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Йохан Волфганг фон Гьоте Йохан Волфганг фон Гьоте (на немски: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, * 28 август 1749 г. във Франкфурт на Майн, † 22 март 1832 във Ваймар), благородник от 1782 г., е немски писател, поет, драматург, хуманист, учен, философ и политик. В продължение на десет години той е държавен министър във Ваймар. Гьоте е една от основните фигури на немската литература и европейския неокласицизъм и романтизъм в края на XVIII и началото на XIX век. Автор на Фауст и Теория на цветовете, той вдъхновява Чарлз Дарвин със своите антропологични изследвания и интереса си към еволюцията. Влиянието на Гьоте се разпростира в цяла Европа и през следващото столетие произведенията му оказват значително въздействие върху музиката, драматургията и поезията на континента. Съдържание Биография[редактиране | edit source] Йохан Волфганг Гьоте е роден на 28 август 1749 г. във Франкфурт на Майн, тогава част от Свещената римска империя. Баща му Йохан Гаспар Гьоте (1710–1782) е юрисконсулт с титла имперски съветник. Той не упражнява професията си, а живее от доходите на своето богатство, което по-късно също дава възможност на син му да живее без финансови затруднения. Майката на Гьоте, Катарина Елизабет Гьоте, по баща Текстор (1731–1808), произлиза от заможна и знатна фамилия от Франкфурт; нейният баща е юридидически чиновник (Scultetus) с най-високия ранг в града. След Йохан Волфганг се раждат още пет други деца, от които оцелява само с 15 месеца по-малката му сестра Корнелия (1750-1777), с която братът е в много близки отношения. Йохан Волфганг посещава обществено училище. След това заедно със сестра си е обучаван от своя баща и от домашни учители. Баща му лично се грижи за началното образование на сина си, обучавайки го по музика, живопис и чужди езици: френски, английски, италиански, латински, гръцки, също естествени науки, религия и рисуване. Освен това Йохан Волфганг учи да свири на чело, яздене, фехтовка и танци. За Коледа 1753 г. той получава от баба си подарък куклен театър. Необходимите за тази сцена театрални пиеси той научавал наизуст и заедно с приятелите си давал представления. Малкият Гьоте показва талант за литературна фантазия като малък, като измислял приказки. В дома на Гьоте се четяло много; баща му имал библиотека от около 2000 тома. През Седемгодишната война един френски офицер е на квартира в къщата на родителите му от 1759 до 1761 г. и Гьоте за пръв път се запознава с френската драматургична литература. Гьоте, по желание на баща си, през есента 1765 г. започва да следва право в университета в Лайпциг (1765-1768), където преживява първото си любовно разочарование с Ана Катарина Шьонкопф, занаятчийска дъщеря. Те се разделят след две години. Юридическите науки не му допадат особено и той предпочита да посещава редовно театър, да взима уроци по рисуване, прави и първи поетически опити. Стиховете, които пише в Лайпциг (книгата Анете (1767)) с 19 стихотворения, са в духа на модерната тогава галантна поезия в стил рококо. През 1769 г. той издава първата си стихосбирка под заглавието Нови песни. През юли 1768 г. Гьоте се разболява (вероятно от туберколоза). Така и не успява да завърши следването си и през август се завръща болен в родния си град. След двегодишно лечение от меланхолия и опити за самоубийство (от тях се освобождава едва чрез романа си Страданията на младия Вертер) Гьоте продължава през април 1770 г. юридическото си следване в университет Щрасбург (днес Страсбург), където отново се влюбва трагично във Фридерике Брион и се сближава с писателите от литературното направление Бурни устреми. Под влияние на свои приятели медици посещава лекции по медицина и естествени науки. Запознава се с Йохан Готфид Хердер и възприема неговия възглед за поезията, че тя е не привилегия за избраници, а плод на народния дух. През лятото 1771 г. Гьоте предава своята юридическа дисертация De legislatoribus, която не е приета заради изречение против църквата [1], което днес не е запазено. Гьоте получава на 6 август 1771 г. научната степен лиценциат и се връща във Франкфурт, където отваря малка адвокатска кантора, която от липса на интерес напуска след четири години и отива в град Вецлар като практикант в съда. Там преживява мъчителна любов с Шарлоте Буф, годеницата на юриста Йохан Христиан Кестнер, и пак се завръща в родния Франкфурт, където става адвокат, но посвещава времето си главно на литературата. Отново се влюбва и дори се сгодява на Великден 1775 г. за красивата франкфуртска банкерска дъщеря Ана Елизабет Шьонеман. Той заминава за няколко месеца на пътуване през Швейцария по покана на братята графовете Христиан и Фридрих Леополд цу Щолберг-Щолберг. През октомври годежът е разтрогнат и Гьоте много страда от раздялата. Бурни устреми[редактиране | edit source] Идеите на движението Бурни устреми оказват голямо влияние върху ранното творчество на Гьоте. Основни теми в него са силната личност, геният, висшият човек. Сред най-известните му произведения от този период са одата Прометей (1774), първоначалният вариант на Фауст - Прафауст (1773), първата немска историческа драма Гьоц фон Берлихинген с желязната ръка (създадена през 1771 г. и публикувана през 1773 г.) и сантименталният роман Страданията на младия Вертер (1774). Ранното творчество на Гьоте вдъхновява следващото поколение немски поети романтици - Новалис, Хайне, Николаус Ленау и др. Славата на Йохан Волфганг фон Гьоте като поет се разнася бързо из Германия и Европа. В дома му се стичат множество почитатели, сред които е и 18-годишният престолонаследник на херцогство Саксония-Ваймар-Айзенах Карл Аугуст. Веднага щом наследява престола, той кани Гьоте да живее във Ваймар. Ваймар[редактиране | edit source] През ноември 1775 г. Гьоте пристига във Ваймар, столицата на херцогство Саксония-Вайимар-Айзенах. Поетът постъпва на служба към княжеския двор и там се увлича по красивата, но студена придворна дама баронеса Шарлоте фон Щайн. Гьоте получава званието действителен таен съветник и място в Държавния съвет, а после е назначен за първи министър и получава благородническа титла (1782). Ентусиазирано се заема с организирането на културния живот на Ваймар. Привлича да работят там Йохан Готфид Хердер и Фридрих Шилер, с когото го свързва тясно приятелство и то трае повече от десетилетие, като оказва плодотворно въздействие и върху двамата. През този период Гьоте пише някои от най-хубавите си балади - Рибарят, Горски цар, Певецът, но като цяло огромната натовареност не му позволява пълноценни творчески занимания. Някои го определят като „затихваща знаменитост“. Вероятно самият той се е чувствал неудовлетворен, тъй като през септември 1786 г. тайно напуска Ваймар и за две години се установява в Италия. Той информира само херцога и своя слуга Филип Зайдел и пътува под псевдоним. Тайното му заминаване без определена цел е част от стратегията да напусне всичките си служби, но да му се плаща.[2] След междинни престои във Верона, Виченца и Венеция Гьоте пристига през ноември в Рим. Там той остава, с четиримесечен престой в Неапол и Сицилия, до края на април 1788 г. След междинен престой между другото в Сиена, Флоренция, Парма и Милано той се завръща два месеца по-късно във Ваймар. В Рим Гьоте живее при немския художник Вилхелм Тишбайн и общува с другите членове на колонията на немските художници в Рим, между тях Анжелика Кауфман, Филип Хакерт, Фридрих Бури и швейцареца Йохан Хайнрих Майер, който по-късно го последва до Ваймар и там между другото става негов съветник по изкуството. Той е приятел също и с писателя Карл Филип Мориц. Античност[редактиране | edit source] Съприкосновението с хармоничната антична култура оказва огромно положително влияние върху Гьоте. Особено е възхитен от Рафаело и архитекта Андреа Паладио. Под ръководството на приятелите си той започва усърдно да рисува; около 850 рисунки на Гьоте от престоя му в Италия са запазени. Той се занимава и с ботаника. Приятелите му в Италия не знаели неговата истинска самоличност. Гьоте се завръща в Германия помъдрял и успокоен, изпълнен с нови творчески планове. Ориентиран изцяло към принципите на класицизма, търси възможности за тяхното утвърждаване в съвременното немско изкуство. Така се заражда програмата на „Ваймарския класицизъм“, от която е вдъхновено и късното Гьотево творчество — изящните Римски елегии [3] (1788-1790), посветени на простата цветарка Кристиане Вулпиус, за която след осем години поетът се жени. В този период възникват епичната поема Херман и Доротея (1798); драматургичните творби, които той е започнал по-рано, но едва тогава преосмисля и публикува - Ифигения в Таврида (1787), Егмонт (1788), Торквато Тасо (1790); образецът на новия образователен роман Вилхелм Майстер - години на учение (1796) и Вилхелм Майстер - години на странстване (1807/1821), мемоарно-автобиографичната книга Поезия и истина (1811-1814) и още много други. Няколко седмици след завръщането си от Италия Гьоте прави през 1788 г. 23-годишната Христиане Вулпиус своя любовница и по-късно своя съпруга. През декември 1789 г. се ражда синът Аугуст; четирите последвали деца живеят само няколко дена. Още през късното лято 1790 г. по време на пътуване до Силезия Гьоте прави предложение за женитба на 21-годишната Хенриете фон Лютвиц. След своето завръщане в Германия Гьоте се отказва от повечето си служби. Запазва само мястото си в Consilium и така съхранява политическото си влияние. Ръководи училището по рисуване и контролата на държавното строителство. От 1791 до 1817 г. ръководи Ваймарския дворцов театър. Гьоте е също съветник на принадлежащия към херцогството университет Йена и настоява за разширяването на природнонаучния факултет. Застъпва се за номинирането за професори между другото на Йохан Готлиб Фихте, Георг Хегел, Фридрих Шелинг и Фридрих Шилер. През годините след своето пътуване в Италия Гьоте се занимава преди всичко с природни изследвания. През 1790 г. издава своето произведение „Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären“, освен това започва изследванията си към учението на цветовете. През лятото 1794 г. Фридрих Шилер, който е с десет години по-млад и е професор по история в близкия Йена (от края на 1799 г. във Ваймар), го помолва за сътрудничество в заплануваното от него списание за култура и изкуство Die Horen. Гьоте се съгласява, двамата се сближават и създават епохалното литературно-историческо направление „Ваймарски класицизъм“. Със смъртта на Шилер през 1805 г. свършва важният период на „Ваймарския класицизъм“. През 1809 г. Гьоте започва да пише своята автобиография. Той започва да учи арабски и персийски и да чете Корана и стиховете на персийския поет Хафез. Негов секретар е Фридрих Вилхелм Ример (от 1805 г. възпитател на сина му). Във Ваймер идва Бетина фон Арним и със спомените си от разказите на неговата майка му помага да напише Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit. През 1814 г. Гьоте, вече на 65 години, се влюбва в Мариане фон Вилемер (Мариане Юнг), с която се запознава във Франкфурт и тя става негова муза и партньорка в писане на поезия. Той издава през 1819 г. стихосбирката „Западно-източен диван“ в 12 тома. През 1816 г. след дълго боледуване умира Христиане, съпругата на Гьоте. През 1817 г. той предава ръководството на дворцовия театър и за него започва да се грижи снаха му Отилие фон Гьоте. Световна слава[редактиране | edit source] Бляскавата епоха на своята литературна дейност Гьоте завършва с най-великата творба на живота си - трагедията Фауст. Тя го въздига като безспорен първомайстор в интелектуалния живот на Германия. Цяла Европа с уважение произнася името на поета. Дори Наполеон през 1806 г., след като завладява град Ваймар, цял час с увлечение разговаря с Гьоте и го награждава с Кръста на Почетния легион. До сетния си миг Гьоте живее във Ваймар — там извършва и своите изследвания в областта на естествените науки, донесли му допълнителна слава. При своите пътувания вече възрастният поет преживява редица любовни увлечения (Вилхелмине Херцлиб, Мариане фон Вилемер), а през 1821 г. в курорта Мариенбад се запознава със седемнайсетгодишната Улрике фон Левецо и не след дълго — вече седемдесет и четири годишен — ѝ прави предложение за женитба. Отказът дълбоко го наранява и в резултат възниква поемата Трилогия на страстта (1827), в която е включена прочутата Мариенбадска елегия (1823). Поетът умира на 22 март 1832 г. вероятно от сърдечен инфаркт. Неговите последни думи са: „Повече светлина!“ („Mehr Licht!“), според домашния му лекар Карл Фогел, който обаче в този момент не бил в стаята. На 26 март Гьоте е погребан във ваймарската княжеска гробница. Родната къща на Гьоте във Франкфурт на Майн и неговата градинска къща във Ваймар, в която са създадени множество произведенията му, днес се числят към световното културно наследство ня ЮНЕСКО. Академичното издание на Гьотевите произведения, осъществено по поръчка на великата херцогиня Софи фон Заксен в периода 1887-1920 г., се състои от 143 тома. Признание[редактиране | edit source] Литературното творчество на Гьоте съчетава чистотата и елегантността на стила с богато художествено въображение и с дълбоки философски идеи. Неговият живот е смятан за образец на най-хармонично развитие. Името на поета още приживе достига до всички цивилизовани кътчета на земята, а възгледът му за възникването на световна литература намира в наши дни пълно потвърждение. В чест на поета литературни награди "Гьоте" учредяват през 1927 г. родният му град Франкфурт на Майн, през 1949 г. столицата на ГДР град Берлин, а през 1949 г. и ханзейският град Хамбург. Жените в живота на Гьоте[редактиране | edit source] Йохан Волфганг фон Гьоте е оставил име не само на проникновен творец и значителен учен, но и на велик жизнелюбец и страстен почитател на "вечната женственост". От юношеската си любов към "Кетхен" (по-голяма с три години) до старческото увлечение по Улрике (по-млада с петдесет и пет години) Гьоте е търсил в Жената упование и подтик за съзидание. Откривал е в Нея божествеността на Природата, очарованието на Красотата и даровете на Любовта, намирал е духовно Преображение и творческо Себепостигане. Бързаш ли да ме оставиш? А тъй близко бе за миг! Посред облаци се бавиш, Где е милият светлик? Виждаш, сълзите потичат: Блясваш с лъч като звезда! Казваш ми, че ме обичат, Но далеч е още Тя. Хайде, прекоси небето В орбита от чистота! Нищо че боли сърцето, Преблажена е нощта. Библиография[редактиране | edit source] Стихотворения, песни и балади - Geistesgruß, 1774 – (Духовен поздрав) - In allen guten Stunden, 1775 – (В добрите часове) (масонска песен) - An den Mond, 1777 – (Към месеца) - Wandrers Nachtlied, 1780 – (Нощна песен на странника) - Der Erlkönig, 1782 – „Горски цар“ – балада - Xenien, 1796 – (Ксении) (стихотворение, заедно с Фридрих Шилер) - Der Zauberlehrling, 1797 - (Чиракът магесник) - Die erste Walpurgisnacht, 1799 – (Първа Валпургиева нощ) (Балада, по музика на Феликс Менделсон Бартолди кантата за солист, хор и оркестър ) - Vom Sänger hat man viel erzählt, 1815 – (Разказвали са за певеца) (масонско стихотворение) - Wenn die Liebste zum Erwidern, 1816 – (Когато милата отвръща) (масонско стихотворение) - West-östlicher Divan, 1819 – (Западно-източен Диван – стихотворения) Стихотворен епос - Reineke Fuchs, 1794 – (Райнеке Фукс) - Hermann und Dorothea, 1798 – (Херман и Доротея) Драми - Die Laune des Verliebten, 1768 – (Капризите на влюбените) - Die Mitschuldigen, 1769 – (Съвиновните) - Götz von Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand, 1773 – (Гьоц фон Берлихинген с желязната ръка) - Prometheus, 1774 – (Прометей) - Neueröffnetes moralisch-politisches Puppenspiel, 1774 – - Ein Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey, 1774 – - Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilern, 1774 – (Панаирно празненство в Плундерсвайлерн) - Götter, Helden und Wieland, 1774 – (Богове, герои и Виланд) - Clavigo, 1774 – (Клавиго) - Egmont, 1775 – (Егмонт) - Erwin und Elmire, 1775 – (Ервин и Елмире) - Die Geschwister, 1776 – - Stella, 1776 – (Стела) - Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit, 1777 – - Iphigenie auf Tauris, 1779 – (Ифигения в Таврида) - Torquato Tasso, 1780 – (Торквато Тасо) - Der Groß-Cophta, 1792 – - Der Bürgergeneral, 1793 – - Faust I, 1808 – (Фауст — първа част) - Die natürliche Tochter, 1804 – (Незаконната дъщеря) - Pandora, 1817 – (Пандора) - Faust II, 1833 – (Фауст — втора част) Романи и Новели - Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, 1774 - (Страданията на младия Вертер) - Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung, от 1776, публикуван през 1911 - (Театралното послание на Вилхелм Майстер) - Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten, 1795 – (Разговори на немски изселници) - Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, 1795/96 – (Вилхелм Майстер - години на учение) - Novelle, от 1797 – (Новела) - Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre, 1807, публикуван през 1921 – (Вилхелм Майстер - години на странстване) - Die Wahlverwandtschaften 1809 – (Сродства по избор) Преводи - Das Leben des Benvenuto Cellini, 1797 – (Животът на Бенвенуто Челини) - Mahomet der Prophet, 1802 – (Пророк Мохамед) Записки и афоризми - Maximen und Reflexionen, 1833 – (Максими, размисли, фрагменти – публикувани посмъртно) Природонаучни произведения - Über den Zwischenkiefer der Menschen und der Tiere, 1786 – - Beiträge zur Optik, 1791/92 – (Оптика – научна студия, 2 тома) - Zur Farbenlehre, 1810 – (Теория на цветовете – научна студия) Автобиографична проза - Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit, 1811–33 - (Поезия и истина. Из моя живот – автобиография в 4 тома), - Italienische Reise, 1816/17 – (Пътешествие в Италия) - Kampagne in Frankreich, 1822 – (Кампанията във Франция – репортаж) Други - Römische Elegien, 1788–90 – (Римски елегии) - Venezianische Epigramme, 1790 – (Венециански епиграми) - Die guten Weiber, 1817 – (Добрите жени) - Was wir bringen, 1802 – (Какво носим) Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Dieter Borchmeyer, Schnellkurs Goethe, S. 28. - ↑ Roberto Zapperi, Das Inkognito – Goethes ganz andere Existenz in Rom, S. 8ff. - ↑ Из "Римски елегии" в превод на Венцеслав Константинов - ↑ „На изгряващия месец“ от Гьоте, в превод на Венцеслав Константинов Източници[редактиране | edit source] - Тази статия съдържа материал, използван с разрешение. Външни препратки[редактиране | edit source] - Поезия от Гьоте, в превод на Венцеслав Константинов - Венцеслав Константинов - „Гьоте и ние“, в-к "Литературен фронт", София, бр. 35, 1974 - Венцеслав Константинов - „В началото бе делото...“, в-к "Народна култура", София, 2 март 1982 - Венцеслав Константинов - „Гьоте през погледа на Томас Стърнз Елиът“, В: „Писатели за творчеството“, изд. ЛИК, София, 2007 (LiterNet) - ((de)) Bio-Bibliografie 1 - ((de)) Bio-Bibliografie 2 - ((de)) Projekt Gutenberg-DE - ((de)) Werke bei Zeno.org - ((de)) zgedichte.de - ((de)) Bibliotheca Augustana - ((de)) Gedichte berühmter Schriftsteller - ((de)) Bücherquelle - ((de)) Textlog - ((de)) Literaturnetz - ((de)) Die Deutsche Gedichtebibliothek - ((de)) Freiburger Anthologie - ((de)) Deutsche Dichter - ((de)) Sternenfall - ((de)) Liebeslyrik deutscher Dichter - ((de)) Die LYRIKwelt - ((de)) Linksammlung der Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin - ((en)) Филми по произведения на Йохан Волфганг Гьоте
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (/ˈɡɜrtə/;[1] German: [ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfɡaŋ fɔn ˈɡøːtə] ( ); 28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German writer and statesman. His body of work includes epic and lyric poetry written in a variety of metres and styles; prose and verse dramas; memoirs; an autobiography; literary and aesthetic criticism; treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour; and four novels. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters, and nearly 3,000 drawings by him are extant. A literary celebrity by the age of 25, Goethe was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Carl August in 1782 after first taking up residence there in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe served as a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace, which in 1998 were together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[2] After returning from a tour of Italy in 1788, his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published. In 1791 he was made managing director of the theatre at Weimar, and in 1794 he began a friendship with the dramatist, historian, and philosopher Friedrich Schiller, whose plays he premiered until Schiller's death in 1805. During this period Goethe published his second novel, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808, the first part of his most celebrated drama, Faust. His conversations and various common undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have, in later years, been collectively termed Weimar Classicism. Arthur Schopenhauer cited Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship as one of the four greatest novels ever written[citation needed] and Ralph Waldo Emerson selected Goethe as one of six "representative men" in his work of the same name, along with Plato, Napoleon, and William Shakespeare. Goethe's comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, most notably Johann Peter Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe. There are frequent references to Goethe's writings throughout the works of G. W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. Goethe's poems were set to music throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by a number of composers, including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Charles Gounod, Richard Wagner, Hugo Wolf, and Gustav Mahler. Contents Biography Early life Goethe's father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, he was not involved in the city's official affairs.[3] 38-year-old Johann Caspar married Goethe's mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor, the daughter of the mayor of Frankfurt Johann Wolfgang Textor and his wife Anna Margaretha Lindheimer, when she was 17 at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748. All their children, except for Goethe and his sister, Cornelia Friederike Christiana, who was born in 1750, died at early ages. His father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages (Latin, Greek, French, Italian, English and Hebrew). Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing. Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not.[3] Goethe had a persistent dislike of the Roman Catholic Church, and characterized its history as a "hodgepodge of fallacy and violence" (Mischmasch von Irrtum und Gewalt).[4] His great passion was drawing. Goethe quickly became interested in literature; Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and Homer were among his early favourites. He had a lively devotion to theatre as well and was greatly fascinated by puppet shows that were annually arranged in his home; a familiar theme in Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. He also took great pleasure in reading from the great works about history and religion. He writes about this period: I had from childhood the singular habit of always learning by heart the beginnings of books, and the divisions of a work, first of the five books of Moses, and then of the 'Aeneid' and Ovid's 'Metamorphoses'. If an ever busy imagination, of which that tale may bear witness, led me hither and thither, if the medley of fable and history, mythology and religion, threatened to bewilder me, I readily fled to those oriental regions, plunged into the first books of Moses, and there, amid the scattered shepherd tribes, found myself at once in the greatest solitude and the greatest society.[5] Goethe became acquainted with Frankfurt actors.[6] Around early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit.[7] He adored Charitas Meixner (27 July 1750 – 31 December 1773), a wealthy Worms trader's daughter and friend of his sister, who would later marry the merchant G. F. Schuler.[8] Legal career Goethe studied law in Leipzig from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the poetry lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf and wrote cheerful verses about her in the Rococo genre. In 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Lessing and Wieland. Already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Faust's 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the only real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768. Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, the relationship with his father worsened. During convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister. In April 1770, Goethe left Frankfurt in order to finish his studies in Strasbourg. In Alsace, Goethe blossomed. No other landscape has he described as affectionately as the warm, wide Rhine area. In Strasbourg, Goethe met Johann Gottfried Herder. The two became close friends, and crucially to Goethe's intellectual development, it was Herder who kindled his interest in Shakespeare, Ossian and in the notion of Volkspoesie (folk poetry). On 14 October 1772 he held a gathering in his parental home in honour of the first German "Shakespeare Day". His first acquaintance with Shakespeare's works is described as his personal awakening in literature.[9] On a trip to the village Sessenheim, Goethe fell in love with Friederike Brion, in October 1770,[10][11] but, after ten months, terminated the relationship in August 1771.[12] Several of his poems, like Willkommen und Abschied, Sesenheimer Lieder and Heideröslein, originate from this time. At the end of August 1771, Goethe acquired the academic degree of the Lizenziat (Licentia docendi) in Frankfurt and established a small legal practice. Although in his academic work he had expressed the ambition to make jurisprudence progressively more humane, his inexperience led him to proceed too vigorously in his first cases, and he was reprimanded and lost further ones. This prematurely terminated his career as a lawyer after only a few months. At this time, Goethe was acquainted with the court of Darmstadt, where his inventiveness was praised. From this milieu came Johann Georg Schlosser (who was later to become his brother-in-law) and Johann Heinrich Merck. Goethe also pursued literary plans again; this time, his father did not have anything against it, and even helped. Goethe obtained a copy of the biography of a noble highwayman from the German Peasants' War. In a couple of weeks the biography was reworked into a colourful drama. Entitled Götz von Berlichingen, the work went directly to the heart of Goethe's contemporaries. Goethe could not subsist on being one of the editors of a literary periodical (published by Schlosser and Merck). In May 1772 he once more began the practice of law at Wetzlar. In 1774 he wrote the book which would bring him worldwide fame, The Sorrows of Young Werther. The outer shape of the work's plot is widely taken over from what Goethe experienced during his Wetzlar time with Charlotte Buff (1753–1828)[13] and her fiancé, Johann Christian Kestner (1741–1800),[13] as well as from the suicide of the author's friend Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem (1747–1772); in it, Goethe made a desperate passion of what was in reality a hearty and relaxed friendship.[14] Despite the immense success of Werther, it did not bring Goethe much financial gain because copyright laws at the time were essentially nonexistent. (In later years Goethe would bypass this problem by periodically authorizing "new, revised" editions of his Complete Works.)[15] Early years in Weimar In 1775, Goethe was invited, on the strength of his fame as the author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, to the court of Carl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, who would become Grand Duke in 1815. (The Duke at the time was 18 years of age, to Goethe's 26.) Goethe thus went to live in Weimar, where he remained for the rest of his life and where, over the course of many years, he held a succession of offices, becoming the Duke's chief adviser. In 1776, Goethe formed a close relationship to Charlotte von Stein, an older, married woman. The intimate bond with Frau von Stein lasted for ten years, after which Goethe abruptly left for Italy without giving his companion any notice. She was emotionally distraught at the time, but they were eventually reconciled.[16] Goethe, aside from official duties, was also a friend and confidant to the Duke, and participated fully in the activities of the court. For Goethe, his first ten years at Weimar could well be described as a garnering of a degree and range of experience which perhaps could be achieved in no other way. Goethe was ennobled in 1782 (this being indicated by the "von" in his name). Italy Goethe's journey to the Italian peninsula from 1786 to 1788 was of great significance in his aesthetic and philosophical development. His father had made a similar journey during his own youth, and his example was a major motivating factor for Goethe to make the trip. More importantly, however, the work of Johann Joachim Winckelmann had provoked a general renewed interest in the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus Goethe's journey had something of the nature of a pilgrimage to it. During the course of his trip Goethe met and befriended the artists Angelica Kauffman and Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, as well as encountering such notable characters as Lady Hamilton and Alessandro Cagliostro (see Affair of the Diamond Necklace). He also journeyed to Sicily during this time, and wrote intriguingly that "To have seen Italy without having seen Sicily is to not have seen Italy at all, for Sicily is the clue to everything." While in Southern Italy and Sicily, Goethe encountered, for the first time genuine Greek (as opposed to Roman) architecture, and was quite startled by its relative simplicity. Winckelmann had not recognized the distinctness of the two styles. Goethe's diaries of this period form the basis of the non-fiction Italian Journey. Italian Journey only covers the first year of Goethe's visit. The remaining year is largely undocumented, aside from the fact that he spent much of it in Venice. This "gap in the record" has been the source of much speculation over the years. In the decades which immediately followed its publication in 1816 Italian Journey inspired countless German youths to follow Goethe's example. This is pictured, somewhat satirically, in George Eliot's Middlemarch. Weimar In late 1792, Goethe took part in the battle of Valmy against revolutionary France, assisting Duke Carl August of Saxe-Weimar during the failed invasion of France. Again during the Siege of Mainz he assisted Carl August as a military observer. His written account of these events can be found within his Complete Works. In 1794 Friedrich Schiller wrote to Goethe offering friendship; they had previously had only a mutually wary relationship ever since first becoming acquainted in 1788. This collaborative friendship lasted until Schiller's death in 1805. In 1806, Goethe was living in Weimar with his mistress Christiane Vulpius, the sister of Christian A Vulpius, and their son Julius August Walter von Goethe. On 13 October, Napoleon's army invaded the town. The French "spoon guards," the least-disciplined soldiers, occupied Goethe's house. The 'spoon guards' had broken in, they had drunk wine, made a great uproar and called for the master of the house. Goethe's secretary Riemer reports: 'Although already undressed and wearing only his wide nightgown... he descended the stairs towards them and inquired what they wanted from him.... His dignified figure, commanding respect, and his spiritual mien seemed to impress even them.' But it was not to last long. Late at night they burst into his bedroom with drawn bayonets. Goethe was petrified, Christiane raised a lot of noise and even tangled with them, other people who had taken refuge in Goethe’s house rushed in, and so the marauders eventually withdrew again. It was Christiane who commanded and organized the defense of the house on the Frauenplan. The barricading of the kitchen and the cellar against the wild pillaging soldiery was her work. Goethe noted in his diary: "Fires, rapine, a frightful night... Preservation of the house through steadfastness and luck." The luck was Goethe’s, the steadfastness was displayed by Christiane. — Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy, Ch. 5.[17] The next day, Goethe legitimized their 18-year relationship by marrying Christiane in a quiet marriage service at the court chapel. They already had several children together by this time, including their son, Julius August Walter von Goethe (25 December 1789 – 28 October 1830), whose wife, Ottilie von Pogwisch (31 October 1796 – 26 October 1872), cared for the elder Goethe until his death in 1832. The younger couple had three children: Walther, Freiherr von Goethe (9 April 1818 – 15 April 1885), Wolfgang, Freiherr von Goethe (18 September 1820 – 20 January 1883) and Alma von Goethe (29 October 1827 – 29 September 1844). Christiane von Goethe died in 1816. Later life After 1793, Goethe devoted his endeavours primarily to literature. By 1820, Goethe was on amiable terms with Kaspar Maria von Sternberg. In 1823, having recovered from a near fatal heart illness, Goethe fell in love with Ulrike von Levetzow whom he wanted to marry, but because of the opposition of her mother he never proposed. Their last meeting in Carlsbad on 5 September 1823 inspired him to the famous Marienbad Elegy which he considered one of his finest works.[18] During that time he also developed a deep emotional bond with the Polish pianist Maria Agata Szymanowska.[citation needed] In 1832, Goethe died in Weimar of apparent heart failure. His last words, according to his doctor Carl Vogel, were, "Mehr Licht!" ("More light!'), but this is disputed as Vogel was not in the room at the moment Goethe died.[19] He is buried in the Ducal Vault at Weimar's Historical Cemetery. Eckermann closes his famous work, Conversations with Goethe, with this passage: The morning after Goethe's death, a deep desire seized me to look once again upon his earthly garment. His faithful servant, Frederick, opened for me the chamber in which he was laid out. Stretched upon his back, he reposed as if asleep; profound peace and security reigned in the features of his sublimely noble countenance. The mighty brow seemed yet to harbour thoughts. I wished for a lock of his hair; but reverence prevented me from cutting it off. The body lay naked, only wrapped in a white sheet; large pieces of ice had been placed near it, to keep it fresh as long as possible. Frederick drew aside the sheet, and I was astonished at the divine magnificence of the limbs. The breast was powerful, broad, and arched; the arms and thighs were elegant, and of the most perfect shape; nowhere, on the whole body, was there a trace of either fat or of leanness and decay. A perfect man lay in great beauty before me; and the rapture the sight caused me made me forget for a moment that the immortal spirit had left such an abode. I laid my hand on his heart – there was a deep silence – and I turned away to give free vent to my suppressed tears. — (p. 426, Da Capo Press edition, John Oxenford translation) The first production of Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin took place in Weimar in 1850. The conductor was Franz Liszt, who chose the date 28 August in honour of Goethe, who was born on 28 August 1749.[20] Literary work The most important of Goethe's works produced before he went to Weimar were Götz von Berlichingen (1773), a tragedy that was the first work to bring him recognition, and the novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (called Die Leiden des jungen Werthers in German) (1774), which gained him enormous fame as a writer in the Sturm und Drang period which marked the early phase of Romanticism – indeed the book is often considered to be the "spark" which ignited the movement, and can arguably be called the world's first "best-seller". (For the entirety of his life this was the work with which the vast majority of Goethe's contemporaries associated him). During the years at Weimar before he met Schiller he began Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, wrote the dramas Iphigenie auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris), Egmont, Torquato Tasso, and the fable Reineke Fuchs. To the period of his friendship with Schiller belong the conception of Wilhelm Meister's Journeyman Years (the continuation of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship), the idyll of Hermann and Dorothea, the Roman Elegies and the verse drama The Natural Daughter. In the last period, between Schiller's death, in 1805, and his own, appeared Faust Part One, Elective Affinities, the West-Eastern Divan (a collection of poems in the Persian style, influenced by the work of Hafez), his autobiographical Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (From My Life: Poetry and Truth) which covers his early life and ends with his departure for Weimar, his Italian Journey, and a series of treatises on art. His writings were immediately influential in literary and artistic circles. Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntalam, which was one of the first works of Sanskrit literature that became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German.[21] Faust Part Two was only finished in the year of his death, and was published posthumously. Also published after his death was the so-called Urfaust, the first sketches, made probably in 1773–74. The short epistolary novel, Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, or The Sorrows of Young Werther, published in 1774, recounts an unhappy romantic infatuation that ends in suicide. Goethe admitted that he "shot his hero to save himself": a reference to Goethe's own near-suicidal obsession with a young woman during this period, an obsession he quelled through the writing process. The novel remains in print in dozens of languages and its influence is undeniable; its central hero, an obsessive figure driven to despair and destruction by his unrequited love for the young Lotte, has become a pervasive literary archetype. The fact that Werther ends with the protagonist's suicide and funeral—a funeral which "no clergyman attended"—made the book deeply controversial upon its (anonymous) publication, for on the face of it, it appeared to condone and glorify suicide. Suicide was considered sinful by Christian doctrine: suicides were denied Christian burial with the bodies often mistreated and dishonoured in various ways; in corollary, the deceased's property and possessions were often confiscated by the Church.[23] Epistolary novels were common during this time, letter-writing being a primary mode of communication. What set Goethe's book apart from other such novels was its expression of unbridled longing for a joy beyond possibility, its sense of defiant rebellion against authority, and of principal importance, its total subjectivity: qualities that trailblazed the Romantic movement. The next work, his epic closet drama Faust, was to be completed in stages, and only published in its entirety after his death. The first part was published in 1808 and created a sensation. The first operatic version, by Spohr, appeared in 1814, and was subsequently the inspiration for operas and oratorios by Schumann, Berlioz, Gounod, Boito, Busoni, and Schnittke as well as symphonic works by Liszt, Wagner, and Mahler. Faust became the ur-myth of many figures in the 19th century. Later, a facet of its plot, i.e., of selling one's soul to the devil for power over the physical world, took on increasing literary importance and became a view of the victory of technology and of industrialism, along with its dubious human expenses. In 1919, the Goetheanum staged the world premiere of a complete production of Faust. On occasion, the play is still staged in Germany and other parts around the world. Goethe's poetic work served as a model for an entire movement in German poetry termed Innerlichkeit ("introversion") and represented by, for example, Heine. Goethe's words inspired a number of compositions by, among others, Mozart, Beethoven (who idolised Goethe),[25] Schubert, Berlioz and Wolf. Perhaps the single most influential piece is "Mignon's Song" which opens with one of the most famous lines in German poetry, an allusion to Italy: "Kennst du das Land, wo die Zitronen blühn?" ("Do you know the land where the lemon trees bloom?"). He is also widely quoted. Epigrams such as "Against criticism a man can neither protest nor defend himself; he must act in spite of it, and then it will gradually yield to him", "Divide and rule, a sound motto; unite and lead, a better one", and "Enjoy when you can, and endure when you must", are still in usage or are often paraphrased. Lines from Faust, such as "Das also war des Pudels Kern", "Das ist der Weisheit letzter Schluss", or "Grau ist alle Theorie" have entered everyday German usage. It may be taken as another measure of Goethe's fame that other well-known quotations are often incorrectly attributed to him, such as Hippocrates' "Art is long, life is short", which is found in Goethe's Faust ("Art is something so long to be learned, and life is so short!") and Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. Scientific work As to what I have done as a poet,... I take no pride in it... But that in my century I am the only person who knows the truth in the difficult science of colours – of that, I say, I am not a little proud, and here I have a consciousness of a superiority to many. — Johann Eckermann, Conversations with Goethe Although his literary work has attracted the greatest amount of interest, Goethe was also keenly involved in studies of natural science.[26] He wrote several works on morphology, and colour theory. Goethe also had the largest private collection of minerals in all of Europe. By the time of his death, in order to gain a comprehensive view in geology, he had collected 17,800 rock samples. His focus on morphology and what was later called homology influenced 19th century naturalists, although his ideas of transformation were about the continuous metamorphosis of living things and did not relate to contemporary ideas of "transformisme" or transmutation of species. Homology, or as Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire called it "analogie", was used by Charles Darwin as strong evidence of common descent and of laws of variation.[27] Goethe's studies led him to independently discover the human intermaxillary bone in 1784, which Broussonet (1779) and Vicq d'Azyr (1780) had (using different methods) identified several years earlier.[28] While not the only one in his time to question the prevailing view that this bone did not exist in humans, Goethe, who believed ancient anatomists had known about this bone, was the first to prove its peculiarity to all mammals. During his Italian journey, Goethe formulated a theory of plant metamorphosis in which the archetypal form of the plant is to be found in the leaf – he writes, "from top to bottom a plant is all leaf, united so inseparably with the future bud that one cannot be imagined without the other".[29] In 1790, he published his Metamorphosis of Plants.[30] As one of the many precursors in the history of evolutionary thought, Goethe wrote in Story of My Botanical Studies (1831): "The ever-changing display of plant forms, which I have followed for so many years, awakens increasingly within me the notion: The plant forms which surround us were not all created at some given point in time and then locked into the given form, they have been given... a felicitous mobility and plasticity that allows them to grow and adapt themselves to many different conditions in many different places."[31] Goethe's botanical theories were partly based on his gardening in Weimar.[32] Goethe also popularized the Goethe barometer using a principle established by Torricelli. According to Hegel, 'Goethe has occupied himself a good deal with meteorology; barometer readings interested him particularly... What he says is important: the main thing is that he gives a comparative table of barometric readings during the whole month of December 1822, at Weimar, Jena, London, Boston, Vienna, Töpel... He claims to deduce from it that the barometric level varies in the same propoportion not only in each zone but that it has the same variation, too, at different altitudes above sea-level'.[33] In 1810, Goethe published his Theory of Colours, which he considered his most important work. In it, he contentiously characterized color as arising from the dynamic interplay of light and darkness through the mediation of a turbid medium.[34] In 1816, Schopenhauer went on to develop his own theory in On Vision and Colors based on the observations supplied in Goethe's book. After being translated into English by Charles Eastlake in 1840, his theory became widely adopted by the art world, most notably J. M. W. Turner.[35] Goethe's work also inspired the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, to write his Remarks on Color. Goethe was vehemently opposed to Newton's analytic treatment of color, engaging instead in compiling a comprehensive rational description of a wide variety of color phenomena. Although the accuracy of Goethe's observations does not admit a great deal of criticism, his theory's failure to demonstrate significant predictive validity eventually rendered it scientifically irrelevant. Goethe was, however, the first to systematically study the physiological effects of color, and his observations on the effect of opposed colors led him to a symmetric arrangement of his color wheel, 'for the colors diametrically opposed to each other... are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye. (Goethe, Theory of Colours, 1810).[36] In this, he anticipated Ewald Hering's opponent color theory (1872).[37] Goethe outlines his method in the essay The experiment as mediator between subject and object (1772).[38] In the Kurschner edition of Goethe's works, the science editor, Rudolf Steiner, presents Goethe's approach to science as phenomenological. Steiner elaborated on that in the books The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception[39] and Goethe's World View,[40] in which he characterizes intuition as the instrument by which one grasps Goethe's biological archetype—The Typus. Novalis, himself a geologist and mining engineer, expressed the opinion that Goethe was the first physicist of his time and 'epoch-making in the history of physics', writing that Goethe's studies of light, of the metamorphosis of plants and of insects were indications and proofs 'that the perfect educational lecture belongs in the artist's sphere of work'; and that Goethe would be surpassed 'but only in the way in which the ancients can be surpassed, in inner content and force, in variety and depth – as an artist actually not, or only very little, for his rightness and intensity are perhaps already more exemplary than it would seem'. Eroticism Many of Goethe's works, especially Faust, the Roman Elegies, and the Venetian Epigrams, depict erotic passions and acts. For instance, in Faust, the first use of Faust's power after literally signing a contract with the devil is to fall in love with and impregnate a teenage girl. Some of the Venetian Epigrams were held back from publication due to their sexual content. Goethe clearly saw human sexuality as a topic worthy of poetic and artistic depiction, an idea that was uncommon in a time when the private nature of sexuality was rigorously normative.[42] Religion and politics Born into a Lutheran family, Goethe's early faith was shaken by news of such events as the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years' War. In July 1782, he described himself as "not anti-Christian, nor un-Christian, but most decidedly non-Christian."[43] In his Venetian Epigram 66, Goethe listed four things that he disliked: "tobacco smoke, bugs and garlic and the cross."[44][45] In the book Conversations with Goethe by Goethe's secretary Eckermann, however, Goethe is portrayed as enthusiastic about Christianity, Jesus, Martin Luther, and the Protestant Reformation, even calling Christianity the "ultimate religion".[46][47][48] Although he opposed many of the central teachings of the Christian churches, he thought that he could nevertheless be inwardly Christian.[49] His later spiritual perspective evolved among pantheism (heavily influenced by Spinoza), humanism, and various elements of Western esotericism, as seen most vividly in Part II of Faust. According to Nietzsche, Goethe had "a kind of almost joyous and trusting fatalism" that has "faith that only in the totality everything redeems itself and appears good and justified."[50] On the other hand, a year before his death, in a letter to Sulpiz Boisserée, Goethe wrote that he had the feeling that all his life he had been aspiring to qualify as one of the Hypsistarians, an ancient Jewish-pagan sect of the Black Sea region. After describing his difficulties with mainstream religion, he mentioned that he had learned of this sect who, hemmed in between heathens, Jews and Christians, declared that they would reverence, as being close to the Godhead, what came to their knowledge of the best and most perfect.[51] In politics, Goethe was conservative. At the time of the French Revolution, he thought the enthusiasm of the students and professors to be a perversion of their energy and remained skeptical of the ability of the masses to govern.[52] Likewise, he did not oppose the War of Liberation (1813–15) waged by the German states against Napoleon, and remained aloof from the patriotic efforts to unite the various parts of Germany into one nation. Influence Goethe had a great effect on the nineteenth century. In many respects, he was the originator of many ideas which later became widespread. He produced volumes of poetry, essays, criticism, a theory of colours and early work on evolution and linguistics. He was fascinated by mineralogy, and the mineral goethite (iron oxide) is named after him.[53] His non-fiction writings, most of which are philosophic and aphoristic in nature, spurred the development of many philosophers, including G.W.F. Hegel, Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ernst Cassirer, Carl Jung, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Along with Schiller, he was one of the leading figures of Weimar Classicism. Goethe embodied many of the contending strands in art over the next century: his work could be lushly emotional, and rigorously formal, brief and epigrammatic, and epic. He would argue that classicism was the means of controlling art, and that romanticism was a sickness, even as he penned poetry rich in memorable images, and rewrote the formal rules of German poetry. Even in contemporary culture, he stands in the background as the author of the ballad upon which Disney's The Sorcerer's Apprentice is based. His poetry was set to music by almost every major Austrian and German composer from Mozart to Mahler, and his influence would spread to French drama and opera as well. Beethoven declared that a "Faust" Symphony would be the greatest thing for art. Liszt and Mahler both created symphonies in whole or in large part inspired by this seminal work, which would give the 19th century one of its most paradigmatic figures: Doctor Faustus. The Faust tragedy/drama, often called Das Drama der Deutschen (the drama of the Germans), written in two parts published decades apart, would stand as his most characteristic and famous artistic creation. Followers of the twentieth century esotericist Rudolf Steiner built a theatre named the Goetheanum after him—where festival performances of Faust are still performed. Goethe was also a cultural force, who argued that the organic nature of the land moulded the people and their customs—an argument that has recurred ever since. He argued that laws could not be created by pure rationalism, since geography and history shaped habits and patterns. This stood in sharp contrast to the prevailing Enlightenment view that reason was sufficient to create well-ordered societies and good laws. It was to a considerable degree due to Goethe's reputation that the city of Weimar was chosen in 1919 as the venue for the national assembly, convened to draft a new constitution for what would become known as Germany's Weimar Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany's cultural institution, The Goethe-Institut is named after him, and promotes the study of German abroad and fosters knowledge about Germany by providing information on its culture, society and politics. The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2001 in recognition of its historical significance.[54] Goethe's influence was dramatic because he understood that there was a transition in European sensibilities, an increasing focus on sense, the indescribable, and the emotional. This is not to say that he was emotionalistic or excessive; on the contrary, he lauded personal restraint and felt that excess was a disease: "There is nothing worse than imagination without taste". He argued in his scientific works that a "formative impulse", which he said is operative in every organism, causes an organism to form itself according to its own distinct laws, and therefore rational laws or fiats could not be imposed at all from a higher, transcendent sphere; this placed him in direct opposition to those who attempted to form "enlightened" monarchies based on "rational" laws by, for example, Joseph II of Austria or the subsequent Emperor of the French, Napoleon I. A quotation from Goethe's Scientific Studies will suffice: We conceive of the individual animal as a small world, existing for its own sake, by its own means. Every creature is its own reason to be. All its parts have a direct effect on one another, a relationship to one another, thereby constantly renewing the circle of life; thus we are justified in considering every animal physiologically perfect. Viewed from within, no part of the animal is a useless or arbitrary product of the formative impulse (as so often thought). Externally, some parts may seem useless because the inner coherence of the animal nature has given them this form without regard to outer circumstance. Thus...[not] the question, What are they for? but rather, Where do they come from? — Suhrkamp ed., vol 12, p. 121; trans. Douglas Miller, Scientific Studies That change later became the basis for 19th-century thought: organic rather than geometrical, evolving rather than created, and based on sensibility and intuition rather than on imposed order, culminating in, as Goethe said, a "living quality", wherein the subject and object are dissolved together in a poise of inquiry. Consequently, Goethe embraced neither teleological nor deterministic views of growth within every organism. Instead, his view was that the world as a whole grows through continual, external, and internal strife. Moreover, Goethe did not embrace the mechanistic views that contemporaneous science subsumed during his time, and therewith he denied rationality's superiority as the sole interpreter of reality. Furthermore, Goethe declared that all knowledge is related to humanity through its functional value alone and that knowledge presupposes a perspectival quality. He also stated that the fundamental nature of the world is aesthetic[citation needed]. His views make him, along with Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, and Ludwig van Beethoven, a figure in two worlds: on the one hand, devoted to the sense of taste, order, and finely crafted detail, which is the hallmark of the artistic sense of the Age of Reason and the neo-classical period of architecture; on the other, seeking a personal, intuitive, and personalized form of expression and society, firmly supporting the idea of self-regulating and organic systems. Thinkers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson would take up many similar ideas in the 1800s. Goethe's ideas on evolution would frame the question that Darwin and Wallace would approach within the scientific paradigm. The Serbian inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla was heavily influenced by Goethe's Faust, his favorite poem, and had actually memorized the entire text. It was while reciting a certain verse that he was struck with the epiphany that would lead to the idea of the rotating magnetic field and ultimately, alternating current.[55] Bibliography - The Life of Goethe by George Henry Lewes - Goethe: The History of a Man by Emil Ludwig - Goethe by Georg Brandes. Authorized translation from the Danish (2nd ed. 1916) by Allen W. Porterfield, New York, Crown publishers, 1936. "Crown edition, 1936." Title Wolfgang Goethe - Goethe: his life and times by Richard Friedenthal - Lotte in Weimar: The Beloved Returns by Thomas Mann - Conversations with Goethe by Johann Peter Eckermann - Goethe's World: as seen in letters and memoirs ed. by Berthold Biermann - Goethe: Four Studies by Albert Schweitzer - Goethe Poet and Thinker by E. M. Wilkinson and L. A. Willoughby - Goethe and his Publishers by Siegfried Unseld - Goethe by T. J. Reed - The Life of Goethe. A Critical Biography by John Williams - Goethe: The Poet and the Age (2 Vols.), by Nicholas Boyle - Goethe's Concept of the Daemonic: After the Ancients, by Angus Nicholls - Goethe and Rousseau: Resonances of their Mind, by Carl Hammer, Jr. - Doctor Faustus of the popular legend, Marlowe, the Puppet-Play, Goethe, and Lenau, treated historically and critically.-A parallel between Goethe and Schiller.-An historic outline of German Literature , by Louis Pagel - Goethe and Schiller, Essays on German Literature, by Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen - Tales for Transformation, trans. Scott Thompson - Goethe-Wörterbuch (Goethe Dictionary, abbreviated GWb). Herausgegeben von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen und der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Stuttgart. Verlag W. Kohlhammer. See also - Dora Stock – her encounters with the 16-year-old Goethe. - Goethe Basin - Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe-Gymnasium - W. H. Murray – author of misattributed quotation "Until one is committed ..." - Nature (Tobler essay), essay often mis-attributed to Goethe Notes - ^ "Goethe". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. - ^ "Classical Weimar UNESCO Justification". Justification for UNESCO Heritage Cites. UNESCO. Retrieved 7 June 2012. - ^ a b Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 36 - ^ "Junge Freiheit (2007), Die Inquisition in kirchenhistorischer Reflexion, 22.06.200". Jungefreiheit.de. 2013-10-14. - ^ von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. The Autobiography of Goethe: truth and poetry, from my own life, Volume 1 (1897), translated by John Oxenford, pp. 114, 129 - ^ Valerian Tornius: Goethe – Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p. 26 - ^ Emil Ludwig: Goethe – Geschichte eines Menschen. Vol. Ernst-Rowohlt-Verlag, Berlin 1926, p. 17–18 - ^ Karl Goedeke: Goethes Leben. Cotta / Kröner, Stuttgart around 1883, p. 16–17 - ^ "Originally speech of Goethe to the ''Shakespeare's Day'' by University Duisburg". Uni-duisburg-essen.de. - ^ Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 81 - ^ Karl Robert Mandelkow, Bodo Morawe: Goethes Briefe. edition. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner, Hamburg 1968, p. 571 - ^ Valerian Tornius: Goethe — Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p.60 - ^ a b Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. - ^ Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. - ^ see Goethe and his Publishers - ^ Charlotte Von Stein. Classic Encyclopedia, retrieved 14 April 2011 - ^ Safranski, Rüdiger (1990). Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press. - ^ "Goethe's third summer". - ^ Carl Vogel: Die letzte Krankheit Goethe’s. In: Journal der practischen Heilkunde (1833). - ^ Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., 1954 - ^ Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. Sanskrit Drama in Performance. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. - ^ Goethe's Plays, by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, translated into English with Introductions by Charles E. Passage, Publisher Benn Limited 1980 ISBN 0510000878 / 9780510000875 / 0-510-00087-8 - ^ "The Stigma of Suicide – A history". Pips Project. See also: "Ophelia's Burial". - ^ "Goethe in the Roman Campagna". Städel. - ^ Wigmore, Richard. "A meeting of genius: Beethoven and Goethe, July 1812". Gramophone. Haymarket. Retrieved 6 July 2012. - ^ "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe". The Nature Institute. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (1st ed.). John Murray. - ^ K. Barteczko and M. Jacob (1999). "A re-evaluation of the premaxillary bone in humans". Anatomy and Embryology 207 (6): 417–437. - ^ Goethe, J.W. Italian Journey. Robert R Heitner. Suhrkamp ed., vol 6. - ^ Magnus, Rudolf; Schmid, Gunther (20 September 2004). Metamorphosis of Plants. Google Books. - ^ Frank Teichmann (tr. Jon McAlice) "The Emergence of the Idea of Evolution in the Time of Goethe" first published in Interdisciplinary Aspects of Evolution, Urachhaus (1989) - ^ Balzer, Georg (1966). Goethe als Gartenfreund. München: F. Bruckmann KG. - ^ Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature: Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1830), Part 2 Translated by A. V. Miller illustrated, reissue, reprint Oxford University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-19-927267-0, ISBN 978-0-19-927267-9, Google Books - ^ Aristotle wrote that color is a mixture of light and dark, since white light is always seen as somewhat darkened when it is seen as a color. (Aristotle, On Sense and its Objects, III, 439b, 20 ff.: "White and black may be juxtaposed in such a way that by the minuteness of the division of its parts each is invisible while their product is visible, and thus color may be produced.") - ^ Bockemuhl, M. (1991). Turner. Taschen, Koln. - ^ Goethe, Johann (1810). Theory of Colours, paragraph No. 50. - ^ "Goethe's Color Theory". - ^ "The Experiment as Mediator between Subject and Object". Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2014. - ^ "The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception". - ^ "Goethe's World View". - ^ 'Goethe's Message of Beauty in Our Twentieth Century World', (Friedrich) Frederick Hiebel, RSCP California. - ^ Outing Goethe and His Age; edited by Alice A. Kuzniar (page number needed) - ^ ''Venetian Epigrams''. Books.google.com. - ^ Venetian Epigrams, 66, ["Wenige sind mir jedoch wie Gift und Schlange zuwider; Viere: Rauch des Tabacks, Wanzen und Knoblauch und †."]. He wrote a cross symbol instead of a word. The cross has been variously understood as meaning Christianity, Christ, or death. - ^ Conversations of Goethe with Eckermann and Soret, Vol II, p.423-424. Books.google.es. - ^ The Crucified God: The Cross of Christ As the Foundation and Criticism of Christian Theology, SCM Press, London, 1973, p.27-28. Books.google.es. - ^ 11 March 1832, Oxenford translation - ^ Goethe in East Germany 1949–1989: Toward a History of the Goethe reception in the GDR, p.126. Books.google.es. - ^ Nietzsche, The Will to Power, § 95 - ^ Lletter to Boisserée dated 22 March 1831 quoted in Peter Boerner, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1832/1982: A Biographical Essay. Bonn: Inter Nationes, 1981 p. 82 - ^ McCabe, Joseph. 'Goethe: The Man and His Character'. - ^ Webmineral.com. - ^ "The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. - ^ Seifer, Marc J. (1998) "Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla: Biography of a Genius", Citadel Press, pp. 22, 308 External links - Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Project Gutenberg - Works by or about Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Internet Archive - Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) - Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Zeno.org (German) - Goethe on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now) - Goethe in English at Poems Found in Translation - The Lied and Art Song Texts Page Poems of Goethe set in music - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - "Goethe's Delicate Empiricism," A Special Issue of Janus Head - Goethe's dual language poems (from German to other languages) - Goethe Statue – Lincoln Park in Chicago, Illinois, United States - Elective affinities - Works by or about Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in libraries (WorldCat catalog) - Free scores of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's texts in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Find a Grave - Barthold Heinrich Brockes - Christian Gellert - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Johann Christoph Gottsched - Johann Christian Günther - Friedrich Hölderlin - Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock - Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz - Gotthold Ephraim Lessing - Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg) - Jean Paul - Friedrich Schiller - Johann Gottfried Schnabel - Christoph Martin Wieland - Bettina von Arnim - Ludwig Achim von Arnim - Clemens Brentano - Georg Büchner - Adelbert von Chamisso - Annette von Droste-Hülshoff - Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach - Joseph von Eichendorff - Theodor Fontane - Gustav Freytag - Jeremias Gotthelf - Franz Grillparzer - Jacob Grimm - Wilhelm Grimm - Gerhart Hauptmann - Christian Friedrich Hebbel - Johann Peter Hebel - Heinrich Heine - Georg Herwegh - Paul Heyse - E. 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