http___en.m.wikipedia.org_wiki_Fuels.xml
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Фосилно гориво Изкопаемо гориво е вид гориво, образувано при трансформацията на фосилизирани останки на мъртви растения и животни[1] под въздействието на повишена температура и налягане под земната повърхност.[2] Възрастта на тези организми обикновено е милиони години, като в някои случаи надхвърля 650 милиона години.[3] Характерно за изкопаемите горива е високото съдържание на въглерод и въглеводороди. Включват разнородни материали от газове с ниско съотношение на въглерод към водород като метана, през течния нефт до твърди материали, съставени от почти чист въглерод, като антрацита. Метанът може да се намери самостоятелно във въглеводородните полета, свързани с петрола, или под формата на метанов хидрат. Горивата са се формирали от вкаменените останки на мъртви растения[4] в резултат на действието на топлината и налягането в земната кора в продължение на милиони години.[5] Биогенната теория за произхода на изкопаемите горива е въведена за първи път Георг Агрикола през 1556 г. и по-късно през 18-ти век подкрепена от Михаил Ломоносов. По оценки на американската Служба за енергийна информация, през 2007 година изкопаемите горива са източник на 86,4% от потребяваната енергия в света (нефт - 36,0%, каменни въглища - 27,4% и природен газ - 23,0%).[6] През 2006г. енергията добита от други източници, различни от изкопаемите горива е както следва: хидроенергия - 6,3%, ядрена - 8,5% и друг вид (геотермална, слънчева, енергия на приливите и отливите, вятърна, дървесна, енергия, добита от изгарянето на битовите отпадъци) около 0,9%.[7] Растежът на световното потребление на енергия възлиза на около 2,3% годишно. Изкопаемите горива са източник на невъзобновяема енергия поради факта, че са образувани в течение на милиони години. Темпът на изразходване на натрупаните резерви днес е значително по-голям от скоростта им на образуване. Производството и употребата на изкопаеми горива пораждат екологични проблеми. Днес светът е насочил действията си към създаване на енергия от възобновяеми източници за да отговори на увеличените енергийни нужди. Изгарянето на изкопаеми горива произвежда около 21,3 милиарда тона (21,3 гигатона въглероден диоксид (CO2) годишно, но е изчислено, че природните процеси могат да абсорбират около половината от тази сума. Така се получава нетно увеличение с 10,65 милиарда тона въглероден диоксид в атмосферата годишно.[8] Въглеродният диоксид е един от парникови газове, който повишава пропускането на радиационните лъчи и допринася за глобалното затопляне. Това води до повишаване на температурите на Земята и е причина за отрицателните ефекти от промяната на климата. Произход[редактиране | edit source] Нефтът и природният газ са се формирали от анаеробното разлагане на останки от организми, включително фитопланктон и зоопланктон, които са населявали дъното на водните басейни в големи количества при безкислородни условия, преди милиони години. През следващи геоложки времена, тази органична материя се смесва с кал и бива погребана под тежките пластове на утайката. В резултат на повишаването на топлината и налягането, причинени от органичната материя възникват химични промени. Първоначално се получава восъкоподобен материал, известен като кероген, който се намира в нефтените шисти, а по-късно под действието на топлината се превръща в течни и газообразни въглеводороди. Процесът на превръщането им е известен като катагенеза. Съществува широка гама от органични или въглеводородни съединения в дадена горивна смес. Специфична смес от въглеводороди, дава на горивото характерни му свойства, като например температура на кипене, температура на топене, плътност, вискозитет и т.н. Някои горива като природния газ, например съдържат газови компоненти с много ниска температура на кипене. Други горива като бензин или дизел, съдържат компоненти с много по-висока точка на кипене. Сухоземните растения от друга страна, са склонни да образуват каменни въглища и метан. Много от въглищните полета днес датират от периода на периода Карбон. Сухоземните растения образуват кероген тип III, който е източник пък на природен газ. Значение[редактиране | edit source] Изкопаемите горива са от голямо значение поради факта, че те горят (процес на окисляване до въглероден двуокис и вода), при което се отделя ценна енергия. Използването на въглища като гориво датира от дълбока древност. Използвани са в пещите за топене на желязна руда. Полутвърдите изкопаеми горива също са използвани като източник на енергия в древността,[9] въпреки че са били предпочитани предимно за хидроизолация и балсамиране.[10] Търговската експлоатация на петрола, до голяма степен започва след като е установено, че може да служи като заместител на ползваните мазнини от животински произход (по-специално на китовата мас), при горенето в лампите за осветление през 19 век.[11] Природният газ дълго време е смятан за вторичен продукт при добива на петрол и е изгарян в атмосферата. Днес обаче се смята за ценен източник на енергия.[12] Тежкият суров петрол, който е много по-вискозен от конвенционалния суров петрол, и катранените пясъци, от които се добива битум днес стават все по-важни източници на изкопаеми горива.[13] Нефтените шисти и други подобни материали на седиментни скали, съдържащи кероген и сложна смес от високомолекулни органични съединения, които се отделят при добива на суров петрол стават все по-ценни за употреба с търговска цел.[14] Тези горива могат да се използват при двигатели с вътрешно горене, топлоелектрически централи и други. Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Dr. Irene Novaczek. Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency. // Elements. - ↑ Fossil fuel. - ↑ Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields," in Michel T. Halbouty (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990-1999, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.50, accessed 22 June 2009. - ↑ Dr. Irene Novaczek. Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency. // Elements. - ↑ Fossil fuel. Архив на оригинала от March 12, 2007. - ↑ U.S. EIA International Energy Statistics. - ↑ International Energy Annual 2006. - ↑ US Department of Energy on greenhouse gases. - ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, use of oil seeps in accient times. - ↑ Bilkadi, Zayn. [{{{url}}} BULLS FROM THE SEA : Ancient Oil Industries]. // Aramco World, 1994. Архив на оригинала от 2007-11-13. - ↑ Ball, Max W. и др. This Fascinating Oil Business. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1965. - ↑ Kaldany,, Rashad, Director Oil, Gas, Mining and Chemicals Dept, World Bank. Global Gas Flaring Reduction: A Time for Action!. // Global Forum on Flaring & Gas Utilization. Paris, December 13, 2006. - ↑ Oil Sands Global Market Potential 2007. - ↑ US Department of Energy plans for oil shale development. // Архив на оригинала от August 13, 2007.
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Fuels are any materials that store potential energy in forms that can be practicably released and used for work or as heat energy. The concept originally applied solely to those materials storing energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion,[1] but the concept has since been also applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission or nuclear fusion). The heat energy released by many fuels is harnessed into mechanical energy via an engine. Other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release un-usable energy. Hydrocarbons are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including radioactive metals, are also utilized. Fuels are contrasted with other methods of storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy (such as batteries and capacitors) or mechanical energy (such as flywheels, springs, compressed air, or water in a reservoir). HistoryEdit The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 (two million) years ago.[2][page needed] Throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were the only ones humans used. Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking.[3] Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China. With the development of the steam engine in the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply in 2005.[4] Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the industrial revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources, such as water power. They have become a pivotal part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols. ChemicalEdit Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of oxidation. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence: primary (natural fuel) and secondary (artificial fuel). Thus, a general classification of chemical fuels is: Solid fuelEdit Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and provide heating, usually released through combustion. Solid fuels include wood (see wood fuel), charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood (see wood pellets), corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel (see solid propellants). Solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire. Coal was the fuel source which enabled the industrial revolution, from firing furnaces, to running steam engines. Wood was also extensively used to run steam locomotives. Both peat and coal are still used in electricity generation today. The use of some solid fuels (e.g. coal) is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas, due to unsafe levels of toxic emissions. The use of other solid fuels such as wood is decreasing as heating technology and the availability of good quality fuel improves. In some areas, smokeless coal is often the only solid fuel used. In Ireland, peat briquettes are used as smokeless fuel. They are also used to start a coal fire. Liquid fuelEdit Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel, which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy. Some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport, and can be handled with relative ease. Also they are relatively easy to use for all engineering applications, and home use. (Fuels like Kerosene are rationed and available in government subsidized shops in India for home use.) Liquid fuels are also used most popularly in Internal combustion engines. Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is gasoline. Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust. Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum. Kerosene is used in kerosene lamps and as a fuel for cooking, heating, and small engines. Natural gas, composed chiefly of methane, can be compressed to a liquid and used as a substitute for other traditional liquid fuels. LP gas is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily-compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It offers many of the advantages of compressed natural gas (CNG), but is denser than air, does not burn as cleanly, and is much more easily compressed. Commonly used for cooking and space heating, LP gas and compressed propane are seeing increased use in motorized vehicles; propane is the third most commonly used motor fuel globally. Gaseous fuelsEdit Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas. BiofuelsEdit Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture. Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early species of Homo were present at the sites.[5] As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.[6] Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for example Bioethanol and Biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about how carbon efficient these fuels are. Fossil fuelsEdit Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals[7] by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.[8] Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.[9] They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants[7] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years.[10] This biogenic theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century. It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.[11] Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%.[12] World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made, So we must conserve these fuels and use it judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).[13] Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. Fuels are a source of energy. NuclearEdit Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy. Technically speaking this definition includes all matter because any element under the right conditions will release nuclear energy, the only materials that are commonly referred to as nuclear fuels though are those that will produce energy without being placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (235U) and plutonium-239 (239Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Also, light nuclides such as tritium (3H) can be used as fuel for nuclear fusion. Nuclear fuel has the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources. FissionEdit The most common type of nuclear fuel used by humans is heavy fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear fission reactor; nuclear fuel can refer to the material or to physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, perhaps mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu, and the actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of these elements together make up the nuclear fuel cycle, which is important for its relevance to nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons. FusionEdit Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by man but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy. In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine together to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving out when fused, and therefore fusion stops and the stars die. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (ITER), inertial confinement(heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods used. World tradeEdit World Bank reported that the USA was the top fuel importer in 2005 followed by the EU and Japan.[citation needed] See alsoEdit - Alcohol fuel - Alternative fuels - Ammonia - Battery (electricity) - Bitumen-based fuel - Biofuels - Compressed natural gas - Cryogenic fuel - Fuel card - Fuel cell - Fuel management systems - Fuel oil - Fuel poverty - Filling station - Hydrogen economy - Hydrogen fuel - Liquid fuels - List of energy topics - Marine fuel management - Propellant - Recycled fuel - Solid fuel - World energy resources and consumption FootnotesEdit - ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - ^ Leakey, Richard (1994). Origin of Humankind. Basic Books. - ^ Hall, Loretta (2007). "Charcoal Briquette". How Products Are Made. - ^ "History of Coal Use". World Coal Institute. - ^ Rincon, Paul (22 March 2004). "Bones hint at first use of fire". BBC News. - ^ Elert, Glenn (2007). "Chemical Potential Energy". The Physics Hypertextbook. - ^ a b Dr. Irene Novaczek. "Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency". Elements. - ^ "Fossil fuel". EPA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. - ^ "Fossil fuel". - ^ "Fossil fuel". EPA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. - ^ "U.S. EIA International Energy Statistics". - ^ "International Energy Annual 2006". - ^ "US Department of Energy on greenhouse gases". "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy". American Journal of Physics 63 (7): 653–658. ReferencesEdit - Ratcliff, Brian et al. (2000). Chemistry 1. Cambridge University press. Further readingEdit - Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 13 December 1999, relating to the availability of consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars PDF (140 KB). - Council Directive 80/1268/EEC Fuel consumption of motor vehicles.