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История на Танзания Танзания, страна в Източна Африка, официално придобива статут на суверенна държава едва през 1964 г., когато се обединяват голямата континентална територия Танганика и близкоразположеният архипелаг в Индийския океан Занзибар. Бившата колония е част от Германска Източна Африка от 1880-те год. до 1919 г., когато Обществото на народите я прави мандатна територия на Великобритания. Това продължава до независимостта през 1961 г. Занзибар е търговско средище и през годините е контролиран от португалци, омански араби и други, а в края на XIX век се превръща в британски протекторат. След независимостта до оставката му през 1985 г. Танзания се управлява от президента Джулиъс Ниерере, чието социалистическо управление потиска опозицията и с корупцията си води до силен спад в икономиката. След края на управлението на Ниерере Танзания преживява поредица политически и икономически реформи. [редактиране] Праистория В Танзания са открити някои от най-старите човешки останки, например фосилите в клисурата Олдувай в северната част на страната, наричана „люлката на човечеството“. Фосилите включват кости на Paranthropus, датирани отпреди 2 милиона години, както и най-старите запазени останки от пряк предшественик на човека - стъпките от Лаетоли, за които се смята, че са на възраст на 3,6 милиона години.[1] Смята се, че преди около 10 000 г. територията на днешна Танзания е била обитавана от ловци-събирачи - верояно говорещи койсански езици. Преди от 3 до 6 хил. год. към тях се присъединяват кушити от север, които постепенно асимилират първоначалното население. Кушитите донасят със себе си прости земеделски техники и добиване на храни, а впоследствие и крави.[2] Преди около 2000 г. племена, говорещи езици банту, започват масово да мигрират в Танзания. Тези народи донасят обработката на желязото и нови подходи на политическа и обществена организация. Те асимилират кушитските си предшественици, както и повечето останали койсански народи. Впоследствие започва миграция на нилотски земеделски народи, която продължава чак до XVIII век.[2][3] [редактиране] Античност и Средновековие Пътешественици и търговци от района на Персийския залив и западна Индия посещават бреговете на днешна Танзания още през I хилядолетие. Гръцки текстове като анонимния „Перипъл на Еритрейското море“ и „География“ на Клавдий Птолемей описват поредица търговски селища (емпории) по брега. Откриването на монети от римската епоха по бреговете на Танзания доказват съществуването на такива търговски отношения. „Географията“ на Птолемей и „Перипъл на Еритрейското море“ и споменават за „метрополиса“ Рапта в страната Азания. Археолозите все още не са на едно мнение за местоположението на Рапта, но повечето считат, че е зарита в тинята на делтата на река Руфиджи. След това тези брегове излизат от писмените източници чак до епохата на арабите. Останките от материалната култура в откритите градове показват, че те са продукт на местно население, а не на заселване на чужденци. Говоримият език в тези области, суахили (днес национален език на Танзания), е член на езиковата група банту и се разпространява от бреговете на Кения ма север, се оформя дълго преди чувствителното арабско присъствие в региона. Към началото на II хилядолетие градовете на суахили извършват процъфтяваща търговия с страни по бреговете на целия Индийски океан. (някои учени наричат този период „златен век“ на културата Суахили) верояно най-големия и богат от тези градове, Килуа (или Килуа Кисиуани), е в разцвета си. Мароканският пътешественик от XIV век Ибн Батута посещава Килуа и го описва като един от най-красивите градове на света. Ислямът се появява по брега Суахили още през VIII-IX век. [редактиране] Занзибар През 1498 г. Вашку да Гама става първият европеец, достигнал източните брегове на Африка, къде остава за 32 дни. През 1505 г. Занзибар е превзет от Португалската империя. Португалците владеят острова до началото на XVIII век, когато там се заселват араби от Оман. С помощта на оманските араби местното население изгонва португалците от областта северно от река Рувума до средата на века. Обявявайки се за владетел на крайбрежието (Зендж) оманският султан Саид бин Султан мести столицата си в Занзибар през 1840 г., който бързо се превръща в център на Африканската търговия с роби (да не се бърка с Триъгълната търговия). Саид създава търговски пътища, които се простират на континента чак до езерото Танганика и Централна Африка. След смъртта му владенията се поделят между сина му Туейни бин Саид, който поема Оман, и Маджид бин Саид, който овладява африканските територии и поставя началото на Занзибарското султанство. [редактиране] Колониален период В периода на процъфтяване на Занзибарския султанат и крайбрежието на региона, западната част на днешна Танзания — в района на Големите езера, най-вече тази на западния бряг на езерото Виктория, се състои от множество малки африкански кралства, най-известни от които са Карагуе и Бузинза, които са доминирани от техните по-могъщи съседи Руанда, Бурунди и Буганда. В края на 19 век, кайзерова Германия завладява териториите на днешните Танзания (с изключение на Занзибар), Руанда и Бурунди и ги обединява под името Германска Източна Африка. Танганика, като географски и политически субект, не се оформя преди периода на неоимпериализъм; името влиза в употреба едва след предаването на колонията Германска Източна Африка като подмандатна територия на Обединеното кралство (с мандат от Обществото на народите) през 1920 година, след поражението на Германия през Първата световна война. [редактиране] Изследване на континенталните територии Европейското изследването на вътрешността на страната започва в средата на 19 век. През 1848 г., германският мисионер Йоханес Ребман става първия европеец, който достига планината Килиманджаро.[4] Британските изследователи Ричард Франсис Бъртън и Джон Спик пресичат вътрешността до езерото Танганайка през юни 1857 г.[5] През януари 1866 г., шотландският изследовател и мисионер Дейвид Ливингстън, който се бори срещу търговията с роби, отива в Занзибар, откъдето потегля в търсене на изворите на Нил, и установява последната си мисия в Уджиджи, на брега на езерото Танганика. След като изгубва контакт с външния свят в продължение на години, той е „открит“ там на 10 ноември 1871 г. Хенри Мортън Стенли, който е изпратен от вестник „Ню Йорк Хералд“ да го намери, го поздравява с прословутата фраза „Д-р Ливингстън, предполагам?“ През 1877 г., в Занзибар пристига първата от серия белгийски експедиции, които имат за цел да изследват вътрешността на Африка. По време на тези експедиции, през 1879 г. е основан пост в Кигома, на източния бряг на езерото Танганика, който скоро е последван от друг — в Мпала, на противоположния западен бряг. И двете станции са основани в името на Comite D'Etudes Du Haut Congo, предшественик на Свободната държава Конго. [редактиране] Германска Източна Африка Германските колониални интереси за първи път са предявени през 1884 г. Карл Петерс, който формира Общество за германска колонизация, сключва редица договори, с които племенните вождове във вътрешността на страната приемат германската „протекция“. Правителството на Ото фон Бисмарк подкрепя Петерс в последващото основаване на германската Източноафриканска компания. На Берлинската конференция през 1885 г., фактът, че Кигома е основан и снабдяван от Занзибар и Багамойо води до включването на Източна Африка в територията на басейна на Конго, в полза на Белгия. Противно на широко разпространеното схващане, по време на обсъждането в Берлин, Африка не е поделена между колониалните сили, а напротив — установяват се правила сред големите държави как да се процедира в създаването на колонии и протекторати. Докато белгийските интереси скоро се концентрират предимно около река Конго, британците и германците се насочват на изток и през 1886 г. поделят континентална Източна Африка помежду си. Занзибарският султанат (сведен до островите Занзибар и Пемба) остава независим за момента. Свободната държава Конго в крайна сметка се отказва от претенциите си върху Кигома (най-старата европейска станция в Централна Африка) и от всяка територия на изток от езерото Танганика, в полза на Германия. През 1886 и 1890 г. са договорени англо-германски споразумения, които очертават британските и германските сфери на влияние във вътрешността на Източна Африка и по крайбрежната ивица, към която претенции има и султана на Занзибар. През 1891 г. германското правителство поема прякото управление на територията на германската Източноафриканска компания и назначава управител със седалище в Дар ес Салаам. Пречките срещу напредването на германците във вътрешността са преодолени и те организират колонията Германска Източна Африка. Германците продължават брутално да упражняват властта си, с пренебрежение и презрение към съществуващите местни структури и традиции. Докато германската колониална администрация строи жп линии и пътища в Танганика, европейското управление провокира съпротивата на африканците. Племената хехе (водени от вожда си Мкуауа) се съпротивляват на германската експанзия между 1891 и 1894 г., но в крайна сметка са победени. След период на партизанска война, Мкуауа се самоубива през 1898 г.[6] [редактиране] Въстание Маджи-Маджи Широкото недоволство по-късно отново се надига, и през 1902 г. по река Руфиджи започва движение срещу принудителния труд за събирането на памук, отхвърлено от местното население. Напрежението достига връхната си точка през юли 1905 г., когато племето матумби, водено от Кинджикитиле Нгвале въстава срещу местните управители (акида) и бунтът внезапно се разпростира от Дар ес Салаам до планините Улугуру, долината Киломберо, възвишенията Махенге и Маконде, Рувума в южната част и Килва, Сонгея и Масаси, както и от Килоса до Иринга и до източните брегове на езерото Малави. Съпротивата преминава във въстанието Маджи-Маджи от 1905-1907 г. Първият сблъсък, който избухва в Уверека през септември 1905 г., по време на управлението на губернатора граф Густав Адолф фон Гьотцен, се превръща незабавно в всеобща война с безразборни убийства и кланета, извършвани от двете страни срещу земеделци, заселници, мисионери, плантатори и местното население. Въстанието, което е най-кървавото в историята на Танганика и временно обединява голям брой от племената на юг, като основната тежест е поета от племето нгони, приключва едва след като около 120 000 африканци умират по време на сблъсъците или от глад.[7] Германците напълно променят много аспекти от ежедневния живот. Те активно са подкрепяни от мисионерите, които опитват да унищожат местните вярвания, особено чрез разрушаването на колибите махока, в които местното население традиционно отдава почит на духовете на предците си и чрез осмиване на обредите, танците и другите местни религиозни церемонии. [редактиране] Първа световна война По време на Първата световна война, опитът за нашествие от страна на британците е осуетен в битката при Танга от германския генерал Паул фон Летов-Форбек, който след това се изтегля с войските си и води партизанска война. При избухването на войната, германските власти организират защитата на колонията си със значително хладнокръвие, макар че връзките с метрополията са ограничени. Тя е защитена срещу всяко нападение, което би могло да бъде извършено без голяма предварителна подготовка. За първата година на войната, германците имат достатъчно сили да пренесат войната на териториите на съседите си и многократно атакуват железопътната линия и други места в Британска Източна Африка. Все пак, британския Кралски военноморски флот окупира остров Мафия през 1914 г. Силите на немското командване не са известни с точност. Генерал-лейтенант Ян Смьотс ги оценява на 2 000 германци и 16 000 аскери (войници от местното африканско население), с 60 оръдия и 80 картечници, но това не е доказано. Възрастното бяло население от мъжки пол през 1913 г. наброява повече от 3 500 души (с изключение на гарнизонните войски), като голяма част от тях е на разположение за отбиване на военна служба. Местното население от над 7 милиона жители има потенциал за набиране на войски, като единственото ограничение е само комплектоването с германски офицери и техника. В последното си комюнике от май 1919 г., генерал Якоб ван Девентер оценява германските войски в началото на 1916 г. на 2 700 бели и 12 000 африканци. Лорд Кранфорд, в предговора си към книгата на капитан Ангъс Бюканън за войната, пише: „В най-голямата си многочисленост, във войските на Летов вероятно имаше от 25 000 до 30 000 пушки — всичките боеспособни войници, със 70 картечници и 40 оръдия.“. Откъснат от Германия от британския Кралски флот, фон Летов провежда блестяща партизанска кампания, изхранвайки се от местни продукти и придвижвайки се бързо, за да изненада многократно британците. Британците, които разполагат голям брой войски от Индийската армия под командването на Смьотс, са изправени пред големи логистични проблеми при снабдяването на войските си дълбоко във вътрешността, които се опитват да преодолеят чрез създаването на голям Превозвачески корпус от местни носачи. Друг важен момент, който има отношение към войната и надлежно подчертан от генерал Смьотс в лекцията му пред Кралското географско дружество през януари 1918 г., е изключителната позиция на германската граница. Крайбрежието предлага едва няколко подходящи места за дебаркиране и е осеяно с пояс от блата. На запад, по линията на езерата и планините, границата се оказва толкова непроходима, че белгийските сили от Конго първо трябва да преминат през Уганда. На юг, река Рувума може да бъде прекосена само в горното ѝтечение. Северната граница е най-труднопроходима от всички. Тук, на практика, има само един проход с ширина около 8 км, между планината Паре и Килиманджаро, където германските войски се окопават сред блата и гори в продължение на осемнадесет месеца. Преподобният Х. Бъртън, който говори в Лондон през август 1918 г., казва: „Нищо друго не направи впечатление на нашите командири в Източна Африка толкова много, колкото задълбоченото, методично и решително обучение на германските местни мобилизирани войници преди войната.“. Войските, която се евакуират от колонията през декември 1917 г., се изчисляват на 320 бели и 2 500 африкански войници; 1 618 германци са убити или пленени в последните шест месеца на 1917 г., 155 бели и 1 168 аскери се предават в края на военните действия. Умелата и изключително успешна партизанска кампания, проведена от Паул фон Летов-Форбек, продължава военните действия в Танганика по време на цялата Първа световна война. Политиката на „изгорената земя“ и реквизирането на сгради води до пълен срив на образователната система на колонията, макар че някои мисионерски училища успяват да запазят подобие на обучение. За разлика от белгийските, британските, френските и португалските колониални господари в Централна Африка, Германия е разработила образователна програма за африканците в колониите си, която включва начални, средни и професионални училища. „Квалификации за инструктори, учебни програми, учебници, помагала, всички посрещащи стандартите и без аналог никъде в тропическа Африка.“[8] През 1924 г., десет години след началото на Първата световна война и шест години след началото на британското управление, гостуващата американска комисия Фелпс-Стокс докладва: „По отношение на училищата, германците са постигнали чудеса. Трябва да мине известно време, преди образованието до достигне стандарта, постигнат при германците.“.[9] Но от 1920 г., британският образователен отдел се състои от един офицер и двама служители с бюджет, равен на 1% от приходите на страната — по-малко от сумата, отпусната за издръжка на правителствената сграда. [редактиране] Британски контрол Мандатът за управление на бившата германска колония е предоставен на Обединеното кралство, в съответствие с условията на Върховния съвет на Обществото на народите. Със съгласието на съвета, Обединеното кралство прехвърля провинциите Руанда-Урунди, в северозападната част, на Белгия. Тези провинции притежават три седми от населението и повече от половината от добитъка на колонията. Границите на Източноиндийската станция на Кралския флот са разширени през 1919 г., като към нея са включени Занзибар и крайбрежието на Германска Източна Африка. Дар ес Салаам остава седалището на правителството на колонията, чиито първи губернатор е сър Хоръс Арчър Бят. Той подобрява здравеопазването и селското стопанство и обявява робството за незаконно. Бят също така способства много за развитието на икономиката на колонията. След войната, местните войници се завръщат по домовете си, а малкото германци, които остават, се установяват в рамките на новото британско управление. [редактиране] След независимостта [редактиране] Източници - ↑ Wong, Kate (1 August 2005), "Flat feet and doubts about makers of the Laetoli tracks", Scientific American (Nature Publishing Group), http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0005C9B3-03AE-12D8-BDFD83414B7F0000, посетен 22 March 2010 - ↑ а б "History", Absolute Tanzania, http://absolutetanzania.com/history, посетен 22 March 2010 - ↑ Martin, Phyllis, O'Meara, Patrick. Africa. Indiana University Press, 1995. - ↑ Raum, Otto Friedrich. Chaga Childhood: A Description of Indigenous Education in an East African Tribe. LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster. 1996 г. - ↑ Wright, Thomas. The Life of Sir Richard Burton. BiblioBazaar, LLC. 2008 г. - ↑ Jens Finke, "Rough guide to Tanzania"/ISBN 1-85828-783-9/pg.571 - ↑ Jan-Bart Gewald - “Colonial Warfare: Hehe and World War One, the wars besides Maji Maji in south-western Tanzania"/African Studies Centre Leiden, The Netherlands/2005 - ↑ Miller, Charles. Battle for the Bundu: the First World War in East Africa. New York. Macmillan Publishers. 1974 г. стр. 21. - ↑ Miller, Charles. Battle for the Bundu: the First World War in East Africa. New York. Macmillan Publishers. 1974 г. стр. 21.
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History of Tanzania The East African nation of Tanzania dates formally from 1964, when it was formed out of the union of the much larger mainland territory of Tanganyika and the coastal archipelago of Zanzibar. The former was a colony and part of German East Africa from the 1880s to 1919, when, under the League of Nations, it became a British mandate until independence in 1961. It served as a military outpost during World War II, providing financial help, munitions, and soldiers. Zanzibar was settled as a trading hub, subsequently controlled by the Portuguese, the Sultanate of Oman, and then as a British protectorate by the end of the nineteenth century. Julius Nyerere, independence leader and "baba wa taifa for Tanganyika" (father of the Tanganyika nation), ruled the country for decades, assisted by Abeid Amaan Karume, the Zanzibar Father of Nation. Following Nyerere's retirement in 1985, various political and economic reforms began. Contents - 1 Prehistory - 2 Early coastal history - 3 Tanganyika (1815–1890) - 4 German East Africa and the Maji Maji Resistance - 5 War with Germany in East Africa - 6 British East Africa - 6.1 1920s: border resolution - 6.2 1926: Africanisation policy - 6.3 Late 1920s: railway development - 6.5 Health and education initiatives - 6.6 1943: 100,000-acre (405 km2) Tanganyika wheat scheme - 6.7 Groundnut scheme - 6.8 1940s and 1950s: farming co-operatives - 6.9 No Mau Mau violence - 6.10 1940s–1950s transition to self government - 7 Zanzibar - 8 Independence and Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar - 9 Recent history - 10 HIV/AIDS - 11 See also - 12 Notes - 13 References - 14 Further reading - 15 External links Prehistory[edit] Tanzania is home to some of the oldest human settlements unearthed by archaeologists, including stone tools and fossils of hominids found in and around Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania, an area often referred to as "The Cradle of Mankind". Acheulian stone tools were found there by Louis Leakey in 1931, after he had correctly identified the rocks brought back by Hans Reck to Germany from his 1913 Olduvai expedition as stone tools. More importantly in 1931 Louis Leakey discovered older more primitive stone tools in Olduvai Gorge—these were the first examples of the oldest human technology ever discovered in Africa, subsequently known throughout the world as Oldowan after Olduvai Gorge.[1] The first hominid skull in Olduvai Gorge was discovered by Mary Leakey in 1959, and named Zinj or Nutcracker Man, the first example of Paranthropus boisei, and is thought to be over 1.8 million years old. Other finds including Homo Habilis fossils were subsequently made. At nearby Laetoli the oldest known hominid footprints, the Laetoli footprints, were discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978, and estimated to be about 3.6 million years old and probably made by Australopithecus afarensis.[2] The oldest hominid fossils ever discovered in Tanzania also come from Laetoli and are the 3.6 to 3.8 million year old remains of Australopithecus afarensis—Louis Leakey had found what he thought was a baboon tooth at Laetoli in 1935 (which was not identified as afarensis until 1979), a fragment of hominid jaw with three teeth was found there by Kohl-Larsen in 1938–39, and in 1974–75 Mary Leakey recovered 42 teeth and several jawbones from the site.[3] Reaching back about 10,000 years, George Ndikumana Tanzania is believed to have been populated by hunter-gatherer communities, probably Khoisan speaking people. Between three and six thousand years ago, they were joined by Cushitic-speaking people who came from the north, into which the Khoisan peoples were slowly absorbed. Cushitic peoples introduced basic techniques of agriculture, food production, and later, cattle farming.[4] About 2000 years ago, Bantu-speaking people began to arrive from western Africa in a series of migrations. These groups brought and developed ironworking skills and new ideas of social and political organization. They absorbed many of the Cushitic peoples who had preceded them, as well as most of the remaining Khoisan-speaking inhabitants. Later, Nilotic pastoralists arrived, and continued to immigrate into the area through to the 18th century.[4][5] One of Tanzania's most important archeological sites is Engaruka in the Great Rift Valley which includes an irrigation and cultivation system. Jeferson ugalolngalong. Early coastal history[edit] Travellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and Western India have visited the East African coast since early in the first millennium CE. Greek texts such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography list a string of market places (emporia) along the coast. Finds of Roman-era coins along the coast confirm the existence of trade, and Ptolomey's Geography refers to a town of Rhapta as "metropolis" of a political entity called Azania. Archaeologists have not yet succeeded in identifying the location of Rhapta, though many believe it lies deeply buried in the silt of the delta of the Rufiji River. A long documentary silence follows these ancient texts, and it is not until Arab geographical treatises were written about the coast that our information resumes. Remains of those towns' material culture demonstrate that they arose from indigenous roots, not from foreign settlement. And the language that was spoken in them, Swahili (now Tanzania's national language), is a member of the Bantu language family that spread from the northern Kenya coast well before significant Arab presence was felt in the region. By the beginning of the second millennium CE the Swahili towns conducted a thriving trade that linked Africans in the interior with trade partners throughout the Indian Ocean. From c. 1200 to 1500 CE, the town of Kilwa, on Tanzania's southern coast, was perhaps the wealthiest and most powerful of these towns, presiding over what some scholars consider the "golden age" of Swahili civilization. In the early 14th century, Ibn Battuta, a Berber traveller from North Africa, visited Kilwa and proclaimed it one of the best cities in the world. Islam was practised on the Swahili coast as early as the eighth or ninth century CE.[6] In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama became the first known European to reach the East African coast; he stayed for 32 days.[7] In 1505 the Portuguese captured the island of Zanzibar.[8] Portuguese control lasted until the early 18th century, when Arabs from Oman established a foothold in the region. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area north of the Ruvuma River by the early 18th century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840.[8] He focused on the island and developed trade routes that stretched as far as Lake Tanganyika and Central Africa. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade. Due to the Arab and Persian domination at this later time, many Europeans misconstrued the nature of Swahili civilization as a product of Arab colonization. However, this misunderstanding has begun to dissipate over the past 40 years as Swahili civilization is becoming recognized as principally African in origin.[citation needed] Tanganyika (1815–1890)[edit] Tanganyika on a geographical and political entity did not take shape before the period of High Imperialism; its name only came into use after German East Africa was transferred to the United Kingdom as a mandate by the League of Nations in 1920. What is referred to here, therefore, is the history of the region that was to become Tanzania. A part of the Great Lakes region, namely the western shore of Lake Victoria consisted of many small kingdoms, most notably Karagwe and Buzinza, which were dominated by their more powerful neighbors Rwanda, Burundi, and Buganda. European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. In 1848 the German missionary Johannes Rebmann became the first European to see Mount Kilimanjaro.[9] British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke crossed the interior to Lake Tanganyika in June 1857.[10] In January 1866 the Scottish explorer and missionary David Livingstone, who crusaded against the slave trade, went to Zanzibar, from where he set out to seek the source of the Nile, and established his last mission at Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. After having lost contact with the outside world for years, he was "found" there on November 10, 1871. Henry Morton Stanley, who had been sent in a publicity stunt to find him by the New York Herald newspaper, greeted him with the now famous words "Dr Livingstone, I presume?" In 1877 the first of a series of Belgian expeditions arrived on Zanzibar. In the course of these expeditions, in 1879 a station was founded in Kigoma on the eastern bank of Lake Tanganyika, soon to be followed by the station of Mpala on the opposite western bank. Both stations were founded in the name of the Comite D'Etudes Du Haut Congo, a predecessor organization of the Congo Free State. German colonial interests were first advanced in 1884. Karl Peters, who formed the Society for German Colonization, concluded a series of treaties by which tribal chiefs in the interior accepted German "protection." Prince Otto von Bismarck's government backed Peters in the subsequent establishment of the German East Africa Company. At the Berlin Conference of 1885, the fact that Kigoma had been established and supplied from Zanzibar and Bagamoyo led to the inclusion of East Africa into the territory of the Conventional Basin of the Congo, to Belgium's advantage. At the table in Berlin, contrary to widespread perception, Africa was not partitioned; rather, rules were established among the colonial powers and prospective colonial powers as how to proceed in the establishment of colonies and protectorates. While the Belgian interest soon concentrated on the Congo River, the British and Germans focused on Eastern Africa and in 1886 partitioned continental East Africa between themselves; the Sultanate of Zanzibar, now reduced to the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, remained independent, for the moment. The Congo Free State was eventually to give up its claim on Kigoma (its oldest station in Central Africa) and on any territory to the east of Lake Tanganyika, to Germany. German East Africa and the Maji Maji Resistance[edit] All resistance to the Germans in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe—led by Chief Mkwawa—resisted German expansion, but were eventually defeated. After a period of guerrilla warfare, Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898. Widespread discontent re-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the Rufiji River. The tension reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the Matumbi of Nandete led by Kinjikitile Ngwale revolted against the local administrators (akida) and suddenly the revolt grew wider from Dar Es Salaam to the Uluguru Mountains, the Kilombero Valley, the Mahenge and Makonde Plateaux, the Ruvuma in the southernmost part and Kilwa, Songea, Masasi, and from Kilosa to Iringa down to the eastern shores of Lake Nyasa. The resistance culminated in the Maji Maji Resistance of 1905–1907. The resistance, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes ended only after an estimated 120,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation. Research has shown that traditional hostilities played a large part in the resistance.[citation needed] Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the missionaries who tried to destroy all signs of indigenous beliefs, notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshiped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at Uwereka in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen turned instantly into an all-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants. Known as the Maji-Maji war with the main brunt borne by the Ngoni people, this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in Tanganyika. War with Germany in East Africa[edit] During World War I, an invasion attempt by the British was thwarted by German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck at the Battle of Tanga, who then mounted a drawn out guerrilla warfare campaign against the British. At the outbreak of the First World War the German authorities regarded the position of their premier Colony with considerable equanimity although it was inevitably cut off from outside communication. It had been organized against any attack that could be made without those extensive preparations. For the first year of hostilities the Germans were strong enough to carry the war into their neighbours' territories and repeatedly attacked the railway and other points in British East Africa. However, British rule had begun with the occupation of the island of Mafia by the Royal Navy in 1914. The forces at the disposal of the German Command may never be accurately known. Lieutenant-General Jan Smuts at one time estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 Askaris, with 60 guns and 80 machine guns, but this should prove to be below the mark. The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of garrison), a large proportion of these would be available for military duties. The native population of over 7,000,000 formed a reservoir of man-power from which a force might be drawn limited only by the supply of officers and equipment. There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the long interval of nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory.[citation needed] In his final despatch of May 1919, General Jacob van Deventer placed the German forces at the commencement of 1916 at 2,700 whites and 12,000 blacks. Lord Cranford, in his foreword to Captain Angus Buchanan's book on the war, writes, "At his strongest von Lettow probably mustered 25,000 to 30,000 rifles, all fighting troops", with 70 machine guns and 40 guns. After eighteen months of continuous fighting, General van Deventer estimated the enemy's forces at 8,000 to 9,000 men.[citation needed] Cut-off from Germany by the Royal Navy Von Lettow made a virtue of necessity and conducted a masterly guerilla campaign, living off the land and moving swiftly to repeatedly surprise the British. The British, who deployed large numbers of Indian Army troops under Smuts, faced difficult logistic problems supplying their pursuing army deep in the interior, which they attempted to overcome by the formation of a large Carrier Corps of native porters. Another point bearing on the war and duly emphasized by General Smuts in his lecture before the Royal Geographic Society (January 1918), was the extraordinary strength of the German frontier. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by an unhealthy swamp belt. On the west the line of lakes and mountains proved so impenetrable that the Belgian forces from the Congo had, in the first instance, to be moved through Uganda. On the south the Ruvuma River was only fordable on its upper reaches. And the northern frontier was the most difficult of all. Only one practicable pass about five miles (8 km) wide offered between the Pare Mountains and Kilimanjaro, and here the German forces, amid swamps and forests, had been digging themselves in for eighteen months. The Honorable H. Burton, speaking in London in August 1918 said, "Nothing struck our commanders in the East African field so much as the thorough, methodical and determined training of the German native levies previous to the war." The force which evacuated the Colony in December 1917, was estimated at the time at 320 white and 2,500 black troops; 1,618 Germans were killed or captured in the last six months of 1917, 155 whites and 1,168 Askaris surrendered at the close of hostilities. A skillful and remarkably successful guerrilla campaign waged by the German commander Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck kept the war in Tanganyika going for the entire length of the First World War. A scorched earth policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the Government's education system, though some mission schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Unlike the Belgian, British, French and Portuguese colonial masters in central Africa, Germany had developed an educational program for her Africans that involved elementary, secondary and vocational schools. "Instructor qualifications, curricula, textbooks, teaching materials, all met standards unmatched anywhere in tropical Africa."[11] In 1924, ten years after the beginning of the First World War and six years into British rule, the visiting American Phelps-Stokes Commission reported: In regards to schools, the Germans have accomplished marvels. Some time must elapse before education attains the standard it had reached under the Germans.[11] But by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue—less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House. British East Africa[edit] The first Administrator was Sir Horace Archer Byatt CMG. He embarked it on its course as an African country, improved its health and agriculture and made slavery illegal. He also did much for its economy. In Dar-es-Salaam you can see the house he rebuilt – now lived in by the President. The native troops went back quietly to their villages and the few Germans that remained were reported as settling down under the new administration. 1920s: border resolution[edit] In 1920, by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the Office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Territory was constituted. The colony was renamed Tanganyika Territory in 1920. In 1921 the Belgians transferred the Kigoma district, which they had administered since the occupation, to British administration. The United Kingdom and Belgium signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi in 1924. The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of December 13, 1946. 1926: Africanisation policy[edit] British policy was to rule indirectly through African leaders. In 1926, a Legislative Council was established, which was to advise the governor. The British administration took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule, and authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association. In 1926 some African members were unofficially admitted into the Legislative Council and in 1929 the Association became the Tanganyika African Association which would constitute the core of the nascent nationalist movement. In 1945 the first Africans were effectively appointed to the Governor's Legislative Council. Late 1920s: railway development[edit] In 1928 the railway line Tabora-Mwanga was opened to traffic, the line from Moshi to Arusha in 1929. In 1919 the population was estimated at 3,500,000. 1931 census[edit] In 1931 a census established the population of Tanganyika at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans. Health and education initiatives[edit] Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the Tsetse fly (a carrier of sleeping sickness), and to fight malaria and bilharziasis; more hospitals were built. In 1926, the Colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only (US) $290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of purchasing power parity. In 1933, Sir Horace Hector Hearne was appointed as Puisne Judge, Tanganyika Territory, and acted as Chief Justice of Tanganyika in 1935 and 1936. He held the post until 1936/1937 when he went on to be a similar job in Ceylon. 1943: 100,000-acre (405 km2) Tanganyika wheat scheme[edit] The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika, Freddie Smith, was in charge, and David Gordon Hines was the accountant responsible for the finances. The scheme had 50,000 acres (202 km2) on the Ardai plains just outside Arusha; 25,000 acres (101 km2) on Mount Kilimanjaro; and 25,000 acres (101 km2) towards Ngorongoro to the west. All the machinery was lend/lease from the USA, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs, and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering managers. Most of the workers were Italian prisoners of war from Somalia and Ethiopia: excellent, skilled engineers and mechanics. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.[12] Groundnut scheme[edit] The time from 1946 to 1951 saw the Tanganyika groundnut scheme. 1940s and 1950s: farming co-operatives[edit] After the 2nd World War, British colonial policy in the 1940s and 1950s encouraged the development of farming co-operatives to partially convert subsistence farmers to cash husbandry. Before co-operatives, the farmers sold their produce to Indian traders at poor prices. The responsible colonial officer David Gordon Hines from 1947 to 1959 achieved the vast expansion of the co-operatives: by the early 1950s, there were over 400 co-operatives nationally.[13] Co-operative offices throughout the country showed the members how to elect committees, keep their books, and market produce. Co-operatives formed "unions" for their areas and developed cotton gineries, coffee factories, and tobacco dryers. A major success for Tanzania was the Moshi coffee auctions that attracted international buyers after the annual Nairobi auctions.[12] No Mau Mau violence[edit] In the early 1950s the Mau Mau movement of violent resistance to British rule was active in neighbouring Kenya. The Tanganyika government expected the violence to spread to Tanganyika, especially in the north where the Wa-Chagga live—but violence did not spread there from Kenya.[12] 1940s–1950s transition to self government[edit] After World War II, Tanganyika became a United Nations trust territory under British control. Subsequent years witnessed Tanganyika moving gradually toward self-government and independence. In 1954, Julius Nyerere, the future leader of Tanzania, who was then a school teacher and one of only two Tanganyikans educated abroad at the university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). On 29 March 1961 Britain agreed that Tanganyika would become an independent state on 28 December 1961. Zanzibar[edit] Zanzibar today refers to the island of that name, also known as Unguja, and the neighboring island of Pemba. Both islands fell under Portuguese domination in the 16th and early 17th centuries but were retaken by Omani Arabs in the early 18th century. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid Said, who moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, established a ruling Arab elite, and encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's slave labor. Zanzibar and Pemba were world famous for their trade in spices and became known as the Spice Islands; in the early 20th century, they produced approximately 90% of the world's supply of cloves. Zanzibar was also a major transit point in the East African and Indian Ocean slave trade. (See Arab slave trade.) Zanzibar attracted ships from as far away as the United States, which established a consulate in 1833. The United Kingdom's early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade. In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally prohibited. The Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty of 1890 made Zanzibar and Pemba a British protectorate, and the Caprivi Strip in Namibia became a German protectorate. British rule through a Sultan remained largely unchanged from the late 19th century until 1957, when elections were held for a largely advisory Legislative Council. Independence and Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar[edit] In 1954, Julius Nyerere, a school teacher who was then one of only two Tanganyikans educated to university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). On December 9, 1961, Tanganika became an independent Commonwealth realm, and Nyerere became Prime Minister, under a new constitution. On December 9, 1962, a republican constitution was implemented with Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere as Tanganyika's first president. Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on December 10, 1963, as a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. On January 12, 1964, the African majority revolted against the sultan and a new government was formed with the ASP leader, Abeid Karume, as President of Zanzibar and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. In the first few days, between 5,000 and 15,000 Arabs and Asians were murdered, women were raped and their homes burned. Within a few weeks, a fifth of the population had died or fled.[14] It was at this time that the Tanganyika army revolted and Britain was asked by Julius Nyerere to send in troops. Royal Marines Commandos were sent by air from England via Nairobi and 40 Commando came ashore from the aircraft carrier HMS Bulwark. Several months were spent with Commandos touring the country disarming military outposts. When the successful operation ended, the Royal Marines left to be replaced by Canadian troops. On April 26, 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on October 29 of that year. The name Tanzania is a blend of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and previously had no significance. Under the terms of this union, the Zanzibar Government retains considerable local autonomy. Recent history[edit] To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union, Julius Nyerere merged TANU with the Zanzibar ruling party, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the CCM (Chama cha Mapinduzi-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984. Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a nation with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a one party system.[15] In a post-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics' (Locatelli & Nugent, 2009: 252).[16] To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established Kiswahili as the national language.[17] Nyerere used the Preventive Detention Act first to suppress trade unions and then to lock up any opponents when he wanted. People disappeared and total numbers were never published, but victims are estimated at thousands. International human rights organizations such as Amnesty International campaigned against repression in Tanzania.[18] Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, literal meaning 'family-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy (Myers, 2011: 44)[19] Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved from everything from retailing to import-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption.[20] Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy.[20] Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use.[20] Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable.[20] A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali.[20] A foundation for systemic corruption had been laid.[20] Officials became widely known as Wabenzi ("people of the Benz"). Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the People's Republic of China. In 1979 Tanzania declared war on Uganda after the Soviet-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, 1979, Idi Amin was forced to quit the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda-Tanzania War.[21] The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile. [1] By the mid-1979 corruption reached epidemic proportions as the economy collapsed.[20] In October 1985 Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In 1990 a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage.[14] Their demands were neglected. However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities[14] and its candidate Benjamin William Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of Tanzania in the country's ever multi-party election on 23 November 1995.[22][23] Contested elections in late 2000 led to a massacre in Zanzibar in January 2001, with the government shooting into crowds of protesters, killing 35 and injuring 600.[24] In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete was elected the 4th president for a five-year term. One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar Es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian Ocean caused tsunamis along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar Es Salaam harbour, damaging an oil pipeline. In 2008, a power surge cut off power to Zanzibar, resulting in the 2008 Zanzibar Power blackout. HIV/AIDS[edit] The first cases of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania were reported in 1983. The epidemic has evolved from being a rare and new disease to a common household problem, which has affected most Tanzanian families. The development of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has its clear impact on all sectors of development through not only pressure on AIDS cases needing care and management of resources, but also through debilitation and depletion of the economically active population especially young women and men.[25] See also[edit] - History of Africa - History of Zanzibar - List of colonial heads of Tanganyika - List of Governors-General of Tanganyika - List of human evolution fossils - List of Presidents of Tanganyika - List of Presidents of Tanzania - List of Presidents of Zanzibar - List of Prime Ministers of Tanganyika - List of Prime Ministers of Tanzania - List of Prime Ministers of Zanzibar - List of Sultans of Zanzibar - Politics of Tanzania - Tanganyika - Timeline of Tanzanian history Notes[edit] - ^ http://www.efossils.org/site/olduvai - ^ Wong, Kate (1 August 2005), "Flat feet and doubts about makers of the Laetoli tracks", Scientific American (Nature Publishing Group), retrieved 22 March 2010 - ^ http://www.ntz.info/gen/n00467.html - ^ a b "History", Absolute Tanzania, retrieved 22 March 2010 - ^ Martin, Phyllis; O'Meara, Patrick (1995). Africa. Indiana University Press. - ^ Mark Horton and John Middleton, The Swahili: the social landscape of a mercantile society (Oxford, 2000); Derek Nurse and Thomas Spear, The Swahili (Philadelphia, 1985). - ^ Walker, Eric (1940). The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive. - ^ a b Notholt, Stuart (2008). Fields of Fire: An Atlas of Ethnic Conflict. Troubador Publishing. - ^ Raum, Otto Friedrich; Moore, Sally Falk (1996). Chaga Childhood: A Description of Indigenous Education in an East African Tribe. LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster. pp. xvi. - ^ Wright, Thomas (2008). The Life of Sir Richard Burton. BiblioBazaar, LLC. - ^ a b Miller, Charles (1974). Battle for the Bundu: the First World War in East Africa. New York: Macmillan Publishers. - ^ a b c Work by WD Ogilvie: (a)1999 interview of David Hines; (b) London Daily Telegraph obituary of David Hines 8 April 2000. - ^ 3rd edition 1994 Lonely Planet: East Africa ISBN 0-86442-209-1 page 497 - ^ a b c Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z, James Minahan, pages 2088-2089 - ^ http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio-Nyerere.htm> - ^ http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/10.1163/ej.9789004162648.i-308.67 - ^ http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio-Nyerere.htm - ^ Legum, Colin; Mmari, Geoffrey (1995). Mwalimu: the influence of Nyerere. James Currey Publishers. - ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3xAWTwEACAAJ&dq=myers+african+cities&hl=en&sa=X&ei=osVkT9uRCsXb0QW84dSJCA&sqi=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA - ^ a b c d e f g Stapenhurst, Rick; Kpundeh, Sahr John (1999). Curbing corruption: toward a model for building national integrity. World Bank Publications. - ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2001). Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria. Nova Publishers. - ^ "Polling Problems Mar Election in Tanzania", The New York Times (The New York Times Company), 30 October 1995: A4, retrieved 11 March 2010 - ^ "Tanzania swears in Mkapa as president", The Blade (Block Communications), 24 November 1995: 2, retrieved 11 March 2010 - ^ "Tanzania: Zanzibar Election Massacres Documented", Human Rights Watch, 9 April 2002, retrieved 22 March 2010 - ^ HIV/AIDS in Tanzania, Tanzania Commission for AIDS References[edit] - Hyden, Goran (1980). Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry. Berkeley: University of California Press. - Iliffe, John (1979) A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Iliffe, John (1971). Agricultural Change in Modern Tanganyika (Historical Association of Tanzania Paper no. 10. (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1971), 47 pp. - Kjekshus, Helge (1996). Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History. London: James Currey. - Koponen, Juhani (1988). People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of International Studies. - Koponen, Juhani (1994). Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884–1914. - Paice, Edward (2007). Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa. London: Orion Publishing. - Waters, Tony (2007). The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture: Life Beneath the Level of the Marketplace. Lanham: Lexington Books. Further reading[edit] - Gibbons, Ann (2007). The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor. Anchor Books. - Miller, Charles (1974). Battle for the Bundu: The First World War in East Africa. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN 0025849.