http___www.hybrid-vehicle.info_system_.xml
http___galaksija.hr_tekst_Hibridni_automobil_1130_1.xml
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 6.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 10.1 10.2 10.3 11.1 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 14.1 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 16.1 17.1 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 19.1 20.1 20.2 20.3 21.1 21.2 22.1 23.1 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 25.1 25.2 26.1 27.1 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 29.1
Clarification is offered on different hybrid vehicle types and how they function at a high level. There is a lot of confusion in the industry and among consumers about different hybrid vehicle types. OEMs are primarily to blame for this confusion. They do a poor job of explaining the different technologies and how they operate. In addition, they like to assign buzz word type names for their powertrains, instead of using the standard terminology referenced below. Mild Hybrid Mild hybrid vehicles have limited additions to the regular powertrain to increase the fuel economy. Typically, these systems use a very small motor or bulked up alternator. Honda is the most prolific user of mild hybrid systems, with their Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) system. Other manufacturers will call it an Integrated Starter Generator (ISG). Mild hybrid systems may operate over a wide range of voltages, anywhere from 48V all the up to several hundred volts. Fuel economy improvements in mild hybrids come from the ability to turn the engine off when the vehicle is stopped (idle-stop), from capturing energy during braking (regenerative braking), and using captured energy to assist during accelerations. Improvements may be up to 10% for a well designed system. The advantages over a full hybrid system include lower weight, fewer components, simpler layout, and much less cost. Examples: Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Chevy Malibu Hybrid (2008-2010) Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FHEV) There are three main types of FHEVs, series, parallel, and series-parallel. See below for details on each type. The most common type is series-parallel. Series Hybrid A series hybrid is the most simple type of hybrid vehicle. The powertrain contains a simple transmission or direct drive to the wheel from an electric motor. The electric motor is the only way to provide power to the wheel. A small engine and generator are paired together to produce electric power. Depending on the system condition, power is directed by the power electronics to either charge the battery or drive the motor. Series hybrids work best during stop and go driving because the engine can be completely shut off and the vehicle can run in electric only mode. Because of this, series hybrids tend to have larger battery packs than parallel or series-parallel vehicles. The engine tends to be smaller than other types of hybrid engines because it only needs to power the generator and not provide torque to the vehicle wheels. Parallel Hybrid A parallel hybrid has the engine and electric motor both tried to the wheels. This can be done with a few different configurations, including through a transmission or directly mounted on the same shaft. A parallel hybrid system tends to have a smaller battery pack. The system relies on regenerative braking to charge the battery. This system’s primary disadvantage comes from the engine operating points. The engine cannot be operated independently of the motors since they must share the driveline. This causes the engine to operate in less efficient regions, dependent on the drive mode. With series-parallel and series hybrids, the engine is decoupled from the driveline and can operate independently, increasing combustion efficiency. Series-Parallel Hybrid (also called Power-Split Hybrid) A two motor-generator system, typically enclosed in a trans-axle. Uses a planetary gear set to connect the motors and the engine. The gear set is used to modulate the gear ratios of all the components connected to the drive line. This allows the powertrain system to keep the engine (the most inefficient component) in the most optimal operating region for any given vehicle mode. Typically, if the city rating is significantly more than the highway rating, the vehicle is a series-parallel hybrid. Examples: Toyota Prius, Honda Accord Hybrid (2013-2015) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) A PHEV vehicle can have any of the hybrid configurations listed above. However, the most common tends to be series-parallel hybrid. The difference is in the charging strategy. A PHEV has a much larger battery pack than any FHEV. This allows the vehicle to operating in pure electric mode for extended periods of time. The battery is recharged by plugging into the power grid. There are two type of PHEV: Blended and All Electric. Blended PHEVs will operate in pure electric mode until the vehicle load becomes too high, e.g. the drive demands strong acceleration or steep incline. Under high load blended vehicles switch into electric+engine mode. Once the battery is completely depleted the vehicle switches to charge sustaining mode. All Electric PHEVs operate in pure electric mode all the time until the battery is depleted. Once the battery is depleted, the vehicle switches to charge sustaining mode. Example: Chevy Volt, Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid (2014), Toyota Prius Plug-in, Volvo XC90 Plug-in Hybrid Range Extended Battery Electric Vehicle (BEVx) The California Air Resource Board (CARB) created this classification for specific vehicle types. Currently (June 2016) only the BMW i3 meets this classification. This is essentially a series hybrid vehicle, however the engine and fuel tank are very small. To fall into this category the ICE cannot power the vehicle for more miles than it has electric range. The purpose according to CARB is, “not to develop a PHEV with universal appeal, but rather, to expand the market for BEVs by adding an option for a ‘backup’ APU [auxiliary power unit] and enable a class of near-ZEVs [zero emissions vehicles] that achieve greater than 90 percent reduction in emissions.” BEVxs offer “substantially more electric range than currently announced [plug-in hybrids], and … electric range comparable to full-function battery-electric vehicles.” Examples: BMW i3 Electric Vehicle (EV) Electric vehicles are the most simple hybrid vehicle type. They should not actually be considered hybrid vehicles because there is no internal combustion engine or fuel cell to supply energy to the powertrain. Once the battery is exhausted, the vehicle is immobile. Electric vehicles consist of a large battery pack, power electronics, and one or more electric motors. Some EVs have simple transmissions to change the gearing ratio from the motor to the wheel. Examples: Nissian Leaf, Tesla Model S
1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 9.1 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 11.1 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 13.1 14.1 14.2 14.3 15.1 15.2 15.3 16.1 17.1 17.2 17.3
Hibridni automobil Tehnologija Hibridni automobili su oni koji za pokretanje koriste dva ili više izvora energije, umjesto jednog kao kod tradicionalnih automobila. Najčešća je kombinacija benzinskog ili dizelskog motora s elektromotorom, kao što je to slučaj kod Toyote Prius. Hibridni automobili su odnedavno postali vrlo popularni jer imaju znatno manju emisiju štetnih plinova koji onečišćuju zrak i uzrokuju kisele kiše (ugljikov dioksid i drugi). U svojoj ih ponudi ima većina proizvođača kao na primjer: Toyota, Ford, Cadillac, Honda, Saab, GMC, Chevrolet, Saturn, Chrysler, Dodge, Citroën i Nissan. S obzirom na autonomnost električnoga pogona, hibridi se dijele na djelomične (engl. mild hybrid) i potpune (engl. full hybrid). Potpuni hibrid je po definiciji onaj kojem je omogućena vožnja vozilom pogonjenim samo elektromotorom. U tom slučaju elektromotor ima u pravilu barem jednu trećinu snage motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem. Kod djelomičnog hibrida elektromotor služi samo kao pomoć motoru s unutarnjim izgaranjem. Stoga je djelomični hibrid i znatno jeftiniji, ali kako je dodatna snaga koju on razvija manja, i ušteda goriva je manja. S obzirom na vezu mehaničkog i električnog dijela hibridni pogonski sustavi se mogu podijeliti u tri skupine: serijski, paralelni i serijsko-paralelni hibridi. Hibridni pogonski sustavi Paralelni hibrid Kod paralelnog hibrida postoji mogućnost pogona vozila motorom s unutarnjim izgaranjem i elektromotora istovremeno. Također postoji mogućnost pogona samo motorom s unutarnijm izgaranjem ili čistog električnog pogona. Najčešće su kod takvih hibrida motori i mjenjač brzina povezani automatskim spojkama. Treba ipak imati na umu da su vozne mogućnosti vrlo ograničene kapacitetom baterije. Prvi paralelni hibrid koji je ušao u masovnu proizvodnju je Honda Insight. Serijsko-paralelni hibrid Kod serijsko-paralelnih hibrida raspodjela snage na pogonske kotača dijeli se između električnog motora i motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem pomoću posebnog diferencijala. Omjer razdiobe snage može biti od 0-100% u korist ili elektromotora ili motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem. Motor s unutarnjim izgaranjem se također može koristiti i za punjenje baterija. Na otvorenoj cesti primarni motor je motor s unutarnjim izgaranjem, dok elektromotor služi kao dodatna snaga (npr. kod pretjecanja). Toyota Prius, najprodavaniji svjetski hibrid (do 2013.), je serijsko-paralelni hibrid. Serijski hibrid Kod serijskog hibrida pogonske kotača uvijek pogoni elektromotor, bez ikakve mehaničke veze s motorom s unutarnjim izgaranjem. Kako bi se povećao domet serijskog hibrida, motor s unutarnjim izgaranjem se uključuje po potrebi i preko generatora proizvodi električnu energiju kojom puni baterije. Na taj način motoru s unutarnjim izgaranjem je omogućen rad u optimalnom radnom području s najmanjom potrošnjom goriva. Poboljšanje energetske učinkovitosti postiže se i time što se iskorištava energija kočenja, tako što elektromotor postaje generatorom kojega tjeraju kotači. Učinkovitost takvog pogona je ipak dijelom smanjena zbog gubitaka u pretvaranju mehaničke energije u električnu, te naknadnog pretvaranja električne energije iz baterija ponovno u mehaničku. Chevrolet Volt (2010.) je primjer serijskog hibrida. Plug-in hibrid Plug-in hibrid, kao vrsta hibridnog vozila, može biti izveden i sa serijskim i sa paralelnim pogonskim sustavom. Sadrži baterije povećanog kapaciteta (od običnih hibrida) kako bi vozilu bilo omogućen veći domet vožnje samo na električnu energiju. Plug-in hibridi se mogu spajati utičnicom na mrežu kako bi izbjegli korištenje motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem za kraća putovanja (ovisno o veličini baterije). Koncept plug-in hibrida zanimljiv je onima koji svakodnevno putuju manjim udaljenostima te na taj način mogu potpuno ili djelomično izbjeći korištenje motora s unutarnjim izgaranjem. Na taj se način također smanjuje emisija štetnih plinova ako električna energija kojom se vozilo puni dolazi iz čistih izvora energije. Ford Fussion Energi te Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid su primjeri plug-in hibrida. Hibridi s gorivim člankom Hibridi s vodikovim gorivim člankom koriste i gorivi članak i električne baterije kao izvor snage. Gorivi članak puni baterije koje preko elektromotora pogone vozilo. Chevrolet Equinox FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive i Honda FCX su primjeri hibrida s vodikovim gorivim čelijama.