http___en.wikipedia.org_wiki_Southern_Oceans_1.xml
1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.3 13.1 13.2 13.3 14.1 14.2 15.1 15.2 16.1 16.2 16.3 17.1 18.1 18.2 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 21.1 22.1 22.2 22.3 23.1 23.2 24.1 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 26.1 26.2 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 28.1 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5
История на Антарктида Историята на Антарктида започва с разпространените на запад теории за обширен континент, известен като Тера Аустралис, за който се смята, че съществува далеч на юг. Името Антарктика, означаващо „срещу Арктика“, е използвано за първи път от Мариний Тирски през II век н.е. След заобикалянето на нос Добра надежда и нос Хорн през XV и XVI век се доказва, че Тера Аустралис Инкогнита („Непозната южна земя“), ако въобще съществува, е самостоятелен континент. През 1773 г. изследователят Джеймс Кук пръв пресича Южния полярен кръг, но, въпреки че открива множество крайбрежни острови, не вижда самата Антарктида. Смята се, че е бил на около 240 км от континента. През 1820 г. няколко експедиции се обявяват за откриватели на Антарктида, като първата от тях е тази на руснаците Фадей Белингсхаузен и Михаил Лазарев. Първото акостиране на континента вероятно е само година по-късно, когато Джон Дейвис, американски ловец на тюлени, стъпва на ледниците. Първата норвежка антарктическа експедиция през 1892 г. е под ръководството на капитан Карл Антон Ларсен. Експедицията се придвижва на барка „Язон“. Ларсен открива първите фосили на територията на Ледения континент, за което получава награда от Кралското географско дружество.[1] През декември 1893 г. той става и първия скиор в Антарктида, като ледника, който той прекосява, е наречен в негова чест Ларсен. Също така той се счита за основател на китолова в антарктическите крайбрежни води и на селището Грютвикен, Южна Джорджия.[2] След достигането на Северния полюс през 1909 г., към Южния полюс потеглят множество експедиции, голяма част от които завършват с ранени или жертви. Полюсът е достигнат на 14 декември 1911 г. от норвежеца Руал Амундсен, в надпревара с англичанина Робърт Скот. Тера Аустралис[редактиране | edit source] В Западния свят теориите за Тера Аустралис Инкогнита („непознатата южна земя“) - общирен континент в южната част на земния глобус, който „балансира“ северните части на Европа, Азия и Северна Африка - съществуват векове наред. Според постулата за земната симетрия на Аристотел на юг от познатия свят трябва да има също толкова обитаеми земи. Гърците смятат, че двете полукъба, Северното и Южното са разделени от „огнен обръч“. Чак през 1418 г. португалският принц Енрике Мореплавателя започва да финансира пътувания в тропиците с цел да се намери морски път до Индия, който заобикаля Африка. Това злага началото на изследванията на Южното полукълбо. През 1473 г. мореплавателят Лопеш Гонсалвеш доказва, че е възможно да се пресече Екватора, след което моряците и картографите започват да приемат възможността за съществуването на все още неоткрит континент с умерен климат южно от позната част на света. Достигането на нос Добра надежда от Бартоломеу Диаш е първият досег на европейците с антарктическия студ и показва, че има океан, който разделя Африка от Антарктида. Смята се, че в картата на света на турския адмирал Пири Реис са включени контурите на континета Антарктида. Фернандо Магелан, който преминава през Магелановия проток през 1520 г., решава, че островите Огнена земя на юг са разклонения на Неизвестната южна земя, като това е включено в картата на Абрахам Ортелий. Там тя е записана като Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita (Новооткритата, но ве още не напълно позната Южна земя). На своите глобуси много европейски картографи свързват крайбреията на Огнена земя и Нова Гвинея и създават континента „Тера Аустралис Инкогнита“, обхващащ част от тропиците, на територията на истинските южни части на Тихия и Индийския океан. Търсенето на Великата южна земя е водещ мотив за много експедиции през XVI и началото на XVII век. Испанецът Габриел де Кастиля, който твърди, че е видял „покрити със сняг планини“ южно от 64° ю.ш. през 1603 г., се смята за първия откривател на Антарктида, макар че дълго всреме се пренебрегва. През 1606 г. Педро Фернандес де Кирос предава във владение на испанския крал всички земи, които открива в Аустралия де Еспирито Санто (дн. Вануату) и обещава, че ще достигне чак до полюса. Както някои испански изследователи преди него, англичанинът Франсис Дрейк счита, че южно от Огнена земя трябва да има море. Всъщност през 1615 г. нидерландците Вилем Схаутен и Якоб Лемер откриват най-южната точка на архипелага и я наричат нос Хорн и доказват, че Огнена земя е малък архипелаг, който няма никаква връзка с Южната земя. През 1642 г. Абел Тасман доказва, че дори Нова Холандия (Австралия) е разделена от море от големия южен континент. Пътешествениците, заобикалящи нос Хорн, често се изправя срещу ветрове, които ги завличат на юг в студените и покрити с лед морета. Досега е известно, че никой до 1770 г. не е пресякъл Южния полярен кръг, или, ако го е пресякъл, това е останало неизвестно. Откриването на земи южно от 64° ю.ш. от Дирк Гериц през 1599 г. вероятно е резултат от грека на биографа му Каспер Барлей през 1622 г.[3] Южно от Антарктическата конвергенция[редактиране | edit source] През 1675 г. англо-французинът Антъни де ла Роше открива остров Южна Джорджия, който е първата открита земя южно от Антарктическата конвергенция, т.е. в Антарктика.[4][5] Скоро след неговото пътешествие европейските картографи започват да отбелязват на картите си „остров Роше“, наименуван в негова чест. Джеймс Кук изследва и картографира открития от Роше остров през 1775 г.[6] Най-вероятно до 1750 г. почти всички мореплаватели, попаднали в южните ледени морета, просто са били завлечени от ветровете извън курс. Изключение може би е пътуването на Едмънд Халей на борда на кораба „Парамур“, които цели да изследва магнитните полета в Южния Атлантически океан и се среща с ледовете на 52° ю.ш. (на 224 км северно от Южна Джорджия), но не продължава по̀ на юг. Друго пътешествие, което може да се сметне за изследователски стремеж, е това на френския морски офицер Жан Батист Шарл Буве дьо Лозие, чиято цел е откриването на Южната земя, описана от полумитичния Господин от Гоневил. Експедицията открива единствено остров Буве (54°26′ ю. ш. 3°24′ и. д. През 1771 г. Ив Жозеф Кергелен отплува от Франция с цел да продължи южно от Мавриций в търсене на „много голям континент“. Той открива земя около 50° ю.ш, която нарича Южна Франция и счита за централна земна маса на Южния континент. Изпратен е отново да изследва новооткритите земи, но открива само негостоприемен остров, който назовава Островът на самотата. След смъртта на Кергелен островът е преименуван на Кергелен в чест на откривателя му. Бележки[редактиране | edit source] - ↑ Rabassa, Jorge и др. Antarctic Peninsula & Tierra del Fuego. Taylor and Francis, 2006-11-21. - ↑ Mills, William James. Exploring Polar Frontiers A Historical Encyclopedia. - ↑ Дон Габриел Кастиля, първият откривател на Антарктида, от чилийския историк Исидоро Васкес де Акуна (исп.) - ↑ Dalrymple, Alexander. A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope. Two volumes. London. - ↑ Headland, Robert K. The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press. - ↑ Cook, James. A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships. Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. (Relevant fragment) Източници[редактиране | edit source] - Ранна история. Иванов и Н. Иванова. Антарктика: Природа, история, усвояване, географски имена и българско участие. София: Фондация Манфред Вьорнер, 2014. с. 40-47.
1.1 2.1 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.1 11.1 12.1 13.1 14.1 15.1 16.1 17.1 18.1 19.1 20.1 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 22.1 22.2 23.1 24.1 25.1 25.2 25.3 26.1 27.1 27.2 28.1 28.2 29.1 29.2 29.3 30.1 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 34.1 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 36.1 37.1 37.2 38.1 38.2 38.3 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 40.1 41.1 41.2 41.3 42.1 42.2 42.3 43.1 43.2 43.3 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 44.6 45.1 45.2 46.1 47.1 47.2 48.1 49.1 49.2 50.1 50.2 51.1 52.1 52.2 53.1 53.2 53.3 54.1 55.1 55.2 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 57.1 58.1 59.1 59.2 59.3 60.1 61.1 61.2 62.1 63.1 63.2 63.3 63.4 63.5 64.1 65.1 66.1 66.2 67.1 68.1 69.1 70.1 70.2 70.3 70.4 71.1 72.1 72.2 73.1 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 75.1 75.2 75.3 75.4 76.1 76.2 77.1 78.1 78.2 79.1 79.2 80.1 80.2 80.3 81.1 81.2 81.3 82.1 83.1 84.1 84.2 84.3 85.1 86.1 86.2 87.1 87.2 87.3 87.4 88.1 88.2 89.1 90.1 90.2 90.3 91.1 91.2 91.3 92.1 93.1 94.1 95.1 95.2 96.1 96.2 97.1 98.1 99.1 99.2 99.3 99.4 99.5 99.6 100.1 100.2 100.3 101.1 102.1 102.2 102.3 103.1 104.1 105.1 106.1 106.2 106.3 106.4 107.1 108.1 109.1 109.2 109.3 109.4 109.5 110.1 110.2 110.3 111.1 111.2 111.3 112.1 112.2 112.3 112.4 112.5 112.6 113.1 114.1 114.2 114.3 115.1 115.2 115.3 115.4 116.1 117.1 117.2 117.3 117.4 117.5 118.1 118.2 118.3 118.4 118.5 119.1 120.1 121.1 121.2 121.3 121.4 121.5 121.6 122.1 123.1 123.2 123.3 124.1 125.1 125.2 125.3 126.1 126.2 126.3 127.1 127.2 128.1 129.1 129.2 129.3 130.1 130.2 130.3 131.1 131.2 132.1 133.1 134.1 134.2 135.1 136.1 136.2 137.1 137.2 137.3 137.4 138.1 138.2 139.1 139.2 139.3 140.1 140.2 141.1 142.1 143.1 143.2 144.1 145.1 146.1 146.2 147.1 147.2 147.3 148.1 148.2 149.1 150.1 151.1 152.1 153.1 154.1 155.1 156.1 157.1 158.1 159.1 159.2 159.3 160.1 161.1 161.2 162.1 163.1 163.2 164.1 165.1 165.2 165.3 166.1 166.2 166.3 166.4 167.1 167.2 167.3 168.1 168.2 168.3 168.4 169.1 169.2 169.3 170.1 170.2 170.3 171.1 171.2 171.3 172.1 172.2 172.3 173.1 174.1 175.1 175.2 175.3 175.4 176.1 176.2 177.1 177.2 177.3 177.4 177.5 177.6 177.7 178.1 178.2 178.3 178.4 179.1 179.2 179.3 179.4 179.5 180.1 181.1 181.2 181.3 182.1 182.2 182.3 183.1 183.2 183.3 184.1 184.2 185.1 185.2 185.3 185.4 185.5 186.1 186.2 186.3 186.4 187.1 187.2 187.3 187.4 188.1 188.2 188.3 189.1 189.2 189.3 190.1 190.2 191.1 192.1 193.1 194.1 194.2 194.3 194.4 195.1 195.2 195.3 196.1 196.2 196.3 196.4 197.1 197.2 197.3 198.1 199.1 199.2 200.1 200.2 200.3 200.4 201.1 201.2 201.3 201.4 202.1 202.2 202.3 203.1 203.2 203.3 203.4 204.1 204.2 204.3 205.1 205.2 205.3 206.1 206.2 206.3 206.4 207.1 207.2 207.3 207.4 207.5 207.6 208.1 208.2 208.3 209.1 210.1 210.2 210.3 211.1 211.2 211.3 211.4 212.1 212.2 213.1 213.2 213.3 213.4 214.1 214.2 214.3 215.1 215.2 216.1 216.2 216.3 217.1 217.2 217.3 217.4 217.5 218.1 218.2 218.3 218.4 219.1 219.2 219.3 219.4 219.5 220.1 220.2 220.3 220.4 220.5 221.1 221.2 221.3 221.4 221.5 222.1 222.2 222.3 222.4 222.5 223.1 223.2 223.3 223.4 224.1 224.2 224.3 224.4 224.5 225.1 225.2 225.3 225.4 225.5 226.1 226.2 226.3 226.4 226.5 227.1 227.2 227.3 227.4 227.5 228.1 228.2 228.3 228.4 228.5 229.1 229.2 229.3 229.4 229.5 230.1 230.2 230.3 230.4 230.5 231.1 231.2 231.3 231.4 231.5 232.1 232.2 232.3 232.4 232.5 233.1 233.2 233.3 233.4 233.5 234.1 234.2 234.3 234.4 234.5 235.1 235.2 236.1 237.1 237.2 237.3 238.1 238.2 239.1 240.1 241.1 241.2 241.3 241.4 242.1 242.2 243.1 244.1 244.2 244.3 245.1 246.1 246.2 246.3 247.1 248.1 249.1 250.1 250.2 251.1 252.1 253.1 254.1 255.1 256.1 257.1 258.1 259.1 260.1 261.1 262.1 263.1 264.1 265.1 266.1 267.1 268.1 269.1 270.1 271.1 272.1 273.1 274.1 275.1 276.1 277.1 278.1 279.1 280.1 281.1 282.1 283.1 284.1 285.1 286.1 287.1 288.1 289.1 291.1 295.1 296.1 297.1 298.1 299.1 300.1 301.1 302.1 303.1 304.1 305.1 306.1 307.1 308.1 309.1 310.1 311.1 312.1 313.1 314.1 315.1 316.1 317.1 318.1 319.1 320.1 321.1 322.1 323.1 324.1 325.1 326.1 327.1 328.1 329.1 330.1 331.1 332.1 333.1 334.1 335.1 336.1 337.1 338.1 339.1 340.1 341.1 342.1 343.1 344.1 345.1 346.1 347.1 348.1 349.1 350.1 351.1 352.1 353.1 354.1 355.1 356.1 357.1 358.1 359.1 360.1 361.1 362.1 363.1 364.1 365.1 366.1 367.1 368.1 369.1 370.1 371.1 372.1 373.1 374.1 375.1 376.1 377.1 378.1 379.1 380.1 381.1 382.1 383.1 384.1 385.1 386.1 387.1 388.1 389.1 390.1 391.1 392.1 393.1 394.1 395.1 396.1 397.1 398.1 399.1 400.1 401.1 402.1 403.1 404.1 405.1 406.1 407.1 408.1 409.1 410.1 411.1 412.1 413.1 414.1 415.1 416.1 417.1 418.1 419.1 420.1 421.1 422.1 423.1 424.1 425.1 426.1 427.1 428.1 429.1 430.1 431.1 432.1 433.1 434.1 435.1 436.1 437.1 438.1 439.1 440.1 441.1 442.1 443.1 444.1 445.1 446.1 447.1 448.1 449.1 450.1 451.1 452.1 453.1 454.1 455.1 456.1 457.1 458.1 459.1 460.1 461.1 462.1 463.1 464.1 465.1 466.1 467.1 468.1 469.1 470.1 471.1 472.1 473.1 474.1 475.1 476.1 477.1 478.1 479.1 480.1 481.1 482.1 483.1 484.1
Southern Ocean The Southern Ocean (also known as the Great Southern Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, South Polar Ocean, and Austral Ocean) comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica.[1] As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions (after the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, but larger than the Arctic Ocean).[2] This ocean zone is where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters. Geographers disagree on the Southern Ocean's northern boundary, and some even its existence—considering the waters part of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans instead. Others regard the Antarctic Convergence, an ocean zone which fluctuates seasonally, as separating the Southern Ocean from other oceans, rather than the 60th parallel.[3] Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia.[4][5] The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) has not yet formally published its 2000 draft definition of the existence of the ocean and of it being south of 60°S due to global 'areas of concern' such as the Sea of Japan. Its last formally published definition of oceans dates from 1953; this omits the Southern Ocean term, leaving hydrographic offices who use the term to decide their own northern limits. The 2000 IHO definition was circulated in a draft edition in 2002 and is used by some within the IHO and by some other organisations such as the US Central Intelligence Agency and Merriam-Webster (a subsidiary of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.).[2][6] The National Geographic Society currently does not depict the Southern Ocean term (except on occasion in a typeface different from the other world oceans), instead showing the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and on line maps,[7] though some of its online news blogs do use the term.[8] Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps[9] and GeoNova.[10] Contents - 1 History of exploration - 2 The 'shrinking' Southern Ocean - 3 Geography - 4 Physical oceanography - 5 Climate - 6 Biodiversity - 7 Environment - 8 Economy - 9 Ports and harbors - 10 See also - 11 Notes - 12 References - 13 External links History of exploration[edit] The unknown southern land[edit] Exploration of the Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—which had existed since the times of Ptolemy. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist. Ferdinand Magellan, who passed through the Strait of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land. In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his first map, Typus Orbis Terrarum, an eight-leaved wall map of the world, on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a northward extension of the Terra Australis, reaching as far as New Guinea.[11][12] European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries. The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the 64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of Antarctica, although he was ignored in his time. Quirós in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides) and those he would discover "even to the Pole". Francis Drake like Spanish explorers before him had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, when Schouten and Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as previously thought. Subsequently, in 1642, Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia) was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. South of the Antarctic Convergence[edit] The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence i.e. in the Southern Ocean / Antarctic.[13][14] Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict ‘Roché Island’, honouring the discoverer. James Cook was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.[15] Edmond Halley's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi off the north coast of South Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land" – described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville" – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730 . In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of "a very large continent." He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him.[16] South of the Antarctic Circle[edit] The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with the Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S, a lower southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice. Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands, of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E. On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure, and reached 60° S by 177° W, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W. A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia, and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60°. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and without economic value.[16] Voyagers rounding the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did. In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane, accompanied by his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823 the two ships reached latitude 74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea) but Weddell decided to turn back.[18] First sighting of land[edit] The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith, who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island, and claimed the new territories for Britain. In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast of Livingston Island (South Shetlands). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first to set foot on these Antarctic islands. The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources,[19][20][21] three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy; Edward Bransfield, a captain in the British navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut. It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W[22] that became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle. Antarctic expeditions[edit] In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war USS Vincennes and USS Peacock , the brig USS Porpoise , the full-rigged ship Relief, and two schooners Sea Gull and USS Flying Fish . They sailed into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day. Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[23] The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, the Endurance, was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island. Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird, and then trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken. In 1946, US Navy Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd and more than 4,700 military personnel visited the Antarctic in an expedition called Operation Highjump. Reported to the public as a scientific mission, the details were kept secret and it may have actually been a training or testing mission for the military. The expedition was, in both military or scientific planning terms, put together very quickly. The group contained an unusually high amount of military equipment, including an aircraft carrier, submarines, military support ships, assault troops and military vehicles. The expedition was planned to last for eight months but was unexpectedly terminated after only two months. With the exception of some eccentric entries in Admiral Byrd's diaries, no real explanation for the early termination has ever been officially given. Captain Finn Ronne, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.[24] The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the Ronne Ice Shelf, named by Ronne after his wife Edith "Jackie" Ronne.[25] Ronne covered 3,600 miles by ski and dog sled—more than any other explorer in history.[26] The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition discovered and mapped the last unknown coastline in the world and was the first Antarctic expedition to ever include women.[27] Recent history[edit] The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959 and came into force on 23 June 1961. Among other provisions, this treaty limits military activity in the Antarctic to the support of scientific research. The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in a 10-metre steel sloop Ice Bird. A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born further south than anyone in history.[28] The MS Explorer was a cruise ship operated by the Swedish explorer Lars-Eric Lindblad. Observers point to the Explorer's 1969 expeditionary cruise to Antarctica as the frontrunner for today's sea-based tourism in that region.[29][30] The Explorer was the first cruise ship used specifically to sail the icy waters of the Antarctic Ocean and the first to sink there[31] when she struck an unidentified submerged object on 23 November 2007, reported to be ice, which caused a 10 by 4 inches (25 by 10 cm) gash in the hull.[32] The Explorer was abandoned in the early hours of 23 November 2007 after taking on water near the South Shetland Islands in the Southern Ocean, an area which is usually stormy but was calm at the time.[33] The Explorer was confirmed by the Chilean Navy to have sunk at approximately position: 62° 24′ South, 57° 16′ West,[34] in roughly 600 m of water.[35] The 'shrinking' Southern Ocean[edit] By way of his 1770s voyages, Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Since then, Southern Ocean waters have been variously known as the Great Southern Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, Southern Icy Ocean, Grand Ocean, South Polar Ocean, Austral Ocean, or as components of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. It was not until the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB), which later became the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919 that borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed. The IHO then published these in the publication Limits of Oceans and Seas - the first edition being 1928. Since the first edition, the limits of the Southern Ocean has moved progressively southwards, including a period between 1953 and 2002 when it was omitted from the publication and left to local hydrographic offices to determine their own limits. 1834 (reverse) delineation of the Colony of South Australia[edit] In 1834, the colony of South Australia was empowered by an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, becoming the only colony in the world to have a coastal border exclusively delineated by the Southern Ocean. Antarctica, by comparison, has never been colonized and its coast delineates the southern boundary of the Southern Ocean (not the other way around). The South Australia Colonisation Act 1834 (4 & 5 Will. IV c. 95) was "An Act to empower His Majesty to erect South Australia into a British Province or Provinces and to provide for the Colonisation and Government thereof". It provided for the settlement of a province or multiple provinces on the lands between 132 degrees east and 141 degrees of east longitude, and between the Southern Ocean, and 26 degrees south latitude, including the islands, bays and gulfs adjacent to the coastline. The Act was put into effect on 15 August 1834.[36] 1928 delineation[edit] In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, the Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits - the continent of Antarctic to the south, and the continents of South America, Africa, and Australia plus Broughton Island, New Zealand, in the north. The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in South America eastwards to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then further eastwards to the southern coast of mainland Australia to Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia. From Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed eastwards along the coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway, Victoria, then southwards across Bass Strait to Cape Wickham, King Island, along the west coast of King Island, then the remainder of the way south across Bass Strait to Cape Grim, Tasmania. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, before returning to Cape Horn.[37] 1937 delineation[edit] The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the ocean's northern limit ceased to abut land masses. In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northwards to latitude 40° south between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20° east) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115° east), and extended to latitude 55° south between Auckland Island of New Zealand (long. 165° or 166° east) and Cape Horn in South America (long. 67° west).[38] As is discussed in more detail below (see section on '2002 delineation'), prior to the 2002 (draft) edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters (as designated in 1928) but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. In the 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated 'seas' as being subdivisions within 'oceans' and so the Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention was in place then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans (for example to compare surface areas) it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for 'seas' can affect the comparison. 1953 delineation[edit] The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition and a note in the publication read: The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the majority of opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the effect that there exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of water, the northern limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change. The limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55 South.) Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.[39] 2002 (draft) delineation[edit] The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's northern limit at 60°S (with no land interruptions at this latitude), with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly 50°S, but a few for as far north as 35°S. A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas was circulated to IHO member states in August 2002 (sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it summarized the progress to 2000).[41] It has yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world - primarily the Sea of Japan naming dispute - and there have been various changes, 60 seas were given new names, and even the name of the publication was changed.[42] A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits.[43] Effectively, the 3rd edition (which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices) has yet to be superseded. Despite this, the 4th edition definition has de facto usage by many nations, scientists and organisations such as the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency and Merriam-Webster (a subsidiary of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.),[2][6][8] scientists and nations - and even by some within the IHO.[44] Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55°S parallel for example.[39] Other organisations favour more northerly limits for the Southern Ocean. For example, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. describes the Southern Ocean as extending as far north as South America, and confers great significance on the Antarctic Convergence, yet its description of the Indian Ocean contradicts this describing the Indian Ocean as extending south to Antarctica.[5][45] Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans as extending to Antarctica on its maps, although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean.[8] In Australia, cartographical authorities defined the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand. This delineation is basically the same as the original (first) edition of the IHO publication and effectively the same as the second edition. In the second edition, the Great Australian Bight was defined as the only geographical entity between the Australian coast and the Southern Ocean. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean,[46] while Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet.[47] A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928-1953) was also seen in the 2002 draft edition when the IHO delineated 'seas' as being subdivisions that lay within the boundaries of 'oceans'. While the IHO are often considered the authority for such conventions, the shift brought them into line with the practices of other publications (e.g. the CIA World Fact Book) which already adopted the principle that seas are contained within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus, for example, previously the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO as being part of the Pacific, but as of the 2002 draft edition it is. The new delineation of seas being subdivisions of oceans has avoided the need to interrupt the northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by Drake Passage which includes all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor interrupt it for the Scotia Sea, which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation of seas has also meant that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953 edition (the 1953 map did not even extend that far south), are 'automatically' part of the Southern Ocean. Geography[edit] The Southern Ocean, geologically the youngest of the oceans, was formed when Antarctica and South America moved apart, opening the Drake Passage, roughly 30 million years ago. The separation of the continents allowed the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. With a northern limit at 60°S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its largest boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact that much of the water of the Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other oceans. Water gets transported around the Southern Ocean fairly rapidly because of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which circulates around Antarctica. Water in the Southern Ocean south of, for example, New Zealand, resembles the water in the Southern Ocean south of South America more closely than it resembles the water in the Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 m (13,000 to 16,000 ft) over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water. The Southern Ocean's greatest depth of 7,236 m (23,740 ft) occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at 60°00'S, 024°W. The Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths up to 800 m (2,600 ft), compared to a global mean of 133 m (436 ft). Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates from an average minimum of 2.6 million square kilometres (1.0×106 sq mi) in March to about 18.8 million square kilometres (7.3×106 sq mi) in September, more than a sevenfold increase in area. Sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean[edit] Sub-divisions of oceans are geographical features such as "seas", "straits", "bays", "channels", and "gulfs". There are many recognized sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean defined in the 2002 draft fourth edition of the IHO publication Limits of Oceans and Seas. In clockwise order these include (with IHO sub-division chartlet numbers in parenthesis) the Weddell Sea (10.1), the Lazarev Sea (10.2), the Riiser-Larsen Sea (10.3), the Cosmonauts Sea (10.4), the Cooperation Sea (10.5), the Davis Sea (10.6), Tryoshinikova Gulf (10.6.1), the Mawson Sea (10.7), the Dumont D'Urville Sea (10.8), the Somov Sea (10.9), the Ross Sea (10.10), McMurdo Sound (10.10.1), the Amundsen Sea (10.11), the Bellingshausen Sea (10.12), part of the Drake Passage (10.13), Bransfield Strait (10.14) and part of the Scotia Sea (4.2).[41][note 1][note 2] Natural resources[edit] The Southern Ocean probably contains large, and possibly giant, oil and gas fields on the continental margin. Placer deposits, accumulation of valuable minerals such as gold, formed by gravity separation during sedimentary processes are also expected to exist in the Southern Ocean.[1] Manganese nodules are expected to exist in the Southern Ocean. Manganese nodules are rock concretions on the sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core. The core may be microscopically small and is sometimes completely transformed into manganese minerals by crystallization. Interest in the potential exploitation of polymetallic nodules generated a great deal of activity among prospective mining consortia in the 1960s and 1970s.[1] The icebergs that form each year around in the Southern Ocean hold enough fresh water to meet the needs of every person on Earth for several months. For several decades there have been proposals, none yet to be feasible or successful, to tow Southern Ocean icebergs to more arid northern regions (such as Australia) where they can be harvested.[48] Natural hazards[edit] Icebergs can occur at any time of year throughout the ocean. Some may have drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller icebergs, iceberg fragments and sea-ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) also pose problems for ships. The deep continental shelf has a floor of glacial deposits varying widely over short distances. Sailors know latitudes from 40 to 70 degrees south as the "Roaring Forties", "Furious Fifties" and "Shrieking Sixties" due to high winds and large waves that form as winds blow around the entire globe unimpeded by any land-mass. Icebergs, especially in May to October, makes the area even more dangerous. The remoteness of the region makes sources of search and rescue scarce. Physical oceanography[edit] Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctic Convergence[edit] The Antarctic Circumpolar Current moves perpetually eastward — chasing and joining itself, and at 21,000 km (13,000 mi) in length — it comprises the world's longest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic metres per second (4.6×109 cu ft/s) of water – 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers. Several processes operate along the coast of Antarctica to produce, in the Southern Ocean, types of water masses not produced elsewhere in the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. One of these is the Antarctic Bottom Water, a very cold, highly saline, dense water that forms under sea ice. Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence encircling Antarctica, where cold northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic, Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters, while associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and Antarctic krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses and a wealth of other species.[49] The Antarctic Convergence is considered to be the best natural definition of the northern extent of the Southern Ocean.[1] Upwelling[edit] Large-scale upwelling is found in the Southern Ocean. Strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica, driving a significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of coastal upwelling. Since there are no continents in a band of open latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In many numerical models and observational syntheses, the Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which deep dense water is brought to the surface. Shallower, wind-driven upwelling is also found off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and southwest and southeast Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure circulations. Some models of the ocean circulation suggest that broad-scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur. Ross and Weddell Gyres[edit] The Ross Gyre and Weddell Gyre are two gyres that exist within the Southern Ocean. The gyres are located in the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea respectively, and both rotate clockwise. The gyres are formed by interactions between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Antarctic Continental Shelf. Sea ice has been noted to persist in the central area of the Ross Gyre.[50] There is some evidence that global warming has resulted in some decrease of the salinity of the waters of the Ross Gyre since the 1950s.[51] Due to the Coriolis effect acting to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and the resulting Ekman transport away from the centres of the Weddell Gyre, these regions are very productive due to upwelling of cold, nutrient rich water. Climate[edit] Sea temperatures vary from about −2 to 10 °C (28 to 50 °F). Cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently become intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean. The ocean-area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found anywhere on Earth.[52] In winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius. At some coastal points, however, persistent intense drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter. Biodiversity[edit] Animals[edit] A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[53] The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the seafloor environment is very similar all around the Antarctic, hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a uniquely wide distribution for such a large community. Deep-sea gigantism is common among these animals.[54] A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larva stages.[55] Birds[edit] The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These nesters include species of albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls and terns.[56] The insectivorous South Georgia Pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Freshwater ducks inhabit South Georgia and the Kerguelen Islands.[57] The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands.[58] Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.[59] Fish[edit] There are very few species of fish in the Southern Ocean. The Channichthyidae family, also known as white-blooded fish, are only found in the Southern Ocean. They lack haemoglobin in their blood, resulting in their blood being colourless. One Channichthyidae species, the mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), was once the most common fish in coastal waters less than 400 metres (1,312 ft) deep, but was overfished in the 1970s and 1980s. Schools of icefish spend the day at the seafloor and the night higher in the water column eating plankton and smaller fish.[60] There are two species from the Dissostichus genus, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) and the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). These two species live on the seafloor 100 metres (328 ft) - 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) deep, and can grow to around 2 metres (7 ft) long weighing up to 100 kilograms (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close to the Antarctic mainland, whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer subantarctic waters. Due to the low water temperatures around the mainland, the Antarctic toothfish has antifreeze proteins in its blood and tissues. Toothfish are commercially fished, and illegal overfishing has reduced toothfish populations.[60] Another abundant fish group is the Notothenia genus, which like the Antarctic toothfish have antifreeze in their bodies.[60] Mammals[edit] Seven pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea ice, and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no terrestrial predators.[61] The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's seals.[62] Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet.[63] The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although historically it had a wider range.[64] Out of all permanent mammalian residents, the Weddell seals live the furthest south.[65] There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean; six baleen whales, and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these species are migratory, and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter.[66] Arthropods[edit] Five species of krill, small free-swimming crustaceans, are found in the Southern Ocean.[67] The Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is one of the most abundant animal species on earth, with a biomass of around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram (0.035 oz).[68] The swarms that form can stretch for kilometres, with up to 30,000 individuals per 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft), turning the water red.[67] Swarms usually remain in deep water during the day, ascending during the night to feed on plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for their own survival.[68] During the winter when food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as nutrition.[67] Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in a brood pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod, reaching 20 centimetres (8 in) in length weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft sediments, eating a range of items, from algae to other animals.[54] Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing as large as a human hand. They feed on the corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.[54] Invertebrates[edit] Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above.[54] There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean, the largest of which is the giant squid (Architeuthis sp.), which at 15 metres (49 ft) is the largest invertebrate in the world. Squid makes up the entire diet of some animals, such as grey-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by vertebrates.[69] The sea urchin genus Abatus burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in it.[54] Two species of salps are common in Antarctic waters, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai. Salpa thompsoni is found in ice-free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the high latitude areas near ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are normally only eaten by fish, with larger animals such as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other food is scarce.[70] Antarctic sponges are long lived, and sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity of the symbiotic microbial communities within them. As a result, they function as indicators of environmental health.[71] Environment[edit] Current issues[edit] Increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole has reduced marine primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and has started damaging the DNA of some fish.[72] Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, likely affects the sustainability of the stock. Long-line fishing for toothfish causes a high incidence of seabird mortality. International agreements[edit] All international agreements regarding the world's oceans apply to the Southern Ocean. In addition, it is subject to these agreements specific to the region: - The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) prohibits commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south (south of 60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west). Japan regularly does not recognize this provision, because the sanctuary violates IWC charter. Since the scope of the sanctuary is limited to commercial whaling, in regard to its whaling permit and whaling for scientific research, a Japanese fleet carried out an annual whale-hunt in the region. On 31 March 2014, the International Court of Justice ruled that Japan's whaling program, which Japan has long claimed is for scientific purposes, was a cloak for commercial whaling, and no further permits would be granted. - Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. It was signed at the conclusion of a multilateral conference in London on 11 February 1972.[73] - Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The Convention was entered into force on 7 April 1982 and has its goal is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. It was established in large part to concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food.[74] Many nations prohibit the exploration for and the exploitation of mineral resources south of the fluctuating Antarctic Convergence,[75] which lies in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north. The Antarctic Treaty covers the portion of the globe south of sixty degrees south,[76] it prohibits new claims to Antarctica.[77] The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources applies to the area south of 60° South latitude as well as the areas further north up to the limit of the Antarctic Convergence.[78] Economy[edit] Between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999, fisheries landed 119,898 tonnes, of which 85% consisted of krill and 14% of Patagonian toothfish. International agreements came into force in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which in the 1998–99 season landed five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery. Ports and harbors[edit] Major operational ports include: Rothera Station, Palmer Station, Villa Las Estrellas, Esperanza Base, Mawson Station, McMurdo Station, and offshore anchorages in Antarctica. Few ports or harbors exist on the southern (Antarctic) coast of the Southern Ocean, since ice conditions limit use of most shores to short periods in midsummer; even then some require icebreaker escort for access. Most Antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, remain closed to commercial or private vessels; vessels in any port south of 60 degrees south are subject to inspection by Antarctic Treaty observers. The Southern Ocean's southernmost port operates at McMurdo Station at 77°50′S 166°40′E / 77.833°S 166.667°E. Winter Quarters Bay forms a small harbor, on the southern tip of Ross Island where a floating ice pier makes port operations possible in summer. Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first ice pier at McMurdo in 1973.[79] Based on the original 1928 IHO delineation of the Southern Ocean (and the 1937 delineation if the Great Australian Bight is considered integral), Australian ports and harbors between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Otway on the Australian mainland and along the west coast of Tasmania would also be identified as ports and harbors existing in the Southern Ocean. These would include the larger ports and harbors of Albany, Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port Augusta, Port Adelaide, Portland, Warrnambool, and Macquarie Harbour. See also[edit] - Antarctic - Ernest Shackleton - Extreme points of the Antarctic - Roaring forties - Seven seas - Subantarctic - Borders of the oceans Notes[edit] - ^ Reservation by Norway: Norway recognizes the name Kong Håkon VII Hav which covers the sea area adjacent to Dronning Maud Land and stretching from 20°W to 45°E.[41] - ^ The Drake Passage is situated between the southern and eastern extremities of South America and the South Shetland Islands, lying north of the Antarctic Peninsula. The Scotia Sea is an area defined by the southeastern extremity of South America and the South Shetland Islands on the west and by South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands to the north and east. As they extend north of 60°S, Drake Passage and the Scotia Sea are also described as forming part of the South Atlantic Ocean.[41] References[edit] - ^ a b c d e "Geography - Southern Ocean". CIA Factbook. ... the Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica; this ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude. - ^ a b c "Introduction - Southern Ocean". CIA Factbook. As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean). - ^ Pyne, Stephen J.; The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica. University of Washington Press, 1986. (A study of Antarctica's exploration, earth-sciences, icescape, esthetics, literature, and geopolitics) - ^ Darby, Andrew (22 December 2003). "Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean". The Age. Retrieved 13 January 2013. - ^ a b "Indian Ocean". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 January 2013. - ^ a b "Southern Ocean". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 January 2014. - ^ "Maps Home". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 31 March 2014. - ^ a b c "Southern Ocean - News Watch". National Geographic. Retrieved 26 April 2013. - ^ "Upside Down World Map". Hema Maps. Retrieved 22 July 2014. - ^ "Classic World Wall Map". GeoNova. Retrieved 22 July 2014. - ^ Joost Depuydt, ‘Ortelius, Abraham (1527–1598)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 - ^ Peter Barber, "Ortelius' great world map", National Library of Australia, Mapping our World: Terra Incognita to Australia, Canberra, National Library of Australia, 2013, p.95. - ^ Dalrymple, Alexander. A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope. Two volumes. London. - ^ Headland, Robert K. (1984). The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press. - ^ Cook, James. A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships. Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. (Relevant fragment) - ^ a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. "Polar Regions". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - ^ Dance, Nathaniel (c. 1776). "Captain James Cook, 1728-79". Royal Museums Greenwich. Commissioned by Sir Joseph Banks. Retrieved January 23, 2014. He holds his own chart of the Southern Ocean on the table and his right hand points to the east coast of Australia on it. A voyage towards the South Pole: performed in the years 1822-24, containing an examination of the Antarctic Sea. United States Naval Institute. pp. 44, map. - ^ U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel. "Antarctica —past and present" (PDF). NSF. - ^ Guy G. Guthridge. "Nathaniel Brown Palmer". NASA. - ^ Palmer Station. ucsd.edu - ^ Erki Tammiksaar (14 December 2013). "Punane Bellingshausen" [Red Bellingshausen]. Postimees. Arvamus. Kultuur (in Estonian). - ^ "South-Pole – Exploring Antarctica". South-Pole.com. Archived from the original on 14 February 2006. Retrieved 12 February 2006. - ^ "Milestones, Jan. 28, 1980". Time. 28 January 1980. Retrieved 4 May 2010. - ^ Historic Names — Norwegian-American Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica. Traverse.npolar.no. Retrieved on 2012-01-29. - ^ Navy Military History. History.navy.mil. Retrieved on 2012-01-29. - ^ Finn Ronne. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2008 - ^ antarctica.org—Science: in force... - ^ "Mar 28 – Hump Day", British Antarctic Survey. - ^ Scope of Antarctic Tourism — A Background Presentation, IAATO official website. - ^ Reel, Monte (24 November 2007). "Cruise Ship Sinks Off Antarctica". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 May 2010. - ^ "154 Rescued From Sinking Ship In Antarctic: Passengers, Crew Boarding Another Ship After Wait In Lifeboats; No Injuries Reported". CBS News. 23 November 2007. - ^ "Doomed Ship Defies Antarctica Odds". Reuters. 25 November 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-11-27. - ^ "MS Explorer — situation report". The Falkland Islands News. 23 November 2007. - ^ MV EXPLORER Cruise Ship Sinking In South Atlantic, The Shipping Times, 23 November 2007 - ^ South Australia Colonisation 1834, Act No. 4 & 5 Will. Retrieved on 23 January 2014. - ^ a b "Map accompanying first edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23". NOAA Photo Library. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 19 January 2014. - ^ a b "Map accompanying second edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23". NOAA Photo Library. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 18 January 2014. - ^ a b "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. Retrieved 7 February 2010. - ^ "Pacific Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010. - ^ a b c d "IHO PUBLICATION S-23, Limits of Oceans and Seas, Draft 4th Edition". International Hydrographic Organisation. Retrieved 22 January 2002. - ^ "IHO Special Publication 23". Korean Hydrographic and Oceanographic Administration. Retrieved 19 January 2014. - ^ Darby, Andrew (22 December 2003). "Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean". The Age. Retrieved 21 December 2009. - ^ Schenke, Hans Werner (September 2003). "Proposal for the preparation of a new International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean" (PDF). IHO International Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA). Third HCA Meeting, 8–10 September 2003. Monaco: International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). Retrieved 17 January 2014. - ^ "Southern Ocean". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 January 2013. - ^ For example: Chart Aus343: Australia South Coast - South Australia - Whidbey Isles to Cape Du Couedic, Australian Hydrographic Service, 29 June 1990, retrieved 11 October 2010, Chart Aus792: Australia - Tasmania - Trial Harbour to Low Rocky Point, Australian Hydrographic Service, 18 July 2008, retrieved 11 October 2010 - ^ "- Assessment Documentation for Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse" (PDF). Register of Heritage Places. Retrieved 13 October 2010. - ^ "Water from Icebergs". Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 23 January 2014. - ^ "Antarctica Detail". U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. - ^ Michael L., Van Woert et al. (2003). "The Ross Sea Circulation During the 1990s". In DiTullio, Giacomo R.; Dunbar, Robert B. Biogeochemistry of the Ross Sea. American Geophysical Union. - ^ Florindo, Fabio; Siegert, Martin J. (2008). Antarctic Climate Evolution. Elsevier. - ^ "The World Fact Book: Climate". U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. - ^ "Creatures of Antarctica". Archived from the original on 14 February 2005. Retrieved 6 February 2006. - ^ a b c d e Australian Antarctic Division. "Seabed (benthic) communities". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Kinver, Mark (15 February 2009). "Ice oceans 'are not poles apart'". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 22 October 2011. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Flying Birds". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013. - ^ British Antarctic Survey. "Land Animals of Antarctica". Natural Environment Research Council. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Penguins". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Adapting to the cold". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013. - ^ a b c Australian Antarctic Division. Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Seals and sea lions". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Pack-ice seal species". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Salps". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Sea lions". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Weddell seals". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "What is a whale?". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ a b c Australian Antarctic Division. "Krill: magicians of the Southern Ocean". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 September 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ a b Australian Antarctic Division. "Krill". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Squid". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Salps". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Australian Antarctic Division. "Sponges". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. - ^ Smith RC, Prézelin BB, Baker KS, Bidigare RR, Boucher NP, Coley T, Karentz D, MacIntyre S, Matlick HA, Menzies D et al. (1992). "Ozone depletion: ultraviolet radiation and phytoplankton biology in antarctic waters.". - ^ Antarctic Challenge: Conflicting Interests, Cooperation, Environmental Protection, Economic Development Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium, 22–24 June 1983; Volume 88 of Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel (Rüdiger Wolfrum and Klaus Bockslaff, eds.), Duncker & Humblot, 1984, p99 - ^ "Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources". ccamlr.org. Retrieved 11 October 2011. - ^ "The World Fact Book: Environment - International Agreements". U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. - ^ The Antarctic Treaty, article 6 - ^ The Antarctic Treaty, article 4, clause 2 - ^ "Text of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources" (PDF). ccamlr.org. Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Retrieved 23 January 2014. - ^ "Unique ice pier provides harbor for ships," Antarctic Sun. 8 January 2006; McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Further reading[edit] - Gille, Sarah T. 2002. "Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s": abstract, article. Science: vol. - Descriptive Regional Oceanography, P. Tchernia, Pergamon Press, 1980. - Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey. Regional Oceanography: an Introduction. (see the site) External links[edit] - Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution - The CIA World Factbook's entry on the Southern Ocean - The Fifth Ocean from Geography. About.com - The International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean (IBCSO) National Geophysical Data Center - U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Limits of Oceans and Seas (2nd Edition), extant 1937 to 1953, with limits of Southern Ocean. - NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations - NOAA FAQ about the number of oceans - Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Coordinates: 70°S 150°W / 70°S 150°W America America - World (Sea) - Arctic - Atlantic - Indian - Pacific - Southern - List of seas - Lake Vostok - List of rivers - McMurdo Sound - Ross Sea - Southern Ocean - Weddell Sea - Barentsz - Hudson - Marmaduke - Carolus - Parry - North Magnetic Pole - Polaris - British Arctic Expedition - Lady Franklin Bay Expedition - 1st Fram expedition - Jason - F. Cook - Peary - Sedov - Byrd - Airship Norge - Airship Italia - Nautilus - "North Pole" manned drifting ice stations - Sedov - USS Nautilus - USS Skate - Plaisted - Herbert - NS Arktika - Barneo - Arktika 2007 - Cabot - G. Corte-Real - M. Corte-Real - Frobisher - Gilbert - Davis - Hudson - Discovery - Munk - I. Fyodorov - Gvozdev - HMS Resolution - HMS Discovery - Mackenzie - Kotzebue - J. Ross - HMS Griper - HMS Hecla - HMS Fury - Crozier - J. C. Ross - Coppermine Expedition - Franklin - Back - Dease - Simpson - HMS Blossom - Franklin's lost expedition - Collinson - Rae–Richardson Expedition - Austin - McClure Expedition - Belcher - Kennedy - Bellot - Isabel - 2nd Grinnell Expedition - Fox - HMS Pandora - Fram - Gjøa - Rasmussen - Karluk - St. Roch - Cowper - Pomors - Koch boats - Willoughby - Chancellor - Barentsz - Mangazeya - Hudson - Poole - Siberian Cossacks - Perfilyev - Stadukhin - Dezhnev - Popov - Ivanov - Vagin - Permyakov - Great Northern Expedition - Chichagov - Lyakhov - Billings - Sannikov - Gedenschtrom - Wrangel - Matyushkin - Anjou - Litke - Lavrov - Pakhtusov - Tsivolko - Middendorff - Austro-Hungarian Expedition - Vega Expedition - USS Jeannette - Yermak - Zarya - Sedov - Rusanov - Kuchin - Brusilov Expedition - Wiese - Nagórski - Taymyr / Vaygach - Maud - AARI - Begichev - Urvantsev - Sadko - Glavsevmorput - Aviaarktika - Sibiryakov - Chelyuskin - Krasin - Gakkel - Nuclear-powered icebreakers - Roché - Bouvet - Kerguelen - HMS Resolution - HMS Adventure - Smith - San Telmo - Vostok - Mirny - Bransfield - Palmer - Davis - Weddell - Morrell - Astrolabe - United States Exploring Expedition - USS Porpoise - HMS Erebus - HMS Terror - Cooper - Challenger expedition - Jason - Belgian Antarctic Expedition - Southern Cross - Discovery - Gauss - Swedish Antarctic Expedition - Scottish Antarctic Expedition - Orcadas Base - Nimrod Expedition - French Antarctic Expeditions - Japanese Antarctic Expedition - Amundsen's South Pole expedition - Terra Nova - Filchner - Australasian Antarctic Expedition - Far Eastern Party - Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition - James Caird - Ross Sea party - Shackleton–Rowett Expedition - Christensen - Byrd - BANZARE - BGLE - New Swabia - Operation Tabarin - Operation Highjump - Captain Arturo Prat Base - British Antarctic Survey - Operation Windmill - Ronne Expedition - Operation Deep Freeze - McMurdo Station - Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition - Soviet Antarctic Expeditions - Antarctic Treaty System - Transglobe Expedition - Lake Vostok - Kapitsa - HMS Resolution - HMS Adventure - Weddell - HMS Erebus - HMS Terror - Southern Cross - Discovery - Nimrod - South Magnetic Pole - Amundsen's South Pole expedition - Terra Nova - Byrd - Balchen - McKinley - Dufek - Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station - Hillary - V. Fuchs - Pole of Cold - Pole of inaccessibility - Crary - A. Fuchs - Messner