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Идеология Идеологията (на гръцки: ιδeoλoYίa, ιδea — образ, идея; и λoYoς — разум, учение) е добре организирана система от възгледи и идеи, характерна за определена социална група, класа или политическа партия и изразяваща нейните интереси. Идеологията обединява символично натоварени възгледи и ценности, които дават обяснение и оценка за света и обществото и които целят да мотивират определен тип обществени действия и да ги направляват. Идеологията не е наука, макар да използва научни знания. Основната цел на повечето идеологии е да промени обществото или да създаде и се придържа към определени идеали чрез нормативен мисловен процес. Идеологията е система от абстрактни идеи, приложени към реално общество и обществени дейности и поради тази причина основано използвана в политиката. Всяка политика или икономика предполага някаква идеология зад тях, явно или неявно. Съдържание История[редактиране | edit source] Платон открива света на идеите. Идеята е смислов образец, на който вещите подражават. Наполеон пръв нарича идеолози група френски теоретици, тъй като според него те повече фантазират, отколкото изследват. Така терминът идеология започва да се различава и противопоставя на научна теория. Терминът идеология е въведен от Антоан Дестю дьо Траси[1] в края на XVIII век. Той смята, че може да се създаде наука, която да се занимава с идеите и техния произход. Според него идеите възникват и се оформят под влиянието на сили от материалния свят. Идеологиите са идеи, които се стремят да променят света, без да имат достатъчно съответствие с него, докато научната теория е съвкупност от идеи, чиято истина зависи от това дали идеите съответстват на фактите. Следователно идеологиите са идеите, които променят фактите, а теориите са идеи, които обясняват фактите. Идеологиите са също така идеи, обвързани с ценности. Затова в тях има морални ценности и политически възгледи. Обикновено една идеология е свързана с конкретна социална група и изразява интересите, ценностите на тази група. Идеологията е заинтересована идея, докато научната теория не е обвързана с ценности (Макс Вебер). Науката се стреми да ни представи истини за света, независимо дали те ни харесват или не. В началото на XX век немският социолог Карл Манхайм (1893-1947) предлага идеологиите да се делят на два вида: идеологии, изразяващи се в оформяне на нагласите от управляващата класа, която се стреми да съхрани властта си, и на идеологии-утопии, които систематизират идеи, насочени към някакво невъзможно и идеално бъдеще. В следващите две десетилетия фашизмът, нацизмът, комунизмът и демокрацията са определени като идеологии, тъй като представляват системна схема от убеждения, обединяващи конкретна политическа воля. През 50-те години на XX век Даниел Бел определя идеологията като система от убеждения, насочена към мотивиране на хората да предприемат или да се въздържат от определени действия. Той обявява и краят на идеологиите, смятайки, че с победата на демокрацията и благоденствието след Втората световна война понятия като раса и класа например повече няма да могат да мотивират хората. Днес идеологията се възприема като система от идеи с конкретни политически цели, която служи за обосноваване и легитимиране на конкретен политически възглед. Идеологии на капитализма[редактиране | edit source] хронологически погледнато, основните идеологии на капитализма са: - Класически либерализъм - идеология, развита през 19 век в Европа и Америка, посветена на идеала за ограничено управление и индивидуална свобода - Социален либерализъм - включва социалната справедливост, идеята се състои в това, че държавата трябва да осигурява работа, здравно осигуряване и образование като същото време увеличава гражданските права - Социалдемокрация - за разлика от марксизма, чиято цел е премахването на капитализма, социалдемокрацията се стреми да го преобразува като премахне неговите недостатъци - Неолиберализъм - дава пълна или частична свобода на капиталистическите монополи, обявява се за ненамеса на държавата в дейността на предприятията и против наличието и развитието на държавната собственост. Идеология според марксизма[редактиране | edit source] Виждането, че идеите са повлияни от материалното, се споделя и от марксизма[2]. Според него идеологията е оформяне и изопачаване на възгледите на хората от икономическите условия в интерес и с помощта на господстващата класа, която чрез идеологията се стреми да легитимира властта си. След това дълго време господства негативното разбиране за идеологията като насочваща схема, която не е рационална и няма прагматична стойност. В марксисткия модел на обществото като база и надстройка, за база служат производствените отношения, а надстройката определя господстващата идеология (религиозна, политическа и законова системи). Икономическата база определя политическата надстройка. Управляващата класа контролира средствата за производство, а класовите интереси определят надстройката и естеството на дейностите, свързани с идеологията. Така например във феодалното общество религиозната идеология играе съществена роля в надстройката, докато в капиталистическото общество е доминирано от идеите на либерализма. Основната идея на марксизма е, че икономическите интереси на господстващата класа са представени като икономически интереси на цялото общество. Цялото общество има една идеология - тази на марксизма-ленинизма. Политически идеологии[редактиране | edit source] Много политически партии основават своите политически действия и програма на някаква идеология. В социалните науки, политическа идеология е определен етичен набор от идеали, принципи, доктрини, митове, или символи на социално движение, институция, класа, или голяма група, която обяснява как обществото би трябвало да работи, и предлага политически и културен план за определен обществен ред. Една политическа идеология до голяма степен се занимава с това как да се раздели властта и за какви цели трябва да се използва. Някои страни следват определена идеология много стриктно, докато други взимат вдъхновение от голяма, широка група от свързани идеологии, без да се посветят на една от тях. Политическите идеологии имат две измерения: - Цели: как обществото би трябвало да работи - Методи: най-подходящите начини, за да се постигне идеала Идеология е колекция от идеи. Обикновено всяка идеология съдържа някои идеи за това, което тя смята за най-добрата форма на управление (напр. демокрация, теокрация, и т.н.), и най-добрата икономическа система (напр. капитализъм, социализъм, и т.н.). Понякога една и съща дума се използва за идентифициране както на идеологията, така и на основната ѝ идея. Например, социализъм може да отнесе към икономическа система, или може да се отнесе за една идеология, която поддържа тази икономическата система. Идеологиите също така могат да се идентифицират от позицията си на политическия спектър (като лява, центристка или дясна), въпреки че това е много често противоречива класификация. И накрая, идеологиите могат да бъдат разграничени от политически стратегии (например популизъм), както и от отделни въпроси, върху които една партия може да бъде изградена (например легализация на марихуаната). Политическите идеологии засягат много различни аспекти на едно общество, някои от които са: икономиката, образованието, здравеопазването, трудово право, наказателно право, правосъдната система, предоставянето на социално осигуряване и социално подпомагане, търговията, околната среда, имиграция, раса, използването на военните, патриотизъм, и установена религия. Има много предложени методи за класификация на политическите идеологии. Всеки от тези различни методи генерира конкретен политически спектър. Днес много коментатори твърдят, че ние живеем в пост-идеологическо време, в което изкупителните, или всеобхватните идеологии са се провалили и това често се свързва с „края на историята“, описан от Франсис Фукуяма.[3][4] Външни препратки[редактиране | edit source] Източници[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Life and Works of Antoine Louis Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy - ↑ Ideology, Semiotics Encyclopedia Online - ↑ Bell, D. The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (2000) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, pg. 393 - ↑ Fukuyama, F. (1992)The End of History and the Last Man. USA: The Free Press, xi - Статията се основава на или съдържа материал от Краткия политически речник на термините на Българското училище за политика.
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Ideology An ideology is a set of ideas that constitute one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology is a comprehensive vision, a way of looking at things (compare worldview) as in several philosophical tendencies (see political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society (a "received consciousness" or product of socialization). Ideologies are systems of abstract thought applied to public matters and thus make this concept central to politics. Implicitly every political or economic tendency entails an ideology whether or not it is propounded as an explicit system of thought. [edit] History The term "ideology" was born in the highly controversial philosophical and political debates and fights of the French Revolution and acquired several other meanings from the early days of the First French Empire to the present. The word was coined by Destutt de Tracy in 1796,[1][2] assembling the parts idea (near to the Lockean sense) and -logy. He used it to refer to one aspect of his "science of ideas" (to the study itself, not the subject of the study). He separated three aspects, namely: ideology, general grammar, and logic, considering respectively the subject, the means, and the reason of this science.[3] He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, because the science of ideas also contains the study of their expression and deduction. According to Karl Mannheim's historical reconstruction of the shifts in the meaning of ideology, the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon Bonaparte (as a politician) used it in an abusive way against "the ideologues" (a group which included[citation needed] Cabanis, Condorcet, Constant, Daunou, Say, Madame de Staël, and Tracy), to express the pettiness of his (liberal republican) political opponents. Perhaps the most accessible source for the near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine's work on the Ancien Regime (the first volume of "Origins of Contemporary France"). He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy by the Socratic method, but without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Destutt De Tracy, but also with his milieu, and includes Condillac as one of its precursors. (Tracy read the works of Locke and Condillac while he was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror.) The word "ideology" was coined long before the Russians coined "intelligentsia", or before the adjective "intellectual" referred to a sort of person (see substantive), i.e. an intellectual. Thus these words were not around when the hard-headed, driven Napoleon Bonaparte took the word "ideologues" to ridicule his intellectual opponents. Gradually, however, the term "ideology" has dropped some of its pejorative sting, and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups.[4] While Karl Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination,[5][6] others believed it was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration.[7] [edit] Analysis Meta-ideology is the study of the structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies. Meta-ideology posits that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis, but are subjective choices that serve as the seed around which further thought grows. According to this perspective, ideologies are neither right nor wrong, but only a relativistic intellectual strategy for categorizing the world. The pluses and minuses of ideology range from the vigor and fervor of true believers to ideological infallibility. Excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics and religions. The works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, done under the heading of systematic ideology, are attempts to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies.[8] David W. Minar describes six different ways in which the word "ideology" has been used: - As a collection of certain ideas with certain kinds of content, usually normative; - As the form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a set; - By the role in which ideas play in human-social interaction; - By the role that ideas play in the structure of an organization; - As meaning, whose purpose is persuasion; and - As the locus of social interaction, possibly. For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: - it must have power over cognition - it must be capable of guiding one's evaluations; - it must provide guidance towards action; - and, as stated above, it must be logically coherent. Mullins emphasizes that an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth. The German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the ideology concept" (2006). In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology and history. In this work, the term ideology is defined in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly claim to absolute truth. Though the word "ideology" is most often found in political discourse, there are many different kinds of ideology: political, social, epistemological, ethical, etc. [edit] Marxist view In the Marxist economic base and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of production, and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production. For example, in a feudal mode of production, religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy dominate. Hence the great importance of the ideology justifying a society; it politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness, such as in the case of commodity fetishism—the belief that value is inherent to a commodity, rather than external, added to it via labor. The ruling class affect their social reproduction by the dominant ideology's representing—to every social-economic class—that the economic interests of the ruling class are the economic interests of the entire society. Some explanations have been presented. György Lukács proposes ideology as a projection of the class consciousness of the ruling class. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a false ideological conception of what are their best interests. Chronologically, the dominant ideologies in Capitalism are: corresponding to these three capitalist stages of development: The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge, viz. Karl Mannheim, Daniel Bell, and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed, and progressed, from the "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. [edit] Louis Althusser's Ideological State Apparatuses Louis Althusser proposed a materialistic conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told (but is suggested). For example, the statement "All are equal before the law," which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal "opportunities". This is not true, for the concept of private property and power over the means of production results in some people being able to own more (much more) than others. This power disparity contradicts the claim that all share both practical worth and future opportunity equally; for example, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law. Althusser also proffered the concept of the Ideological State Apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis was "ideology has no history": while individual ideologies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history. His second thesis, "Ideas are material", explains his materialistic attitude, which he illustrates with the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "kneel and pray, and then you will believe". For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. What is ultimately important for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the "minds" of human individuals, but rather the material institutions, rituals, and discourses that produce these beliefs. [edit] Feminism as critique of ideology Naturalizing socially constructed patterns of behavior has always been an important mechanism in the production and reproduction of ideologies. Feminist theorists have paid close attention to these mechanisms. Adrienne Rich, for example, has shown how to understand motherhood as a social institution. However, feminism is not a homogeneous whole, and some corners of feminist thought criticize the critique of social constructionism, by advocating that it disregards too much of human nature and natural tendencies. The debate, they say, is about the normative/naturalistic fallacy—the idea that just something "being" natural does not necessarily mean it "ought" to be the case. [edit] Political ideologies Many political parties base their political action and program on an ideology. In social studies, a Political Ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, or symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how society should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Political ideologies have two dimensions: - Goals: how society should work - Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement. An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy, theocracy, caliphate etc.), and the best economic system (e.g. capitalism, socialism, etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, "socialism" may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system. Ideologies also identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (such as the left, the center or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism) and from single issues that a party may be built around (e.g. legalization of marijuana). Philosopher Michael Oakeshott provides a good definition of ideology as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in the tradition." Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of systematic ideology. Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, some of which are: the economy, education, health care, labor law, criminal law, the justice system, the provision of social security and social welfare, trade, the environment, minors, immigration, race, use of the military, patriotism, and established religion. There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. See the political spectrum article for a more in-depth discussion of these different methods (each of whom generates a specific political spectrum). Today, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age,[10] in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed, and this is often associated with Francis Fukuyama's writings on "the end of history".[11] [edit] Epistemological ideologies Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science adopted as ideology is that of ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself. Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology. Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology. Some accuse ecological economics of likewise turning scientific theory into political economy, although theses in that science can often be tested. The modern practice of green economics fuses both approaches and seems to be part science, part ideology. This is far from the only theory of economics to be raised to ideology status—some notable economically based ideologies include mercantilism, mixed economy, social Darwinism, communism, laissez-faire economics, and free trade. There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade which can be seen as ideologies. [edit] Psychological research Psychological research[12] increasingly suggests that ideologies reflect motivational processes, as opposed to the view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking. Research in 2008[12] proposed that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat, and maintain valued interpersonal relationships. The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to the adoption of system-justifying worldviews. Psychologists have generally found that personality traits, individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have a common thread.[citation needed] [edit] Ideology and semiotic theory According to the semiotician Bob Hodge, ideology "identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault's 'episteme' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage, is too confined to verbal systems. 'Worldview' is too metaphysical, 'propaganda' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life".[13] Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies. [edit] See also [edit] Notes - ^ Kennedy, Emmet (1979) "Ideology" from Destutt De Tracy to Marx, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Jul.–Sep., 1979), pp. 353-368 (article consists of 16 pages) http://www.jstor.org/pss/2709242 - ^ Hart, David M. (2002) Destutt De Tracy: Annotated Bibliography http://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html - ^ De Tracy, Destutt (1801) Les Éléments d'idéologie, 3rd ed. (1817), p. 4, cited by: Mannheim, Karl (1929) Ideologie und Utopie, 2nd footnote in the chapter The problem of "false consciousness" - ^ Eagleton, Terry (1991) Ideology. An introduction, Verso, pg. 2 - ^ Tucker, Robert C (1978). The Marx-Engels Reader, W. W. Norton & Company, pg. 3. - ^ Marx, MER, pg. 154 - ^ Susan Silbey, "Ideology" at Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. - ^ Blattberg, Charles, "Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies," in Patriotic Elaborations: Essays in Practical Philosophy, Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009.[1] Political economy: A comparative approach. Westport, CT: Preager. - ^ Bell, D. The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (2000) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, pg. 393 - ^ Fukuyama, F. (1992)The End of History and the Last Man. USA: The Free Press, xi - ^ a b Jost, John T., Ledgerwood, Alison, & Hardin, Curtis D. (2008). Shared reality, system justification, and the relational basis of ideological beliefs. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2,171-186 - ^ Bob Hodge, "Ideology", at Semiotics Encyclopedia Online. [edit] References - Christian Duncker (Hg.): Ideologiekritik Aktuell – Ideologies Today. - Christian Duncker: Kritische Reflexionen Des Ideologiebegriffes, 2006, ISBN 1-903343-88-7 - Minar, David M. (1961) "Ideology and Political Behavior", Midwest Journal of Political Science. Midwest Political Science Association. - Mullins, Willard A. (1972) "On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science." The American Political Science Review. American Political Science Association. - Pinker, Steven. (2002) "The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature." New York: Penguin Group, Inc. ISBN 0-670-03151-8 [edit] Further reading - Marx, Karl ([1845-46] 1932) The German Ideology [3] - Lukács, Georg (1919–23) History and Class Consciousness [4] - Mannheim, Karl (1936) Ideology and Utopia Routledge - Althusser, Louis (1971) 'Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses' Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays Monthly Review Press ISBN 1-58367-039-4 - Minogue, Kenneth (1985) Alien Powers: The Pure Theory of Ideology, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-312-01860-6 - Zizek, Slavoj (1989) The Sublime Object of Ideology Verso ISBN 0-86091-971-4 [5] - Eagleton, Terry (1991) Ideology. An introduction, Verso, ISBN 0-86091-319-8 - Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973 - Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Hawkes, David (2003) Ideology (2nd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-29012-0 - Sorce Keller, Marcello. “Why is Music so Ideological, Why Do Totalitarian States Take It So Seriously: A Personal View from History, and the Social Sciences”, Journal of Musicological Research, XXVI(2007), no. 2-3, pp. 91–122. - Malesevic, Sinisa and Iain Mackenzie (ed). Ideology after Poststructuralism. London: Pluto Press. - Owen, John (2011) "The Clash of Ideas in World Politics: Transnational Networks, States, and Regime Change, 1510-2010", Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-14239-4 - Haas, Mark L. (2005) The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics, 1789-1989. Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-80147-407-8