http___en.m.wikipedia.org_wiki_Hydrocarbon_fuel.xml
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Фосилно гориво Изкопаемо гориво е вид гориво, образувано при трансформацията на фосилизирани останки на мъртви растения и животни[1] под въздействието на повишена температура и налягане под земната повърхност.[2] Възрастта на тези организми обикновено е милиони години, като в някои случаи надхвърля 650 милиона години.[3] Характерно за изкопаемите горива е високото съдържание на въглерод и въглеводороди. Включват разнородни материали от газове с ниско съотношение на въглерод към водород като метана, през течния нефт до твърди материали, съставени от почти чист въглерод, като антрацита. Метанът може да се намери самостоятелно във въглеводородните полета, свързани с петрола, или под формата на метанов хидрат. Горивата са се формирали от вкаменените останки на мъртви растения[4] в резултат на действието на топлината и налягането в земната кора в продължение на милиони години.[5] Биогенната теория за произхода на изкопаемите горива е въведена за първи път Георг Агрикола през 1556 г. и по-късно през 18-ти век подкрепена от Михаил Ломоносов. По оценки на американската Служба за енергийна информация, през 2007 година изкопаемите горива са източник на 86,4% от потребяваната енергия в света (нефт - 36,0%, каменни въглища - 27,4% и природен газ - 23,0%).[6] През 2006г. енергията добита от други източници, различни от изкопаемите горива е както следва: хидроенергия - 6,3%, ядрена - 8,5% и друг вид (геотермална, слънчева, енергия на приливите и отливите, вятърна, дървесна, енергия, добита от изгарянето на битовите отпадъци) около 0,9%.[7] Растежът на световното потребление на енергия възлиза на около 2,3% годишно. Изкопаемите горива са източник на невъзобновяема енергия поради факта, че са образувани в течение на милиони години. Темпът на изразходване на натрупаните резерви днес е значително по-голям от скоростта им на образуване. Производството и употребата на изкопаеми горива пораждат екологични проблеми. Днес светът е насочил действията си към създаване на енергия от възобновяеми източници за да отговори на увеличените енергийни нужди. Изгарянето на изкопаеми горива произвежда около 21,3 милиарда тона (21,3 гигатона въглероден диоксид (CO2) годишно, но е изчислено, че природните процеси могат да абсорбират около половината от тази сума. Така се получава нетно увеличение с 10,65 милиарда тона въглероден диоксид в атмосферата годишно.[8] Въглеродният диоксид е един от парникови газове, който повишава пропускането на радиационните лъчи и допринася за глобалното затопляне. Това води до повишаване на температурите на Земята и е причина за отрицателните ефекти от промяната на климата. Произход[редактиране | edit source] Нефтът и природният газ са се формирали от анаеробното разлагане на останки от организми, включително фитопланктон и зоопланктон, които са населявали дъното на водните басейни в големи количества при безкислородни условия, преди милиони години. През следващи геоложки времена, тази органична материя се смесва с кал и бива погребана под тежките пластове на утайката. В резултат на повишаването на топлината и налягането, причинени от органичната материя възникват химични промени. Първоначално се получава восъкоподобен материал, известен като кероген, който се намира в нефтените шисти, а по-късно под действието на топлината се превръща в течни и газообразни въглеводороди. Процесът на превръщането им е известен като катагенеза. Съществува широка гама от органични или въглеводородни съединения в дадена горивна смес. Специфична смес от въглеводороди, дава на горивото характерни му свойства, като например температура на кипене, температура на топене, плътност, вискозитет и т.н. Някои горива като природния газ, например съдържат газови компоненти с много ниска температура на кипене. Други горива като бензин или дизел, съдържат компоненти с много по-висока точка на кипене. Сухоземните растения от друга страна, са склонни да образуват каменни въглища и метан. Много от въглищните полета днес датират от периода на периода Карбон. Сухоземните растения образуват кероген тип III, който е източник пък на природен газ. Значение[редактиране | edit source] Изкопаемите горива са от голямо значение поради факта, че те горят (процес на окисляване до въглероден двуокис и вода), при което се отделя ценна енергия. Използването на въглища като гориво датира от дълбока древност. Използвани са в пещите за топене на желязна руда. Полутвърдите изкопаеми горива също са използвани като източник на енергия в древността,[9] въпреки че са били предпочитани предимно за хидроизолация и балсамиране.[10] Търговската експлоатация на петрола, до голяма степен започва след като е установено, че може да служи като заместител на ползваните мазнини от животински произход (по-специално на китовата мас), при горенето в лампите за осветление през 19 век.[11] Природният газ дълго време е смятан за вторичен продукт при добива на петрол и е изгарян в атмосферата. Днес обаче се смята за ценен източник на енергия.[12] Тежкият суров петрол, който е много по-вискозен от конвенционалния суров петрол, и катранените пясъци, от които се добива битум днес стават все по-важни източници на изкопаеми горива.[13] Нефтените шисти и други подобни материали на седиментни скали, съдържащи кероген и сложна смес от високомолекулни органични съединения, които се отделят при добива на суров петрол стават все по-ценни за употреба с търговска цел.[14] Тези горива могат да се използват при двигатели с вътрешно горене, топлоелектрически централи и други. Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Dr. Irene Novaczek. Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency. // Elements. - ↑ Fossil fuel. - ↑ Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields," in Michel T. Halbouty (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990-1999, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.50, accessed 22 June 2009. - ↑ Dr. Irene Novaczek. Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency. // Elements. - ↑ Fossil fuel. Архив на оригинала от March 12, 2007. - ↑ U.S. EIA International Energy Statistics. - ↑ International Energy Annual 2006. - ↑ US Department of Energy on greenhouse gases. - ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, use of oil seeps in accient times. - ↑ Bilkadi, Zayn. [{{{url}}} BULLS FROM THE SEA : Ancient Oil Industries]. // Aramco World, 1994. Архив на оригинала от 2007-11-13. - ↑ Ball, Max W. и др. This Fascinating Oil Business. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1965. - ↑ Kaldany,, Rashad, Director Oil, Gas, Mining and Chemicals Dept, World Bank. Global Gas Flaring Reduction: A Time for Action!. // Global Forum on Flaring & Gas Utilization. Paris, December 13, 2006. - ↑ Oil Sands Global Market Potential 2007. - ↑ US Department of Energy plans for oil shale development. // Архив на оригинала от August 13, 2007.
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Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years.[4] Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.[5] They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants[6] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years[7] (see biogenic theory) was first introduced by Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century. The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.[8] Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%.[9] World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year. Strictly speaking, fossil fuels are a renewable resource. They are continually being formed via natural processes as plants and animals die and then decompose and become trapped beneath sediment. However, fossil fuels are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).[10] Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Origin Petroleum and natural gas are formed by the anaerobic decomposition of remains of organisms including phytoplankton and zooplankton that settled to the sea (or lake) bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions, millions of years ago. Over geological time, this organic matter, mixed with mud, got buried under heavy layers of sediment. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components. Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Importance Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to carbon dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit weight. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times,[12] but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.[13] Commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources (notably whale oil), for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century.[14] Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource.[15] Natural gas deposits are also the main source of the element helium. Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and tar sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, are becoming more important as sources of fossil fuel.[16] Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). These materials have yet to be exploited commercially.[17] These fuels can be employed in internal combustion engines, fossil fuel power stations and other uses. Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, and burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads. Reserves Levels of primary energy sources are the reserves in the ground. Flows are production of fossil fuels from these reserves. The most important part of primary energy sources are the carbon based fossil energy sources. Coal, oil, and natural gas provided 79.6% of primary energy production during 2002 (in million tonnes of oil equivalent (mtoe)) (34.9+23.5+21.2). Levels (proved reserves) during 2005–2006 - Coal: 997,748 million short tonnes (905 billion metric tonnes),[18] 4,416 billion barrels (702.1 km3) of oil equivalent - Oil: 1,119 billion barrels (177.9 km3) to 1,317 billion barrels (209.4 km3)[19] - Natural gas: 6,183–6,381 trillion cubic feet (175–181 trillion cubic metres),[19] 1,161 billion barrels (184.6×109 m3) of oil equivalent Flows (daily production) during 2006 - Coal: 18,476,127 short tonnes (16,761,260 metric tonnes),[20] 52,000,000 barrels (8,300,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day - Natural gas: 104,435 billion cubic feet (2,963 billion cubic metres),[22] 19,000,000 barrels (3,000,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day Limits and alternatives P. E. Hodgson, a Senior Research Fellow Emeritus in Physics at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, expects the world energy use is doubling every fourteen years and the need is increasing faster still and he insisted in 2008 that the world oil production, a main resource of fossil fuel, is expected to peak in ten years and thereafter fall.[23] The principle of supply and demand holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may become economically viable in the near future. Different alternative sources of energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal. Environmental effects The U.S. holds less than 5% of the world's population, but due to large houses and private cars, uses more than a quarter of the world's supply of fossil fuels.[24] In the United States, more than 90% of greenhouse gas emissions come from the combustion of fossil fuels.[25] Combustion of fossil fuels also produces other air pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals. According to Environment Canada: "The electricity sector is unique among industrial sectors in its very large contribution to emissions associated with nearly all air issues. Electricity generation produces a large share of Canadian nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions, which contribute to smog and acid rain and the formation of fine particulate matter. It is the largest uncontrolled industrial source of mercury emissions in Canada. Fossil fuel-fired electric power plants also emit carbon dioxide, which may contribute to climate change. In addition, the sector has significant impacts on water and habitat and species. In particular, hydro dams and transmission lines have significant effects on water and biodiversity."[26] According to U.S. Scientist Jerry Mahlman and USA Today: Mahlman, who crafted the IPCC language used to define levels of scientific certainty, says the new report will lay the blame at the feet of fossil fuels with "virtual certainty," meaning 99% sure. That's a significant jump from "likely," or 66% sure, in the group's last report in 2001, Mahlman says. His role in this year's effort involved spending two months reviewing the more than 1,600 pages of research that went into the new assessment.[27] Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate. Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal.[28] It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident.[29] Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide variety of applications, utilizing, for example, about 40% of the US production.[30] Harvesting, processing, and distributing fossil fuels can also create environmental concerns. Coal mining methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining, have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to aquatic organisms. Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution. Transportation of coal requires the use of diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker ships, each of which requires the combustion of additional fossil fuels. Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to limit these emissions, such as command-and-control (which mandates the amount of pollution or the technology used), economic incentives, or voluntary programs. An example of such regulation in the USA is the "EPA is implementing policies to reduce airborne mercury emissions. Under regulations issued in 2005, coal-fired power plants will need to reduce their emissions by 70 percent by 2018.".[31] In economic terms, pollution from fossil fuels is regarded as a negative externality. Taxation is considered one way to make societal costs explicit, in order to 'internalize' the cost of pollution. This aims to make fossil fuels more expensive, thereby reducing their use and the amount of pollution associated with them, along with raising the funds necessary to counteract these factors.[citation needed] According to Rodman D. Griffin, “The burning of coal and oil have saved inestimable amounts of time and labor while substantially raising living standards around the world”.[32] Although the use of fossil fuels may seem beneficial to our lives, this act is playing a role on global warming and it is said to be dangerous for the future.[32] Moreover, these environmental pollutions impacts on the human beings because its particles of the fossil fuel on the air cause negative health effects when inhaled by people. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. So, the poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and people with preexisting respiratory disease and other ill health, are more at risk.[33] Economical effects Europe spent on importing fossil fuels €406 billion in 2011 (bn) and €545 bn in 2012. This is around three times more than the cost of the Greek bailout up to 2013. In 2012 wind energy in Europe avoided €9.6 billion (bn) of fossil fuel costs. See also - Atmosphere of Earth the atmospheric gases. - Abiogenic petroleum origin proposes that petroleum is not a fossil fuel - Bioremediation - C. Arden Pope - Curbing fossil fuel usage - Fossil Fools Day - Fossil fuel drilling - Fossil fuel exporters - Fossil fuels lobby - Carbon bubble - Carbon based fuel - Clinker (waste) - Oil reserves - Upstream and downstream References - ^ a b http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2002.tot - ^ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. - ^ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. - ^ Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, and Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields," in Michel T. Halbouty (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990–1999, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 50, accessed 22 June 2009. - ^ "Fossil fuel". ScienceDaily. - ^ Novaczek, Irene (September 2000). "Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency". Elements. - ^ "Fossil fuel". EPA. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. - ^ "U.S. EIA International Energy Statistics". - ^ "International Energy Annual 2006". - ^ "What Are Greenhouse Gases?". US Department of Energy. - ^ Oil fields map. quakeinfo.ucsd.edu - ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica, use of oil seeps in ancient times". - ^ Bilkadi, Zayn (1992). "BULLS FROM THE SEA : Ancient Oil Industries". Aramco World. Archived from the original on 2007-11-13. - ^ Ball, Max W.; Douglas Ball; Daniel S. Turner (1965). This Fascinating Oil Business. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. - ^ Kaldany, Rashad, Director Oil, Gas, Mining and Chemicals Dept, World Bank (December 13, 2006). "Global Gas Flaring Reduction: A Time for Action!" Global Forum on Flaring & Gas Utilization. Paris. - ^ "Oil Sands Global Market Potential 2007". - ^ "US Department of Energy plans for oil shale development". Archived from the original on August 13, 2007. - ^ World Estimated Recoverable Coal. eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 2012-01-27. - ^ a b World Proved Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates. eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 2012-01-27. - ^ Energy Information Administration. International Energy Annual 2006 (XLS file). eia.doe.gov - ^ Energy Information Administration. World Petroleum Consumption, Annual Estimates, 1980–2008 (XLS file). October 6, 2009. eia.doe.gov - ^ Energy Information Administration. International Energy Annual 2006 (XLS file). eia.doe.gov - ^ Hodgson, P. "Nuclear Power and Energy Crisis". Modern Age 50 (3): 238. - ^ "The State of Consumption Today". Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved March 30, 2012. - ^ Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–1998, Rep. EPA 236-R-00-01. US EPA, Washington, DC - ^ "Electricity Generation". Environment Canada. - ^ O'Driscoll, Patrick; Vergano, Dan (2007-03-01). "Fossil fuels are to blame, world scientists conclude". USA Today. - ^ Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger – Alex Gabbard - ^ Nuclear proliferation through coal burning – Gordon J. Aubrecht, II, Ohio State University - ^ American Coal Ash Association. "CCP Production and Use Survey" (PDF). - ^ "Frequently Asked Questions, Information on Proper Disposal of Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs)" (PDF). - ^ a b Griffin, Rodman (10 July 1992). Alternative Energy 2 (2). - ^ Liodakis, E; Dashdorj, Dugersuren; Mitchell, Gary E. (2011). "The nuclear alternative". Energy Production within Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. AIP Conference Proceedings 1342 (1): 91. - ^ Avoiding fossil fuel costs with wind energy EWEA March 2014 External links - "The Coming Energy Crisis?" – essay by James L. Williams of WTRG Economics and A. F. Alhajji of Ohio Northern University - "Powering the Future" – Michael Parfit (National Geographic) - "Federal Fossil Fuel Subsidies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions" - Fossil Fuel Subsidies in Europe - Oil companies hit by 'state' cyber attacks Debate - The Origin of Methane (and Oil) in the Crust of the Earth – Thomas Gold (Internet Archives) - Abiotic theory debunked "fossil fuel" myth