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Supreme Court Constitution - Bill - Validity - National parliament - Dáil Éireann éireann - Extension of franchise - Right to vote restricted by Constitution to citizens - Bill conferring franchise upon resident British citizens - Repugnancy - Constitution of Ireland, 1937, Articles 6, 12, 16, 47. Section 16, sub-s. 2, of the Constitution stated that "every citizen" without distinction of sex who had reached the age of 18 years, who was not disqualified by law and complied with the provisions of the law relating to elections, should have the right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann éireann. By Article 12, s. 2, sub-s. 2, every such citizen is given a right to vote at an election for President and, by Article 47, s. 3, he is given a right to vote at a referendum. The Electoral (Amendment) Bill, 1983, as passed by both Houses of the National Parliament, contained provisions which would entitle a British citizen to be registered in a constituency as a Dáil elector if ordinarily resident in that constituency, and thus become entitled to vote at a Dáil election in that constitutency. Pursuant to Article 26 of the Constitution the President of Ireland referred the bill of 1983 to the Supreme Court for a decision on the question whether the bill, or any provision or provisions thereof, was or were repugnant to the Constitution or to any provision thereof. In pronouncing its decision on the question so referred, it was Held by the Supreme Court, 1, that any repugnancy with the provisions of the Constitution must be clearly established by the opponents of the Bill. The Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Bill, 1975 [1977] I.R. 129 applied. That, in declaring that all powers of government derive, under God, from "the people"whose right it is "to designate the rulers of the State" and, in final appeal, to "decide all questions of national policy", the provisions of Article 6, s. 1, of the Constitution showed (with Articles 12 and 47) that the right to vote at elections for members of Dáil Éireann éireann conferred on every citizen by Article 16 was a right which was restricted to citizens who formed part of the people of Ireland. That, accordingly, the bill of 1983 was repugnant to the Constitution. Cases mentioned in this report— 1 Levene v. Commissioners of Inland Revenue [1928] A.C. 217. 2 Commissioners of Inland Revenue v. Lysaght [1928] A.C. 234. 3 In re Norris (1888) 4 T.L.R. 452. 4 Cooper v. Cadwalader (1904) 5 T.C. 101 5 Macrae v. Macrae [1949] P. 347. 6 The State (Browne) v. 7 McGee v. The Attorney General [1974] I.R. 284. 8 The State (D.P.P.) v. 9 The State (Goertz) v. Minister for Justice [1948] I.R. 45 10 Calvin's Case (1608) 7 Co. Rep. 1a. 11 Byrne v. Ireland [1972] I.R. 241. 12 The Criminal Law Jurisdiction Bill, 1975 [1977] I.R. 129. An Bord Uchtála [1975] I.R. 81. 14 The State (Aherne) v. 15 Draper v. The Attorney General (see p. 277, infra). 16 Norris v. The Attorney General (see p. 36, supra). 17 Joyce v. Director of Public Prosecutions [1946] A.C. 347. Reference of Bill passed by the Oireachtas. The Electoral (Amendment) Bill, 1983, was passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas on the 14th December, 1983. On the 21st December, 1983, the President of Ireland referred the bill to the Supreme Court pursuant to the provisions of Article 26, s. 1, sub-s. 1, of the Constitution of Ireland, 1937, for"a decision on the question as to whether the said Bill or any provision or provisions thereof is or are repugnant to the Constitution or to any provision thereof." By the provisions of the bill the legislature sought to confer on a British citizen who was ordinarily resident in a constituency in the State some of the rights of a citizen, viz., a right to be registered as a Dáil elector in that constituency so that, when registered, he would be entitled by s. 26, sub.-s. 1, of the Electoral Act, 1963, to vote at a Dáil election in that constituency and, by s. 51, sub.-s. 1, to vote at a presidential election and, by s. 70, sub.-s. 1, to vote at a referendum. The Supreme Court assigned solicitor and counsel to oppose the constitutionality of the bill. Article 6, sub-s. 1, of the Constitution states:— "All powers of government, legislative, executive and judicial, derive, under God, from the people, whose right it is to designate the rulers of the State and, in final appeal, to decide all questions of national policy, according to the requirements of the common good." Article 9 of the Constitution provides:— 1 On the coming into operation of this Constitution any person who was a citizen of Saorstát Éireann éireann immediately before the coming into operation of this Constitution shall become and be a citizen of Ireland. 2 The future acquisition and loss of Irish nationality and citizenship shall be determined in accordance with law. 3 No person may be excluded from Irish nationality and citizenship by reason of the sex of such person. Fidelity to the nation and loyalty to the State are fundamental political duties of all citizens." The procedure by which an alien may acquire Irish citizenship is specified in the naturalisation provisions of Part III of the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1956. Section 5, sub-s. 1, of the Electoral Act, 1963, stated:— "A person shall be entitled to be registered as a Dáil elector in a constituency if he has reached the age of eighteen years and he was, on the qualifying date— (a) a citizen of Ireland, and (b) ordinarily resident in that constituency." Section 26, sub-s. 1, of the Act of 1963 states:— "Subject to the subsequent provisions of this section, every person whose name is on the register of Dáil electors for the time being in force for a constituency, and no other person, shall be entitled to vote at the poll at a Dáil election in that constituency." Pursuant to Article 26, s. 2, sub-s. 1, of the Constitution the Supreme Court (O'Higgins C.J., Finlay P., Henchy, Griffin and McCarthy JJ.) on the 17th and 18th January, 1984, heard arguments presented by the Attorney General and by counsel assigned by the Court to oppose the constitutionality of the bill. G.W. Lardner S.C. and N. Fennelly S.C. (with them Mary Laffoy ) of counsel assigned by the Court:— The description "ordinarily resident" contained in s. 5, sub-s. 1, of the Electoral Act, 1963, is not sufficiently precise to be used as the test in this context, particularly when it is to be applied to British citizens who live in the State. The description "British citizen" is defined in the bill by reference to the British Nationality Act, 1981, and that definition, accordingly, may be altered from time to time by amendments of the Act of 1981 made by the British Parliament. [They referred to Levene v. Commissioners of Inland Revenue 1 [1928] A.C. 217. ; Commissioners of Inland Revenue v. Lysaght 2 [1928] A.C. 234. ; In re Norris 3 (1888) 4 T.L.R. 452. ; Cooper v. Cadwalader 4 (1904) 5 T.C. 101 and Macrae v. Macrae 5 [1949] P. 347. Although there is a presumption that no provision of the bill is repugnant to the Constitution, the matter must be tested in the light of all the provisions of the Constitution and not merely by reference to the provisions of Article 16. [They referred to The State (Browne) v. ; McGee v. The Attorney General 7 [1974] I.R. 284. and The State (D.P.P.) v. ] In the preamble to the Constitution it is stated that it is "the people of Eire" who "give to ourselves this Constitution." Further, Article 6 expressly states that all powers of government, legislative, executive and judicial derive, under god, from "the people" whose right it is to designate the rulers of the State and to decide all questions of national policy. The description "every citizen" in Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, of the Constitution is thus limited by the provisions of the preamble and those of Article 6. [They referred to The State (Goertz) v. Minister for Justice 9 [1948] I.R. 45 ; Calvin's Case 10 (1608) 7 Co. Rep. 1a. ; Byrne v. Ireland 11 [1972] I.R. 241. ; The Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Bill, 1975 12 [1977] I.R. 129. An Bord Uchtála 13 [1975] I.R. 81. and The State (Aherne) v. Article 9 of the Constitution, which governs the question of citizenship, imposes on citizens the duties of fidelity to the nation and loyalty to the State and those are the persons who are given by the Constitution the right to vote at Dáil elections. T.K. Liston S.C. and D. Gleeson S.C. (with them J.D. O'Reilly ) for the Attorney General. The fact that the right to vote is vested in a person by reason of his status as a citizen does not preclude a similar right being conferred by statute on a person who is not a citizen. There is nothing in Article 16 of the Constitution, or in the other Articles thereof, which justifies an exclusion of British citizens resident in the State from the category of persons entitled to vote at Dáil elections. The only discrimination which is expressly prohibited is one formed "on the ground of sex." The various references to citizens and to the people do not warrant that exclusion. The requirement that the elector must be "ordinarily resident" in his constituency does not create any special difficulty for Irish nationals and should not do so when applied to resident British citizens. The regulations contained in the Registration of Electors and Juries Acts (Specification of Dates) Regulations, 1963, as amended by the Registration of Electors (Amendment) Regulations, 1977, are clear and practicable in their requirements. Leaving aside, for the moment, the issue now in contention, it has not been the practice to deny to aliens constitutional rights which are enjoyed by citizens. Citizens of the United Kingdom already have rights and privileges similar to those enjoyed by citizens of the State: see United Kingdom and Colonies (Irish Citizenship Rights) Order, 1949, and s. 26 of the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1956. Despite the definition of "British citizen" by reference to the British Nationality Act, 1981, control would still be exercised by the Oireachtas by reason of its power to amend the Electoral Act, 1963. [They referred to the judgment of McMahon J. in Draper v. The Attorney General 15 (see p. 277, infra). ; Norris v. The Attorney General 16 (see p. 36, supra). ; The State (D.P.P.) v. ; Joyce v. Director of Public Prosecutions 17 [1946] A.C. 347. and The State (Aherne) v. Cotter. Cur. adv. vult. The decision of the Supreme Court was pronounced by one of the judges of that court in accordance with the provisions of s. 2, sub.-s. 2, of Article 26 of the Constitution. On the 21st December, 1983, the President of Ireland referred the Electoral (Amendment) Bill, 1983, to this Court under Article 26 of the Constitution. The Bill, which contains two sections, is entitled "An Act to confer on certain persons certain rights to vote and for that purpose to amend section 5 of the Electoral Act, 1963." The entire of the effective provisions of the Bill are contained in section 1. Section 2 is a provision for its short title, construction and collective citation. Section 1 reads as follows:— "Section 5 of the Electoral Act, 1963, is hereby amended by the insertion after subsection (1) of the following subsection: (a) In addition to those entitled to be registered under subsection (1) of this section, a person shall be entitled to be registered as a Dáil elector in a constituency if he is a person who has reached the age of eighteen years and who on the qualifying date— (i) complied with the requirement of subsection (1)(b) of this section, and (ii) was a British citizen. (b) In this subsection "a British citizen" means a person who under the Act of the British Parliament entitled "The British Nationality Act 1981" is a British citizen.'" Section 5, sub-s. 1, of the Electoral Act, 1963, as amended by s. 2 of the Electoral (Amendment) Act, 1973, reads as follows:— "(1) A person shall be entitled to be registered as a Dáil elector in a constituency if he has reached the age of eighteen years and he was, on the qualifying date—(a) a citizen of Ireland, and (b) ordinarily resident in that constituency." Section 51, sub-s. 1, of the Act of 1963 provides:— "Subject to the subsequent provisions of this section, every person whose name is on the register of Dáil electors for the time being in force for a constituency, and no other person, shall be entitled to vote in that constituency at the poll at a presidential election." The subsequent provisions referred to are provisions dealing with the identification of the voter. Section 70, sub-s. 1, of the Act of 1963 provides:— "Subject to the subsequent provisions of this section, every person whose name is on the register of Dáil electors for the time being in force for a constituency, and no other person, shall be entitled to vote in that constituency at the poll at a referendum." The subsequent provisions of s. 70 of the Act of 1963 are again provisions dealing with the identification of the voter. The Bill which has been referred to the Court amounts to a proposal that a person who is a British citizen under the British Nationality Act, 1981, and is ordinarily resident in a constituency and over the age of 18 years, shall have a right to vote in an election of members of Dáil Éireann; éireann; at an election of the President; and at a referendum, whether the subject of such referendum is a proposal to amend the Constitution or a proposal to approve legislation referred to referendum pursuant to Article 27 of the Constitution. The question as to whether this Bill is repugnant to the Constitution depends primarily on the interpretation of Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, of the Constitution and, secondly, on the application of that interpretion to Article 12, s. 2, sub-s. 2, and s. 3 of Article 47. Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, of the Constitution provides:— "Every citizen without distinction of sex who has reached the age of eighteen years who is not disqualified by law and complies with the provisions of the law relating to the election of members of Dáil Éireann éireann, shall have the right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann éireann." Article 12, s. 2, sub-s. 2, provides:— "Every citizen who has the right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann éireann shall have the right to vote at an election for President." Article 47, s. 3, provides:— "Every citizen who has the right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann éireann shall have the right to vote at a Referendum." The net effect of the arguments submitted by the opponents of the Bill is that Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, of the Constitution and, by analogous interpretation, Article 12. s. 2, sub-s. 2, and Article 47, s. 3, should be construed as not merely granting to every citizen a right to vote but as being a comprehensive definition of the franchise, thus excluding from voting rights any person who is not a citizen. The net effect of the arguments submitted on behalf of the Attorney General in support of the Bill is that these three Articles should be construed together as providing for the basic right of citizens to vote, subject to not being disqualified by law and to compliance with the law relating to elections. It was further contended that the provision by the Constitution of this basic right for citizens was not intended to prevent the granting by law of similar rights to non-citizens, and that such was to be gathered from the absence of any words in Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, prohibiting the Oireachtas from so doing or excluding non-citizens from voting. In considering this Bill, the Court accepts the principles laid down by it in The Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Bill, 1975 12 [1977] I.R. 129. (and in the other references of bills to this Court) to the effect that, where it is claimed that a bill is repugnant to the Constitution, such repugnancy must be clearly established. There does not appear to the Court to be any logical distinction between the provisions of Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, Article 12, s. 2, sub-s. 2, and Article 47, s. 3, which would admit of any difference in construction on this issue as to whether these Articles are to be construed as a finite and complete determination of the franchise or, alternatively, as permitting the extension of the franchise by legislation. The Court has also considered the provisions of the Constitution dealing with eligibility for membership of Dáil Éireann éireann and eligibility for election to the office of President. Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 1, provides:— "Every citizen without distinction of sex who has reached the age of eighteen years, and who is not placed under disability or incapacity by this Constitution or by law, shall be eligible for membership of Dáil Éireann éireann." Article 12, s. 4, sub-s. 1, provides:— The issues raised by this reference, therefore, are as to whether not only the right to vote in elections of Dáil Éireann éireann, of the President and on a referendum but also the right to be eligible for membership of Dáil Éireann éireann and for the office of President can be extended by legislation to persons other than citizens. The construction of Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, must first be approached by a consideration of other provisions contained in that Article and, further, of course, by a consideration of other provisions contained in the Constitution. These other provisions of that Article (1) prohibit the enactment of any law placing a citizen under disability or incapacity for membership of Dáil Éireann éireann on the grounds of sex, or disqualifying on the same grounds any citizen from voting at an election for Dáil Éireann; éireann; (2) prohibit the exercise by any voter of more than one vote at an election for Dáil Éireann; éireann; (3) provide for the secrecy of the ballot; (4) provide for the ratio between members of Dáil Éireann éireann and the population; (5) impose upon the Oireachtas an obligation to revise constituencies at least once in every 12 years, with due regard to changes in distribution of the population; (6) provide for elections to be on the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote; (7) prohibit the enactment of any law providing for the number of members to be returned for any constituency being less than three; (8) provide that a general election shall take place not later than 30 days after the dissolution of Dáil Éireann; éireann; (9) provide that the same Dáil Éireann éireann shall not continue for a longer period than seven years from the date of its first meeting; (10) provide that polling at every election for Dáil Éireann éireann shall, as far as practicable, take place on the same day throughout the country; (11) impose an obligation to make provision by law to enable the member of Dáil Éireann éireann who is the chairman immediately before the dissolution to be deemed, without any actual election, to be elected a member of Dáil Éireann éireann at the ensuing general election; and (12) finally, by Article 16, s. 7, they provide that, subject to the foregoing provisions, elections for membership of Dáil Éireann éireann, including the filling of casual vacancies, shall be regulated in accordance with law. These provisions indicate a total code for the holding of elections to Dáil Éireann éireann, setting out the matters which would appear to be necessary other than minor regulatory provisions. This code provides for the eligibility of candidates; the persons entitled to vote; the limitation of one vote for each voter; the standards for determining the number of members; the obligation to revise constituencies; proportional representation, the single transferable vote and a secret ballot as the method of election; a minimum of three members for In contrast with this code of essential features of elections for Dáil Éireann éireann, the matters which are left to be regulated by law would appear to be (a) the disqualification of citizens from voting; (b) the provisions with which citizens must comply in order to have the right to vote; (c) the fixing of the number of members of Dáil Éireann éireann within the ratio laid down by the Constitution; (d) the provision, subject to the minimum of three, of the number of members for each constituency; (e) the fixing of the date of a general election subject to a restriction as to the maximum period after the dissolution of the Dáil; (f) the period during which the same Dáil may continue subject to the constitutional maximum of seven years; and (g) the details of the mandatory provision for the re-election of the chairman of Dáil Éireann éireann. Viewed in this way, the entire provisions of Article 16 would appear to form a constitutional code for the holding of an election to Dáil Éireann éireann,subject only to the statutory regulation of such election. Can, therefore, so comprehensive an Article properly be construed as contemplating the extension of the franchise to persons who are not citizens? If it can, then by an analogous interpretation of Articles 16, s. 1, sub-s. 1, and 12, s. 4, sub-s. 1, it would be constitutionally possible to enact a law permitting a non-citizen to be elected President or to be elected a member of Dáil Éireann éireann. It is the view of the Court that Article 16 of the Constitution, taken in its entirety, cannot be so construed. Support for this view is to be found in other provisions and in the general scheme of the Constitution. Article 6 proclaims that all powers of government derive under God from the people and, further, that it is the people's right to designate the rulers of the State and, in final appeal, to decide all questions of national policy. There can be little doubt that "the people" here referred to are the people of Ireland by, and for, whom the Constitution was enacted. In short, this Article proclaims that it is the Irish people who are the rulers of Ireland and that from them, under God, all powers of government derive and that by them the rulers are designated and national policy decided. It is not possible to regard this Article as contemplating the sharing of such powers with persons who do not come within the constitutional concept of the Irish people in Article 6. In the scheme of the Constitution this right of the people to designate the rulers of the State and to decide questions of national policy is carried into effect in the Articles already mentioned (Articles 12, 16 and 47) which are the provisions made for the election of the President, of the Dáil and for the determination of referenda. Article 12, s. 2, sub-s. 1, provides that "The President shall be elected by direct vote of the people" and Article 47, ss. 1 and The most powerful argument against this interpretation of Article 16 and, in particular, of Article 16, s. 1, sub-s. 2, and of the associated Articles is the contention, strenuously submitted on behalf of the Attorney General, that various other rights such as the freedom of association, the freedom of conscience, inviolability of a dwelling and other similar rights are granted in the Constitution to citizens, and the Courts have interpreted those provisions as having the effect, at least in certain circumstances, of not excluding the existence or the granting of similar or identical rights to persons who are not citizens. It is the view of the Court that that argument fails by reason of the clear distinction between the provisions of Article 16, Article 12 and Article 47, which provide the mechanism by which the people may choose and control their rulers and their legislators, and Articles such as Article 40 and Article 44, which grant to individuals particular rights within society and in relation to the organs of State. For these reasons, the Court decides that the Bill is repugnant to the Constitution and will so advise the President. [The provisions of s. 1 of the Ninth Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1984, were duly approved by the people at a referendum held (before its enactment as law) in accordance with Articles 46 and 47 of the Constitution. Section 1 of the Act of 1984 substituted a new sub-section for sub-section 2 of s. 1 of Article 16 of the Constitution. The new sub-section 2 states that all citizens, and such other persons in the State as may be determined by law, without distinction of sex who Solicitor for the opponents: N.D. McLaughlin. Solicitor for the Attorney General: Chief State Solicitor.
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An Córas Dlí An Córas Dlí agus an Scaradh Cumhachtaí Is é atá i mBunreacht na hÉireann ná dlí bunúsach an Stáit. D’achtaigh an pobal é de réir pobalbhreithe in Iúil, 1937 agus tháinig sé i ngníomh ar 29 Nollaig, 1937. Is é an Bunreacht an ceannbhrat faoina ndéantar ceart a riar agus faoina gcuirtear cearta dlíthiúla i bhfeidhm i gcúirteanna arna mbunú faoin dlí. Sna forálacha sainráite atá ann, aithnítear agus ráthaítear cosaint do chearta bunúsacha an duine. Sa Bhunreacht, a bhfuil 50 Airteagal ann, bunaítear institiúidí an Stáit agus leagtar amach na rialacha a rialaíonn an idirghníomhaíocht a bhíonn ann idir orgáin an Stáit agus idir an Stát agus an duine aonair, araon. Féadfaidh don phearsa aonair gairm le dúshlán a chur faoi bhunreachtúlacht dlíthe a ritheann an tOireachtas (an pharlaimint) agus le cúiteamh a lorg i gcás go sáraítear cearta bunreachtúla dá cuid. Faoi réir an Bhunreachta tá an córas dlí bunaithe ar thraidisiún an dlí coitinn. Faoi théarmaí Airteagal 6 den Bhunreacht is le muintir na hÉireann a dhílsíonn ceannasacht ach tá an Stát ceannasach go seachtrach i dtaobh a sheasaimh i gcúrsaí dlí idirnáisiúnta. Tá an Stát, Éire, freagrach os comhair na gCúirteanna as éagóracha a dhéantar i gcoinne pearsan aonair nó as sárú dá cuid cearta bunreachtúla nó dá cuid cearta dlíthiúla. Ní fhéadfar an Bunreacht a athrú ach amháin de réir reifrinn, a bhfuil foráil déanta dó in Airteagal 46. Bunreacht dátheangach Gné shuntasach amháin den Bhunreacht ná go bhfuil sé scríofa in dhá theanga. Foráiltear le hAirteagal 8 den Bhunreacht gurb í an Ghaeilge, mar an teanga náisiúnta, príomhtheanga oifigiúil an Stáit agus aithnítear an Béarla mar an dara teanga oifigiúil. Is é an téacs Gaeilge a bhíonn i réim más rud é go dtagann mí-ailíniú idir an dá leagan den Bhunreacht chun cinn. Deighilt na gCumhachtaí Foráiltear sa Bhunreacht go mbeidh deighilt cumhachtaí trípháirteach: an Reachtas, an Feidhmeannas agus na Breithiúna. Is é an Rialtas an t-orgán stáit a fheidhmíonn an chumhacht feidhmiúcháin rialtais, is iad an dá theach parlaiminte atá san Oireachtas (ar a bhfuil an tUachtarán ina cheannasaí teidealach air, i dteannta stádas bunreachtúil a bhfuil aige nó aici mar Cheann Stáit) a fheidhmíonn an chumhacht reachtach rialtais, agus is iad na cúirteanna arna mbunú faoi Airteagal 34 den Bhunreacht a fheidhmíonn an chumhacht bhreithiúnach rialtais. Áirithítear leis sin nach bhféadfar aon orgán amháin de chuid an Stáit cur isteach ar na feidhmeanna a shanntar don dá orgán stáit eile. In Airteagail 12 go 14, leagtar amach feidhmeanna Uachtarán na hÉireann, arb é an Ceann Stáit. Cumhachtaí searmanais go príomha a dhílsítear don Uachtarán cé go bhforáiltear go leor cumhachtaí discréideacha dó faoi théarmaí an Bhunreachta. D’ainneoin deighilt na gcumhachtaí feidhmíonn na Cúirteanna feidhm bhunreachtúil nuair a dhéanann siad bunreachtúlacht agus dlíthiúlacht ghníomhartha orgáin eile an Stáit a athbhreithniú. Is é atá san orgán breithiúnach rialtais ná na Cúirteanna sin a bhunaítear faoi Airteagal 34 den Bhunreacht iad, eadhon an Chúirt Uachtarach, an Chúirt Achomhairc agus an Ard-Chúirt. Foráiltear le hAirteagal 6 den Bhunreacht go n-eascraíonn na cumhachtaí rialtais uile, reachtach, feidhmiúcháin agus breithiúnach ón bpobal, agus leanann sé ar aghaidh chun rá gurb “leis na horgain Stáit a chuirtear ar bun leis an mBunreacht seo, agus leo sin amháin nó lena n-údarás, is féidir na cumhachtaí riala sin a oibriú.” Áirítear sa chumhacht bhreithiúnach rialtais atá ag na cúirteanna siúd an inniúlacht comhoiriúnacht den reachtaíocht leis an mBunreacht a athbhreithniú agus athbhreithniú breithiúnach a dhéanamh ar fho-reachtaíocht, ar chinntí nó ar ghníomhaí a dhéanann an Rialtas nó comhlachtaí an Stáit d’fhonn cinneadh a dhéanamh maidir lena ndlíthiúlacht agus lena gcomhoiriúnacht leis an mBunreacht, chomh maith le prionsabail a thagann ón mBunreacht, amhail próis chuí. (i) An Reachtas De réir mar a shainordaítear sa Bhunreacht, is é atá san Oireachtas ná parlaimint dhá-sheomrach agus Uachtarán na hÉireann. Is iad an dá theach san Oireachtas ná Seanad Éireann agus Dáil Éireann (seomra na dteachtaí). Cé go ndílsítear, de réir Airteagal 15 den Bhunreacht, an chumhacht reachtóireachta san Oireachtas amháin, tá teorainn leis an gcumhacht seo mar ní cheadaítear don Oireachtas reachtaíocht a théann in aghaidh théarmaí an Bhunreachta a achtú. Ar an gcaoi chéanna tá cosc ar reachtaíocht a chruthaíonn cion go cúlghabhálach nó a d'fhorálfadh do phionóis an bháis a ghearradh. Féadfar le reachtaíocht a thionscnamh i gceachtar den dá Theach, cé is moite Billí Airgid agus Billí do leasú an Bunreacht nach bhféadfar iad a thionscnamh ach i nDáil Éireann amháin. Téann Bille trí chéimeanna éagsúla sa dá Theach sula gcuirtear chuig Uachtarán na hÉireann é le síniú, agus leis sin déantar Acht Oireachtais den Bhille. (ii) An Feidhmeannas Is é an Feidhmeannas Rialtas na hÉireann agus foráiltear dó in Airteagal 28 den Bhunreacht, a shonraíonn nach mór nach mbeadh níos lú ná seachtar ball agus níos mó ná cúig bhall déag sa Rialtas agus áiríonn sé sin an Taoiseach arb é ceann an Fheidhmeannais é agus an duine atá díreach faoi, an Tánaiste. (iii) Na Breithiúna Foráiltear le hAirteagal 34 go 38 den Bhunreacht do chóras cúirteanna in Éirinn agus do chionta a thriail. Sonraíonn Airteagal 34 go soiléir 1. Is i gcúirteanna a bhunaítear le dlí agus ag breithiúna a cheaptar ar an modh atá leagtha amach sa Bhunreacht seo a riarfar ceart". Déantar foráil in Airteagal 35 do cheapachán agus thionacht bhreithiúna na hÉireann, agus faoi théarmaí an Airteagail beidh "gach breitheamh saor neamhspleách maidir lena fheidhmeanna breithimh a oibriú, gan de smacht air ach an Bunreacht seo agus an dlí." Faoi Airteagal 35.4.4 den Bhunreacht ní féidir baill den Chúirt Uachtarach ná den Ard-Chúirt a chur as oifig ach ag rún ag gach Teach an Oireachtais de bharr mí-iompair nó míthreorach a luaitear. Ar an gcaoi chéanna cosnaítear tionacht Breithiúna Cúirte Cuarda agus Cúirte Dúiche ag reacht. Ina theannta, faoi Alt 35.5.1 den Bhunreacht ní fhéadfar tuarastal breithimh a laghdú le linn dó nó di a bheith ina dtéarma oifige, ach amháin i gcomhréir le hAirteagal 35.5. Braitheann dlínse aon Bhreithimh ar dhlínse na cúirte a bhfuil sé nó sí i gceannas uirthi. Córas na gCúirteanna Sa Bhunreacht, leagtar amach struchtúr an chórais cúirteanna atá in Éirinn trí thabhairt ar bun go sainráite an Chúirt Uachtarach, cúirt achomhairc dheiridh sna hábhair uile a bhaineann leis an dlí bunreachtúil, sibhialta agus coiriúla, an Chúirt Achomhairc, sna hábhair a bhaineann leis an dlí bunreachtúil, sibhialta agus coiriúla, agus an Ard-Chúirt, cúirt céadchéime a bhfuil dlínse iomlán aici i ngach ceist, idir ceisteanna coiriúla agus sibhialta. Déantar foráil freisin in Airteagal 34.3.4 do chúirteanna le dlínse áitiúil agus teoranta a bhunú, ar a bunaíodh an Chúirt Chuarda agus an Chúirt Dúiche, a eagraítear ar bhonn réigiúnach iad, de réir reachta. (i) An Chúirt Dúiche Cúirt a bhfuil dlínse áitiúil agus teoranta aici atá sa Chúirt Dúiche, nach bhfuil ach údarás aici déileáil le ceisteanna áirithe a thagann chun cinn ina ceantar feidhmiúcháin. Bronntar cumhachtaí dlínse na Cúirte uirthi ag reacht agus mar sin, níl cead aici déileáil le haon cheisteanna a thagann taobh amuigh dá sainchuspóir reachtúil. I gceisteanna sibhialta, tá dlínse ag an gCúirt Dúiche déileáil le héilimh gur mó ná €15,000 an méid a éilítear iontu (agus gur mó ná €2,000 an méid a éilítear i gcásanna éilimh beaga) I gceisteanna dlí teaghlaigh, tá dlínse ag an gCúirt Dúiche i gceisteanna a bhaineann le cothabháil, caomhnóireacht leanaí nó rochtain orthu agus féadann sí orduithe a dhéanamh i dtaobh foréigin teaghlaigh. I gceisteanna coiriúla, cúirt dlínse achoimre atá sa Chúirt Dúiche agus déileálann sí le triail neamhghiúiré daoine a gearradh mionchionta orthu. Tá dlínse ag an gCúirt Dúiche le bannaí a bhronnadh sa chuid is mó de chásanna agus déileálann sé leis an gcúisí a chur ar aghaidh chun trialach i gcásanna lena mbaineann cionta coiriúla taobh amuigh dá dlínse, freisin. (ii) An Chúirt Chuarda Cúirt dlínse áitiúil agus teoranta atá sa Chúirt Chuarda freisin, agus tá dlínse achomhairc aici i ngach ceist a thagann chun cinn sa Chúirt Dúiche. Tá dlínse ag an gCúirt Chuarda i gceisteanna sibhialta ina sáraíonn an méid san éileamh thar theorainn dhlínse na Cúirte Dúiche ach gur mó ná €75,000 ann (agus gur mó ná €60,000 atá ann i gcásanna Díobhálacha Pearsanta) I gcúrsaí dlí teaghlaigh, féadann an Chúirt Chuarda, orduithe colscartha, idirscartha bhreithiúnaigh agus neamhnithe a bhronnadh chomh maith le haon orduithe coimhdeacha. I gcúrsaí coiriúla, tá dlínse ag an gCúirt Chuarda le plé le gach cion ach amháin iadsan a bhfuil dlínse ag an bPríomh-Chúirt Choiriúil orthu. Éisteann breitheamh a shuíonn le giúiré le trialacha coiriúla sa Chúirt Chuarda. (iii) An Ard-Chúirt/An Phríomh-Chúirt Choiriúil Tá dlínse iomlán ag an Ard-Chúirt i ngach ceist, idir ceisteanna sibhialta agus coiriúla. I gceisteanna sibhialta, níl aon uasteorainn ar líon na ndamáistí a fhéadann sí a bhronnadh. Nuair atá sí ag cleachtadh a dlínse choiriúil, tugtar an Phríomh-Chúirt Choiriúil ar an Ard-Chúirt, agus sa cháil seo, tá dlínse aici leis na cionta is troime a thriail, lena n-áirítear dúnmharú, dúnorgain, éigniú, tromionsaí gnéis, tréas, cindhíothú agus píoráideacht. Aistreofar trialacha coiriúla os comhair breithimh a shuíonn le giúiré. Uaireanta féadann Uachtarán na hArd-Chúirte treorú, in imthosca áirithe, go suífeadh beirt bhreithiúna nó níos mó sa Chúirt. Sna cúinsí sin, tugtar Ard-Chúirt rannach ar an Ard-Chúirt. Éisteann an Ard-Chúirt le hachomhairc freisin ón gCúirt Chuarda maidir le ceisteanna sibhialta. I dteanna lena dlínse i gcúrsaí sibhialta agus coiriúla, cleachtann an Ard-Chúirt freisin dlínse mhaoirseachta, i gcásanna Athbhreithnithe Bhreithiúnaigh, ina bhfuil an t-údarás aici bailíocht an dlí a shocrú agus í ag féachaint chuig forálacha an Bhunreachta. Rialaítear athbhreithniú breithiúnach ar aon dlí san Ard-Chúirt ag Airteagal 34 nó 50 den Bhunreacht, ag brath ar a shine agus atá an dlí imordaithe. Cuirtear dúshlán faoi dhlí a rith an tOireachtas ó achtaíodh an Bunreacht 1937, lena mbaineann toimhde na bunreachtúlachta, faoi Airteagal 34. Cuirtear dúshlán faoi dhlíthe a ritheadh sular achtaíodh Bunreacht 1937, nach mbaineann aon toimde bunreachtúlachta den sórt sin leo, faoi Airteagal 50. (iv) An Chúirt Choiriúil Speisialta Bunaíodh an Chúirt Choiriúil faoi théarmaí an Achta um Chionta in Aghaidh an Stáit, 1939 agus déileálann sí le dhá chatagóir cionta; iad siúd ar a dtugtar 'cionta sceidealaithe' agus iad siúd ar dearbhaigh an Stiúrthóir Ionchúisimh Poiblí ina dtaobh go raibh na gnáthchúirteanna neamhdhóthanach le riar éifeachtach an cheartais a bhaint amach. Suíonn an Chúirt Choiriúil Speisialta le triúir breitheamh agus níl aon ghiúiré inti. I gcónaí bíonn breitheamh Ard-Chúirte, Cúirte Chuarda agus Cúirte Dúiche inti. Feidhmíonn an Chúirt Choiriúil Speisialta faoi réir an Bhunreachta agus an ghnáthdhlí, agus is í an tréith idirdhealaitheach shubstaintiúil amháin a bhaineann léi ná nach mbíonn aon ghiúiré inti. (v) An Chúirt Achomhairc Níl aon bundlínse ag an gCúirt Achomhairc, toisc nach bhfuil inti ach dlínse achomhairc amháin. Suíonn an Chúirt i rannáin de thriúr breithiúna. Maidir le hábhair a bhaineann leis an dlí bunreachtúil agus leis an dlí sibhialta déantar achomhairc ón Ard-Chúirt a éisteacht agus cinneadh a dhéanamh orthu inti. In ábhair sa dlí coiriúil, déantar achomhairc a éisteacht ón gCúirt Chuarda, ón bPríomh-Chúirt Choiriúil agus ón gCúirt Choiriúil Speisialta inti agus, ina theannta sin, déantar iarratais chun daorbhreitheanna agus pianbhreitheanna a líomhnaítear gur de thoradh iomrall ceartais iad a athbhreithniú, a éisteacht agus cinneadh a dhéanamh orthu inti. Déantar achomhairc ó armchúirteanna a éisteacht agus cinneadh a dhéanamh orthu inti, freisin. Féadfar na hachomhairc a bheith i gcoinne cionta nó i gcoinne déine nó boige phianbhreithe. Féadfar déileáil le “cásaí sonraithe” ón gCúirt Chuarda agus ón Ard-Chúirt sa Chúirt Achomhairc freisin. (vi) An Chúirt Uachtarach Is í an Chúirt Uachtarach an chúirt achomhairc deiridh. Cliceáil anseo chun léaráid a fháil faoi Chóras na gCúirteanna. Cliceáil anseo chun léaráid a fháil ar struchtúr Chóras na gCúirteanna. Cearta Bunúsacha Tá cearta bunúsacha an tsaoránaigh ráthaithe in Airteagal 40 go 44 den Bhunreacht. In Airteagal 40 foráiltear go gcaithfear déileáil go comhionann le gach saoránach os comhair an dlí agus leagann sé oibleagáid ar an Stát cearta pearsanta an tsaoránaigh a chosaint. Mar thoradh ar an téarma "cearta pearsanta", mar a léirmhíníonn na cúirteanna é, aithnítear agus cosnaítear go leor ceart nach foráiltear go soiléir iad i dtéacs an Bhunreachta. Áirítear leis na cearta 'neamháirithe' seo an ceart chun sláine choirpe, an ceart pósadh agus beatha a shaothrú i measc cearta eile. Áiríonn na cearta 'áirithe' nó soiléire atá sa Bhunreacht an ceart chun saoirse tuairimíochta, saoirse tionóil agus saoirse comhlachais i measc ceart eile. In Airteagal 40 tá forálacha a rialaíonn an nós imeachta ar a dtugtar habeas corpus trína bhféadann pearsa aonair dúshlán a chur faoi dhlíthíocht a choinneála, freisin. Baineann Airteagal 41 agus 42 le cearta an Teaghlaigh agus le cearta Oideachais. Baineann Airteagal 43 le ceart an tsaoránaigh bheith ina úinéir ar mhaoin phríobháideach agus in Airteagal 44 ráthaítear an ceart adhradh reiligiúnach a chleachtadh go saor agus cuireann sé cosc ar bhronnadh ar aon chreideamh faoi leith ag an Stát. Cé go bhfuil na cearta seo cosanta ar bhonn bunreachtúla, níl aon cheann acu absalóideach agus féadfar teorainn a chur leo ar chúiseanna shlándáil an Stáit, chun an tsíocháin poiblí agus an t-ord poiblí a choimeád nó aon uair a n-iarrtar leis de réir mar is gá chun leasa an phobail. Dlí an Chomhphobail Eorpaigh Stát déach atá in Éirinn, foráiltear in Airteagal 29.6 den Bhunreacht go bhfeidhmíonn comhaontuithe idirnáisiúnta fórsa an dlí sa mhéid is a shocraítear san Oireachtas. Ciallaíonn sé sin nach mór conarthaí idirnáisiúnta a dtéitear isteach iontu a chuimsiú sa dlí intíre ag reachtaíocht sula bhfuil siad i bhfeidhm sa Stát (mar shampla cuireadh cuimsiú Choinbhinsiúin na Víne ar Dhíolúine Thaidhleoireachta agus Chonsalachta i bhfeidhm ag an Acht um Chaidreamh agus Díolúine Thaidhleoireachta 1967). Is í an eisceacht ón riail ghinearálta sin ná dlí an Chomhphobail Eorpaigh a dtugtar tús áite dó roimh dhlí intíre, faoi théarmaí Airteagal 29 den Bhunreacht. Ciallaíonn sé sin nach féidir aon dlí nó beart nach mór glacadh leis de bharr bhallraíocht na hÉireann den Aontas Eorpach, a dhéanamh neamhbhailí i bprionsabal ag aon fhoráil den Bhunreacht.