http___en.wikipedia.org_wiki_History_of_Australia__1788_E2_80_931850_.xml
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История на Австралия История на Австралия е термин, който се отнася до историята на областта и народа на днешния Австралийския съюз и предходните местни и колониални общества, населявали едноименния континент. За аборигените, населяващи Австралия, се смята, че са пристигнали за първи път на континента с лодки от Индонезийския архипелаг, преди 40 — 60 хил. години. Те създават едни от най-дълго съществуващите художествени, музикални и духовни традиции, известни на Земята. Първото безспорна експедиция на европейци до Австралия е на холандския навигатор Вилем Янсзон през 1606 г. Експедициите на европейските изследователи следват периодично, и през 1770 г. Джеймс Кук картографира източното крайбрежие на Австралия за Великобритания, като се завръща с описания и разкази, благоприятстващи бъдещата колонизация в Ботани Бей (сега в Сидни), Нови Южен Уелс. Първи флот на британските кораби пристига в Сидни през януари 1788 г. за да основе наказателна колония (каторга). По-късно през 19 век, на континента са създадени други колонии от Великобритания, и европейските изследователи навлизат дълбоко във вътрешността на континента. Донесените болести от европейците и конфликтите с британските колонисти значително намаляват местното население, през целия период на колонизацията. Златната треска в Австралия и бурното развитие на селското стопанство спомагат за установяването в средата на 19 век на автономна парламентарна демокрация в шестте британски колонии. През 1901 г. колониите гласуват с референдум за обединение във федерация, което е появата на съвременната държава Австралия. Федерацията воюва на страната на Великобритания по време на двете световни войни и е дългогодишен съюзник на САЩ, когато е застрашена от Япония по време на Втората световна война. Търговията с Азия се увеличава и след войната страната развива мултикултурна имиграционна програма, като пристигат повече от 6,5 милиона имигранти от всички континенти. Населението се увеличава близо три пъти през последните шест десетилетия, до около 21 милиона души през 2010 г. — с хора, произхождащи от близо 200 страни, които поддържат 14-та по големина икономика в света. [редактиране] Аборигените преди контактите с европейците За предците на коренното австралийско население се смята, че са пристигнали в Австралия в периода преди 40 до 60 хил. години, но има вероятност това да е станало още преди 70 хил. години. [2][3] Те развиват общества на ловци-събирачи, използват технологии от каменната епоха и установяват трайни религиозни и артистични традиции. По време на първия контакт с европейците, за населението се смята, че е най-малко 350 000,[4][5]докато последните археологически находки показват, че устойчивият брой на населението по това време би могъл да е 750 000 души.[6][7] Хората най-вероятно са пристигнали по море, по време на ледниковия период, когато Нова Гвинея и Тасмания са съединени с континента. Разстоянието до Австралия все пак е изисквало и пътуване по море обаче, което прави тези хора едни от първите мореплаватели в света.[8] Най-голяма гъстота местното население достига в южните и източните райони на Австралия, и най-вече в долината на река Мъри. Аборигените живеят и използват ресурсите на континента, като на определени периоди прекратяват лова и събирачеството, за да се даде възможност на животинските популации и ресурсите да се възстановяват. Аборигените са сред най-старите, най-постоянните и най-изолираните общества на Земята, до появата на първите европейци. Пристигането на първите хора в Австралия въпреки това се отразява значително, и може би, заедно с промените в климата, допринася най-много за изчезването на австралийската мегафауна.[9] Внасянето на кучето динго от аборигените преди около 3 000—4 000 години, заедно с лова, може да е допринесло за изчезването на видове като тасманийския вълк, тасманийския дявол и тасманийската кокошка от континенталната част на Австралия.[10][11] Най-ранните човешки останки открити до момента, са тези, намерени в езерото Мънго, сухо езеро в югозападната част на Нови Южен Уелс.[12] Останките, открити в Мънго, разкриват една от най-старите кремации в света, което е ранно доказателство за религиозни ритуали сред хората на континента.[13] Според митологията на аборигените и анимистичните представи на потомците на тези ранни австралийци, Сънуването е свещената епоха, през която е извършено Сътворението на света. Па време на Сънуването са създадени законите и структурите на обществото, както и церемониите, провеждани с цел осигуряване на връзката между живота и земята. Това е религиозно схващане, каоето е било и продължава да бъде важна черта на австралийското аборигенско изкуство. За аборигенското изкуство се смята, че е най-старата традиция на изкуството в света.[14] Доказателствата за това могат да бъдат проследени най-малко 30 000 години назад и могат да бъдат открити в цяла Австралия (най-вече в Улуру и Националния парк „Какаду“ в Северната територия).[15][16] По отношение на възрастта и изобилието на находките, пещерното изкуство в Австралия е сравнимо с това на пещерите Ласко и Алтамира в Европа.[17][18] Въпреки значителната културна приемственост, животът за аборигените не протича без съществени промени. Преди около 10-12 000 години, Тасмания е изолирана от сушата на континента, и някои технологии, развити сред аборигените в Австралия, не достигат до тасманийците (например слагането на дръжки на каменните сечива и употребата на бумеранга).[19] Аборигените от Югоизточна Австралия понасят повече от дузина вулканични изригвания (включително това на планината Гамбие, преди 1400 години).[20] До 1788 г., в Австралия има около 250 отделни народи, много от които са в съюз помежду си, а всеки народ има по няколко клана — от 5-6 до 30 или 40. Всеки народ има свой собствен език, като малко народи говорят общ език, и по този начин съществуват повече от 250 езика, около 200 от които вече са изчезнали. [редактиране] Европейски експедиции и колонизация [редактиране] Ранни европейски изследователи Според някои автори, първите европейци са стъпили в Австралия през 16 век. Кенет Макинтайър и други твърдят, че португалците тайно са открили Австралия през 1520-те години.[21] Наличието на земя, носеща името "Jave la Grande" на картите от Диеп, често се цитира като доказателство към тази теория. Въпреки това, трябва да се има предвид, че тези карти отразяват незавършения вид на географските познания по това време, както фактическите, така и теоретичните[22] — спорно е дали Jave la Grande не е хипотетично понятие, което отразява представите на космографията от 16 век. Въпреки, че теориите за посещения от европейци преди началото на 17 век продължават да привличат интерес и са популярни в Австралия и на други места, те обикновено се считат за спорни и без съществени доказателства в тяхна подкрепа. За първото безспорно стъпване на европеец в Австралия се смята експедицията на холандеца Вилем Янсзон през 1606 г.[23] През същата година, испанеца Луис Ваес де Торес преминава през протока с Папуа-Нова Гвинея, наречен по-късно на негово име, и е възможно да е видял северните брегове на континента.[24] Откритията на Янсзон насърчават други мореплаватели, сред които холандеца Абел Тасман, за по-нататъшно картографиране и изследване на района. През 1616 г., холандския мореплавател Дирк Хартог се отдалечава твърде далеч при плаването си по наскоро открития от Хендерик Брауер маршрут от нос Добра надежда до Батавия (днес Джакарта в Индонезия). Достигайки до западния бряг на континента, той стъпва на сушата на нос Инскрипшън на 25 октомври 1616 г. Хартог е първия европеец, за когото е документирано, че е достигнал бреговете на Западна Австралия. Макар, че Абел Тасман е най-известен с експедицията си от 1642 г., с която той става първият европеец, достигнал островите Земя Ван Димен (по-късно Тасмания), Нова Зеландия, и Фиджи, той също така значително допринася за картографирането на Австралия. С три кораба („Лимен“, „Зеемеув“ и тендера „Брак“), при второто си пътешествие през 1644 г., Тасман следва южния бряг на Нова Гвинея от запад. Той не преминава през Торесовия проток, но продължава своето пътешествие по крайбрежието на Австралия и картографира северния ѝ бряг, изследвайки земята и хората, живеещи там.[25] До 50-те години на 17 век, в резултат на холандските открития, по-голямата част от австралийския бряг е картографирана достатъчно надеждно според тогавашните навигационни стандарти, и това става достъпно за всички в картата на света, инкрустирана през 1655 г. на пода на Burgerzaal в сградата на новото кметство на Амстердам. Въпреки, че са правени многобройни предложения за колонизация, най-вече от Пиер Пюри — от 1717 до 1744 г., официално не е извършен нито един опит[26] — местното австралийско население представлява по-малък интерес и не може да търгува с европейците като народите на Индия, Източните Индии, Китай или Япония. Холандската източноиндийска компания заключава, че „няма какво да се прави там“. Тя изоставя схемата на Пюри за колонизация с коментара, че „в нея няма изгледи за полза или приходи за компанията, а по-скоро сигурни и тежки разходи.“. С изключение на холандските посещения на запад, Австралия остава до голяма степен неизвестна за европейците до първите британски изследвания. През 1769 г., лейтенант Джеймс Кук, начело на кораба „Индевър“, пътува до Таити, за да наблюдава и води записки за преминаването на Венера пред диска на Слънцето. Кук също така носи секретни инструкции от Адмиралтейството, да намери предполагаемия Южен континент[27]: „Има основания да се смята, че континент или голяма земя, може да се намери южно от пътя на предишните мореплаватели.“.[28] На 19 април 1770 г., екипажът на „Индевър“ забелязва източния бряг на Австралия и десет дни по-късно слиза на сушата в Ботани Бей. Кук картографира източния бряг до голяма степен на север и, заедно с естественика на кораба, Джоузеф Банкс, докладва положително за възможността за основаване на колония в Ботани Бей. През 1772 г., френска експедиция, водена от Луи дьо Сент Елюар, е първата, която официално предявява претенции за западния бряг на Австралия, но след това не са правени опити за колонизация.[29] Амбицията на шведския крал Густав III да създаде колония на брега на река Суон през 1786 г. остава неосъществена.[30] Едва през 1788 г., икономическите, технологичните и политическите условия във Великобритания правят възможно и изгодно за страната да положи големи усилия за изпращането на Първи флот до Нови Южен Уелс.[31] [редактиране] Планове за колонизация Седемнадесет години след слизането на Кук на източния бряг на Австралия, британското правителство решава да основе колония в Ботани Бей. През 1779 г. сър Джоузеф Банкс, изтъкнатият учен, който е придружавал лейтенант Джеймс Кук в експедицията му от 1770 г., препоръчва залива като подходящо място.[32] През юли 1783 г., Банкс приема предложението за помощ от страна на американския привърженик на Короната Джеймс Матра. Матра също е посетил Ботани Бей през 1770 г. като младши офицер на „Индевър“. Под ръководството на Банкс, той написва „Предложение за създаването на селище в Нови Южен Уелс“ (23 август 1783 г.), с голям брой посочени причини за създаването на колония, съставена от американски привърженици на краля, китайци и островитяни от южните морета (но не и каторжници).[33] Някои от изброените от Матра причини, са: страната е подходяща за насаждения със захар, памук и тютюн; новозеландския дървен материал и коноп или лен могат да бъдат ценни стоки за бъдещите колонисти, островът може да е база за търгуване в Тихия океан и заселването тук може да бъде подходяща компансация за изгонените от САЩ американски привърженици на британската корона.[34] След разговор с държавния секретар, лорд Сидни, през 1784 г., Матра внася поправки в предложението си — за включване на затворници като преселници, считайки, че това ще бъде от полза както за обществената икономика, така и за отделните личности.[35] Планът на Матра осигурява първоначалния проект за заселване.[36] Според архивите, британското правителство разглежда плана през 1784 г.[37] Правителството също така включва в плана и основаване на колония на остров Норфолк), с неговите запаси от дървен материал и лен, по предложение на колегите на Банкс от Кралското дружество — сър Джон Кол и сър Джордж Йънг.[38] В същото време, хуманисти и реформатори във Великобритания провеждат кампания срещу ужасяващите условия в британските затвори и затворнически кораби. През 1777 г., реформаторът Джон Хауърд написва „Състоянието на затворите в Англия и Уелс“, разкривайки жестоките условия на системата на затворите пред „благовъзпитаното общество“.[39] Изпращането на каторга вече е утвърдено като основен елемент на английското наказателно право и до Американската революция около хиляда престъпници годишно са изпращани в Мериленд и Вирджиния.[40] Това служи като убедителна причина срещу престъпването на закона. Според историка Дейвид Хил, „европейците тогава знаят малко за географията на света“ и „за затворниците в Англия, транспортирането до Ботани Бей е била стряскаща перспектива.“ Австралия „би могла да бъде и друга планета.“.[41] През 1933 г., сър Ърнест Скот излага традиционната представа за причините за колонизация: „Ясно е, че единственото съображение, което повлиява сериозно на правителството на Пит, е непосредствения натиск за и практичното намиране на подходящо място за колония за осъдените.“.[42] В началото на 1960-те, историкът Джефри Блейни поставя под въпрос традиционния възглед за основаването на колонията единствено като място за стоварване на затворници. Неговата книга „The Tyranny of Distance“[43] предполага, че гарантирането на доставките на лен и дървен материал след загубата на американските колонии, може също да е било достатъчен мотив, а остров Норфолк е бил от ключово значение за решението на британците. Голям брой историци отговорят на тази теория и дебатът изважда наяве голямо количество допълнителни източници за причините за основаването на колонията.[44] Решението за основаването на колония е взето, когато изглежда, че избухването на гражданската война в Холандия може да предизвика конфликт, в който Великобритания отново да бъде изправена пред съюза на трите морски сили — Франция, Холандия и Испания, които са я победили през 1783 г. При тези обстоятелства, стратегическите предимства на колония в Нови Южен Уелс, описани в предложението на Джеймс Матра, изглеждат привлекателни.[45] Матра пише, че такава колония би могла да благоприятства атаките над испанците в Южна Америка и Филипините, както и срещу Холандска Източна Индия.[46] През 1790 г., по време на Инцидента Нутка, са направени планове за военни експедиции срещу испанските владения в Северна и Южна Америка и Филипините, в които Нови Южен Уелс е включен в ролята на база за „попълване с пресни провизии, съобщения и оттегляне“. При последващите случаи в началото на 19 век, когато започва или има опасност да започне война между Великобритания и Испания, тези планове се подновяват, и само кратката продължителност на военните действия в отделните случаи, им попречва да бъдат приведени в действие.[47] Германският учен и книжовник Георг Форстер, който плава под командването на капитан Джеймс Кук в пътешествието му с Резолюшън, пише през 1786 г. за бъдещите перспективи на английската колония: „Нова Холандия, остров с огромни размери или, ако може да се каже, една трета от континент, е бъдещата родина на ново цивилизовано общество, което, макар и началото му да изглежда бъдещо, има изгледи в рамките на кратко време да придобие първостепенна важност.“ [48] През декември 1789 г., търговецът-авантюрист и кандидат за колонизатор на Югозападна Австралия, Уилям Болтс, казва на шведския посланик в Париж, Ерик фон Щал, че британците са основали в Ботани Бей „селище, което с течение на времето ще придобие голямо значение за световната търговия.“. [редактиране] Основаване на британските колонии Територията, за която претендират британците, включва цяла Австралия източно от 135-ия меридиан и.ш. и всички острови в Тихия океан между ширините на нос Йорк и южния край на Земя Ван Димен (дн. Тасмания) — огромна по площ претенция, която предизвиква големи вълнения по това време: холандският преводач на книгата на офицера от Първи флот Уоткин Тенч, „Описание на експедицията до Ботани Бей“, пише: „...отделна провинция, която, извън всякакво съмнение, е най-голямата на цялата земя. Според техните определения, тя покрива, в най-голямата си ширина от изток на запад, почти една четвърт от цялата повърхност на земното кълбо.“.[50] Испанският мореплавател Алесандро Маласпина, който посещава Сидни през март–април 1793 г. докладва на неговото правителство, че: „Транспортирането на осъдените представлява средство, а не цел на начинанието. Разширяването на властта, търговските спекулации и откриването на мини са реалната цел.“.[51] Французинът Франсоа Перон, по време на експедицията на Никола-Тома Боден, посещава Сидни през 1802 г. и пише до френското правителство: Как може да се допусне такова чудовищно посегателство да бъде извършено, без да се направят оплаквания в Европа, за да се протестира срещу това? Как може да се допусне Испания, която преди това е повдигнала толкова много възражения против окупацията на Малвините [ Фолкландските острови ], сега покорно да разреши издигането на огромна империя срещу най-богатите си владения, една империя, която най-вероятно или ще ги нападне или ще ги освободи?[52] Колонията включва и сегашните острови на Нова Зеландия. През 1817 г., британското правителство оттегля обширните си териториални претенции над Южния Пасифик. На практика, разпорежданията на губернатора не важат на островите в южната част на Тихия океан.[53] Църковното мисионерско общество изпитва загриженост за зверствата, извършени срещу местното население на островите в южните морета, както и за неспособността на управата на Нови Южен Уелс да се справи с беззаконието. В резултат на това, на 27 юни 1817 г., парламентът гласува „Закон за по-ефикасни наказания за умишлени и непредумишлени убийства, извършени в рамките на места извън доминионите на Нейно Величество“, който описва Таити, Нова Зеландия и другите острови от южната част на Тихия океан, като територии извън рамките на доминионите.[54] [редактиране] Нови Южен Уелс Британската колония Нови Южен Уелс е създадена през януари 1788 г., с пристигането на Първия флот, състоящ се от 11 кораба, под командването на капитан Артър Филип. В корабите има над хиляда заселници, включително 778 затворници (192 жени и 586 мъже)[55]. Няколко дни след пристигането в Ботани Бей, флотът се премества в по-подходящото пристанище Порт Джаксън, където, на 26 януари 1788 г., в Сидни Коув е създадено първото селище.[56] Тази дата по-късно става национален празник на съвременната държава, Денят на Австралия. Колонията е официално обявена от губернатора Филип на 7 февруари, 1788 г. в Сидни. Заливът на Сидни предлага запаси от прясна вода и сигурно пристанище, което Филип много добре описва като:[57] Губернаторът Филип е натоварен с абсолютни правомощия, по отношение на жителите на колонията. Филип, който е просветен за времето си, има намерение да установи хармонични отношения с местните аборигени и да промени и превъзпита осъдените, изпратени в колонията. Губернаторът, както и някои от служителите му, най-вече Уоткин Тенч, оставят след себе си дневици и отчети, които описват огромните трудности в първите години на заселването. Често офицерите на Филип изпитват отчаяние за бъдещето на Нови Южен Уелс. Първите земеделски опити са отчайващи, а доставките отвъд морето са малко и редки. Между 1788 и 1792 г. около 3546 мъже и 766 жени затворници са изпратени в Сидни — много „професионални престъпници“, които обаче почти нямат умения, необходими при създаването на колония. Също така, много от новопристигналите са болни или негодни за работа, а условията за здравите затворници се влошават допълнително от тежкия труд и лошата храна в селището. Ситуацията с прехраната достига критична точка през 1790 г. — Втория флот, който най-накрая пристига през юни 1790 г., е загубил една четвърт от своите „пътници“ поради болести, а състоянието на осъдените, докарани от Третия флот, ужасява Филип. От 1791 г. обаче, по-редовното пристигане на корабите и началото на търговията намалява чувството на изолация и увеличава запасите.[58] Филип изпраща изследователски мисии в търсене на по-плодородни земи и насочва вниманието си към района на Парамата, като перспективна област за разширяване на колонията. От края на 1788 г., той премества много от осъдените за създаването на малък град, който се превръща в основен център на икономическия живот на колонията, оставяйки Сидни Коув само като важно пристанище и център на обществения живот. Лошото оборудване и непознатите почви и климат продължават да създават пречки за увеличаването на обработваемите площи от Фарм Коув до Парамата и Тунгаби, но строителната програма, извършвана с труда на осъдените, постоянно напредва. Между 1788 и 1792 г., затворниците и техните тъмничари съставят по-голямата част от населението, но след това броят на освободените затворници, на които може да се предостави земя, започва да расте и тези хора проправят пътя на неправителствената частна икономика. По-късно към тях се присъединяват войници, чиято военна служба е изтекла, и накрая — свободни колонисти, които започват да пристигат от Великобритания. Губернаторът Филип отплава от колонията за Англия на 11 декември 1792 г., оставяйки зад себе си ново селище, оцеляло след близо четири години глад и почти пълна изолация.[58] [редактиране] Вижте още Хронологична таблица за откриването и изследването на Австралия [редактиране] Бележки - ↑ http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/overview.html - ↑ Hiscock, Peter. Archaeology of Ancient Australia. Routledge. London. - ↑ Mulvaney, John; Kamminga, Johan. Prehistory of Australia. Allen and Unwin. Sydney. - ↑ L. Smith. The Aboriginal Population of Australia. Australian National University Press. Canberra. - ↑ Blainey, Geoffrey. Triumph of the Nomads: A history of Ancient Australia. Sun Books. Авторът цитира изследване от 1930-те години на антрополога A. Радклиф-Браун. В бележката под линия, той изчислява, че от 28 000 пр.н.е. повече от 300 милиона аборигени са обитавали Австралия, а населението през 1788 г. е 300 000 души. - ↑ 1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 2002 Australian Bureau of Statistics 25 January 2002 - ↑ also see other historians including Noel Butlin (1983) Our Original Aggression George Allen and Unwin, Sydney. - ↑ Laidlaw, Ron. Aboriginal Society before European settlement. Tim Gurry (ed)(1984) The European Occupation.. Heinemann Educational Australia. Richmond. стр.40. - ↑ http://www.abc.net.au/science/features/megafauna/ - ↑ http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/mammals/dingo/ - ↑ Short, J. Kinnearb; Robleyc, Alan. Surplus killing by introduced predators in Australia—evidence for ineffective anti-predator adaptations in native prey species? - ↑ New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. "Nature". бр. 421. - ↑ Bowler, J.M. Pleistocene salinities and climatic change: Evidence from lakes and lunettes in southeastern Australia. In: Mulvaney, D.J. and Golson, J., Aboriginal Man and Environment in Australia. Canberra: Australian National University Press. 1971 г. стр. 47-65. - ↑ The Indigenous Collection. The Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia. National Gallery of Victoria. - ↑ Нац. парк „Какаду“ - ↑ Улуру - ↑ Indigenous art Australian Culture and Recreation Portal. Australia Government - ↑ The-spread-of-people-to-Australia/ - ↑ Clark, Julia. "Aboriginal People of Tasmania", стр.3 в Aboriginal Australia. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission. 1992 г. - ↑ Broome, Richard. Arriving. 1984 г. стр. 6 - ↑ McIntyre, K. The Secret Discovery of Australia, Portuguese ventures 200 years before Cook. Souvenir Press. Menindie. 1977 г. - ↑ Robert J. King, "The Jagiellonian Globe, a Key to the Puzzle of Jave la Grande", The Globe: Journal of the Australian Map Circle, no.62, 2009, pp.1-50. - ↑ J.P.Sigmond, L.H.Zuiderbaan. Dutch Discoveries of Australia.Rigby Ltd. Australia. 1979 г. стр. 19-30. - ↑ discover_collections - ↑ Dictionary of Australian Biography. Abel Tasman. Dictionary of Australian Biography. Abel Tasman - ↑ Purry, John Peter. A Method for Determining the Best Climate of the Earth. London. 1744 г. - ↑ Cook, Andrew. An account of the discoveries made in the South Pacifick Ocean / by Alexander Dalrymple. Potts Point (NSW). Hordern House Rare Books for the Australian National Maritime Museum. 1996 г., стр. 38–9. - ↑ A.G.L.Shaw. The Story of Australia. Faber and Faber. London. 1992 г. - ↑ Ducksey C. Cowan, John C. Camm. Objects & History of the Voyage of Mm. Yves de Kerguelen and Francois Alesne de Saint Allouarn in the Australian Seas. Paris. 1934 г. - ↑ Robert J. King. "Gustaf III’s Australian Colony". The Great Circle, vol.27. no.2. 2005 г., стр.3-20 - ↑ Campbell Macknight. "A Useless Discovery? Australia and its People in the Eyes of Others from Tasman to Cook". The Globe. бр. 61. 2008 г. стр. 1-10. - ↑ Gascoigne, John. Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution. Melbourne. Cambridge University Press. 1998 г. стр. 187. - ↑ Harold B. Carter. "Banks, Cook and the Eighteenth Century Natural History Tradition", in Tony Delamotte and Carl Bridge (eds.), Interpreting Australia: British Perceptions of Australia since 1788. London. Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies. 1988 г. стр. 4-23. - ↑ James Matra, 23 August 1783, National Archives, Kew, Colonial Office, Original Correspondence, CO 201/1: 57 61; reproduced in Jonathan King, "In the Beginning..." The Story of the Creation of Australia, From the Original Writings. Melbourne. Macmillan. 1985 г. стр.18. - ↑ Matra to Fox, 2 April 1784. British Library, Add. Ms 47568; an abridgement of this second version of Matra’s proposal was published in issues of The General Advertiser of 12, 13, 17 and 14 October 1786, accessible at: www.nla.gov.au/app/eresources/item/3304 - ↑ Alan Atkinson, "The first plans for governing New South Wales, 1786-87", Australian Historical Studies, vol.24, no.94, April 1990, pp. 22-40, p.31. - ↑ ‘Memo. of matters to be brought before Cabinet’, State Library of New South Wales, Dixon Library Add. MS Q522; Alan Atkinson, "The first plans for governing New South Wales, 1786-87", Australian Historical Studies, vol.24, no.94, April 1990, pp. 22-40, p.31., dated and photoduplicated in Alan Frost, "Historians, Handling Documents, Transgressions and Transportable Offences", Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, Oct.1992, pp.192-213, pp.208-9. - ↑ Robert J. King, "Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770-1814", The Great Circle, vol.25, no.2, 2003, pp.20-41. - ↑ David Hill.(2008) 1788; The Brutal Truth of the First Fleet. p.9. William Heinemann, Australia. - ↑ David Hill (2008) стр. 11 - ↑ Sir Ernest Scott, Australia, J. Holland Rose et al., Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 7, Part 1, Cambridge University Press, 1933, (reissued 2010), p.58. - ↑ Geoffrey Blainey (1966) The Tyranny of Distance; How Distance shaped Australia’s History. Sun Books, Melbourne. Reprinted 1982. - ↑ See a range of historians' views in Ged Martin (1981) The Founding of Australia: Argument about Australia's Origins Hale & Iremonger, Sydney. See also David Mackay, A Place of Exile: The European Settlement of New South Wales, Melbourne, Oxford UP, 1985; Alan Atkinson, "The first plans for governing New South Wales, 1786-87", Australian Historical Studies, vol.24, no.94, April 1990, pp. 22-40; Alan Frost, "Historians, Handling Documents, Transgressions and Transportable Offences", Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, Oct.1992, pp.192-213, p.199; David Mackay, ‘"Banished to Botany Bay": the fate of the relentless historian’, Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, Oct.1992, pp. 214-216; and Alan Frost, "A Fit of Absence of Mind? The decision to colonise Botany Bay, 1779-1786", Botany Bay Mirages: Illusions of Australia’s Convict Beginnings, Melbourne University Press, 1994, pp.98-109; and Alan Frost, Botany Bay: The Real Story, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2011, ISBN 978-1-86395-512-6. - ↑ Alan Frost, Convicts & Empire: A Naval Question, 1776 1811, Melbourne, Oxford U.P., 1980, pp.115-116, 129; Robert J. King, "'Ports of Shelter and refreshment...' Botany Bay and Norfolk Island in British Naval Strategy, 1786 1808", [Australian] Historical Studies, vol.72, no.87, 1986, pp.199-213. - ↑ James Matra, 23 August 1783, National Archives, Kew, Colonial Office, Original Correspondence, CO 201/1, ff.57, 61; reproduced in Jonathan King, "In the Beginning..." The Story of the Creation of Australia, From the Original Writings, Melbourne, Macmillan, 1985, p. 18. After the intention to found a colony in New South Wales was announced, almost all the English newspapers published this passage from Matra's proposal, and from these it was widely copied in the press of other European countries and in the United States; see The Whitehall Evening Post and The General Advertiser of 12 October 1786; The London Chronicle, The Daily Universal Register, The Morning Chronicle and The Morning Post, of 13 October 1786; The Independent Gazetteer (Philadelphia), 2 January 1787; The Massachusetts Spy, 18 January 1787; The New Hampshire Spy, 16 January 1787; The Charleston Morning Post, 22 January 1787. - ↑ These plans are discussed in Robert J. King, "Spanish America in 18th Century British Naval Strategy and the visit of Malaspina to New South Wales in 1793", in Actas del II Simposio de Historia Marítima y Naval Iberoamericano, noviembre 1993, Viña del Mar, Universidad Marítima de Chile, 1996, pp.1-13; Robert J. King, "An Australian Perspective on the English Invasions of the Rio de la Plata in 1806 and 1807", International Journal of Naval History, vol.8, no.1, April 2009; and in Alan Frost, "Shaking off the Spanish Yoke: British Schemes to Revolutionise Spanish America, 1739-1807", Margarette Lincoln, Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century, Woodbridge, Boydell & Brewer, 2001, pp.19-37. - ↑ Georg Forster, "Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay", Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch, (Berlin,Dezember 1786), English translations at: http://web.mala.bc.ca/Black/AMRC/index.htm?home.htm&2 and at: http://www.australiaonthemap.org.au/content/view/47/59/ - ↑ Уилям Болтс към шведския посланик в Париж, Ерик фон Щал, декември 1789 г., Holden Furber. “In the Footsteps of a German ‘Nabob’: William Bolts in the Swedish Archives”. The Indian Archives. vol.12. nos.1-2. January–December 1958 г. стр. 14-15. - ↑ Beschrijving van den Togt Naar Botany-Baaij....door den Kapitein Watkin Tench, Amsterdam. Martinus de Bruijn. 1789 г. стр. 211. - ↑ Alexandro Malaspina, "Examen Politico de las Colonias Ynglesas en el Mar Pacifico", Museo Naval (Madrid), MS 329, ff.57-88v; MS 318 ff.11-37v; translated in Robert J. King, The Secret History of the Convict Colony: Alexandro Malaspina's report on the British settlement of New South Wales, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia, 1990, pp.95-96. - ↑ François Péron, "Mémoire sur les Établissements Anglais à la Nouvelle Hollande, à la Terre de Diémen et sur les Archipels du Grand Océan Pacifique" [1803], published by Roger Martin in Revue de l'Institut Napoléon, No.176, 1998. - ↑ Historical Records of Australia, Series I, Vol.VIII, 1916, pp.96 118, 623; and Series IV, Vol.I, 1922, pp.103-4. - ↑ Statutes at Large, 57 Geo.III, c.53, p.27; Church Missionary Society to Bathurst [early 1817], Historical Records of New Zealand, Vol.I, pp.417 29; London Missionary Society to Marsden, 5 June 1817, Mitchell Library, Marsden Papers, A1995, Vol.4, p.64, cited in A.T. Yarwood, Samuel Marsden: The Great Survivor, Melbourne, MUP, 1977, p.192; Robert McNab, From Tasman to Marsden, Dunedin, 1914, p.207. - ↑ Rosalind Miles (2001) Who Cooked the Last Supper: The Women's History of the World Three Rivers Press. - ↑ http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/letters/phillip/index.html - ↑ а б http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020292b.htm?hilite=Arthur%3BPhillip
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History of Australia (1788–1850) The history of Australia from 1788–1850 covers the early colonies period of Australia's history, from the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney to establish the penal colony of New South Wales in 1788 to the European exploration of the continent and establishment of other colonies and the beginnings of autonomous democratic government. [edit] Colonisation and convictism [edit] Establishment of the first British Colony A proposal that Britain found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea (or in Terra Australis) to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions, had been put forward in 1766 by Colten Henry in Terra Australia Cognita. Following the loss of the American Colonies after the American Revolutionary War 1775-1783, Great Britain needed to find alternative land for a new British colony. Australia was chosen for settlement, and colonisation began in 1788. Rather than resorting to the use of slavery to build the infrastructure for the new colony, convict labour was used as a cheap and economically viable alternative. It is commonly reported that the colonisation of Australia was driven by the need to address overcrowding in the British prison system; however, it was simply not economically viable to transport prisoners half way around the world for this reason alone.[1] Many convicts were either skilled tradesmen or farmers who had been convicted for trivial crimes and were sentenced to seven years, the time required to set up the infrastructure for the new colony. Convicts were often given pardons prior to or on completion of their sentences and were allocated parcels of land to faBig textrm. Sir William Choale, the eminent scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site.[2] Banks accepted an offer of assistance made by the American Loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Matra had visited Botany Bay with Banks in 1770 as a junior officer on the Endeavour commanded by James Cook. Under Banks’s guidance, he rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (23 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).[3] Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in March 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers.[4] Matra’s plan can be seen to have “provided the original blueprint for settlement in New South Wales”.[5] A cabinet memorandum December 1784 shows the Government had Matra’s plan in mind when considering the erection of a settlement in New South Wales.[6] The London Chronicle of 12 October 1786 said: “Mr. Matra, an Officer of the Treasury, who, sailing with Capt. Cook, had an opportunity of visiting Botany Bay, is the Gentleman who suggested the plan to Government of transporting convicts to that island”. The Government also incorporated into the colonization plan the project for settling Norfolk Island, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks’s Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young.[7] On 13 May, 1787, the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 1530 people (736 convicts, 17 convicts' children, 211 marines, 27 marines' wives, 14 marines' children and about 300 officers and others) under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail for Botany Bay.[8] The Fleet of 11 vessels consisted of over a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men).[9] A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.[10] This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip famously described as:[11] Phillip named the settlement after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Baron Sydney (Viscount Sydney from 1789). The only people at the flag raising ceremony and the formal taking of possession of the land in the name of King George III were Phillip and a few dozen marines and officers from the Supply, the rest of the ship's company and the convicts witnessing it from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet were unable to leave Botany Bay until later on 26 January because of a tremendous gale.[12] The new colony was formally proclaimed as the Colony of New South Wales on 7 February.[13] On 24 January 1788 a French expedition of two ships led by Admiral Jean-François de La Pérouse had arrived off Botany Bay, on the latest leg of a three-year voyage that had taken them from Brest, around Cape Horn, up the coast from Chile to California, north-west to Kamchatka, south-east to Easter Island, north-west to Macao, and on to the Philippines, the Friendly Isles, Hawaii and Norfolk Island.[14] Though amicably received, the French expedition was a troublesome matter for the British, as it showed the interest of France in the new land. Nevertheless, on 2 February Lieutenant King, at Phillip's request, paid a courtesy call on the French and offered them any assistance they may need.[12] The French made the same offer to the British, as they were much better provisioned than the British and had enough supplies to last three years.[12] Neither of these offers was accepted. On 10 March[12] the French expedition, having taken on water and wood, left Botany Bay, never to be seen again. Phillip and La Pérouse never met. La Pérouse is remembered in a Sydney suburb of that name. Various other French geographical names along the Australian coast also date from this expedition. Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Enlightened for his Age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers - most notably Watkin Tench – left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were few and far between. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney – many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its 'passengers' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791 however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.[15] In 1792, two French ships, La Recherche and L'Espérance anchored in a harbour near Tasmania's southernmost point they called Recherche Bay. This was at a time when Britain and France were trying to be the first to discover and colonise Australia. The expedition carried scientists and cartographers, gardeners, artists and hydrographers who, variously, planted, identified, mapped, marked, recorded and documented the environment and the people of the new lands that they encountered at the behest of the fledgling Société D'Histoire Naturelle. European settlement began with a consignment of English convicts, guarded by a detachment of the Royal Marines, a number of whom subsequently stayed in the colony as settlers. Their view of the colony and their place in it was eloquently stated by Captain David Collins: "From the disposition to crimes and the incorrigible character of the major part of the colonists, an odium was, from the first, illiberally thrown upon the settlement; and the word "Botany Bay" became a term of reproach that was indiscriminately cast upon every one who resided in New South Wales. But let the reproach light upon those who have used it as such.... if the honour of having deserved well of one's country be attainable by sacrificing good name, domestic comforts, and dearest connections in her service, the officers of this settlement have justly merited that distinction".[16] [edit] Convicts and free-settlers When the Bellona transport came to anchor in Sydney Cove on 16 January 1793, she brought with her the first immigrant free settlers. They were: Thomas Rose, a farmer from Dorset, his wife and four children; he was allowed a grant of 120 acres; Frederic Meredith, who had formerly been at Sydney with HMS Sirius; Thomas Webb (who had also been formerly at Sydney with the Sirius), his wife, and his nephew, Joseph Webb; Edward Powell, who had formerly been at Sydney with the Lady Juliana, transport, and who married a free woman after his arrival. Thomas Webb and Edward Powell each received a grant of 80 acres; and Joseph Webb and Frederic Meredith received 60 acres each. The conditions they had come out under were that they should be provided with a free passage, be furnished with agricultural tools and implements by the Government, have two years' provisions, and have grants of land free of expense. They were likewise to have the labour of a certain number of convicts, who were also to be provided with two years' rations and one year's clothing from the public stores. The land assigned to them was some miles to the westward of Sydney, at a place named by the settlers, "Liberty Plains". It is now the area covered mainly by the suburbs of Strathfield and Homebush. One in three convicts transported after 1798 was Irish, about a fifth of whom were transported in connection with the political and agrarian disturbances common in Ireland at the time. While the settlers were reasonably well-equipped, little consideration had been given to the skills required to make the colony self-supporting – few of the first wave convicts had farming or trade experience (nor the soldiers), and the lack of understanding of Australia's seasonal patterns saw initial attempts at farming fail, leaving only what animals and birds the soldiers were able to shoot. The colony nearly starved, and Phillip was forced to send a ship to Batavia (Jakarta) for supplies. Some relief arrived with the Second Fleet in 1790, but life was extremely hard for the first few years of the colony. Convicts were usually sentenced to seven or fourteen years' penal servitude, or "for the term of their natural lives". Often these sentences had been commuted from the death sentence, which was technically the punishment for a wide variety of crimes. Upon arrival in a penal colony, convicts would be assigned to various kinds of work. Those with trades were given tasks to fit their skills (stonemasons, for example, were in very high demand) while the unskilled were assigned to work gangs to build roads and do other such tasks. Female convicts were usually assigned as domestic servants to the free settlers, many being forced into prostitution.[17] Where possible, convicts were assigned to free settlers who would be responsible for feeding and disciplining them; in return for this, the settlers were granted land. This system reduced the workload on the central administration. Those convicts who weren't assigned to settlers were housed at barracks such as the Hyde Park Barracks or the Parramatta female factory. Convict discipline was harsh, convicts who would not work or who disobeyed orders were punished by flogging, being put in stricter confinement (e.g. leg-irons), or being transported to a stricter penal colony. The penal colonies at Port Arthur and Moreton Bay, for instance, were stricter than the one at Sydney, and the one at Norfolk Island was strictest of all. Convicts were assigned to work gangs to build roads, buildings, and the like. Female convicts, who made up 20% of the convict population, were usually assigned as domestic help to soldiers. Those convicts who behaved were eventually issued with ticket of leave, which allowed them a certain degree of freedom. Those who saw out their full sentences or were granted a pardon usually remained in Australia as free settlers, and were able to take on convict servants themselves. By 1790 convict James Ruse had begun to successfully farm near Parramatta, the first successful farming enterprise, and he was soon joined by others. The colony began to grow enough food to support itself, and the standard of living for the residents gradually improved. In 1804 the Vinegar Hill convict rebellion was led by around 200 escaped, mostly Irish convicts, although it was broken up quickly by the New South Wales Corps. On 26 January 1808, there was a military rebellion against Governor Bligh led by John Macarthur. Following this, Governor Lachlan Macquarie was given a mandate to restore government and discipline in the colony. When he arrived in 1810, he forcibly deported the NSW Corps and brought the 73rd regiment to replace them. - 13 May 1787 – The 11 ships of the First Fleet leave Portsmouth under the command of Capt Arthur Phillip. Different accounts give varying numbers of passengers but the fleet consisted of at least 1,350 persons of whom 780 were convicts and 570 were free men, women and children and the number included four companies of marines. About 20% of the convicts were women and the oldest convict was 82. About 50% of the convicts had been tried in Middlesex and most of the rest were tried in the county assizes of Devon, Kent and Sussex - 18 January 1788 – The First Fleet arrived in Botany Bay but the landing party was not impressed with the site, and moved the fleet to Port Jackson, landing in Sydney Cove on 26 Jan. 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day) - 1790 – the Second Fleet of convicts arrives in Sydney Cove. - 1791 – Third Fleet of convicts arrives - 1793 – January: the first free settlers arrive in NSW. - 1793 - March–April: visit of the expedition led by Alessandro Malaspina. - 14 June 1825 – the colony of Van Diemen's Land is established in its own right; its name is officially changed to Tasmania on 1 January 1856. The first settlement was made at Risdon, Tasmania on 11 September 1803 when Lieut John Bowen landed with about 50 settlers, crew, soldiers and convicts. The site proved unsuitable and was abandoned in August 1804. Lieut-Col David Collins finally established a successful settlement at Hobart in February 1804 with a party of about 260 people, including 178 convicts. (Collins had previously attempted a settlement in Victoria.) Convict ships were sent from England directly to the colony from 1812 to 1853 and over the 50 years from 1803-1853 around 67,000 convicts were transported to Tasmania. About 14,492 were Irish but many of them had been sentenced in English and Scottish courts. Some were also tried locally in other Australian colonies. The Indefatigable brought the first convicts direct from England on 19 October 1812 and by 1820 there were about 2,500 convicts in the colony. By the end of 1833 the number had increased to 14,900 convicts of whom 1864 were females. About 1,448 held ticket of leave, 6,573 were assigned to settlers and 275 were recorded as "absconded or missing". In 1835 there were over 800 convicts working in chain-gangs at the penal station at Port Arthur which operated from 1830 to 1877. Convicts were transferred to Van Diemen's Land from Sydney and, in later years, from 1841 to 1847, from Melbourne. Between 1826 and 1840, there were at least 19 ship loads of convicts sent from Van Diemen's Land to Norfolk Island and at other times they were sent from Norfolk Island to Van Diemen's Land. - 21 January 1827 – Western Australia was established when a small British settlement was established at King George's Sound (Albany) by Major Edmund Lockyer who was to provide a deterrent to the French presence in the area. On 18 June 1829 the new Swan River Colony was officially proclaimed with Captain James Stirling as the first Governor. Except for the settlement at King George's Sound, the colony was never really a part of NSW. King George's Sound was handed over in 1831. In 1849 the colony was proclaimed a British penal settlement and the first convicts arrived in 1850. Rottnest Island, off the coast of Perth, became the colony's convict settlement in 1838 and was used for local colonial offenders. Around 9,720 British convicts were sent directly to the colony in 43 ships between 1850 and 1868. The convicts were sought by local settlers because of the shortage of labour needed to develop the region. On 9 January 1868, Australia's last convict ship, the Hougoumont brought its final cargo of 269 convicts. Convicts sent to Western Australia were sentenced to terms of 6, 7, 10, 14 and 15 years and some reports suggest that their literacy rate was around 75% as opposed to 50% for those sent to NSW and Tasmania. About a third of the convicts left the Swan River Colony after serving their time. - 1835 – the Proclamation of Governor Bourke, issued by the Colonial Office and sent to the Governor with Despatch 99 of 10 October 1835, implements the doctrine of terra nullius upon which British settlement was based. Reinforcing the British assertion that the land belonged to no one prior to the British Crown taking possession of it, it effectively quashes pre-existing treaties with Aboriginal peoples (e.g. that signed by John Batman). Its publication in the Colony means that from then on, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. Aboriginal people therefore could not sell or assign the land, nor could an individual person acquire it, other than through distribution by the Crown.[18] - 28 December 1836 – the British province of South Australia was established. In 1842 it became a crown colony and on 22 July 1861 its area was extended westwards to its present boundary and more area was taken from New South Wales. South Australia was never a British convict colony and between 1836-1840 about 13,400 immigrants arrived in the area. 24,900 more arrived between 1841-1850. Some escaped convicts did settle in the area and no doubt a number of ex-convicts moved there from other colonies. There were also South Australian convicts who were convicted of colonial offences. - 1841 – New Zealand is separated from New South Wales - 1851 – Victoria is separated from New South Wales (formerly known as the Port Phillip District of NSW. Apart from castaways and runaway convicts in the 1790s, the first attempt at settlement was made on 13 October 1803 by Lieut. David Collins and his party of soldiers and convicts. Harsh conditions convinced him to abandon the settlement in January 1804. He moved on to Tasmania and it was not until the Henty brothers landed in Portland Bay on 19/11/1834 and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne that the Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned on 10 April 1837. The first immigrant ships arrived at Port Phillip in 1839. Apart from those involved in early attempts at settlement in 1803 and 1826, the only convicts sent directly to Victoria from Britain were about 1,750 convicts known as the "Exiles" and they arrived between 1844-1849. They were sometimes called the "Pentonvillians" because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison in England. Many ex-convicts and convicts on Tickets of Leave and Conditional Pardons also moved to Port Phillip from Van Diemen's Land. - 10 December 1859 – Queensland is separated from New South Wales. In 1824 the explorer Lieut. John Oxley took a party of 30 convicts and established a penal colony at Redcliffe. Known as the Moreton Bay Settlement, this later moved to the site now called Brisbane. The name Brisbane Town was in use by 1825 and the main inhabitants in the area were the convicts of the Moreton Bay Penal Station until it was closed in 1839. Around 2,280 convicts were sent to the settlement between 1824–1839 and at the end of 1836 the convict population numbered 337. The first free settlers moved to the district in 1838 and others followed in 1840. - 23 December 1862 – the area of Queensland is increased. - 1863 – control of the Northern Territory is granted to the Province (later State) of South Australia. In 1825 the area occupied today by Northern Territory was incorporated into the colony of New South Wales. It was first settled by Europeans in 1824 at Fort Dundas, Port Essington. Its capital city, Darwin was established in 1869 and was originally known as Palmerston. On 1 January 1911, the Northern Territory as we know it today was separated from South Australia and became part of the Commonwealth of Australia. - 1 January 1901 – the Federation of Australian States to form the Commonwealth of Australia. - 1911 – The Australian Capital Territory is established. [edit] Exploration In October 1795 [George Bass] and [Matthew Flinders], accompanied by William Martin sailed the boat Tom Thumb out of Port Jackson to Botany Bay and explored the Georges River further upstream than had been done previously by the colonists. Their reports on their return led to the settlement of Banks' Town.[20] In March 1796 the same party embarked on a second voyage in a similar small boat, which they also called the Tom Thumb.[21] During this trip they travelled as far down the coast as Lake Illawarra, which they called Tom Thumb Lagoon. They discovered and explored Port Hacking. In 1798-99, Bass and Flinders set out in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island.[22] Aboriginal guides and assistance in the European exploration of the colony were common and often vital to the success of missions. In 1801-02 Matthew Flinders in The Investigator lead the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent.[22] Previously, the famous Bennelong and a companion had become the first people born in the area of New South Wales to sail for Europe, when, in 1792 they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented to King George III.[22] In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth succeeded in crossing the formidable barrier of forested gulleys and shere cliffs presented by the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, by following the ridges instead of looking for a route through the valleys. At Mount Blaxland they looked out over "enough grass to support the stock of the colony for thirty years", and expansion of the British settlement into the interior could begin.[23] In 1824 the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales's western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824-25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Victoria.[24] Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', the Murray River, which he named after Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River, facing two threatening encounters with local Aboriginal people along the way. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Suffering greatly, the party had to then row back upstream hundreds of kilometers for the return journey.[25] Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to 'fill in the gaps' left by these previous expeditions. He was meticulous in seeking to record the original Aboriginal place names around the colony, for which reason the majority of place names to this day retain their Aboriginal titles.[26] The Polish scientist/explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kosciuszko.[27] [edit] Growth of free settlement Traditional Aboriginal society had been governed by councils of elders and a corporate decision making process, but the first European-style governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors - although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.[28] The Second Fleet in 1790 brought to Sydney two men who were to play important roles in the colony's future. One was D'Arcy Wentworth, whose son, William Charles, went on to be an explorer, to found Australia's first newspaper and to become a leader of the movement to abolish convict transportation and establish representative government. The other was John Macarthur, a Scottish officer (and distant relative of General Douglas MacArthur) and one of the founders of the Australian wool industry, which laid the foundations of Australia's future prosperity. Macarthur was a turbulent element: in 1808 he was one of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion against the governor, William Bligh. From about 1815 the colony, under the governorship of Lachlan Macquarie, began to grow rapidly as free settlers arrived and new lands were opened up for farming. Despite the long and arduous sea voyage, settlers were attracted by the prospect of making a new life on virtually free Crown land. From the late 1820s settlement was only authorised in the limits of location, known as the Nineteen Counties. Many settlers occupied land without authority and beyond these authorised settlement limits: they were known as squatters and became the basis of a powerful landowning class. As a result of opposition from the labouring and artisan classes, transportation of convicts to Sydney ended in 1840, although it continued in the smaller colonies of Van Diemen's Land (first settled in 1803, later remamed Tasmania) and Moreton Bay (founded 1824, and later renamed Queensland) for a few years more. The Swan River Settlement (as Western Australia was originally known), centred on Perth, was founded in 1829. The colony suffered from a long term shortage of labour, and by 1850 local capitalists had succeeded in persuading London to send convicts. (Transportation did not end until 1868.) New Zealand was part of New South Wales until 1840 when it became a separate colony. Each colony was governed by a British Governor appointed by the British monarch. Most of the administration of the early colonies was done by the military. The military in charge of the colony of New South Wales were known as the Rum Corps on account of their stranglehold on the distribution of Rum, the main currency in the colony at the time. There was considerable unhappiness with the way some of the colonies were run. In New South Wales this led to the Rum Rebellion. The first governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors - although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.[28] The oldest legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 as an appointed body to advise the Governor of New South Wales. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. The reformist attorney general, John Plunkett, sought to apply Enlightenment principles to governance in the colony, pursuing the establishment of equality before the law, first by extending jury rights to emancipists, then by extending legal protections to convicts, assigned servants and Aborigines. Plunkett twice charged the colonist perpetrators of the Myall Creek massacre of Aborigines with murder, resulting in a conviction and his landmark Church Act of 1836 disestablished the Church of England and established legal equality between Anglicans, Catholics, Presbyterians and later Methodists.[29] In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were established. Men who possessed 1000 pounds worth of property were able to stand for election and wealthy landowners were permitted up to four votes each in elections. Australia's first parliamentary elections were conducted for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with voting rights (for males only) tied to property ownership or financial capacity. Voter rights were extended further in New South Wales in 1850 and elections for legislative councils were held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.[30] By the mid 19th century, there was a strong desire for representative and responsible government in the colonies of Australia, later fed by the democratic spirit of the goldfields and the ideas of the great reform movements sweeping Europe, the United States and the British Empire. The end of convict transportation accelerated reform in the 1840s and 1850s. The Australian Colonies Government Act [1850] was a landmark development which granted representative constitutions to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania and the colonies enthusiastically set about writing constitutions which produced democratically progressive parliaments - though the constitutions generally maintained the role of the colonial upper houses as representative of social and economic "interests" and all established Constitutional Monarchies with the British monarch as the symbolic head of state.[31] [edit] Timeline - 1788 – New South Wales, according to Arthur Phillip's amended Commission dated 25 April 1787, includes "all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean" and running westward to the 135th meridian east. These islands included the current islands of New Zealand, which was administered as part of New South Wales.[32] - 1825 – New South Wales western border is extended to 129° E. In the same year Van Diemen's Land proclaimed. - 1829 – Swan River Colony is declared by Charles Fremantle for Britain. - 1832 – Swan River Colony has its name changed to Western Australia. - 1836 – South Australia is proclaimed with its western border at 132° E. - 1840 – New Zealand is proclaimed. - 1846 – The colony of North Australia was proclaimed by Letters Patent on 17 February. This was all of New South Wales north of 26° S. Although revoked in December 1846, the colony did formally exist. [edit] Economy and trade The colonies relied heavily on imports from England for survival. The official currency of the colonies was the British pound, but the unofficial currency and most readily accepted trade good was rum. During this period Australian businessmen began to prosper. For example, the partnership of Berry and Wollstonecraft made enormous profits by means of land grants, convict labour, and exporting native cedar back to England. [edit] Religion, education, and culture Since time immemorial in Australia, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England, but one-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland.[33] A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic. Some of the Irish convicts had been Transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion in Ireland, so the authorities were suspicious of the minority religion for the first three decades of settlement.[34] It was therefore the crew of the French explorer La Pérouse who conducted the first Catholic ceremony on Australian soil in 1788 - the burial of Father Louis Receveur, a Franciscan monk, who died while the ships were at anchor at Botany Bay, while on a mission to explore the Pacific.[35] In early Colonial times, Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, Anglican chaplain to the First Fleet, was charged by the governor, Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony, but he was also heavily involved in health and education.[36] The Reverend Samuel Marsden (1765–1838) had magisterial duties, and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts. He became known as the 'floging parson' for the severity of his punishments[37] Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised by the authorities as Protestant.[38] The first Catholic priest colonists arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800 - James Harold, James Dixon, and Peter O'Neill, who had been convicted for 'complicity' in the Irish 1798 Rebellion. Fr Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass. On 15 May 1803, in vestments made from curtains and with a chalice made of tin he conducted the first Catholic Mass in New South Wales.[38] The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and Dixon's permission to celebrate Mass was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn, an Irish Cistercian, was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland, and set out from Britain for the colony, uninvited. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to the affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the Colony in 1820 - John Joseph Therry and Philip Connolly.[34] The foundation stone for the first St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney was laid on 29 October 1821 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie. The absence of a Catholic mission in Australia before 1818 reflected the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain and the difficult position of Ireland within the British Empire. The government therefore endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early Church in the Colony.[39] The Church of England lost its legal privileges in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the reformist attorney-general John Plunkett, the Act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists.[40] Catholic missionary William Ullathorne criticised the convict system, publishing a pamphlet, The Horrors of Transportation Briefly Unfolded to the People, in Britain in 1837.[41] Laywoman Caroline Chisolm did ecumenical work to alleviate the suffering of female migrants. Initially, education was informal, primarily occurring in the home.[citation needed] At the instigation of the then British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, and with the patronage of King William IV, Australia's oldest surviving independent school, The Kings School, Parramatta, was founded in 1831 as part of an effort to establish grammar schools in the colony.[42] By 1833, there were around ten Catholic schools in the Australian colonies.[34] Today one in five Australian students attend Catholic schools.[43] Sydney's first Catholic Bishop, John Bede Polding requested a community of nuns be sent to the colony and five Irish Sisters of Charity arrived in 1838 to set about pastoral care of convict women and work in schools and hospitals before going on to found their own schools and hospitals.[44] At Polding's request, the Christian Brothers arrived in Sydney in 1843 to assist in schools. Establishing themselves first at Sevenhill, in South Australia in 1848, the Jesuits were the first religious order of priests to enter and establish houses in South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory - where they established schools and missions. Some Australian folksongs date to this period. Among the first true works of Australian literature produced over this period was the accounts of the settlement of Sydney by Watkin Tench, a captain of the marines on the First Fleet to arrive in 1788. In 1819, poet, explorer, journalist and politician William Wentworth published the first book written by an Australian: A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land, With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America,[45] in which he advocated an elected assembly for New South Wales, trial by jury and settlement of Australia by free emigrants rather than convicts. In 1838 The Guardian: a tale by Anna Maria Bunn was published in Sydney. It was the first Australian novel printed and published in mainland Australia and the first Australian novel written by a woman. It is a Gothic romance.[46] European traditions of Australian theatre also came with the First Fleet, with the first production being performed in 1789 by convicts : The Recruiting Officer by George Farquhar.[47] Two centuries later, the extraordinary circumstances of the foundations of Australian theatre were recounted in Our Country's Good by Timberlake Wertenbaker: the participants were prisoners watched by sadistic guards and the leading lady was under threat of the death penalty. The play is based on Thomas Keneally's novel The Playmaker.[47] The Theatre Royal, Hobart, opened in 1837 and it remains the oldest theatre in Australia.[48] The Melbourne Athenaeum is one of the oldest public institutions in Australia, founded in 1839 and it served as library, school of arts and dance hall (and later became Australia's first cinema, screening The Story of the Kelly Gang, the world's first feature film in 1906).[49] The Queen's Theatre, Adelaide opened with Shakespeare in 1841 and is today the oldest theatre on the mainland.[50] [edit] Aboriginal resistance Aboriginal reactions to the sudden arrival of British settlers were varied, but often hostile when the presence of the colonisers led to competition over resources, and to the occupation by the British of Aboriginal lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources led to starvation. By contrast with New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi was seen to legitimise British settlement, no treaty was signed with Aborigines, who never authorised British colonisation. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and it ally, demoralisation".[51] Since the 1980s, the use of the word "invasion" to describe the British colonisation of Australia has been highly controversial. According to Australian Henry Reynolds however, government officials and ordinary settlers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries frequently used words such as "invasion" and "warfare" to describe their presence and relations with Indigenous Australians. In his book The Other Side of the Frontier,[52] Reynolds described in detail armed resistance by Aboriginal people to white encroachments by means of guerilla warfare, beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth. In the early years of colonisation, David Collins, the senior legal officer in the Sydney settlement, wrote of local Aborigines: While they entertain the idea of our having dispossessed them of their residences, they must always consider us as enemies; and upon this principle they [have] made a point of attacking the white people whenever opportunity and safety concurred.[53] In 1847, Western Australian barrister E.W. Landor stated: "We have seized upon the country, and shot down the inhabitants, until the survivors have found it expedient to submit to our rule. We have acted as Julius Caesar did when he took possession of Britain."[54] In most cases, Reynolds says, Aborigines initially resisted British presence. In a letter to the Launceston Advertiser in 1831, a settler wrote: We are at war with them: they look upon us as enemies – as invaders – as oppressors and persecutors – they resist our invasion. They have never been subdued, therefore they are not rebellious subjects, but an injured nation, defending in their own way, their rightful possessions which have been torn from them by force.[55] Reynolds quotes numerous writings by settlers who, in the first half of the nineteenth century, described themselves as living in fear and even in terror due to attacks by Aborigines determined to kill them or drive them off their lands. He argues that Aboriginal resistance was, in some cases at least, temporarily effective; the Aboriginal killings of men, sheep and cattle, and burning of white homes and crops, drove some settlers to ruin. Aboriginal resistance continued well beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, and in 1881 the editor of the Queenslander wrote: During the last four or five years the human life and property destroyed by the aborigines in the North total up to a serious amount. [...] [S]ettlement on the land, and the development of the mineral and other resources on the country, have been in a great degree prohibited by the hostility of the blacks, which still continues with undiminished spirit.[56] Reynolds argues that continuous Aboriginal resistance for well over a century belies the "myth" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Settlers in turn often reacted to Aboriginal resistance with great violence, resulting in numerous indiscriminate massacres by whites of Aboriginal men, women and children.[57] Among the most famous massacres of the early nineteenth century were the Pinjarra massacre and the Myall Creek massacre. Famous Aborigines who resisted British colonisation in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries include Pemulwuy and Yagan. In Tasmania, the "Black War" was fought in the first half of the nineteenth century. [edit] Representations in literature and film - Marcus Clarke's 1874 novel, For the Term of His Natural Life, and the 1983 television adaptation of the novel. - Eleanor Dark's 1947 Timeless Land trilogy, which spans the colonisation from 1788-1811. The 1980s television drama, The Timeless Land, was based on this trilogy. - Willmott, E., 1987, Pemulwuy – the Rainbow Warrior, documenting the white settlement and resistance by Australian Aboriginal people, led by Pemulwuy, a member of the Bidjigal clan in the Sydney area. [edit] See also History of Australia: [edit] References - ^ Alan Frost, “A Fit of Absence of Mind? The decision to colonise Botany Bay, 1779-1786”, Botany Bay Mirages: Illusions of Australia’s Convict Beginnings, Melbourne University Press, 1994, pp.98-109. - ^ John Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Melbourne, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.187. - ^ Harold B. Carter, “Banks, Cook and the Century Natural History Tradition”, in Tony Delamotte and Carl Bridge (eds.), Interpreting Australia: British Perceptions of Australia since 1788, London, Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, 1988, pp.4-23. - ^ Matra to Fox, 2 April 1784. British Library, Add. - ^ Alan Atkinson, “The first plans for governing New South Wales, 1786-87”, Australian Historical Studies, vol.24, no.94, April 1990, pp. 22-40, p.31. - ^ ‘Memo. of matters to be brought before Cabinet’, State Library of New South Wales, Dixon Library Add. MS Q522; Alan Atkinson, “The first plans for governing New South Wales, 1786-87”, Australian Historical Studies, vol.24, no.94, April 1990, pp. 22-40, p.31., dated and photoduplicated in Alan Frost, "Historians, Handling Documents, Transgressions and Transportable Offences", Australian Historical Studies, vol.25, no.98, Oct.1992, pp.192-213, pp.208-9. - ^ Robert J. King, "Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770-1814", The Great Circle, vol.25, no.2, 2003, pp.20-41. - ^ Alan Frost, The First Fleet: The Real Story, Melbourne, Black Inc., 2011. Horne, David (1972). The Australian People. Angus and Robertson. - ^ Rosalind Miles (2001) Who Cooked the Last Supper: The Women's History of the World Three Rivers Press. - ^ http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/letters/phillip/index.html - ^ a b c d David Hill, 1788: The Brutal Truth of the First Fleet - ^ Robert J. King, "The Territorial Boundaries of New South Wales in 1788", The Great Circle, vol.3, no.2, 1981, pp.70-89. - ^ Robert J. King, "What brought Lapérouse to Botany Bay?", Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, vol.85, pt.2, December 1999, pp.140-147. At: www.articlearchives.com/asia/northern-asia-russia/1659966-1.html ;name=hill - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020292b.htm?hilite=Arthur%3BPhillip - ^ David Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, London, Vol.I, 1798, p.502 - ^ Anne Summers (1975). Damned Whores and God's Police. Ringwood, Victoria. - ^ Timeline source - ^ Scott, Ernest (1914). The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, RN. Sydney: Angus & Robertson. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Life_of_Captain_Matthew_Flinders,_R. - ^ Flinders, Matthew. Narrative of expeditions along the coast of New South Wales, for the further discovery of its harbours from the year 1795 to 1799. http://www.nmm.ac.uk/flinders/DisplayDocument.cfm?ID=90&print=full. - ^ a b c http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010062b.htm - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010527b.htm?hilite=hume%3Band%3Bhovell - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020458b.htm - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020206b.htm?hilite=thomas%3Bmitchell - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020457b.htm - ^ a b http://moadoph.gov.au/our-democracy/democracy-timeline/ - ^ Suttor, T. L.. "Plunkett, John Hubert (1802 - 1869)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Australian National University. http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020299b.htm. - ^ http://aec.gov.au/Elections/Australian_Electoral_History/reform.htm - ^ http://aec.gov.au/Elections/Australian_Electoral_History/righttovote.htm - ^ For example the UK Act New South Wales Judicature Act 1823 made specific provision for administration of justice of New Zealand by the New South Wales Courts; stating "And be it further enacted that the said supreme courts in New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land respectively shall and may inquire of hear and determine all treasons piracies felonies robberies murders conspiracies and other offences of what nature or kind soever committed or that shall be committed upon the sea or in any haven river creek or place where the admiral or admirals have power authority or jurisdiction or committed or that shall be committed in the islands of New Zealand". - ^ [dfat.gov.au dfat.gov.au] - ^ a b c http://www.catholicaustralia.com.au/page.php?pg=austchurch-history - ^ http://saintanneshomeschooling.org/catholic_history/botany-bay-story - ^ Johnson, Richard (1753? - 1827) Biographical Entry - Australian Dictionary of Biography Online - ^ Marsden, Samuel (1765 - 1838) Biographical Entry - Australian Dictionary of Biography Online - ^ a b http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02113b.htm - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020300b.htm - ^ Plunkett, John Hubert (1802 - 1869) Biographical Entry - Australian Dictionary of Biography Online - ^ http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020497b.htm - ^ http://www.kings.edu.au/about/brief-history.html - ^ http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/9FA90AEC587590EDCA2571B00014B9B3?opendocument - ^ http://www.stvincents.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=132&Itemid=160 - ^ Hasluck, Alexandra (1967). Australian Dictionary of Biography. Canberra: Australian National University. http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020578b.htm.htm. - ^ Turcotte, Gerry (1998). "Australian Gothic" (PDF, 12 pages). Faculty of Arts—Papers. University of Wollongong. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1060&context=artspapers. Retrieved 9 January 2008. - ^ a b http://www.olioweb.me.uk/plays/ - ^ http://www.theatreroyal.com.au/history.html - ^ http://www.melbourneathenaeum.org.au/content/view/20/37/ - ^ http://www.history.sa.gov.au/queens/about.htm - ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books; 2004; ISBN 978-0-14-300559-9 - ^ Reynolds, Henry, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia, 1981, ISBN 0-86840-892-1 - ^ quoted in: Reynolds, Henry, Why Weren't We Told?, 1999, ISBN 0-14-027842-7, p.165 - ^ ibid, chapter 9: "The Killing Times", pp.117-133 - Lepailleur, François-Maurice. Land of a Thousand Sorrows. The Australian Prison Journal 1840-1842, of the Exiled Canadien Patriote, François-Maurice Lepailleur. Trans. and edited by F. Murray Greenwood. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. - Duyker, Edward & Maryse. Voyage to Australia and the Pacific 1791–1793. Melbourne University Press. - Duyker, Edward & Maryse. Citizen Labillardière – A Naturalist's Life in Revolution and Exploration. The Miegunyah Press. - Horner, Frank. Looking for La Pérouse. Melbourne University Press. [edit] External links - U.S. State Department Background Note: Australia - Australian Broadcasting Corporation Hindsight Story: The French Connection - History and ideas, National Museum of Australia - The Australian History page at Project Gutenberg of Australia