на Западна Канада е най-вече хълмист от двете страни на Скалистите планини. Ръкавът на залива Хъдсън се врязва дълбоко в страната. В източната част са разположени и Големите езера, които са на границата със САЩ. Там се намира и водопадът Ниагара. Канада обхваща почти цялата северна половина на Северна Америка. Ширината на тази необятна земя е повече от 5800 km и включва шест часови пояса. Централната част на страната е доминирана от Канадския щит, образуван от магмени и метаморфни скали през ледниковата епоха, днес покрити от обширни гори. Растителността в тази част на страната, най-вече в северните ѝ райони, е тундрова — има иглолистни гори, както и езера. По-далеч на север, в полярният пояс, който обхваща повече от половината от територията на Канада, преобладава студен континентален климат. Тук е царството на водите и ледовете, което се простира върху площ от над 5 млн km2. История[редактиране | edit source] Етимология[редактиране | edit source] Името Канада идва от думата kanata на езика на племето ирокези, която буквално означава „село“ или „селище“. През 1535 г. местните жители от района на сегашния град Квебек използват тази дума, за да упътят френския мореплавател и изследовател Жак Картие как да стигне до селището Стадакона. По-късно Картие употребява думата kanata не само в смисъла на това конкретно селище, а за да обозначи всички земи, владени от вожда Донакона. Към 1545 г. модифицираната форма canada започва да се използва като топоним, отнасящ се за част от територията на съвременна Канада. През 17 век и началото на 18 век Канада се наричат всички земи част от Нова Франция, които се намират по протежението на река Сейнт Лорънс или са част от северните брегове на Големите езера. Този район по-късно е разделен на две британски колонии - Горна и Долна Канада. През 1841 г. колониите са обединени под общото наименование провинция Канада. Когато през 1867 г. чрез конфедеративното обединение на четири провинции е създаден нов британски доминион, чието официално наименование е Канада. До средата на 1950-те най-често използваното име, отнасящо се за страната, е Доминион Канада, но с поетапното издействане на политическа автономия от Обединеното кралство, федералното правителство започва да насърчава използването единствено на името Канада във всички официални документи. През 1982 г. официалният празник на страната е преименуван от Ден на доминиона на Ден на Канада. Коренно население[редактиране | edit source] Археологически изследвания и генетични проучвания сред коренното население на Канада показват, че Северен Юкон е бил населен от почти 26 500 години, а първите следи от човешко присъствие в Южен Онтарио са от над 9 500 години. Равнините Олд Кроу и пещерите Блуфиш се считат за дом на най-първите заселници на територията на Канада, които често се наричат палео-индианци. Първите местни общества се характеризирали с уседнал начин на живот, земеделие, строителството на обществени и обредни сгради, появата на социално разслоение и развитието на търговия между различни племена. До пристигането през 15 век на първите европейци в Северна Америка голяма част от местните култури вече са били изчезнали и тяхното съществуване е установено благодарение на археологическите открития през 20 век. Няма единодушно мнение за броя на коренното население през вековете, но според различните хипотези то е варирало между 200 хиляди и 2 милиона души към края на 15 век. Европейците донасят със себе си непознати дотогава болести, които според различни източници са отговорни за гибелта на между 40% и 80% от местното население. Аборигенните народи включват Първите народи (индианските племена), инуитите (ескимоси) и метисите. Първите метиси се появяват през 17 век, когато европейци и представители на местните народи започват да сключват бракове помежду си. За разлика от индианските племена инуитите са имали ограничен контакт с новите заселници по времето на европейската колонизация, което до известна степен позволява да запазят културата и начина си на живот векове наред. Европейска колонизация[редактиране | edit source] Първите европейци, достигнали бреговете на Канада, е предвожданият от Лейф Ериксон норвежки екипаж, който достига до остров Бафинова земя и след това до Лабрадор през 1000 година. Ериксон нарича новооткритите земи Винланд, но след неуспешен опит да създаде постоянна колония, се завръща в Исландия. За следващите пет века няма исторически данни Канада да е била достигана от други европейци. Едва през 1497 г.италианският мореплавател Джовани Кабото, тогава служещ под английски флаг, достига до атлантическото крайбрежие на Канада. Между 1498 и 1521 г. португалски и баски моряци създават по протежението на атлантическото крайбрежие временни лагери, които използват по време на сезонния риболов. През 1534 г. по поръчка на Франция Жак Картие описва и картографира залива Свети Лаврентий и бреговете на река Свети Лаврентий. Френският мореплавател Самюел дьо Шамплен пристига в Канада през 1603 г. и създава първите европейски колонии - Порт Роял (1605 г.) и Квебек (1608 г.). Първите преселници от Франция се заселват по поречието на Свети Лаврентий, в сегашните крайморски провинции Ню Брънзуик, Нова Скотия и Остров Принц Едуард и създават селища на територията на сегашните американски щати Мейн, Върмонт и Ню Хемпшир. От друга страна търговците на кожи и католическите мисионери изучават Големите езера, залива Хъдсън, спускат се по течението на Мисисипи и достигат чак до територията на сегашна Луизиана. Избухналите в средата на 17 век Френско-ирокезки войни (известни още като Боброви войни) поставят край на сравнително спокойното съществуване между заселници и местни. Около 1610 г. англичаните основават първите рибарски селища в Нюфаундленд, а след това на юг създават Тринадесетте колонии. Между 1689 и 1763 г. избухват общо четири колониални войни между Франция и Англия. С Договора от Утрехт (1713) континенталната част на Нова Скотия минава под британски контрол; Парижкият договор от 1763 г. слага край на Седемгодишната война между двете кралства и установява пълен британски контрол над Канада и по-голямата част от Нова Франция. С Кралската декларация от 1763 г. провинция Квебек е извадена от състава на Нова Франция и става самостоятелна част от Канада, а към Нова Скотия е анексиран остров Кейп Бретон. През 1769 г. остров Свети Джон (сега остров Принц Едуард) става отделна колония. За да избегне възможни конфликти в Квебек, британската власт приема през 1774 г. Закона за Квебек, според който територията на провинцията се разширява до Големите езера и долината на река Охайо. С този закон се възстановяват официалният статут на френския език, правото да се изповядва католицизмът и френското гражданско право. Тези реформи пораждат значително недоволство сред англоезичното мнозинство на Тринадесетте колонии и се считат като една от основните предпоставки за избухването на Американската революция. Парижкият договор от 1783 г. официално признава американската независимост и отстъпва всички територии на юг от Големите езера на Съединените американски щати. Около 50 000 верни на британската корона лоялисти бягат от Щатите в Канада. Ню Брънзуик е отделен от Нова Скотия, а провинция Квебек е разделена на две части — Долна Канада (съвременната провинция Квебек) и Горна Канада (сегашната провинция Онтарио). В Горна Канада се заселват голяма част от британските лоялисти. Горна и Долна Канада се оказват основният фронт по време на Войната от 1812 между САЩ и Британската империя. С края на войната към Канада започва масирана имиграция от Великобритания и Ирландия. Между 1825 и 1846 г. в Канада пристигат 626 628 имигранти от Европа. Въстанията от 1837 г. избухват основно поради липсата на отговорно правителство, което реално да управлява в полза на жителите на Доминиона Канада. В Доклада Дърам се препоръчва създаването на отговорно правителство и да се предприемат действия в посока пълната асимилация на френскоговорящите канадци в англоезичното общество. Със Закона за обединение от 1840 г. двете Канади са обединени в една провинция. През 1849 г. е създадено отговорно правителство, което да управлява всички британски северноамерикански провинции. С подписването на Орегонското споразумение от 1846 г. се решава пограничният въпрос с американската територия Орегон и се прокарва граница по протежението на 49-ия паралел в посока запад. Това позволява създаването на колонии в Британска Колумбия и на остров Ванкувър. Териториалната експанзия продължава с експедиции на север и анексирането на днешния канадски Арктически регион и Земя Рупърт, която включва значителна част от северните територии на повечето съвременни провинции. Конфедерация и разширяване[редактиране | edit source] След поредица от конституционални обсъждания на 1 юли 1867 г. е приет Конституционалният акт, чрез който се създава конфедерацията Доминион Канада, съставен от провинциите Онтарио, Квебек, Нова Скотия и Ню Брънзуик. Земята Рупърт и Северозападната Територия са обединени в Северозападните територии, а през юли 1870 г. е създадена провинцията Манитоба. През 1866 г. Британска Колумбия и остров Ванкувър се обединяват в обща територия и през 1871 г. стават част от Канадската конфедерация. Две години по-късно това прави и Остров Принц Едуард. Първият министър-председател на новосъздадената Канадска конфедерация, Джон А. Макдоналд, приема редица закони, които да защитят и стимулират развитието на производството и търговията в Канада. С построяването на три трансконтинентални железопътни линии (включително и Канадската тихоокеанска линия) западните части на страната стават далеч по-достъпни за заселниците, а приетият през 1872 г. поземлен закон за прериите цели да стимулира заселването на обширните степни райони. През 1898 г., малко след началото на Златната треска в Клондайк, канадското правителство създава територията Юкон. На 23 май 1873 г. е създадена Северозападната конна полиция, чиято основна цел е да поддържа реда в най-новите територии на Канада; през 1920 г. това полицейско формирование се превръща в съвременната Кралска канадска конна полиция или просто канадската полиция. По време на управлението на правителството на либерала Уилфрид Лори Албърта и Саскачеван са официално признати за провинции и през 1905 г. влизат в състава на Канадската конфедерация. Съвременна история[редактиране | edit source] Включването на Великобритания в Първата световна война на страната на Антантата въвлича и Канада във военния конфликт, защото по това време военната ѝ политика все още е под прекия контрол на Британската империя. Доброволците, изпратени на Западния фронт, формират Канадския военен корпус, който изиграва важна роля в редица битки и в частност в Битката при Вими. От около 625 хиляди канадци, участвали във войната, приблизително 60 хиляди намират смъртта си и още 173 хиляди са ранени. През 1919 г., независимо от Великобритания, Канада става член на Обществото на народите. С Уестминстърския статут от 11 декември 1931 г. Канада получава независимостта си от Обединеното кралство. По времето на Голямата депресия Канада се оказва в тежко икономическо положение, сходно на това в САЩ. По време на Втората световна война Канада участва със собствени военни части, необвързани с английската корона. Правителството на либерала Уилям Лайон Макензи Кинг обявява война на Нацистка Германия на 10 септември 1939 г., три дни след включването на Великобритания в конфликта. Първите канадски военни части пристигат в Европа през декември 1939 г. До края на военните действия Канада мобилизира милион и 140 хиляди души, но изпраща като военна помощ по-малко от половината. Канадските части имат съществено участие в Битката за Диеп, Операция Аваланч, Операция Нептун, Операция Овърлорд и Битката за Шелда. В Канада временно се разполагат нидерландското правителство и кралската фамилия в изгнание; страната изиграва важна роля в освобождаването на Бенелюкс от нацистката окупация. По време на войната канадската икономика изживява разцвет благодарение на производството на военна техника, която се изпраща в Европа, Азия и Съветския съюз. Въпреки няколкото вътрешни сътресения, в края на Втората световна война Канада се оказва на страната на победителите, а икономическото ѝ благосъстояние е второто най-добро в световен мащаб. Нюфаундленд (сега Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор) става част от Канада през 1949 г. Следвоенният икономически разцвет, съчетан с умелата политика на редица либерални правителства, спомагат за формирането на канадското самосъзнание. През 1965 г. е приет сегашният официален флаг на страната, лесно разпознаваем с червеното кленово листо в центъра му. През 1969 г. Канада става двуезична — английският и френският получават еднакъв статут, а през 1971 г. страната официално приема мултикултурализма като определящ обществото ѝ. Предприемат се множество социални промени, сред които общодостъпна безплатна здравна система, канадската пенсионна програма и системата за студентски заеми. След редица обсъждания през 1982 г. действащата дотогава британска конституция е изместена от канадската Харта за права и свободи. През 1999 г. Нунавут става третата канадска територия. През 60-те години в Квебек настъпват съществени социални и икономически промени, познати като Тихата революция. Формира се модерно националистическо движение, чиято основна цел е отделянето на френскоговорящ Квебек от предимно англоговоряща Канада. През 1976 г. националистическата партия Партия на Квебек печели местните избори и организира неуспешен референдум за автономията на провинцията. През 1990 г. правителството на Браян Мълроуни прокарва редица конституционални промени в полза на Квебек, но това не успокоява страстите във френскоговорящата провинция. Тези неуспешни опити за решаване на квебекския въпрос водят до създаването на редица националистически политически партии, които през 1995 г. успяват да издействат провеждането на втори референдум за съдбата на Квебек. Предложението за автономия е отхвърлено със съвсем малка разлика, в негова полза са гласували 49,4% спрямо 50,6% против. През 1997 г. Канадският върховен съд определя за неконституционални всякакви опити за отделянето на Квебек от страната. Това не пречи на канадското правителство през 2000 година да приеме закон, определящ условията за съгласувано отделяне на Квебек от конфедерацията. През 1990 г. Канада се включва във Войната в Персийския залив на страната на водената от САЩ коалиция. През 90-те страната активно участва в редица мироопазващи мисии под егидата на ООН. През 2001 г. Канада изпраща военни части в Афганистан, но две години по-късно твърдо отказва да се включи във водената от Щатите война в Ирак. Държавно устройство[редактиране | edit source] Канада е едновременно парламентарна демокрация и конституционна монархия, т.е. държавният глава е монарх, като в момента това е кралица Елизабет II. Монархическият представител в Канада е Генералният губернатор. Неговата роля е да одобрява законите, но има и някои други задължения. Административно деление[редактиране | edit source] Канада е федерация, съставена от десет провинции и три територии, които са групирани в региони. Западна Канада се състои от Британска Колумбия и трите прерийни провинции (Алберта, Съскечуан и Манитоба). В Централна Канада влизат Квебек и Онтарио. Атлантическа Канада се състои от трите морски провинции (Ню Брунсуик, о-в Принц Едуард и Нова Скотия) и Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор. За Източна Канада се считат Централна и Атлантическа Канада, взети заедно. Три територии (Юкон, Северозападните територии и Нунавут) съставляват Северна Канада. Провинциите си служат с повече автономия от териториите. Всяка провинция си има свой собствен герб. Провинциите са отговорни за повечето социални програми на страната (като здравеопазване, образование, социални помощи) и заедно реализират повече приходи отколкото самата държава, почти уникално явление в света. Ползвайки своите права за оползотворяване на средствата, федералното правителство може да инициира национална политика в провинциалните зони, като например Канадския здравен акт; провинциите имат правото да не участват в тях, но рядко го правят. Демографски показатели[редактиране | edit source] Население[редактиране | edit source] Според данни от преброяването от 2006 година в Канада живеят общо 31 612 897 души, което е увеличение с 5,4% спрямо 2001 г. Растежът на населението се дължи основно на постоянния имигрантски поток и донякъде и от положителния естествен прираст. Около 4/5 от населението на Канада живее на около 150 km от границата със Съединените американски щати. Приблизително 4/5 от канадците живеят в трите мегаполиса — коридор Квебек - Уиндзор, Лоуър Мейнленд в Британска Колумбия и коридора Калгари - Едмънтън. По данни на преброяването от 2006 г. 32% от всички канадци се самоопределят като етнически канадци, следвани от 21% ентически англичани, 15,8% с френски произход, 15,1% шотландци, 13,9% италианци, 4,3% с китайски произход, аборигенно население 4,0%, 3,9% украинци и 3,3 с холандски корени. Годишният прираст на канадското аборигенно население е два пъти спрямо националния и към 4% от населението на страна са заявили принадлежност към някое от местните малцинства. Други 16,2% от неаборигенното население на Канада са с произход, различен от европейски и се разпределят както следва - 4% от Южна Азия, 3,9% са китайци и 2,5% са чернокожи. През 1961 г. по-малко от 2% от населението на Канада (около 300 хиляди души) е било с неевропейски произход и още около 1% - с аборигенен произход. Към 2006 г. 51% от населението на Ванкувър и 46,9% от населението на Торонто е съставено от представители на неевропейски етнически групи. Преброяването от същата година показва, че на всеки пет канадци поне един е роден извън страната. Около 60% от всички имигранти идват от държави в Азия, включително и Близкия изток. През 2009 г. една трета от всички нови имигранти пристигат от Китай, Филипините и Индия. Според някои прогнози през 2031 г. една трета от всички канадци ще принадлежат към видимите малцинства. Канада е сред държавите с най-голям годишен приток на имигранти, основно заради благоприятните икономически условия и олекотената имиграционна политика. Очаква се през 2011 г. между 240 хиляди и 265 хиляди души да пристигнат в страната като имигранти, тенденция, стабилно запазила се през последните няколко години. Голяма част от новите имигранти се заселват в силно урбанизираните райони на Торонто, Ванкувър и Отава. Канада е известна и като дом на съществен брой бежанци; на всеки десет бежанци поне един е получил убежище в страната. По подобие на други развити държави, населението на Канада е в процес на застаряване, а броят на хората в работоспособна възраст намалява с всяка изминала година. Към 2006 г. средната възраст в национален мащаб е 39,5 години. Последните преброявания показват, че имиграционният поток към страната не успява да разреши проблема с постепенното застаряване на населението. Религия[редактиране | edit source] По данни на преброяването от 2006 година 77,1% от населението на Канада се идентифицира като християни, като 46,3% са последователи на католицизма, а 29,2% са протестанти. Общо 16,5% от канадците не се причисляват към нито една религия и около 6,3% изповядват религия, различна от християнската. Най-голям от последната категория е броят на мюсюлманите, които съставляват около 2% от населението или 579 хиляди души. Последователите на юдаизма, будизма, хиндуизма и сикхизма си поделят по един процент. Православните християни в Канада са около половин милион човека и са основно хора с източноевропейски произход. Език[редактиране | edit source] В Канада двата официални езика са английският и френският. Официалното двуезичие в страната се гарантира чрез Канадската харта за правата и свободите, Закона за официалните езици и Регламента за официални езици, а за прилагането му следи Комисарят по официалните езици. Френският и английският са с еднакъв статут в Парламента и всички федерални институции. Гражданите имат правото да комуникират в държавни институции на един от двата езика, като държавата се задължава да осигури служители, владеещи нужния работен език. Държавата се задължава да осигури съществуването на училища за официалните езикови малцинства в райони, където те имат съществено присъствие. Английският и френският са майчини езици съответно на 59,7% и 23,2% от всички жители на Канада и са двата най-говорени езика в домашна среда — съответно от 68,3% и 22,3%. Около 98,5% от всички канадци говорят английски или френски (67,5% владеят само английски, 13,3% говорят само френски и 17,7% са двуезични). Англоезичните и франкофонските езикови общности, определени по владеене на един от двата официални езика, съставляват 73,% и 23,6% от населението на Канада. Хартата за френския език определя френския език като единствен официален език в провинция Квебек. Въпреки че в Квебек живеят 85% от всички френскоговорещи канадци, значителни франкофонски общности съществуват и в провинциите Онтарио, Албърта и Манитоба; в Онтарио живеят над 300 хиляди френскоговорещи. Ню Брънзуик, където франкофоните съставляват 33% от населението на провинцията, е единствената официално двуезична провинция в Канада. Всички останали провинции нямат определен с местен закон официален език, но френският се използва де юре само в държавни институции, в съдилищата на федерално равнище и като език за преподаване в училищата. Английският се явява де факто основният език във всекидневната комуникация, медиите и други аспекти на живота. В Манитоба, Онтарио и Квебек е разрешено двата официални езика да се използват в местното законодателство, а всички промени в закона се издават и на двата езика. В Канада има 11 аборигенни езикови групи и повече от 65 самостоятелни диалекта. От тях единствено крий, инуитския и оджибуай се владеят от достатъчно много хора и се считат от държавата като единствените езици с реални шансове да оцелеят през времето. В Северозападните територии няколко местни езика имат официален статут. Инуитският език се говори от почти 70% от населението на територията Нунавут и там е признат като официален език. Над шест милиона души в Канада са заявили като майчин език език, различен от английски или френски. Повече от един милион човека говорят китайски (основно кантонски) като първи език, италианският се владее от 455 040 човека, немският - от 450 570 души, панджабският език - от 367 505 и испанският - от 345 345 човека. Мнозинството от хора, чийто майчин език не е нито един от официалните, живеят в провинциите Британска Колумбия (около 1,1 милиона) и Онтарио (3,1 милиона). Най-големи метрополни региони[редактиране | edit source] Почти 55% от населението на Канада живее в 30-те най-големи града в страната. Ако в тези данни се включват и метрополните региони, процентът скача до 70%. Торонто е най-големият град в Канада с население от 2,7 милиона души (2011 г.) и население на метрополния регион над 5,6 милиона (2011 г.). Икономика[редактиране | edit source] Канада е сред икономически най-развитите държави в света и сред държавите с едни от най-високите доходи на глава от населението. Страната е член на Г8 и на Организацията за икономическо сътрудничество и развитие (ОИСР). Канадската търговия е сред десетте най-големи в световен мащаб, а икономиката ѝ е със смесен характер. Страната е с един от най-големи индекси на икономическа свобода, задминаващ този на САЩ и на повечето западноевропейски държави. Най-големите вносители на стоки, произведени в Канада, са САЩ, Великобритания и Япония. През 2008 г. в Канада са внесени стоки на обща стойност $442,9 милиарда, от които $280,8 милиарда са от САЩ, $11,7 милиарда са от Япония и $11,3 милиарда от Великобритания. През 2009 г. търговският дефицит на страната е 4,8 милиарда канадски долара, а излишъкът се е равнявал на 46,9 милиарда канадски долара. Към октомври 2009 равнището на безработица в национален мащаб е 8,6%, като тази цифра варира от 5,8% в Манитоба до 17% в Нюфаундленд и Лабрадор. В периода октомври 2008 - октомври 2010 канадският трудов пазар губи 162,000 работни позиции на пълен работен ден и 62 хиляди позиции на половин работен ден. За периода 2010-2011 държавният дълг на Канада възлиза на $566.7 милиарда, което е съществено увеличение спрямо $463.7 милиарда от 2008-2009. В началото на 2010 външният дълг на Канада възлиза на $193.8 милиарда. За фискалната 2009-2010 година комбинираният държавен и провинциален финансов дефицит възлиза на приблизително $100 милиарда, от които за годината 2010-2011 федералният дефицит набъбва до 49.2 милиарда канадски долара. През 20-ти век бързото развитие на производството, добивът на полезни изкопаеми и подобряването на сектора за услуги позволява на Канада да се превърне от държава с икономика, силно зависима от земеделието, във високо индустриализирана и силно урбанизирана страна. Канадската икономика е доминирана от сектора на услугите, в който са заети около три четвърти от всички канадци. Канада за разлика от повечето развити държави има особено добре развит първичен сектор, в който дърводобивът и петролната индустрия се ползват с особена важност. Канада е сред малкото развити държави, които изнасят енергия зад граница. Атлантическото крайбрежие на Канада е богато на залежи от природен газ, а на територията на Албърта има големи залежи на природен газ и петрол. Битумните пясъци в Атабаска, провинция Албърта, съхраняват най-големите залежи на петрол в света, задминати единствено от тези в Саудитска Арабия. Канада е един от най-големите износители на земеделска продукция в световен мащаб; Канадските прерии са с особена важност заради големия добив на пшеница, рапица и други зърнени култури. Страната е с най-големия добив на цинк и уран, и също така е със съществени добиви на злато, никел, алуминий и олово. В северната част на Канада повечето малки градчета са се развили като миньорски и дърводобивни центрове. Повечето крупни местни производства се намират в провинциите Квебек и Онтарио, като автомобилостроенето и самолетостроенето заемат особено важни позиции в производството. След края на Втората световна война между икономиките на Канада и САЩ се създава стабилна връзка на взаимна икономическа интеграция, която спомага за лесното движение на стоки и инвестиции. Двете страни са си взаимно най-големите икономически партньори. Споразумението за свободна търговия между Канада и Съединените американски щати (на френски: ALE; на английски: FTA), подписано през 1988 г., се превръща в Северноамериканско споразумение за свободна търговия (на френски: ALÉNA; на английски: NAFTA) след включването на Мексико на 1 януари 1994 г. Култура[редактиране | edit source] Канадската култура е силно повлияна от британската, френската, ирландската, шотландската и американската, но притежава и много уникални черти. През последните няколко десетилетия се развива все по-ярка и самостоятелна канадска култура, отчасти поради национализма, обхванал Канада през годините около Канадската стогодишнина през 1967 г. Тя е населена от 30,6 милиона души, като повечето от тях живеят в южните територии, до границата със САЩ. Други[редактиране | edit source] Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ The World Factbook: Canada. // Central Intelligence Agency, 2006-05-16. - ↑ Territorial evolution (html/PDF). // Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. - ↑ Canada: History (html/PDF). // Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. - ↑ Canada: World Audit Democracy Profile. // WorldAudit.org. Посетен на 25 July 2011. Външни препратки[редактиране | edit source] - Официален сайт на канадското правителство - Citoyenneté et Immigration Canada / Citizenship and Immigration Canada (официален сайт) - Канада в сайта Lonely Planet - Антигуа и Барбуда - Барбадос - Бахамски острови - Белиз - Гватемала - Гренада - Доминика - Доминиканска република - Канада - Коста Рика - Куба - Мексико - Нидерландия2 (Бонер - Саба - Синт Еустациус) - Никарагуа - Панама4 - Салвадор - Сейнт Винсънт и Гренадини - Сейнт Китс и Невис - Сейнт Лусия - Съединени американски щати1 - Тринидад и Тобаго - Франция2, 3, 4 (Гваделупа - Мартиника) - Хаити - Хондурас - Ямайка - Американски Вирджински острови (САЩ) - Ангуила (Обединено кралство) - Аруба (Нидерландия) - Бермудски острови (Обединено кралство) - Британски Вирджински острови (Обединено кралство) - Гренландия (Дания) - Кайманови острови (Обединено кралство) - Кюрасао (Нидерландия) - Монсерат (Обединено кралство) - Наваса (САЩ) - Пуерто Рико (САЩ) - Сен Бартелми (Франция) - Сен Мартен (Франция) - Сен Пиер и Микелон (Франция) - Синт Мартен (Нидерландия) - Търкс и Кайкос (Обединено кралство)
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Official bilingualism in Canada The official languages of Canada are English and French, which "have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada" according to Canada's constitution.[1] Official bilingualism is the term used in Canada to collectively describe the policies, constitutional provisions, and laws which ensure the legal equality of English and French in the Parliament and courts of Canada, protect the linguistic rights of English and French-speaking minorities in different provinces, and ensure a level of government services in both languages across Canada .[2] In addition to the symbolic designation of English and French as official languages, official bilingualism is generally understood to include any law or other measure which: - mandates that the federal government conduct its business in both official languages and provide government services in both languages; - encourages or mandates lower tiers of government (most notably the provinces and territories, but also some municipalities) to conduct themselves in both official languages and to provide services in both English and French rather than in just one or the other; - places obligations on private actors in Canadian society to provide access to goods or services in both official languages (such as the requirement that food products be labeled in both English and French); - provides support to non-government actors to encourage or promote the use or the status of one or the other of the two official languages. This includes grants and contributions to groups representing the English-speaking minority in Quebec and the French-speaking minorities in the other provinces to assist with the establishment of an infrastructure of cultural supports and services. At the provincial level, New Brunswick and Manitoba are officially bilingual provinces, though this is closer to perfect legal equality in New Brunswick, whereas in Manitoba it is the result of a court ruling which struck down seventy-year-old English-only laws in 1985. Only Quebec has declared itself officially unilingual (French only). In practice, all provinces, including Quebec, offer some services in both English and French and some publicly funded education in both official languages up to the high school level (English language postsecondary education institutions are also present in Quebec, as are French language postsecondary institutions in other provinces, in particular in Ontario and New Brunswick). English and French are official languages in all three territories. In addition, Inuktitut is also an official language in Nunavut, and nine aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. Contents - 1 History - 2 Constitutional provisions on official languages - 2.1 Constitution Act, 1867 (section 133) - 2.2 Education Rights (section 23 of the Charter and section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982) - 2.3 Language of the official text of the Constitution - 3 Federal legislation on official languages - 4 Official bilingualism in the public service - 5 Support and opposition - 5.1 Poll Data - 5.2 Findings of Public Hearings - 5.3 Advocacy Groups - 5.4 Positions of the federal political parties - 6 Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories - 7 Personal bilingualism in Canada - 8 Second-language education - 9 See also - 10 Notes - 11 External links History[edit] French has been a language of government in the part of Canada that is today Quebec, with limited interruptions, since the arrival of the first French settlers in 1608, and has been entrenched in the Constitution of Canada since 1867. English has been a language of government in each of the provinces since their inception as British colonies. Institutional bilingualism in various forms therefore predates the Canadian Confederation in 1867. However, for many years English occupied a de facto privileged position, and French was not fully equal. The two languages have gradually achieved a greater level of equality in most of the provinces, and full equality at the federal level. However in Quebec, the trend has been away from equality. In the 1970s English lost its status of full legal equality with French in Quebec, and today French is, both in practice and in law, the province's sole official language. Constitutional provisions on official languages[edit] Constitution Act, 1867 (section 133)[edit] English and French have had limited constitutional protection since 1867. Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 guarantees that both languages may be used in the Parliament of Canada, in its journals and records, and in court proceedings in any court established by the Parliament of Canada. The section also mandates that all Acts of the Parliament of Canada be printed and published in both languages. Guarantees for the equal status of the two official languages are provided in sections 16-23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which was made law in 1982. Sections 16-19 guarantee the equal status of both languages in Parliament, in all federal government institutions, and in federal courts. These sections also mandate that all statutes, records and journals of Parliament be published in both languages, with the English and French versions both holding equal status before the courts. Section 20 guarantees the right of the Canadian public to communicate in English and French with any central government office or with regional offices where there is "a significant demand for communication with and services from that office." Significant demand is not defined in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. One of the purposes of the Official Languages Act of 1988 was to remedy this omission. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes similar constitutional obligations making New Brunswick the only officially bilingual province in Canada.[3] Section 21 ensured that the new Charter of Rights and Freedoms would be read as supplementing, rather than replacing any rights of the English and French languages which had been constitutionalized prior to 1982. Section 22 ensured that the new Charter of Rights and Freedoms would not be interpreted by the courts as placing any new restrictions on non-official languages. Education Rights (section 23 of the Charter and section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982)[edit] Section 23 provides a limited right to receive publicly funded primary and secondary-schooling in the two official languages when they are "in a minority situation"—in other words, to English-language schooling in Quebec, and to French-language schooling in the rest of the country. Asymmetrical application of education rights in Quebec versus elsewhere in Canada[edit] The right applies asymmetrically because section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982 provides that not all of the language rights listed in section 23 will apply in Quebec. Specifically: - In Quebec, a child may receive free public education in English only if at least one parent or a sibling was educated in Canada in English. - In the rest of Canada, a child may receive free public education in French if at least one parent or a sibling was educated in Canada in French, or if at least one parent has French as his or her mother tongue (defined in section 23 as "first language learned and still understood"). None of these education language rights precludes parents from placing their children in a private school (which they pay for) in the language of their choice; it only applies to subsidized public education. One practical consequence of this asymmetry is that all migrants who arrive in Quebec from foreign countries only have access to French-language public schools for their children. This includes immigrants whose mother tongue is English and immigrants who received their schooling in English. On the other hand, Section 23 provides a nearly universal right to English-language schooling for the children of Canadian-born anglophones living in Quebec. Section 23 also provides, subject only to the "where numbers warrant" restriction, a right to French-language schooling for the children of all francophones living outside Quebec, including immigrants from French-speaking countries who settle outside Quebec, and who are Canadian citizens. However, admission to French-language schools outside Quebec remains restricted in some ways it is not in Quebec. In particular, rights holder parents who choose to enroll their child in English school may thereby deprive that child's descendants of the right to attend French school.[4] In Quebec, under article 76.1 of the Charter of the French Language, rights holders do not deprive their descendants of the right to an English-language education by choosing to enroll their children in French school. (This applies if certain administrative steps are taken at each generation. Otherwise, the right may still be transmitted to grandchildren under article 76.) Another element of asymmetry between Quebec and most anglophone provinces is that while Quebec provides public English-language primary and secondary education throughout the province, most other provinces provide French-language education only "where numbers warrant." Additional restrictions on education rights[edit] There are some further restrictions on minority-language education rights: - the rights attach to the parent, not the child, and non-citizens residing in Canada do not have access to this right (even if their children are born in Canada); - If the parents' English-language or French-language education took place outside Canada, this does not enable the child to be educated in that language; and - the right to receive public funding can only be exercised in localities where "the number of children of citizens who have such a right is sufficient to warrant the provision to them out of public funds ....".[5] Ambiguous definition of entitlement to education rights[edit] The phrase, "where numbers ... warrant" is not defined in Section 23. Education is under provincial jurisdiction, which means that it has not been possible for Parliament to enact a single nationwide definition of the term, as the 1988 Official Languages Act did for the constitutional obligation to provide federal services where “there is a sufficient demand.” As a result, disputes over the extent of the right to a publicly funded minority-language education have been the source of much litigation. The defining case was Mahe v. Alberta (1990), in which the Supreme Court of Canada declared that section 23 guaranteed a "sliding scale." In certain circumstances, the children whose parents could exercise the right might be so few that literally no minority language education may be provided by the government. With a greater number of children, some schools might be required to provide classrooms in which the children could receive minority language education. An even greater number would require the construction of new schools dedicated solely to minority language education. More recent cases, which have significantly extended these rights, include Arsenault-Cameron v. Prince Edward Island (2000) and Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education) (2003). Language of the official text of the Constitution[edit] Many of the documents in Canada's Constitution do not have an official French-language version; for official legal purposes only the English-language version is official and any French translations are unofficial. In particular, the Constitution Act, 1867 (which created Canada as a legal entity and still contains the most important provisions of governmental powers) has no official French-language version, because it was enacted by the United Kingdom Parliament, which functions in the English language exclusively. Similarly, all other parts of the Constitution that were enacted by the United Kingdom (with the important exception of the Canada Act 1982) have no official French-language version. Sections 55 – 57 of the Constitution Act, 1982 set out a framework for changing this situation. Section 55 calls for French versions of all parts of the Constitution that exist only in English to be prepared as quickly as possible. Section 56 provided that, following adoption of the French versions, both the English-language and French-language versions would be equally authoritative. To avoid the situation where an inaccurately translated French version would have a weight equal to the English original, Section 55 requires that the French-language versions be approved using the same process under which actual constitutional amendments are adopted. Pursuant to section 55, a French Constitutional Drafting Committee produced French-language versions of all the British North America Acts in the decade following 1982. However, these versions were never ratified under the Constitution’s amendment procedure, and therefore have never been officially adopted.[6] Section 57 states that the “English and French versions of this Act [ie. the Constitution Act, 1982] are equally authoritative.” The purpose of this provision is to clear up any ambiguity that might have existed about the equal status of the two versions as a result of the novel way in which this part of Canada's supreme law came into force. Had the Constitution Act, 1982 been enacted as most preceding amendments to Canada's constitution had been, as a statute of the British parliament, it would, like any other British statute, have been an English-only document. Instead, the British parliament enacted a very concise law, (the Canada Act 1982), written in English only. The operative clauses of the Canada Act, 1982 simply state that an appendix to the Act (the appendix is formally referred to as a "schedule") is to be integrated into the Canadian constitution. The schedule contains the complete text of the Constitution Act, 1982, in both English and French.[7] Federal legislation on official languages[edit] Official Languages Act[edit] Canada adopted its first Official Languages Act in 1969, in response to the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. The current Official Languages Act was adopted in 1988 to improve the 1969 law's efforts to address two basic policy objectives: (1) to specify the powers, duties and functions of federal institutions relevant to official languages; (2) to support the development of linguistic minority communities. As well, following the adoption in 1982 of the Charter of Rights, it was necessary to create a legislative framework within which the Government of Canada could respect its new constitutional obligations regarding the official languages.[8] In addition to formalizing Charter provisions in Parts I through IV, the Act adopts several specific measures to achieve these objectives.[9] For example, Part V specifies that the work environment in federal institutions in the National Capital Region and other prescribed bilingual regions be conducive to accommodating the use of French and English at work.[10] Part VI mandates that English-speaking Canadians and French-speaking Canadians not be discriminated against based on ethnic origin or first language learned when it comes to employment opportunities and advancement.[11] Finally, the Act establishes a Commissioner of Official Languages[12] and specifies his duties to hear and investigate complaints, make recommendations to Parliament, and delegate authority in matters pertaining to official languages in Canada.[13] Canada's current Commissioner of Official Languages is Graham Fraser.[14] Section 32 of the Official Languages Act authorizes the Governor in Council (i.e. the federal cabinet) to issue regulations defining the geographic regions in which services will be offered by the federal government in the relevant minority language (English in Quebec and French elsewhere).[15] This provides a legal definition for the otherwise vague requirement that services be provided in the minority official languages wherever there is "significant demand." The definition used in the regulations is complex, but basically an area of the country is served in both languages if at least 5,000 persons in that area, or 5% of the local population (whichever is smaller), belongs to that province's English or French linguistic minority population.[16] Regulations were first promulgated in 1991.[17] Foreign influence on the status of English and French in Canada[edit] Book I Chapter 1. C of the report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, published on 8 Oct 1967, acknowledges the international influence on Canadian language policy: Compared to other bilingual states-among them Finland, South Africa, and Belgium, which we shall discuss later-Canada is fortunate that her official languages both have international status… In Canada, however, one of the two language groups begins with a considerable advantage. As the national language of the United States, one of the most powerful countries of the world, English has a massive preponderance in North America. Thus the English-language group in this country draws much of its strength from the English-speaking population of our neighbour. The French-language group is, on the other hand, a minority on the North American continent and suffers from its isolation not only from France but from the other French speaking peoples of the world. Official bilingualism as it applies to indigenous peoples[edit] The introduction to Book I of the report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism published on 8 October 1967, states: “Our terms of reference contain no allusion to Canada’s native populations. They speak of 'two founding races,' namely Canadians of British and French origin, and 'other ethnic groups,' but mention neither the Indians nor the Eskimos.” Book II Chapter V. E of the same report, published on 23 May 1968, states that the government’s policy with reference to indigenous Canadians is “to integrate these students as completely as possible into the existing provincial school systems.” This last statement is reinforced by the Honourable Jean Chrétien, Minister of Indian Affairs, in Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy (the White Paper) presented in 1969 when he states that “the Indian culture can be preserved, perpetuated and developed only by the Indian people themselves.” Official bilingualism in the public service[edit] The issue of proportional hiring and promotion of speakers of both official languages has been an issue in Canadian politics since before Confederation. Members of each linguistic group have complained of injustice when their group have been represented, in public service hiring and promotion, in numbers less than would be justified by their proportion of the national population. For the greater part of Canada’s history, French-speakers were underrepresented, and English-speakers were overrepresented in the ranks of the public service, and the disproportion became more pronounced in the more senior ranks of public servants. However, this trend has reversed itself in recent decades. The first high-profile complaint of preferential hiring took place in 1834. One of the Ninety-Two Resolutions of the Lower Canadian House of Assembly drew attention to the fact that French Canadians, who at the time were 88% of the colony's population, held only 30% of the posts in the 157-member colonial civil service. Moreover, the resolution stated, French Canadians were, "for the most part, appointed to the inferior and less lucrative offices, and most frequently only obtaining even them, by becoming the dependent of those [British immigrants] who hold the higher and the more lucrative offices...."[18] With the advent of responsible government in the 1840s, the power to make civil service appointments was transferred to elected politicians, who had a strong incentive to ensure that French Canadian voters did not feel that they were being frozen out of hiring and promotions. Although no formal reform of the hiring and promotion process was ever undertaken, the patronage-driven hiring process seems to have produced a more equitable representation of the two language groups. In the period between 1867 and the turn of the Twentieth Century, French-Canadians made up about one-third of the Canadian population, and seem also to have represented about one-third of civil service appointments at junior levels, although they had only about half that much representation at the most senior level.[19] Support and opposition[edit] Poll Data[edit] Polls show that Canadians consistently and strongly support two key aspects of Canadian official languages policy:[citation needed] - bilingual federal government services, - the right of official-language minorities to receive an education in their maternal language. However, among English-speaking Canadians there is only limited support for broadening the scope of official bilingualism, and reservations exist among Anglophones as to the intrusiveness and/or fairness of the policy. Among Francophones, polls have revealed no such reservations. Strong support among both Anglophones and Francophones for bilingual government services[edit] Among Anglophones, support for providing federal French-language services to French-speakers living outside Quebec has remained consistently high over a quarter-century period—79% in 1977 and 76% in 2002.[20] Over the same period, support among English-speakers for the “right to French language education outside Quebec where numbers make costs reasonable” has ranged from 79% to 91%.[21] Among French-speaking Canadians, support for these policies was even higher. A lack of consensus on other aspects of official bilingualism[edit] The national consensus has, at times, broken down when other aspects of official bilingualism are examined. However, a significant shift in anglophone opinion has occurred since the mid-2000s, in favour of bilingualism.[22] According to a review of three decades’ worth of poll results published in 2004 by Andre Turcotte and Andrew Parkin, “Francophones in Quebec are almost unanimous in their support of the official languages policy” but “there is a much wider variation in opinion among Anglophones….”[23] This variation can be seen, for example, in responses to the question, “Are you, personally, in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada?” Between 1988 and 2003, support for this statement among Francophones ranged between 79% and 91%, but among Anglophones support was never higher than 48%, and fell as low as 32% in the early 1990s.[24] The ebb in support for bilingualism among anglophones can likely be attributed to political developments in the late 1980s and 1990s, including the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, and the 1995 referendum on Quebec independence.[22] By 2006, affirmative responses to the question "Are you personally in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada?" had increased considerably, with 72% of Canadians (and 64% of anglophones) agreeing. 70% of Canadians, and 64% of anglophones were "in favour of bilingualism for [their] province."[22] Support for bilingualism is thought likely to continue to increase, as young anglophones are more favourable to it than their elders.[22] According to Turcotte and Parkin, other poll data reveal that “in contrast to Francophones, Anglophones, in general, have resisted putting more government effort and resources into promoting bilingualism …. What is revealing, however, is that only 11% of those outside Quebec said they disagreed with bilingualism in any form. Opposition seems to be directed to the actions of the federal government, rather than to bilingualism itself …. [T]his distinction is key to understanding public opinion on the issue.”[25] This helps to explain results that would otherwise seem contradictory, such as a 1994 poll in which 56% of Canadians outside Quebec indicated that they either strongly or moderately supported official bilingualism, but 50% agreed with a statement that "the current official bilingualism policy should be scrapped because it's expensive and inefficient."[26] In English Canada, there is some regional variation in attitudes towards federal bilingualism policy, but it is relatively modest when compared to the divergence between the views expressed by Quebecers and those expressed in the rest of the country. For example, in a poll conducted in 2000, only 22% of Quebecers agreed with the statement, “We have gone too far in pushing bilingualism,” while positive response rates in English Canada ranged from a low of 50% in the Atlantic to a high of 65% in the Prairies.[27] Generally positive attitudes towards personal bilingualism[edit] Both French-speaking and English-speaking Canadians tend to regard the capacity to speak the other official language as having cultural and economic value,[28] and both groups have indicated that they regard bilingualism as an integral element of the Canadian national identity. Once again, however, there is a marked divergence between the responses of French-speaking and English-speaking Canadians. In a 2003 poll, 75% of Francophones indicated that “having two official languages, English and French”, made them proud to be Canadian. Among English-speakers, 55% said that bilingualism made them proud, but far higher percentages (86% and 94%, respectively) indicated that multiculturalism and the Charter of Rights made them feel proud.[29] Findings of Public Hearings[edit] From time to time, boards or panels are commissioned, either by the federal government or the government of one of the provinces, to conduct hearings into the public’s views on matters of policy. Some of these hearings have dealt largely, or even primarily, with official languages policy, and the responses that they have collected provide snapshots into the state of public opinion at particular points in time. Findings of the public hearings into the Poirier-Bastarache Report (1985)[edit] The Advisory Committee on the Official Languages of New Brunswick was commissioned by the provincial legislature as a way of determining the response of the population to the 1982 Poirier-Bastarache Report, which had recommended a considerable expansion of French-language services.[30] Public hearings were conducted in twelve cities and towns across the province in 1985, and a report was submitted by the committee in 1986.[31] The briefs submitted to the Advisory Committee were subsequently summarized in an academic study of the hearings in the following terms: Findings of the Spicer Commission (1990)[edit] In late 1990, a six-man Citizens’ Forum on Canada’s Future was established by the federal government with a mandate to engage in "a dialogue and discussion with and among Canadians ... to discuss the values and characteristics fundamental to the well-being of Canada." The Forum, which was headed by former Commissioner of Official Languages Keith Spicer, published a report in June 1991, which included a detailed discussion of Canadians’ reactions to a variety of issues, including federal official languages policy. These comments, which probably represent the most extensive consultation ever with Canadians on the subject of official bilingualism, were compiled statistically by the Spicer Commission, and tend to reinforce the findings of pollsters, that Canadians are favourable towards bilingual services, but frustrated with the implementation of official languages policy. Thus, for example, nearly 80% of group discussions sponsored by the Commission produced favourable comments from participants on what the Commission’s report refers to as “bilingualism generally,” but nearly 80% of these discussions produced negative comments on “official languages policy.”[33] These results prompted Spicer to write, Advocacy Groups[edit] Advocacy in support of expanding / extending official bilingualism exclusively of other language communities[edit] A number of groups exist, which, as part of their mandate, seek to promote official bilingualism or to extend the scope of the policy (although advocacy is not always the sole, or even the primary activity, of the groups). Among these groups: - Alliance Quebec (defunct) - L'Association des municipalités francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick - Canadian Parents for French, established with the assistance of the Commissioner of Official Languages in 1977, promotes French second-language education for children whose mother tongue is English; - Commission nationale des parents francophones - Fédération des communautés francophones et acadienne du Canada serves as an umbrella for 22 groups representing French-speaking minorities in different provinces and territories; - Fédération des jeunes francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick - Fédération nationale des conseils scolaires francophones - Francophone Association of Municipalities of Ontario seeks to oversee the maintenance and development of municipal government services in French, in Ontario municipalities with French-speaking populations. - Impératif français seeks to promote the use of French within Quebec, and to challenge inequalities between the languages that may arise within areas of federal administration. - Quebec Community Groups Network serves as an umbrella for 38 English language community organizations across Quebec for the purposes of supporting and assisting the development and enhancing the vitality of the English-speaking minority communities; - Société des Acadiens et Acadiennes du Nouveau-Brunswick Advocacy in favour of restraining or abolishing official bilingualism[edit] A number of groups have existed, since the first Official Languages Act was proclaimed in 1969, which sought to end official bilingualism or to reduce the scope of the policy. Among these groups: - The Alliance for the Preservation of English in Canada (often referred to as "APEC"). In 2000, the group was renamed Canadians Against Bilingualism Injustice.[35] In 2001, the organization changed its name again, becoming the Canadian Network for Language Awareness.;[36] - Canadians for Language Fairness; - The New Brunswick Association of English-speaking Canadians was formed in 1984 and disbanded in 1986. Its primary purpose was to oppose the proposals of the province's "Poirier-Bastarache Committee" for an expansion of the province's policy of official bilingualism. In the first decade or so following the 1969 adoption of the Act, opposition to the new policy sometimes took a radical form that has subsequently nearly disappeared. Books such as Jock V. Andrew's Bilingual Today, French Tomorrow, advocated either the repeal of the Official Languages Act or an end to the policy of official bilingualism. Leonard Jones, the mayor of Moncton, New Brunswick, was an aggressive opponent of bilingualism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Jones challenged the validity of the Official Languages Act in court, arguing that the subject matter was outside the jurisdiction of the federal government. In 1974, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled against Jones, and found the law to be constitutional. In 1991, a local resurgence in anti-bilingualism sentiments allowed the Confederation of Regions Party to win 21.2% of the vote in New Brunswick's provincial election and to briefly form the official opposition with eight seats in the provincial legislature. Some organizations or individuals within certain movements also propose introducing a more inclusive language policy either via official multilingualism, or an official unilingual language policy in an auxiliary language so as to intrude minimally into the first-language choice of residents. Such ideas are sometimes inspired by Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights relating to discrimination on the basis of language, and Article 26(3) of the same Declaration so as to give parents the freedom “to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.” Others can be inspired by religious or other beliefs. Assembly of First Nations: National First Nations Language Strategy, presented by the Assembly of First Nations on 5 July 2007, inspired by previous statements including the report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples presented in 1996, rejects official bilingualism in favour of linguistic equality for speakers of indigenous languages: “First Nations seek legislated protection via a First Nations Languages Act that would be consistent with First Nations and Government of Canada laws dealing with languages.” Positions of the federal political parties[edit] Language issues currently dividing the parties[edit] The issues on which Canada’s political parties have most recently shown divergent voting patterns are two private members’ bills. The first, An Act to amend the Official Languages Act (Charter of the French Language) (Bill C-482), was introduced by Bloc MP Pauline Picard. If adopted, it would have had the effect of amending the Official Languages Act, the Canada Labour Code, and the Canada Business Corporations Act, to cause them to conform to the Charter of the French Language, “effectively making the federal government French-only in the province,” according to Maclean’s.[37] This bill was defeated on May 2008, with Bloc and NDP MPs voting in favour and Conservative and Liberal MPs opposed.[38] The second private member’s bill is NDP MP Yvon Godin’s Act to amend the Supreme Court Act (understanding the official languages) (Bill C-232). If adopted, this bill will have the effect of blocking any candidate who is not already sufficiently bilingual to understand oral arguments in both official languages from being appointed to the Supreme Court. This bill was passed at third reading on March 31, with all NDP, Liberal and Bloc members in support and all Conservative MPs opposed.[39] and is currently before the Senate. Conservative Party of Canada and its predecessors[edit] The Conservative Party of Canada was created in 2003 by the merger of the old Progressive Conservative Party of Canada and the Canadian Alliance. The new party adopted the principles of the old Progressive Conservatives as its founding principles, with only a handful of changes. One of these was the addition of the following founding principle, which is lifted almost verbatim from Section 16(1) of the Charter of Rights: “A belief that English and French have equality of status, and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada.” At its founding convention in 2005, the new party added the following policy to its Policy Declaration (the official compilation of the policies that it had adopted at the convention): - “The Conservative Party believes that Canada’s official languages constitute a unique and significant social and economic advantage that benefit all Canadians. - "i) A Conservative Government will support the Official Languages Act ensuring that English and French have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada. - "ii) The Conservative Party will work with the provinces and territories to enhance opportunities for Canadians to learn both official languages."[40] Prior to this, in the 1980s and 1990s, the Reform Party of Canada had advocated the policy's repeal. However, the party's position moderated with time. By 1999, the Blue Book (the party's declaration of its then-current policies) stated that "The Reform Party supports official bilingualism in key federal institutions, such as Parliament and the Supreme Court, and in critical federal services in parts of the country where need is sufficient to warrant services on a cost-effective basis."[41] By 2002, the policy declaration of the Reform Party's political successor, the Canadian Alliance, had been moderated further, and stated that it was "the federal government's responsibility to uphold minority rights" by providing services in both languages in any "rural township or city neighbourhood where at least ten percent of the local population uses either English or French in its daily life."[42] Liberal Party of Canada[edit] The Liberal Party sees itself as the party of official bilingualism, as it was a Liberal prime minister, Pierre Trudeau, who enacted the first Official Languages Act in 1969 and who entrenched detailed protections for the two official languages in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982. The depth of the party’s commitment to official bilingualism is demonstrated by the fact that the constitution of the Liberal Party contains provisions modeled almost word-for-word on Section 16(1) of the Charter of Rights: "English and French are the official languages of the Party and have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all federal institutions of the Party. In pursuing its fundamental purposes and in all its activities, the Party must preserve and promote the status, rights and privileges of English and French."[43] New Democratic Party[edit] New Democrat MPs voted in favour of the 1969 Official Languages Act, the 1988 Official Languages Act, and the protections for the two official languages contained in the Charter of Rights. More recently, the party has edged towards supporting an asymmetrical version of bilingualism. Early in 2008, the party’s languages critic, Yvon Godin, stated that its MPs would vote in favour of a bill, sponsored by the Bloc Québécois, which would cause federal institutions to operate on a French-preferred or French-only basis in Quebec.[44] Bloc Québécois[edit] Although the main objective of the Bloc Québécois is to assist in the secession of Quebec, the party’s parliamentary caucus has maintained an active interest in issues relating to official languages policy (for example, sending MPs to participate in the standing Commons committee on official languages). The party seeks to alter federal language policy, as it applies within Quebec, so as to eliminate the statutory equality of English that is guaranteed under the Official Languages Act and other federal legislation. In recent years, this has included introducing a private member's bill (An Act to amend the Official Languages Act (Charter of the French Language) (better known as Bill C-482), intended to cause the Official Languages Act to be superseded by the Charter of the French Language for all federally regulated corporations within Quebec. Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories[edit] Canada's thirteen provinces and territories have adopted widely diverging policies with regard to minority-language services for their respective linguistic minorities. Given the wide range of services, such as policing, health care and education, that fall under provincial jurisdiction, these divergences have considerable importance. New Brunswick[edit] Of Canada's ten provinces, only one (New Brunswick) has voluntarily chosen to become officially bilingual. New Brunswick's bilingual status is constitutionally entrenched under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Sections 16 - 20 of the Charter include parallel sections guaranteeing the same rights at the federal level and at the provincial level (New Brunswick only). - Section 16(2) is a largely symbolic statement that "English and French are the official languages of New Brunswick" with "equality of status"; - Section 17(2) guarantees the right to use English or French in the New Brunswick legislature; - Section 18(2) states that New Brunswick's laws will be bilingual, with both texts being equally authoritative, and that official publications will be bilingual; - Section 19(2) guarantees the right to use either official language in all New Brunswick court proceedings; - Section 20(2) guarantees the right to receive provincial government services in either official language. Quebec[edit] French has been the only official language in Quebec since 1974, when the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa enacted the The Official Language Act (better-known as "Bill 22"). However, the province's language law does provide for limited services in English. As well, the province is obliged, under Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867, to allow the provincial legislature to operate in both French and English, and to allow all Quebec courts to operate in both languages. Section 23 of the Charter applies to Quebec, but to a more limited degree than in other provinces; Quebec is required to provide an education in English to all children whose Canadian citizen parents were educated in English in Canada, while all other provinces are required to provide an education in French to the children of Canadian citizen parents who either received their education in French in Canada or have French mother tongue. In 1977, the Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language (better known as "Bill 101") to promote and preserve the French language in the province, indirectly disputing the federal bilingualism policy. Initially, Bill 101 banned the use of all languages but French on most commercial signs in the province (except for companies with four employees or fewer), but those limitations were later loosened by allowing other languages on signs, as long as the French version is predominant. Bill 101 also requires that children of most immigrants residing in Quebec attend French-language public schools; the children of Canadian citizens who have received their education in Canada in English may attend English-language public schools, which are operated by English-language school boards throughout the province. The controversy over this part of Quebec's language legislation has lessened in recent years as these laws became more entrenched and the public use of French increased.[45] Quebec's language laws have been the subject of a number of legal rulings. In 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the case of Ford v. Quebec (A.G.) that the commercial sign law provisions of Bill 101, which banned the use of the English language on outdoor signs, were unconstitutional. In 1989, the Quebec National Assembly invoked the "Notwithstanding Clause" of the Charter of Rights to set aside enforcement of the court ruling for five years. A UN appeal of the 'McIntyre Case' resulted in a condemnation of Quebec's sign law — regardless of the legality of the notwithstanding clause under Canadian law. In response, in 1993 Quebec enacted amendments to the sign law, availing itself of the suggestions proposed in the losing 1988 Supreme Court ruling by allowing other languages on commercial signs, subject to French being markedly predominant . On March 31, 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unanimously that the interpretation made by the provincial administration of the "major part" criterion in Quebec's language of instruction provisions violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This criterion allows students who have completed the "major part" of their primary education in English in Canada to continue their studies in English in Quebec. The Court did not strike down the law but, as it had done in its 1988 ruling on sign laws, presented the province with a set of criteria for interpreting the law in conformity with the Charter of Rights, broadening the interpretation of the phrase "major part." Elsewhere in Canada[edit] Although no Canadian province has officially adopted English as its sole official language, English is the de facto language of government services and internal government operations in Canada's eight remaining provinces. Service levels in French vary greatly from one province to another (and sometimes within different parts of the same province). For example, under the terms of Ontario's 1986 French Language Services Act, Francophones in 25 designated areas across the province—but not in other parts of the province—are guaranteed access to provincial government services in French. Similarly, since 2005, the City of Ottawa has been officially required under Ontario law (City of Ottawa Act) to set a municipal policy on English and French. In Alberta, the Alberta School Act protects the right of French speaking people to receive school instruction in the French language in the province. In Manitoba, the French Language Services Policy guarantees access to provincial government services in French, and various kinds of French-language education is provided,[citation needed] despite the overwhelming rejection of these policies in referendums across the province in 1983.[46] These services were the result of a compromise after the Federal courts overturned the province's over 70-year history of recognition of only the English language in cases like Reference re Manitoba Language Rights.[47] A case brought by the Societe Franco-Manitobaine threatened to overturn every single law passed since 1890.[48] French and English are official languages in the Yukon. In addition to English and French, Inuktitut is also an official language in Nunavut. In addition to English and French, the Northwest Territories accords official status to nine aboriginal languages (Chipewyan, Cree, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłįchǫ or Dogrib). NWT residents have the right to use any of the territory's eleven official languages in a territorial court and in debates and proceedings of the legislature. However, laws are legally binding only in their French and English versions, and the government only publishes laws and other documents in the territory's other official languages when asked by the legislature. Furthermore, access to services in any language is limited to institutions and circumstances where there is significant demand for that language or where it is reasonable to expect it given the nature of the services requested. In practice, this means that only English language services are universally available and there is no guarantee that other languages will be used by any particular government service except for the courts. Following a 2006 court ruling,[49] universal French-language services are also mandatory. Personal bilingualism in Canada[edit] Official bilingualism should not be confused with personal bilingualism, which is the capacity of a person to speak two languages. This distinction was articulated in the 1967 report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which stated: Nonetheless, the promotion of personal bilingualism in English and French is an important objective of official bilingualism in Canada. At least 35% of Canadians speak more than one language. Moreover, fewer than 2% of Canadians cannot speak at least one of the two official languages.[51] However, of these multilingual Canadians, somewhat less than one fifth of the population (5,448,850 persons, or 17.4% of the Canadian population) are able to speak both of the official languages.[52] However, in Canada the terms "bilingual" and "unilingual" are normally used to refer to bilingualism in English and French. In this sense, nearly 83% of Canadians are "unilingual". Knowledge of the two official languages is largely determined by geography. Nearly 95% of Quebecers can speak French, but only 40.6% speak English. In the rest of the country, 97.6% of the population is capable of speaking English, but only 7.5% can speak French.[53] Personal bilingualism is most concentrated in southern Quebec and a swath of territory sometimes referred to as the “bilingual belt”, which stretches east from Quebec through northern and eastern New Brunswick and west through Ottawa and that part of Ontario lying to the east of Ottawa, as well as north-eastern Ontario. There is also a large French speaking population in Manitoba (Metis). In all, 55% of bilingual Canadians are Quebecers,[54] and a high percentage of the bilingual population in the rest of Canada resides in Ontario and New Brunswick. Second-language education[edit] Canada’s thirteen provincial and territorial education systems place a high priority on boosting the number of bilingual high school graduates. For example, in 2008 New Brunswick's provincial government reconfirmed its goal of boosting the percentage of bilingualism among graduates from its current rate of 34% to 70% rate by 2012.[55] In 2003, the federal government announced a ten-year plan of subsidies to provincial education ministries with the goal of boosting bilingualism among all Canadian graduates from its then-current level of 24% to 50% by 2013.[56] French second-language education (FSL)[edit] Three methods of providing French second language education (known as “FSL”) exist side-by-side in each of the provinces (including Quebec, where extensive French-language education opportunities are available for the province’s large population of non-Francophone children): - Core French - French Immersion - Extended French - Intensive French Core French[edit] Non-Francophone students learn French by taking courses on the French language as part of an education which is otherwise conducted in English. In Quebec and New Brunswick, French classes begin in Grade 1. In the other provinces, French classes typically start in Grade 4 or 5. Students normally receive about 600 hours of French-language classes by the time of graduation.[57] The goal of “Core French” programs is not to produce fully bilingual graduates, but rather “...to provide students with the ability to communicate adequately in the second language, and to provide students with linguistic tools to continue their second-language studies by building on a solid communicative base.”[58] One result of this is that levels of comprehension are often lower than those which parents would probably prefer. A scholar who interviewed a former New Brunswick premier, as well as the province’s deputy ministers of education and health and the chairman of its Board of Management and Official Languages Branch reports: “[A]ll expressed reservations about the effectiveness of the Core program in promoting individual bilingualism and believed the program must be improved if anglophone students are to obtain a level of proficiency in the French language.”[59] French immersion[edit] Non-Francophone students with no previous French-language training learn French by being taught all subjects in the French language, rather than by taking courses on the French language as part of an education which is otherwise conducted in English.[60] In “early immersion”, students are placed in French-language classes starting in kindergarten or Grade 1. In “late immersion”, the children are placed in French-language classes in a later grade. Currently, 7% of eligible students outside of Quebec are enrolled in French immersion programs.[61] Extended French Program[edit] Some schools in Ontario offer a third method of FSL education: the Extended French program. Students enter into this program as early as Grade 4—the starting grade is set by each region's school board—and may continue the program through to graduation.[62] The program can also be entered when beginning secondary school; however, as there is a prerequisite number of previous instruction hours, usually only students previously enrolled in the Extended French or French Immersion programs can enter. In this program, at least 25% of all instruction must be in French. From Grades 4 through 8, this means that at least one course per year other than "French as a Second Language" must be taught solely in French. From Grades 9 through 12, along with taking the Extended French language course every year, students must complete their mandatory Grade 9 Geography and Grade 10 Canadian History credits in French. Students who complete these required courses and take one extra credit taught in French receive a certificate upon graduation in addition to their diploma. Intensive French[edit] Intensive French is a a method of FSL education that originated in Newfoundland. In 2004, Intensive French began in some schools in British Columbia. Intensive French is a choice program (in offering schools) during the grade 6 year. For the first five months of the school year students spend 80% of their time learning French, with the other 20% being for math. The rest of the core curriculum (Social Studies, Science, and Language Arts in English) is condensed for the second half of the year, comprising 80% of the time, with one hour for French. In the grade 7 year students continue to have one hour of core French per day. This results in 600 hours of French instruction over the two years.[63] English second-language education (ESL)[edit] New Brunswick, being an officially bilingual province, has both anglophone and francophone school districts. - The francophone districts have Core English programs teaching ESL.[64] Quebec’s educations system provides ESL on a more restricted basis to the children of immigrants and to students who are members of the province's Francophone majority. - Core English: Most non-anglophone students are required to enroll in French-language schools. English is taught to all students, starting in Grade 1, in a program that is essentially identical to the “Core French" taught to English-speaking students in the other provinces. - Programs of English immersion have existed for French-speaking students in Quebec but these programs are often in conflict with the official language policies of the Quebec government.[65] See also[edit] - Attorney General of Quebec v. Blaikie - Bilingualism in Hong Kong - Charlebois v. Saint John (City) - Language demographics of Quebec - Bilingualism in Ottawa - Official bilingualism in the public service of Canada - Official Languages Act (Canada) Beaulac - Reference re Manitoba Language Rights - Société des Acadiens v. Association of Parents - Spanish language in the United States - similar issue in the United States - Languages of Canada - Timeline of official languages policy in Canada - Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories Notes[edit] - ^ "Subsection 16(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982". (See Section Sixteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.) - ^ "Official Languages Act - 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.)". Act current to July 11th, 2010. Department of Justice. "The purpose of this Act is to (a) ensure respect for English and French as the official languages of Canada and ensure equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all federal institutions, in particular with respect to their use in parliamentary proceedings, in legislative and other instruments, in the administration of justice, in communicating with or providing services to the public and in carrying out the work of federal institutions; (b) support the development of English and French linguistic minority communities and generally advance the equality of status and use of the English and French languages within Canadian society; and (c) set out the powers, duties and functions of federal institutions with respect to the official languages of Canada." - ^ "Canadian charter of rights and freedoms: Official Languages of Canada". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Canadian charter of rights and freedoms: Minority Language Educational Rights". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Introduction". Final Report of the French Constitutional Drafting Committee. Archived from the original on 2005-08-25. - ^ Schedule 'A' of the Canada Act is a French version of the operative clauses of the Canada Act. Schedule 'B' contains the text of the Constitution Act, 1982, in both English and French. - ^ "Official Languages Act". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - ^ "Official Languages Act Annotated version - Explanatory notes". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - ^ "Official Languages Act - Part V - Language of Work". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Official Languages Act - Part VI - Participation of English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Welcome to the Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages!". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - ^ "Official Languages Act - Part VIII - Commissioner of Official Languages". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Graham Fraser Appointed Sixth Commissioner of Official Languages". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - ^ "Definition of English or French Linguistic Minority". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Calculation of Population Numbers". Department of Justice Canada. - ^ "Official Languages Regulations". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - ^ Resolution 75. Resolved, That the number of the Inhabitants of the country being about 600,000, those of French origin are about 525,000, and those of British or other origin 75,000; and that the establishment of the civil government of Lower Canada, for the year 1832, accordingly to the yearly returns made by the Provincial Administration, for the information of the British Parliament, contained the names of 157 officers and others receiving salaries, who are apparently of British or foreign origin and the names of 47 who are, apparently, natives of the country, of French origin; that this statement does not exhibit the whole disproportion which exists in the distribution of the public money and power, the latter class being, for the most part, appointed to the inferior and less lucrative offices, and most frequently only obtaining even them, by becoming the dependent of those who hold the higher and the more lucrative offices; that the accumulation of many of the best paid and most influential, and at the same time incompatible, offices in the same person, which is forbidden by the laws and by sound policy, exists especially for the benefit of the former class; and that two-thirds of the persons included in the last commission of the peace issued in the province, are apparently of British or foreign origin, and one-third only of French origin. - ^ Eugene Forsey writes: “In the Dominion Civil Service, Côté’s ‘’Political Appointments’’, 1867-1895, shows that, over that period, eliminating duplications, the French Canadians had rather over a third of the official of the House and of the two Dominion Courts; rather less than a third of other officials of the rank of Deputy Minister and, of the officials from Chief Clerk up to Deputy Minister rather less than one-seventh.” Source—Eugene Forsey, ‘’Freedom and Order: Collected Essays.’’ Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1974, p. 243. - ^ Andrew Parkin and Andre Turcotte, Bilingualism: Part of Our Past or Part of Our Future?. CRIC Paper #13. Ottawa: Centre for Research and Information on Canada. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 9. This is the wording used in the 2002 poll. In the 1977 poll, respondents were asked whether they supported “the provinces providing opportunities and facilities for education in French wherever practicable.” - ^ a b c d "OCOL - 1. General Support for Bilingualism". - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 2. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 8. A parallel question, “Are you in favour of bilingualism for your province?”, also received a much more favourable response from Francophone respondents (most of whom were located in Quebec) than from Anglophone respondents, indicating that Francophones were consistently more supportive than Anglophones of a fully bilingual Quebec within a fully bilingual Canada, whereas Anglophones were consistently more supportive than Francophones of a unilingual French Quebec within a Canada where the other provinces are for the most part unilingual English. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 10. The specific reference is to a 1977 poll in which 54% of non-Quebecers but only 34% of Quebecers identified with the statement, “I generally agree with or support the principle of bilingualism but I disagree with the form bilingualism has taken under the present federal government.” - ^ Angus Reid Group, "The National Angus Reid/Southam News Poll: Canadians' Views on Official Bilingualism." Release date: April 29, 1994. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 11. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, pp. 20-21. - ^ Parkin and Turcotte, p. 13. - ^ New Brunswick. Official Languages Branch (Bernard Poirier and Michel Bastarache). Towards Equality of Official Languages in New Brunswick. - ^ New Brunswick (Irene Grant-Guerette and Lloyd B. Smith). Report of the Advisory Committee on Official Languages of New Brunswick. - ^ Catherine Steele, ‘’Can Bilingualism Work? Attitudes Towards Language Policy in New Brunswick: The 1985 Public Hearings on the Poirier-Bastarache Report.’’ Fredericton: New Ireland Press, 1990, p. 89. - ^ Citizens' Forum on Canada's Future, Report to the People and Government of Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services, 1991, p. 161. - ^ Citizens' Forum on Canada's Future, Report, pp. 125-126. - ^ "Alliance for the Preservation of English in Canada: Change of name and relocation of head office". Canada Gazette. - ^ "Supplementary letters patent (name change)". Canada Gazette Part I, p. 3872. - ^ Martin Patriquin, “Are you still here?” Maclean’s, February 25, 2008, p. 23. - ^ For the second reading vote result see: http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx? - ^ For the third reading vote result, see: http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx? Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=40&Ses=3&DocId=4402489&File=0#Div-20 - ^ Conservative Party of Canada Policy Declaration, March 2005, p. 32 (Policy #91). - ^ The 'Blue Book': Principles and Policy of the Reform Party of Canada - 1999, p. 40. - ^ Canadian Alliance Declaration of Policy, April 2002, pp. 12-13. - ^ Liberal Party of Canada, “Constitution”, as adopted and amended at the biennial convention, November 30-December 1, 2006, Section 2(3). - ^ Yvon Godin, “Commons Debates” (Hansard), February 6, 2008, p. 2691.) - ^ The Language Laws of Quebec Claude Bélanger, Marianopolis College - ^ "Hatfield says plebiscite outcome represents threat to Canada". The Leader-Post (Fredericton). 31 October 1983. - ^ http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=11392 - ^ http://www.revparl.ca/english/issue.asp?param=107&art=570 - ^ Fédération Franco-Ténoise v. Canada (Attorney General) [2006] N.W.T.S.C. 20. - ^ Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Book I (General Introduction), Ottawa: Queen's Printer, p. xxviii, at paragraph 29. - ^ Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship. Ottawa, 2007, p. 6, line 108. In 2006, Canada’s population was 31,241,030. Of this, 520,385 Canadians, or 1.7%, did not speak either official language. - ^ Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship. Statistics Canada collects data on mother tongue, on “first official language spoken,” and on bilingualism in French and English. However, the agency does not collect data on bilingualism in non-official languages (either persons who speak more than one non-official language, or who have an official language as their mother tongue and afterwards learn a non-official language). Thus, it is possible only to determine that 6,147,840 Canadians have a non-official language as their mother tongue (see p. 2, line 5), and that 520,385 Canadians do not speak either official language (see p. 6, line 108). Since all persons who speak neither official language must have a non-official language as their mother tongue, simple subtraction shows that 5,627,455 Canadians, or 18.0% of the population, are bilingual in a non-official language plus an official language. - ^ Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship. - ^ Statistics Canada, Population by knowledge of official language, by province or territory (2006 Census), http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo15-eng.htm. The 2006 census shows that 3017,860 Quebecers are bilingual, out of a total of 5,448,850 bilingual Canadians. - ^ See Jesse Robichaud, "Keep parents involved in language education: Lord," in the Moncton Times and Transcript, February 21, 2008, and Daniel McHardie, "Language battle: Education Minister will seek public input before responding to French Second Language Review," in New Brunswick Telegraph-Journal, February 28, 2008, p. - ^ Canada, Privy Council Office, "The Next Act: New Momentum for Canada's Linguistic Duality—The Action Plan for Official Languages." - ^ What is core french? - ^ New Brunswick Department of Education, Policy Statement on Immersion and the Core Program. Fredericton, 1983, p. xii. - ^ Catherine Steele, Can Bilingualism Work? Attitudes Toward Language Policy in New Brunswick: The 1985 Public Hearings into the Poirier-Bastarache Report. Fredericton: New Ireland Press, 1990, p. 26. - ^ French Immersion in Canada: Frequently Asked Questions - ^ Official Languages: Annual Report 2007-2008, Volume 1, Official Language Support Programs." Canadian Heritage, cat. - ^ Provincial Curriculum Guides The Canadian Association of Second Language Teachers: French as a Second Language Program Support Materials - ^ http://www.mmecarr.ca/IFinBC.html - ^ http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/mackay/appendixl.pdf - ^ Adieu anglais Montreal Mirror External links[edit] - English-language text of the federal Official Languages Act - Maple Leaf Web - Official Bilingualism in Canada: History and Debates - The Charter of the French language Government of Quebec - Language laws in Quebec CBC News - Gagnon, Robert (1996). Anglophones at the C.E.C.M.: a Reflection of the Linguistic Duality of Montréal. Trans. by Peter Keating. Montréal: Commission des écoles catholiques de Montréal. with b&w photos.