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P-36 Hawk Type Fighter Manufacturer Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company Designed by: Donovan Berlin Maiden flight: May 1935 Introduced: 1938 Retired: 1954, Argentina Primary users: United States Army Air Corps Finnish Air Force French Air Force Royal Air Force Number built: 245 (P-36) 600 (including Hawk 75 variants) The Curtiss P-36 Hawk, also known as Curtiss Hawk Model 75, was a U.S.-built fighter aircraft of the 1930's. A contemporary of the Hawker Hurricane and Messerschmitt Bf 109, it was one of the first fighters of the new generation – sleek monoplanes with extensive use of metal in construction and powerful piston engines. Obsolete at the onset of World War II and best known as the predecessor of the Curtiss P-40, the P-36 saw only limited combat with the United States Army Air Forces but was extensively used by the French Air Force and also by British Commonwealth and Chinese air units. Several dozen also fought in the Finnish Air Force against the Soviet Red Air Force. With around 1,000 aircraft built, the P-36 was a major commercial success for Curtiss. This article also covers the YP-37 and the XP-42 prototypes based on the P-36. The Curtiss Model 75 was a private venture by the company, designed by former Northrop engineer Donovan Berlin. The first prototype constructed in 1934 featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces, a Wright XR-1670-5 radial engine developing 900 hp (671 kW), and typical U.S. Army Air Corps armament of one 0.30-cal. and one 0.50-cal. machine guns firing through the propeller arc. Also typical of the time was the total absence of armor or self-sealing fuel tanks. The distinctive landing gear which rotated 90 degrees to fold the main wheels flat into the thin trailing portion of the wing was actually a Boeing-patented design for which Curtiss had to pay royalties. The prototype flew in May 1935, reaching 281 mph (452 km/h) at 10,000 ft (3,050 m) during early test flights. On 27 May 1935, the prototype was flown to Wright Field, Ohio, to compete in the USAAC fly-off for a new single-seat fighter but the contest was delayed because the Seversky entry crashed on the way to the contest. Curtiss took advantage of the delay to replace the unreliable engine with a Wright XR-1820-39 Cyclone producing 950 hp (709 kW) and to rework the fuselage, adding the distinctive scalloped rear windows to improve rear visibility. The new prototype was designated Model 75B with the R-1670 version retroactively designated Model 75D. The fly-off finally took place in April 1936. Unfortunately, the new engine failed to deliver its rated power and the aircraft attained only 285 mph (460 km/h). Although its competitor, the Seversky P-35, also underperformed and was more expensive, it was still declared the winner and awarded a contract for 77 aircraft. Then, on 16 June 1936, Curtiss received an order from USAAC for three prototypes designated Y1P-36. The USAAC was concerned about political turmoil in Europe and about Seversky's ability to deliver P-35s in a reasonable timeframe and therefore wanted a backup fighter. The Y1P-36 (Model 75E) was powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp engine producing 900 hp (671 kW) and further enlarged scalloped rear canopy. The new aircraft performed so well that it won the 1937 USAAC competition with an order for 210 P-36A fighters. In early 1937, the USAAC ordered Curtiss to adapt one P-36 to the new liquid-cooled turbo-supercharged Allison V-1710 engine with 1,150 hp (858 kW). Designated XP-37, the aircraft used the original Model 75 airframe with radiators mounted on the sides of the fuselage around the engine. The cockpit was moved far to the rear to make room for the radiators and to balance the aircraft. The aircraft flew in April 1937, reaching 340 mph (547 km/h) at 20,000 ft (6,100 m). Although the turbo-supercharger was extremely unreliable and visibility from the cockpit on takeoff and landing was virtually nonexistent, the USAAC was sufficiently intrigued by the promised performance to order 13 service test YP-37s. Featuring improved aerodynamics and a more reliable turbo-supercharger, the aircraft first flew in June 1939. However, the powerplant remained unreliable and the project was cancelled in favor of another Curtiss design, the P-40. In an attempt to improve the aerodynamics of the air-cooled piston engines, the fourth production P-36A (serial 38-004), designated the XP-42, was equipped with a long streamlined cowling resembling that of a liquid-cooled engine. Twelve different designs were tried with little success - although the aircraft was faster than a standard P-36A, engine cooling problems were never resolved. Since the new P-40 was faster, the project was cancelled. Late in its service life, the sole XP-42 was fitted with an all-moving tailplane and used to study that control configuration. Operational History Argentina Argentina bought a number of the simplified, fixed landing gear Hawk 75Os, (intended for rough-field operations and ease of maintenance) and purchased a manufacturing license for the type, subsequently building 200 aircraft from 1940. Argentinian Hawks remained in service until 1954. Operational History Brazil In March 1942, 10 USAAC P-36As were transferred to Brazil. Operational History China The prototype of the Hawk 75H - a simplified version with fixed landing gear, like the 75O - was eventually sold to the Chinese Nationalist government who presented it to Claire L. Chennault for personal use. China also received two similar demonstrators, the Hawk 75Q. They also used a number of simplified Hawk 75Ms against the Japanese. The Hawk 75A-5 was built under license in China, but production was later moved to India, and these machines were absorbed into the RAF as the Mohawk IV. Operational History Finland After the fall of France, Germany agreed to sell captured Curtiss Hawk fighters to Finland in October 1940. In total, 44 captured aircraft of five subtypes were sold to Finland with three deliveries from 23 June 1941 to 5 January 1944. Not all were from the French stocks, but some were initially sold to Norway and captured in their wooden crates when the Germans conquered the country. The aircraft were given serial codes CU-551 to CU-585. In Finnish service, the Hawk was well-liked, affectionately called Sussu ("Sweetheart"). The Finnish Air Force enjoyed success with the type, credited with 190 1/3 kills by 58 pilots, between 16 July 1941 and 27 July 1944, for the loss of 15 of their own. Finnish ace Kyösti Karhila scored 13 1/4 of his 32 victories in the Hawk, while the top Hawk ace K. Tervo scored 15 3/4 victories. The Hawks were flown by Lentolaivue 32 throughout their wartime operational service. The Finnish Hawks were initially armed with either four or six 7.5 mm machine guns. While sufficient during the early phase of Continuation War, the increasing speeds and armor of Soviet aircraft soon showed this armament was not powerful enough. From 1942 the State Aircraft Factory replaced the fuselage machine guns with either one or two 12.7 mm Colt machine guns and installed two or four 7.7 mm Browning machine guns to each wing. The 12.7 mm Berezin UB or LKk/42 heavy machine guns were also used. The installation of heavier armament did not cause changes to the very good flying characteristics of the fighter but the armament was much more powerful against Soviet planes. The Finnish Hawks were also equipped with Revi 3D or C/12D gunsight. Surviving Finnish aircraft remained in service with the FAF aviation units HLeLv 13, HLeLv 11 and LeSK until 1948. Operational History France Even before the P-36A entered production, the French Air Force entered negotiations with Curtiss for delivery of 300 aircraft. The negotiating process ended up being very drawn-out because the cost of the Curtiss fighters was double that of the French Morane-Saulnier MS.406 and Bloch MB.150, and the delivery schedule was deemed too slow. Since the USAAC was unhappy with the rate of domestic deliveries and believed that export aircraft would slow things down even more, it actively opposed the sale. Eventually, it took direct intervention from U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt to give the French test pilot Michel Detroyat a chance to fly the Y1P-36. Detroyat's enthusiasm, problems with the MB.150, and the pressure of continuing German rearmament finally forced France to purchase 100 aircraft and 173 engines. The first Hawk 75A-1 arrived in France in December 1938 and began entering service in March 1939. After the first few examples, aircraft were delivered in pieces and assembled in France by the Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Centre. Officially designated Curtiss H75-C1 (the "Hawk" name was not used in France), the aircraft were powered by Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC-G engines with 900 hp (671 kW) and had metric, translated instruments, a seat for French dorsal parachutes, a French-style throttle which operated in reverse from U.S. and British aircraft (e.g. full throttle was to the rear rather than to the front) and armament of four 7.5 mm machine guns. The aircraft evolved through several modifications and by the time France fell to German occupation, the French Air Force had 291 H75As in service. On 8 September 1939, aircraft from Groupe de Chasse II/4 were credited with shooting down two Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 109Es, the first Allied air victory of World War II on the Western front. During 1939–1940, French pilots claimed 230 confirmed and 80 probable victories in H75s against only 29 aircraft lost in aerial combat. Of the 11 French aces of the early part of the war, seven flew H75s. The leading ace of the time was Lt. Marin La Meslee with 15 confirmed and five probable victories in the type. H75-equipped squadrons were evacuated to French North Africa before the Armistice to avoid capture by the Germans. While under the Vichy government, these units clashed with British aircraft over Mers el-Kébir and Dakar. During Operation Torch in North Africa, French H75s fought against U.S. Navy F4F Wildcats, losing 15 aircraft to seven shot down American planes. From late 1942 on, the Allies started re-equipping French units formerly under Vichy and the H75s were replaced by P-40s and P-39s. Operational History Iran Ten Hawk 75A-9s were delivered to Persia, but were captured by the British while still in crates. These were then used by the RAF in India as Mohawk IVs. Operational History Netherlands East Indies In October 1939, the Netherlands East Indies government ordered 24 Hawk 75A-7s, powered by 1200 hp Cyclones. They had 4 x 7.7 mm machine guns (two in the nose and one in each wing) and could carry 2 x 100-pound bombs. The fighters were shipped in 1940 (and were almost rerouted to the Netherlands, when Germany invaded) and were used extensively leading up to the Japanese attack. However, by that time the aircraft had flown so many hours, the engines were worn out. These Dutch Hawks formed 1-VlG IV, or Vliegtuiggroep IV, 1e afdeling (1st Squadron, Airgroup IV) of the ML-KNIL and some with 1-VlG V. They saw action over Malacca, Sumatra and Java, successfully bombing a railroad and intercepting bombers. They also participated in the extensive dogfights over Surabaya, where US, RAF and ML-KNIL aircraft together fought Japanese bombers and fighters. Operational History Norway Norway ordered 24 Twin Wasp-powered Hawk 75A-6s, of which 19 were delivered and seven assembled at the time of the German invasion. None of the aircraft were combat-ready. The disassembled aircraft were disabled by a single customs employee who smashed the instruments and cut all the wires he could reach. Norwegian Hawks captured by the Germans were part of the batch sent to Finland. Norway also ordered 36 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75A-8s, most (30) of which were delivered to a Norwegian training base (established by the exile-government in London and named "Little Norway") near Toronto, Ontario, Canada, as advanced trainers. Still later, they were resold to the U.S. and redesignated as the P-36G model. Operational History Peru In 1943 the U.S. sent 28 Hawks to Peru under the Lend-Lease agreement. These were ex-Norwegian P-36Gs that had served in Canada. Operational History Portugal Twelve British Mohawks ended up in Portugal, after they became obsolete in the RAF. Operational History South Africa Operational History Thailand A few Hawk 75Ns were used by Thailand during the French-Thai War. They also fought at the Battle of Prachuab Khirikhan against Japanese forces during the Japanese Invasion of Thailand. Like others, the Royal Air Force also displayed considerable interest in the aircraft. Comparison of a borrowed French Hawk 75A-2 with a Supermarine Spitfire Mk I revealed that the Hawk had several advantages over the early variant of the iconic British fighter. The Hawk was found to have lighter controls than the Spitfire at speeds over 300 mph (480 km/h), especially in diving attacks, and was easier to maneuver in a dogfight thanks to the less-sensitive elevator and better all-around visibility. The Hawk was also easier to control on takeoff and landing. Not surprisingly, the Spitfire's superior acceleration and top speed ultimately gave it the advantage of being able to engage and leave combat at will. Although Britain decided not to purchase the aircraft, they soon came in possession of 229 Hawks comprised of diverted shipments to occupied France and aircraft flown by escaping French pilots. The aircraft received the designations Mohawk I through IV, mirroring French Hawk 75A-1 through A-4, and were fitted with 0.303-cal. Vickers K machine guns and conventional throttles (forward to increase power). Obsolete by the standards of the European theatre, 72 Mohawks were sent to the South African Air Force, and a number served in India and Burma. In April 1941, the British government of India ordered 48 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75As to be built by Hindustan Aircraft. The first Indian-built machine was test flown on 31 July 1942. Four additional machines were completed before the project was abandoned. The Indian-built machines were absorbed into the RAF as Mohawk IVs. Similarly, Chinese license production of the Hawk 75A-5 was moved to India, and these machines were also absorbed into RAF as Mohawk IV. Operational History USA The first production P-36As were delivered to the 20th Pursuit Group at Barksdale Field in Louisiana in April 1938. The aircraft's service history was marred by numerous teething problems with engine exhaust, skin buckling over landing gear, and weak points in the airframe, severely restricting the performance envelope. By the time these issues were resolved, the P-36 was considered obsolete and was relegated to training units and overseas detachments at Albrook Field in the Canal Zone, Elmendorf Field in Alaska, and Wheeler Field in Hawaii. The only combat with U.S.-operated P-36s took place during the Pearl Harbor attack on 7 December 1941. Five of the 39 P-36A Mohawks at Pearl Harbor were able to take off during the attack and were credited with shooting down two Japanese Mitsubishi A6M2 fighters for the loss of one P-36, the first U.S. aerial victories of World War II. Variants Model 75A - company-owned demonstrator aircraft flown with several engine fits Model 75B - prototype with Wright R-1820 engine Model 75D - first prototype, Wright R-1670 engine Model 75H - internal company designation for a simplified export version with fixed landing gear, two slightly differing aircraft built, first sold to China, second to Argentina Model 75J - company-owned 75A temporarily fitted with an external supercharger Model 75K - Unbuilt version, it was going to be powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-02180 Twin Hornet engine. Model 75P - production P-36A (serial 38-010) fitted with Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engine, prototype for Curtiss P-40 Model 75R - company-owned 75A temporarily fitted with R-1830-SC2-G engine with turbosupercharger, attained 330 mph (530 km/h) but proved complex and unreliable Y1P-36 (Model 75E) - USAAC prototype, Pratt & Whitney R-1830 engine P-36A (Model 75L) - USAAC version, P-26A-3 mounted four 0.30 in machine guns in the wings in addition to fuselage armament P-36B - production P-36A fitted with an R-1830-25 engine producing 1,100 hp (820 kW), reached 313 mph (504 km/h), returned to original P-36A configuration P-36C - an additional 0.30 in machine gun installed in each wing with external ammunition boxes under the wings, R-1830-17 engine with 1,200 hp (895 kW), last 30 production aircraft were completed as P-36Cs XP-36D - production P-36A modified with 2 x 0.50 in machine guns in the nose and 4x 0.30 in machine guns in the wings XP-36E - production P-36A armed with 4 x 0.30 in machine guns in the wings, retained standard fuselage guns XP-36F - production P-36A fitted with 2 x 23 mm Madsen cannons under the wings, reverted to P-36A because guns imposed an unacceptable performance penalty with top speed of only 265 mph (427 km/h) P-36G - Hawk 75A-8 used by Norway for training in Canada, later to Peru. Wright R-1820-G205A engine with 1,200 hp (895 kW). Hawk 75A-1 - French export version, 4 x 7.5 mm machine guns, R-1830-SC-G engine with 900 hp (671 kW), British aircraft designated Mohawk I Hawk 75A-2 - French export version, R-1830-SC2-G engine with 1,050 hp (783 kW), 6x 7.5 mm machine guns, British aircraft designated Mohawk II Hawk 75A-3 - French export version, Hawk 75A-2 with R-1830-S1C3G engine with 1,200 hp (895 kW), British aircraft designated Mohawk III Hawk 75A-4 - French export version, Hawk 75A-2 with Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone engine with 1,200 hp (895 kW), British aircraft designated Mohawk IV Hawk 75A-5 - built under license in China (production was later moved to India), absorbed into RAF as Mohawk IV Hawk 75A-6 - version for Norway, captured aircraft sent to Finland Hawk 75A-7 - version for Netherlands East Indies: 1,200 hp Cyclone, 4 x 7.7 mm (two in nose, one in each wing) and 2 x 100 lb bombs. Hawk 75A-8 - Export version for Norway. Later redesignated P-36G. Hawk 75A-9 - 10 aircraft delivered to Persia, captured still in crates and used by RAF in India as Mohawk IVs Hawk 75M - simplified version with fixed landing gear and Wright R-1820 Cyclone engine for China, built by both Curtiss and Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company in China Hawk 75N - simplified version for Siam (Thailand) Hawk 75O - simplified version for Argentine, 29 built by Curtiss with additional 200 built under license locally by Fabrica Militar de Aviones Hawk 75Q - two additional simplified demonstrators for China XP-37 - Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engine, cockpit moved to the rear of the fuselage YP-37 - service test version of XP-37, 13 built XP-42 (Model 75S) - testbed for streamlining cowlings around air-cooled engines Specifications (P-36A) General characteristics Crew: One Length: 28 ft 6 in (8.7 m) Wingspan: 37 ft 1 in (11.3 m) Height: 9 ft 2 in (2.8 m) Wing area: 235.6 ft² (21.9 m²) Empty weight: 4,665 lb (2,116 kg) Loaded weight: 5,867 lb (2,661 kg) Max takeoff weight: lb (kg) Powerplant: 1× Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp air-cooled radial piston engine, 1,050 hp (783 kW) Performance Maximum speed: 322 mph (518 km/h) Cruise speed: 260 mph (420 km/h) Range: 650 mi (1,046 km) Service ceiling 32,340 ft (9,860 m) Rate of climb: 2,500 ft/min (13 m/s) Wing loading: 25 lb/ft² (122 kg/m²) Power/mass: 0.18 hp/lb (0.29 kW/kg) Armament 1 × 0.30 in machine gun 1 × 0.50 in machine gun Bibliography * Bowers, Peter M. Curtiss Aircraft, 1907-1947. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979. * Bowers, Peter M. The Curtiss Hawk 75: Aircraft in Profile No. 80. London: Profile Publications, 1966. ASIN B0007KCRKO * Bridgwater, H.C. Combat Colours Number 3: The Curtiss P-36 and P-40 in USAAC/ USAAF Service 1939-1945. Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, UK: Guideline Publications Ltd., 2001. * Fleischer, Seweryn and Chodil, Jiri. Curtiss P-36 Hawk, Cz.3 (Monograpfie Lotnicze 63) (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2000. * Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters. London: MacDonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (Sixth impression 1969). * Green, William and Swanborough, Gordon. WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: US Army Air Force Fighters, Part 1. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1977. * Rys, Marek. Curtiss P-36 Hawk, Cz.1 (Monograpfie Lotnicze 61) (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2000. * Rys, Marek and Fleischer, Seweryn. Curtiss P-36 Hawk, Cz.2 (Monograpfie Lotnicze 62) (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2000. * Swanborough, Gordon and Bowers, Peter M. United States Military Aircraft Since 1909. Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1989. Additional Web Sources: http://home.att.net/~jbaugher1/p36.html Curtiss P-36A The Curtiss P-36 was the first of the new generation of monoplane fighters to enter service with the USAAC. It was a contemporary of the Supermarine Spitfire, the Hawker Hurricane, and the Messerschmitt Bf 109, all of which were introduced within a few months of each other in the mid 1930s. Even though the P-36 owed very little to previous Curtiss biplane pursuits, the name *Hawk* was still generally applied to the aircraft. The P-36 pursuit had its origin in the Model 75 project which was originally developed as the Curtiss entry in the US Army pursuit aircraft competition scheduled for May 1935. Curtiss lost the initial contest but was the real winner in the end, with 227 examples sold to the USAAC, 753 exported, and at least 25 built under license in other countries. The Model 75 owed relatively little to previous Curtiss designs. The principal designer was Donovan A. Berlin, who had come over to Curtiss from Northrop, and the structure of the Model 75 was heavily influenced by earlier Northrop designs. The prototype carried the civilian registration of X-17Y. The Model 75 was an all-metal low-wing monoplane, with the metal-frame moveable control surfaces being fabric covered. The cockpit was enclosed by a sliding canopy, with the canopy being faired into a high rear turtledeck. Both the main undercarriage units and the tailwheel retracted, the main legs rotating backward 90 degrees and turning 90 degrees on their axes simultaneously to lay the wheels flat in the thin rear portion of the wing. This retraction mechanism had originally been developed by Boeing, which received a royalty whenever any other aircraft manufacturer used it. The wing was built in two halves joined on the aircraft's centerline. Portions of the outer wing structure were sealed to provide flotation in case of a forced landing in water. Hydraulically-actuated split flaps were fitted to the trailing edge of the wing. Initial armament was the standard US fighter armament of the time--one 0.30-in and one 0.50-in machine guns under the forward fuselage deck, firing through openings in the top of the cowling. No armor protection or self-sealing fuel tanks were fitted. Prototype construction began in November 1934. Initially, the aircraft was powered by the unfortunate 900 hp Wright XR-1670-5 (SCR-1670-G5) twin-row air-cooled radial. The first flight of the Model 75 took place in May of 1935. During early tests, the prototype had demonstrated a maximum speed of 281 mph at 10,000 feet, a service ceiling of 30,000 feet, and a range of 537 miles. Weights were 3760 lbs empty, 4843 lbs gross. Length was 28 feet 3 1/2 inches, wingspan was 37 feet 0 inches, and wing area was 237 square feet. On May 27, 1935, Curtiss submitted the Model 75 to the USAAC Material Division's single seat fighter competition which was to be held at Wright Field that very month. However, the Model 75 was the only competitor ready in time for the scheduled flyoff. The primary competitor, the two-seat Seversky SEV-2XP, had been "heavily damaged" during delivery to Wright Field, and did not arrive there until June 18. The SEV-2XP was soon returned to the Seversky factory where it was reworked into a single seater with retractable undercarriage. The competition was delayed until the SEV-1XP could be ready. It finally arrived at Wright Field on August 15, bearing the designation SEV-1XP. The only other serious competitor, the Northrop 2A had taken off on its maiden flight on July 30, headed out over the Pacific, and promptly disappeared into thin air, never to be seen again. Curtiss protested that this delay had given the Seversky competitor an unfair advantage, and convinced the Army that it should defer its decision until after a further competitive evaluation which was to take place in April of 1936. During the early flight tests, the XR-1670-5 engine which powered the Model 75 had proven itself to be totally unsatisfactory. Don Berlin took the opportunity afforded by the delay to replace this engine by a 700 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1535. Since this engine model had passed its peak of development, a nine-cylinder single-row Wright XR-1820-39 (G5) Cyclone radial was quickly substituted. This engine was rated at 950 hp for takeoff and at 850 hp normal maximum output. With this engine, the prototype was designated Model 75B (Model 75A had been reserved for the export version of the Hawk). In its final form, the Model 75B had a strengthened cockpit canopy and introduced a scalloped aft fuselage decking behind the cockpit for a somewhat improved rear view. The new Cyclone radial of the Model 75B proved to be almost as unsatisfactory as its R-1670 predecessor, and failed to deliver its full rated power. There were no fewer than four engine changes during the Wright Field trials. In addition, there were problems with incompatibility between the engine and the airframe. The Model 75B proved capable of attaining only 285 mph (versus the 294 mph at 10,000 feet guaranteed by Curtiss-Wright). Even though the Seversky entry also fell short on promised performance and in addition was more expensive than the Curtiss entry, the Model 75B lost out to the Seversky competitor, which won an order for 77 examples under the designation P-35. Even though the prototype Model 75 never became Army property, some sources refer to the various configurations of this aircraft under the collective designation "XP-36". This was a matter of historical convenience only, since there never was any such official designation. The original configuration of the Model 75 prototype with the 900 hp Wright SCR-1670-G5 radial was given the retroactive company designation of Model 75D. The prototype aircraft was later rebuilt and delivered to the Army as the XP-37, of which more in a later installment. On June 16, 1936, Curtiss got a consolation order from the Material Division for three examples of the Model 75B under the designation Y1P-36, perhaps because the USAAC was getting nervous about the inability of Seversky to meet its delivery schedules and was therefore hedging its bets. Serial numbers of the Y1P-36s were 37-68/70, and the company designation for these planes was Model 75E. At Army direction, they were to be powered with the Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp radial, virtually the same type of engine that was used by the P-35. The Twin Wasp was rated at 900 hp at 2550 rpm at 12,000 feet, having been de-rated from 1050 to 950 hp for takeoff. The engine drove a hydraulically-operated, constant-speed three-bladed Hamilton Standard propeller. Armament was the Army standard of the day, one 0.30-inch and one 0.50-inch machine gun under the cowling and synchronized to fire through the propeller arc. The Y1P-36 could be distinguished from the prototype by the R-1830 engine and also by the presence of modified and larger view scallops behind the cockpit. The first Y1P-36 was delivered to the Army in March of 1937, and was tested at Wright Field in June of that year. The Wright Field test pilots were uniformly enthusiastic about the new Curtiss plane, commenting favorably about its maneuverability. The effectiveness and operation of all controls throughout the speed range of the fighter were excellent, and stability and ground handling were quite favorably rated. However, there was some criticism of the location of the undercarriage and flap controls, some complaints about the cabin ventilation, and some unfavorable comments about the curvature of the windshield which resulted in some distortion of vision during landing. With the R-1830 engine, the Y1P-36 did so well that it won a 1937 Army competition, and on July 7, 1937, the Army ordered 210 P-36As, the largest single US military aircraft order since the First World War. Curtiss's private venture had finally paid off. Serials of the P-36As were 38-1/210. The principal difference between the P-36A and the Y1P-36 was the addition of engine cowl flaps and the addition of bulging "frog's eye" covers over the machine gun ports in the engine cowling. The P-36A had a fully-rated 1050 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp engine driving a Curtiss Electric constant speed propeller. Empty and normal loaded weights were 4567 lb and 5470 lbs. Maximum speed was 300 mph at 10,000 feet. Normal range was 825 miles. Initial climb rate was 3400 feet/minute. An altitude of 15,000 feet could be attained in 4.8 minutes, and service ceiling was 33,000 feet. Before completion, P-36A Ser No 38-10 was converted to the XP-40 (Model 75P) and 38-4 became the XP-42 (Model 75S). More of both of these later in the series! The first Y1P-36 (Ser No 37-068) was briefly tested with two twin-bladed contrarotating propellers, the first such installation on an American aircraft. The first production P-36A was delivered to Wright Field in April of 1938. The 20th Pursuit Group at Barksdale Field, Louisiana, comprising the 55th, 77th, and 79th Pursuit Squadrons, had been designated as the first recipients of the new Curtiss fighter, and they had relinquished their Boeing P-26s in anticipation of the deliveries of the new fighter. However, the new Curtiss fighters began to encounter an extensive series of teething troubles almost as soon as they reached the field. Severe skin buckling in the vicinity of the landing gear wells had appeared, dictating increased skin thicknesses and reinforcing webs. Engine exhaust difficulties and some weaknesses in the fuselage structure were also encountered. Despite both production line and field fixes, the P-36As were grounded again and again. At one time, the 20th Pursuit Group was down to six serviceable P-36As, and even these planes had to be flown under severe limitations on their speed, aerobatics, and combat maneuvers. The 1st Pursuit Group at Selfridge Field, Michigan, consisting of the 17th, 27th, and 94th Pursuit Squadrons, had also been scheduled in 1938 for conversion to the P-36A. However, this Group was forced to await the efforts being made at Buffalo to wring out the new fighter's problems. In the event, only the 94th Squadron got any P-36As during 1938, operating them along with Seversky P-35s. The 27th Squadron received a few P-36As during early 1939, but neither the 27th nor the 94th Squadron ever got a full complement of P-36As, the balance being made up by Seversky P-35s. The 17th Squadron never got ANY P-36s, their strength being made up solely of P-35s. In 1939, the 33rd, 35th, and 36th Squadrons of the 8th Pursuit Group at Langley Field, Virginia were equipped with P-36s. By early 1941, the P-36 was already recognized as being obsolescent, and had been largely supplanted in first-line Army Air Force (as the Army Air Corps had been renamed) units by such aircraft as the Bell P-39 Airacobra and the Curtiss P-40. At home, the P-36s were largely relegated to training units. By the time of Pearl Harbor, P-36s were serving with the 35th Training Group based at Moffett Field, California and with the 36th Training Group based at Langley Field, Virginia. These outfits trained with the P-36 before they converted to more modern fighters. Other P-36s were transferred overseas. P-36s served with the 24th, 29th, and 43rd Squadrons of the 16th Pursuit Group and with the 51st, 52nd and 53rd Squadrons of the 32nd Pursuit Group, both groups being based at Albrook Field in the Canal Zone, where they flew alongside the now totally-obsolete Boeing P-26. During February of 1941, 20 crated P-36s were delivered to Alaska, and these planes served with the 23rd Squadron at Elmendorf Field in Alaska. At about the same time, 31 P-36s arrived in Hawaii from San Diego aboard the carrier *Enterprise*. These fighters entered service with the 78th Squadron of the 18th Pursuit Group and with the 46th and 47th Squadrons of the 15th Pursuit Groups, all being based at Wheeler Field, Hawaii. At the time of the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7, 1941, 14 P-26As, 39 P-36As and 99 P-40s comprised the air defense of the islands. Most of these aircraft were destroyed or damaged on the ground, but four P-36As of the 46th Squadron managed to take off and attack a formation of nine Nakajima B5N1 torpedo bombers on the second wave. Two of the Najajimas were shot down, gaining the first USAAF "kills" of the Pacific War. After Pearl Harbor, there was no other combat while in US service. P-36s were quickly withdrawn from combat outfits and relegated to training units. Ten P-36As (serials 38-39, 43, 51, 53, 54, 60, 106, 158, 159, and 175 were transferred to Brazil in March of 1942. There is a P-36A on display at the Wright Patterson Air Force Base Museum in Dayton, Ohio. I am unaware of the service history of this particular airplane. Curtiss P-36B P-36A Ser No 38-020 was flown in November 1938 with an R-1830-25 engine offering 1100 hp for takeoff. This airplane was redesignated P-36B. It attained a maximum speed of 313 mph. The airplane was subsequently converted back to P-36A standards. Curtiss P-36C The P-36A had always been underarmed in comparison with contemporary foreign fighters (e. g. the Spitfire and Hurricane), and P-36A Ser No 38-085 had undergone an experiment in which the fuselage guns were supplemented by the addition of a 0.30-in machine gun in each outer wing panel. This installation was successful, and it was adopted for the last 30 aircraft in the original order (Ser Nos 38-181/210). These were redesignated P-36C. The P-36C also featured an R-1830-17 (S1C3-G) engine rated at 1200 hp for takeoff. These changes had been ordered on January 16, 1939, and the P-36C could be distinguished from the P-36A by the addition of cartridge case retainer boxes protruding underneath the wings. Despite the extra drag produced by the underwing cartridge boxes and the increased weight, the increased power of the engine raised the maximum speed of the P-36C to 311 mph, although the range was lowered to 600 miles. Service ceiling was 33,700 feet. Weights were 4620 lbs empty, 5734 lbs loaded. Wing span was 37 feet 4 inches, length was 28 feet 6 inches, and wing area was 236 square feet. Curtiss XP-36D P-36A Ser No 38-174 was withdrawn from squadron service early in 1939 and fitted with four belt-fed 0.30-in machine guns in the wings. At the same time, the fuselage mounted armament was changed to a pair of 0.5-in machine guns. Thus armed, the modified aircraft was redesignated XP-36D. Curtiss XP-36E P-36A Ser No 38-147 was fitted with new outer wing panels each housing FOUR 0.30-in machine guns (a la Spitfire and Hurricane). The fuselage-mounted 0.50-in gun was retained but rendered inoperable. As such, the aircraft was redesignated XP-36E. The XP-36E was retired to an Army mechanics' school in August of 1943. Curtiss XP-36F The XP-36F was created by taking P-36A Ser No 38-172 and fitting it with two 23-mm Danish-built Madsen cannon in underwing fairings. The standard P-36A fuselage armament was retained. Unfortunately, this additional armament caused the maximum weight to rise to 6850 pounds and the maximum speed to fall to 265 mph. Consequently, the experimental armament was soon removed and the airplane reverted to a standard P-36A. It was surveyed in October 1944. Curtiss P-36G The Norwegian government had issued an order for 36 Hawk 75A-8 export versions of the P-36 just before the German occupation. These aircraft were powered by the export-model 1200 hp Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone radial. Since Norway was under German occupation at the time these aircraft were completed in January of 1941, they were impounded by the US government. These 36 planes were delivered to Free Norwegian forces in Canada in February of 1941, where they were operated as fighter trainers by the "Little Norway" training establishment near Toronto. They were used as advanced trainers for Norwegian fighter pilots after their initial training on Cornells and Harvards. The training on the Hawk 75A-8s was halted in early 1943, and the 30 survivors were sold, 18 to Curtiss and 12 to the USAAF. All 30 of these planes were redesignated P-36G and were assigned the USAAF serial numbers 42-36305/36322 and 42-108995/109006. The export-model Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone radial engine which powered these planes was redesignated R-1820-95 by the Army. Since these aircraft were considered useless as combat types and in addition were incompatible with other P-36s because of their Wright engines, the P-36Gs were sent to Peru under Lend-Lease in 1943. One survives in the Peruvian Air Force Museum. Curtiss Model 75A Demonstrator Model 75A was the company designation for a Curtiss-owned demonstrator which carried a civilian registration of NX22028. This demonstrator aircraft was used to carry out several company-originated experiments. First, it was fitted with an external mechanical supercharger mounted underneath its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 engine and briefly designated Model 75J. Then, it was experimentally fitted with a turbosupercharged R-1830-SC2-G engine. The supercharger was fitted underneath the nose just aft of the engine cowling, and the intercooler was mounted underneath the trailing edge of the wing. The company designation for this modification was Model 75R. Empty and normal loaded weights went up to 5074 lbs and 6163 lbs. During trials in January 1939, it attained a maximum speed of 330 mph at 15,000 feet. However, the poor reliability and complexity of the turbosupercharger led the USAAC to decide not to proceed with a supercharged variant of the P-36, choosing instead to purchase the turbo-supercharged Seversky (Republic) XP-41, which had been converted from the last P-35. After trials at Wright Field, the aircraft was returned to the Curtiss plant in Buffalo, where it was fitted with a Wright R-1820 engine and resumed its role as a demonstrator. Curtiss Hawk with Armee de l'Air Although the P-36 saw very little combat in American hands, the Curtiss fighter was to see quite a bit of combat in foreign hands. In fact, it is one of the few military aircraft actually to see combat on BOTH sides during the Second World War. The largest foreign operator of the Hawk was the Armee de l'Air, the French Air Force. Next to the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, the Curtiss Hawk was numerically the most important fighter in French service during the German onslaught into Western Europe in May of 1940. In February 1938, two months before the first P-36A had rolled off the Buffalo assembly lines for the USAAC, the French government entered into negotiations with the Curtiss company for the supply of 300 fighters of the Hawk 75A type which Curtiss had offered to the Armee de l'Air. The Hawk 75A was an export version of the P-36A, and was being offered for sale with either the Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp or the Wright Cyclone engine. However, the unit price asked by Curtiss was considered exorbitant by the French--almost twice as high as that of the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406. In addition, the proposed delivery schedule commencing in March of 1939 with 20 planes and continuing at a rate of 30 planes per month was considered totally unacceptable. Furthermore, the USAAC was itself unhappy with the Curtiss company's inability to meet delivery schedules for its P-36As, and felt that the French sale would only slow things up still more. Consequently, the USAAC opposed the French sale. Nevertheless, the rapidity of German rearmament made the modernization of the Armee de l'Air's equipment a matter of the utmost urgency, so the French persisted with the negotiations. As a result of the direct intervention of President Roosevelt, a leading French test pilot, Michel Detroyat was permitted to fly a Y1P-36 service test prototype at Wright Field in March of 1938. He submitted a thoroughly enthusiastic report. In addition, Curtiss suggested that more acceptable delivery schedules could be offered if the French government would finance the construction and equipping of supplementary assembly facilities. The French still felt that the unit price was too high, and on April 28, 1938 they decided to delay their decision until the completion of the test trials of the Bloch MB-150, the quoted price of which was scarcely half that of the Curtiss fighter. However, the MB-150 was suffering an extensive series of teething troubles (the first prototype couldn't even fly!) and had been subjected to a succession of modifications for nearly two years. By mid-1938, it was felt that the Bloch fighter's main problems had been overcome. However, it was soon realized that in order to adapt the design for mass production, a complete structural redesign would have to take place. The rework of the Bloch MB-150 would obviously be a costly and time- consuming process, and time was something the Armee de l'Air did not have. Consequently, on May 17, 1938 the Minister for Air announced that the French would acquire the Curtiss Hawk, and that a French purchasing commission was instructed to order 100 Hawk airframes and 173 Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engines. The contract stipulated that the first Hawk should be flown at Buffalo by November 25, 1938 and that the 100-th plane should be delivered by April 10, 1939. Hawk 75A-1 The initial production version of the Hawk was designated Hawk 75A-1 by Curtiss, of which 100 had been ordered by France. According to the original plan, the majority of the Hawk 75A-1s were to be shipped by Curtiss in disassembled form to France, with assembly being completed in France by the Societe Nationale de Constructions Aeronautiques du Centre (SNCAC) at Bourges. The first Hawk 75A-1 was flown at Buffalo early in December 1938, only a few days after the committed date. The first Hawk 75A-1s (actually the fourth and fifth examples off the line) were delivered by ship to France on December 14, 1938. Fourteen more Hawk 75A-1s were delivered in fully-assembled form for Armee de l'Air trials, but the rest were delivered in disassembled form. The first assembly was commenced by SNCAC in February 1939. During March and April of 1939, the 4e and 5e Escadres de Chasse had initiated conversion from the Dewoitine 500 and 501, and by July 1, 1939 the 4e Escadre had 54 Curtiss fighters on strength and the 5e Escadre had 41. The conversion had not been without problems, one Hawk 75A-1 having crash- landed when an over-speeding propeller had caused the engine to overheat, and another one had been destroyed in a fatal crash as a result of a flat spin that developed during aerobatic trials with full fuel tanks. Throughout the entire service history of the Hawk 75A, there were problems with maneuverability and handling when all the fuel tanks were completely full. The Hawk 75A-1 was powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC-G engine, with an international rating of 900 hp at 12,000 feet and 950 hp for takeoff. Armament comprised four 7.5 mm machine guns, two mounted in the upper decking of the fuselage nose and two in the wings. Apart from the altitude indicator, all instruments were metric calibrated. A modified seat was fitted to accommodate the French Lemercier back parachute. The throttle operated in the "French fashion", i.e. in the reverse direction to the throttles of British or US aircraft. France used the manufacturer's model number as the official designation, and numbered the aircraft consecutively within the model. This information appeared in three lines on the rudder as so: CURTISS H75-C1 No. 09 The C stood for Chasse (pursuit) and the 1 indicated a single-seater, and the 09 was the ninth H75 ordered by France. Hawk 75A-2 Following the placing of the initial French order for the Hawk 75A in May of 1938, an option had been taken for 100 more machines. This option was converted into a firm order on March 8, 1939. These aircraft differed from the A-1 in having an additional 7.5 mm machine gun in each wing, some structural reinforcement of the rear fuselage, and the minor modifications necessary to permit interchangeability between the R-1830-SC-G and the more powerful R-1830-SC2-G, the latter affording 1050 hp for takeoff. The new model was designated Hawk 75A-2 by Curtiss. The four wing guns and the new engine made the Hawk 75A-2 more or less equivalent to the US Army's XP-36D. The first A-2 was delivered to France at the end of May, 1939. The first 40 of these were basically similar to the A-1 in both powerplant and armament. The first A-2 to have both the uprated engine and the increased armament was actually the 48th off the Buffalo line. French Air Force numbering continued from the Hawk 75A-1, the first Hawk 75A-2 being numbered 101. Hawk 75A-3 One hundred and thirty-five of the Hawk 75A-3 version were ordered by France on October 9, 1939, with improved 1200 hp R-1830-S1C3G engines and armament similar to that of the A-2 (six 7.5-mm machine guns). Maximum speed was 311 mph at 10,000 feet. Initial climb rate was 2350 feet per minute, service ceiling was 33,700 feet, and range was 820 miles. Wingspan was 37 feet 3 1/2 inches, length was 28 feet 7 inches, and wing area was 236 square feet. Weights were 4483 lbs empty, 5692 lbs gross. About sixty Hawk 75A-3s reached France before the surrender, with the rest being diverted to Britain. Hawk 75A-4 The last French order before the Armistice was for 395 Hawk 75A-4 aircraft. These were armed like the A-3s but were fitted with 1200 hp Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone engines. Cyclone-powered 75s could be distinguished from Twin Wasp models by their short-chord cowlings of slightly greater diameter and by the absence of engine cowling flaps and bulbous nose gun port covers. Maximum speed was 323 mph at 15,100 feet. Initial climb rate was 2820 feet per minute, service ceiling was 32,700 feet, and range was 670 miles. Weights were 4541 lbs empty, 5750 lbs gross. Wingspan was 27 feet 3 1/2 inches and length was 28 feet 10 inches. Only two hundred and eighty-four of these A-4s were actually built, and of these, only six A-4s actually reached France before the surrender. Action with Armee de l'Air The French Hawks were in action from almost the first day that the war began in Europe. On September 8, 1939, the Groupe de Chasse II/4, operating Hawk 75As succeeded in destroying two Messerschmitt Bf 109Es, the first Allied aerial victories of World War 2. However, during the invasion of France in May of 1940, the Hawks were generally outmatched by the Messerschmitt Bf 109E. The Hawk 75A served with Armee de l'Air Groupes de Chasse III/2, I/4, II/4, I/5 and II/5, these units claiming 230 confirmed kills and 80 "probables", as against losses totaling only 29 aircraft destroyed in aerial combat. Although these figures are probably over-optimistic, it seems likely that the French Hawks gave better than they got. The Hawk 75A was neither as fast nor as well-armed as the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, but it was more maneuverable and could take more punishment. The leading French ace of 1939/40 was Lt Marin La Meslee, who scored 20 "kills" while flying the Hawk. Only 291 Hawk 75A fighters were actually taken on strength by the Armee de l'Air before the collapse of French resistance, but a number were lost en route to French ports. As mentioned before, only six A-4s actually reached France before the Armistice. Thirty A-4s destined for France were lost at sea during transit, seventeen were disembarked in Martinique and a further six were unloaded in Guadeloupe. These machines were, incidentally, shipped from the West Indies to Morocco during 1943-44, placed in flying condition and used for training, their unreliable Cyclone 9 engines being replaced by Twin Wasps. The rest of the French Hawk 75A-4 order was taken over by Britain as Mohawk IVs. After the collapse of French resistance, those Armee de l'Air Hawks which had not escaped to unoccupied French territory or flown to England were taken over by the Luftwaffe. Some of the Armee de l'Air Hawk 75As were captured while still in their delivery crates. These were transported to Germany, whey they were overhauled and assembled by the Espenlaub Flugzeugbau, fitted with German instrumentation, and then sold to Finland. Finland received 36 former Armee de l'Air Hawk 75A-1s, A-2s and A-3s, along with eight former Norwegian Hawk 75A-6s. These Finnish Hawks participated in the war on the Axis side when Finland entered the war against the Soviet Union on June 25, 1941. These Hawks gave a good account of themselves in Finnish service, and some Hawks remained in service in Finland until 1948. After the Armistice, Armee de l'Air Groupes de Chasse I/4 and I/5 continued flying their Hawks with the Vichy Air Force, the former unit based at Dakar and the latter at Rabat. These Vichy Hawk 75As were to fight against other American planes when the Allies made the Operation Torch landings in North Africa in November 1942. In an air battle between these Hawks and carrier-based Grumman F4F Wildcats, 15 Vichy planes were shot down versus the loss of seven Wildcats. This is one of the few occasions during the Second World War in which American-built planes fought against each other. RAF Mohawk Considerable interest in the Hawk had been aroused in Britain as a result of a test flight carried out with an Armee de l'Air Hawk by an RAF pilot in France. The Hawk 75A possessed remarkably good controls and the ailerons were fairly light at high speeds in contrast with the early Spitfire which had ailerons which were almost immobile at speeds over 300 mph. At the end of 1939, the Royal Aircraft Establishment arranged for a loan of a Curtiss Hawk from France (the 88th production Hawk 75A-2) for comparative trials against a Spitfire I (K9944). In many respects, the Hawk turned out to be superior to the Spitfire. The RAE found that the Hawk did indeed have exceptional handling characteristics and beautifully harmonized controls. In a diving attack at 400 mph, the Hawk was far superior to the Spitfire I owing to its lighter ailerons. In a dogfight at 250 mph, the Hawk was again superior, because its elevator control was not over-sensitive and all-round view was better. However, the Spitfire could break off combat at will because of its much higher speed. When the Spitfire dived on the Hawk, the Curtiss could avoid its opponent by banking and turning rapidly. The Spitfire could not follow the Hawk around and would overshoot the target. The Hawk 75A displayed appreciably superior take-off and climb characteristics. The swing on takeoff was smaller and more easily corrected than on the Spitfire, and during the climb the Hawk's controls were more effective. However, the Hawk tended to be rather slow in picking up speed in a dive. Based on these trials, the British government briefly toyed with the idea of ordering the Hawk for the RAF. For whatever reason, these plans were never carried out. However, the fall of France in June 1940 caused quite a few Hawks to fall into British hands. Those Hawk 75As which had not yet been delivered to France before the surrender (most of them A-4s), plus those whose pilots had flown them to England to escape the German occupation were taken over by the RAF and given the name Mohawk. The total number of Mohawks impressed by the RAF was 229 planes. Most of them were former French machines, but a few former Persian Hawks and even some Indian-built machines were included in the Mohawk total as well. There were four RAF sub-variants: Mohawk I, II, III, and IV. Former French Hawk 75A-1s were named Mohawk I by the RAF, with Hawk 75A-2s being named Mohawk II. There was a total of 29 of these planes. Unfortunately, it is difficult to track which planes were A-1s and which were A-2s, since Mohawk I and Mohawk II aircraft were intermixed with each other and with Mohawk IVs in the RAF serial number blocks AX880/898, BK876/879, and BL220/223. More than 20 former French Hawk 75A-3s were taken over by Britain as Mohawk IIIs. RAF serials for these Mohawk IIIs were BK569/588, but some A-3s were mixed in with Mohawk IVs in serial block AR630/694. The name Mohawk IV was assigned to the remainder of the French Hawk 75A-4 order which was taken over by the RAF. The exact number of Mohawk IVs diverted to Britain cannot be determined from the RAF serial numbers alone, since some blocks applied to both IIIs and IVs without distinction. The total number of Mohawks appearing as IVs total 190, only six less than the total of Hawk 75A-4s built. However, some 75As other than A-4s became Mohawk IVs, including the ten A-9s originally intended for Persia and at least six of the former Chinese A-5s assembled in India. Mohawks taken on strength by the Royal Air Force were refitted with British equipment, including 0.303-calibre Browning machine guns. The French throttles were replaced by throttles which operated in the "British fashion", i.e., were pushed forward to increase the power. The RAF decided that its Mohawks were not suitable for the European theater, and sent 72 of them to the South African Air Force (where they were flown by the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Squadrons which operated in East Africa), while others were flown by the 5 and 155th RAF squadrons based in India. At one time, eight Mohawks provided the sole fighter defense of North-East India, and the fighter remained operational on the Burma front until finally replaced by more modern types in December 1943. 12 Mohawks were sent to Portugal. Hawk 75A-5 for China The Hawk 75A-5 was the Curtiss company designation for a Cyclone-powered model which was to be assembled in China by the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO). At least one complete airplane and some kits of unassembled parts were delivered to China. After assembling some aircraft in China, the CAMCO firm was reorganized as Hindustan Aircraft Ltd. in Bangalore, India. In April 1941 the Indian government placed a contract with Hindustan for the construction of 48 Cyclone 9-powered Hawk 75As, together with the necessary spares. Hindustan acquired a manufacturing license from Curtiss, and the first Indian-built machine flew on July 31, 1942. However, shortly after this flight, a change in policy resulted in the decision to abandon the construction of complete aircraft in India. After four more machines were constructed, the Hindustan program was terminated. These Indian-built machines were eventually absorbed into the RAF as Mohawk IVs. Hawk 75A-9 for Iran The government of Persia (now Iran) ordered ten Hawk 75A-9 versions powered by Wright R-1820-G205A engines. These reached Persia shortly before that country was occupied by British and Russian forces on August 25, 1941. The Hawk 75A-9s were discovered there still in their shipping crates. These aircraft were taken over by the British from Persia and were transferred to India as Mohawk IVs, where they were operated by the 5th Squadron of the RAF. Hawk 75A-6/75A-8 for Norway In the autumn of 1939, the Norwegian government ordered twelve Hawk 75A-6s with 1200 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S1C3G Twin Wasp radials and four-gun armament. This order was later supplemented with an order for twelve more, to bring the total to 24. Deliveries began in February 1940. By the time of the German invasion in April of 1940, 19 planes out of the 24 had arrived in Norway. However, none of these planes were ready for combat, and did not participate in the vain attempt to stop the German advance. 7 of the 75A-6s were assembled and were based at Kjeller Airfield close to the capital at Oslo. Not all of these planes had their guns installed, and the ones that did had guns that were not calibrated. Secondly the airplanes at Kjeller Airfield were equipped with wheels and the winter of 1940 was not quite over and the airfield was still covered with snow - enabling only ski equipped aircraft to take off. The other 12 airplanes that also had arrived in Norway were still sitting in the customs building down at the harbour. Recognizing that the planes in storage would likely soon fall into German hands, an employee decided singlehanded to crush all the instruments with a hammer and to cut all visible wires with a wire cutter. The last 5 aircraft from the first order of Hawks were underway by sea to Norway as the war broke out. They were redirected to England and were later given to France. The Norwegian Hawk 75A-6s were captured by the Germans and were delivered to Finland. These were later supplemented by 36 partially-completed Hawk 75As that had been seized by German forces from France at the time of the Armistice and assembled in Germany. These participated in the war on the Axis side when Finland entered the war against the Soviet Union on June 25, 1941. These gave a good account of themselves, and some Hawks remained in service in Finland until 1948. Norway had ordered an additional 36 Hawk 75A-8s with 1200 hp Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone engines just before the German occupation. The German occupation caused the A-8s to be impounded by the US government before delivery. A Norwegian financed training base known as "Little Norway" had been established at Toronto in Canada, and the airplanes were sent here. Here, they were used as advanced trainers for the coming Norwegian fighter pilots after their initial training on Cornells and Harvards. The advanced training on the A-8s was stopped in early 1943 and the surviving 30 aircraft were sold in May of 1943. 18 went back to Curtiss and 12 went to the US government. They were redesignated P-36G and were assigned USAAF serials 42-36305/36322 and 42-108995/109006. Hawk 75A-7 for Netherlands Twenty Hawk 75A-7s with Cyclone engines were ordered by the Netherlands, but the German occupation of Holland caused all of the A-7s built to be diverted to the Netherlands East Indies starting in May 1940. They served with the 1st Squadron of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Corps, where they were caught up in the Japanese advance from December 8, 1941. They were outnumbered and outperformed by the nimble Japanese Zero fighter. By February 1, 1942, they had all been destroyed by the enemy. Simplified Hawk Early in 1937, Curtiss began the development of a simplified version of the Y1P-36 intended specifically for export. Curtiss was aware that some potential customers whose air arms operated under relatively primitive conditions would look askance at a sophisticated feature such as a retractable undercarriage which promised to afford difficult maintenance problems. The "simplified Hawk" project was given the company designation of Model 75H. The construction of the Model 75H was similar to the Y1P-36, but a lower-powered engine was provided and a fixed, single-strut undercarriage with streamlined fairings was fitted. These modifications were first applied to a demonstrator aircraft which was re-engined with a Wright Cyclone GR-1820-GE rated at 875 hp for takeoff. This airplane was given the civil registration of NR1276, and publicized in Curtiss sales brochures as "Hawk 75". Emphasis was placed on ease of maintenance, rough field performance, and the amenability of the aircraft to accommodate different brands of engines and different types of armament in order to suit the customer's individual requirements. A second and more definitive demonstrator aircraft was built which differed from its predecessor in some respects, including the adoption of the more deeply-scalloped decking immediately aft of the cockpit and revised windshield arch and canopy framing. Armament was supplemented by an additional pair of 0.30-cal machine guns in the wings, firing outside the propeller arc. Provision was made for the attachment of underwing bomb racks capable of carrying ten 30-lb or six 50-lb bombs, plus a centerline rack for a single 500-lb bomb. This aircraft was given the civil registration of N1277. The first 75H carried the US civil registration of NR-1276. It was sold to China. The Chinese government presented this airplane to General Claire L. Chennault for his own personal use. The second one was registered as NR-1277 and was sold to Argentina. Hawk 75M for China The first overseas customer for the Hawk 75 was the Chinese Nationalist government, which ordered a total of 112 Hawk 75 non-retractable undercarriage models with R-1820 Cyclone engines and four 0.30-in guns (two in the fuselage and two in the wings). These planes were to be built by Curtiss and delivered as major components to the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company at Loi-Wing, where they would be assembled and delivered to Chinese units. These airplanes were retroactively assigned the designation Hawk 75M by the Curtiss company. Aside from the additional wing guns and some minor revisions to the undercarriage fairings, these planes were identical to the second "simplified Hawk" demonstrator. The Hawk 75M was powered by an export-approved 875 hp Wright GR-1820-G3 Cyclone radial. Wingspan was 37 feet 0 inches, length was 28 feet 7 inches, and wing area was 236 square feet. Empty weight was 3975 lbs, and gross weight was 5305 lbs. Maximum speed was 280 mph at 10,000 feet, service ceiling was 31,800 feet, and range was 1210 miles with fuel overload. Armament was four 0.30-in machine guns--two in the nose and two in the wings. It is uncertain just how many Hawk 75Ms actually ended up in Chinese service. Only 30 Hawk 75Ms are accounted for in Curtiss records, with deliveries beginning in May of 1938. Tooling and kits for an unspecified number were delivered to the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company Wing for assembly in China, and an unspecified number were built there. Three full squadrons of Model 75Ms are known to have been operational. These fighters achieved few successes against the Japanese forces, largely owing to poor serviceability and the inadequate training of both pilots and ground crews. Hawk 75N for Thailand The government of Siam (Thailand) also exhibited interest in the Hawk 75, and ordered somewhere between 12 and 25 examples (the exact number is uncertain, and depends on which source you pick). These were given the designation Hawk 75N by Curtiss, and were generally similar to the Chinese Hawk 75Ms except for some minor revisions to the undercarriage mainwheel fairings and some differences in the armament. Sources also differ in the armament fitted--one claims that the armament was two nose guns (one 0.30-in and one 0.50-in nose guns and four 0.30-in guns in the wings, another claims that that there were two 23-mm Danish Madsen cannon housed in detachable underwing fairings. Twelve Hawk 75Ns were delivered to Siam (Thailand) starting in November, 1938. They These Hawk 75N fighters were involved in the Thai invasion of Indo- China in January 1941, the first recorded combat taking place on January 11 when four 75Ns escorted nine Martin 139-Ws in an attack on the French airfield at Nakorn Wat. The formation was intercepted by four French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s. In the resulting air battle, the Thai Hawks claimed two Morane fighters shot down (although the claim was later refuted by the French). On December 7, 1941, the Thai Hawks were in action once again, this time against invading Japanese forces. In the brief battle, one third of the serviceable Hawks were destroyed. Those not destroyed were taken over by the Japanese. One example is now in the Royal Thai Air Museum in Bangkok. Hawk 75O for Argentina After purchasing the NR1277 75H demonstrator (c/n 12328) from Curtiss, the Argentine government ordered twenty-nine production examples of the non-retractable undercarriage Hawk 75 with 875 hp Cyclone engines. Designated Hawk 75O by the Curtiss company, these planes had a similar undercarriage to the Thai Hawk 75N and featured a redesigned engine exhaust system with a semi-circle of electrically-operated gills at the rear of the cowling. Armament consisted of four 7.62-mm Madsen machine guns. The first Hawk 75O was completed by Curtiss in late November, 1938. The planes were serialed C-601 through C-630. Maximum speed was 239 mph at sea level and 280 mph at 10,700 feet. Initial climb rate was 2340 ft/min. An altitude of 23,000 feet could be attained in 12.52 minutes. Service ceiling was 31,800 feet. Empty and loaded weights were 3975 lbs and 5172 lbs. At the same time, Argentina acquired a license to manufacture the Hawk 75O at the Fabrica Militar de Aviones. The first FMA-built Hawk was delivered on September 16, 1940. A total of 20 was built, with serials being C-631 to C-650. Some of these Hawks remained in service for over a decade, the last ones operating from El Plumerillo in western Argentina until 1953, when they were transferred to training units until being withdrawn during 1954. Model 75Q for China Model 75Q was the designation assigned to two additional non-retractable undercarriage demonstrators with R-1820 engines. One was converted to retractable undercarriage configuration and was presented to Madame Chiang Kai-Shek. She gave the plane to General Claire Chennault who was then reorganizing the Chinese Air Force. The other was flown as a demonstrator in China by American pilots but crashed after takeoff on May 5, 1939. Sources: Curtiss Aircraft, 1907-1947, Peter M Bowers, Naval Institute Press, 1979 The Curtiss Hawk 75, Aircraft in Profile No. 80, Profile Publications, Ltd. War Planes of the Second World War, Fighters, Volume Four, William Green, Doubleday, 1961. Air Enthusiast, Volume 1, William Green et al, Doubleday, 1971. Hawk Dynasty: The Curtiss Hawk Monoplanes, Ken Wixey, Air Enthusiast, Vol 71, 1997. P-36 Hawk Photoshop template for IL2 Games 7MB
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North American P-51 Mustang P-51 Mustang je vjerojatno najpoznatiji američki lovac drugog svjetskog rata, a možda čak i najbolji klipni lovac (po općim karakteristikama) na bilo kojoj strani u tom ratu. Ukupno je proizvedeno 15.575 Mustanga u Sjedinjenim Državama uz još 100 primjeraka proizvedenih u Australiji, po čemu je P-51 drugi najbrojniji USAAF-ov lovac, nakon P-47 Thunderbolta. Mustang je zaslužan za 4.950 od 10.720 zračnih pobjeda USAAF-a u Europi, uz 4.131 od 8.160 neprijateljskih zrakoplova uništenih na zemlji, što predstavlja 48.9 % od svih uništenih neprijateljskih zrakoplova u Europi. P-51 su oborili preko 230 letećih bombi V-1, a čak su uspjeli oboriti i nekoliko njemačkih mlaznih lovaca. Tvrtka North American Aviation Inc. (NAA) osnovana je 6. prosinca 1928. kao holding-kompanija koja je držala dionice nekoliko prominentnih tvrtki povezanih sa zrakoplovstvom – Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, Curtiss-Robertson Airplane Manufacturing Company, Curtiss-Caproni Corporation, Wright Aeronautical, Travel Air, North Aircraft Corporation i Keystone Aircraft Corporation. Glavni osnivač ovog holdinga bio je Clement M. Keyes, koji je vodio poznate dnevne novine Wall Street Journal. Keyes je 1929. godine stekao većinski paket dionica u tvrtkama Curtiss i Wright i spojio dva stara rivala u novu korporaciju Curtiss-Wright Corporation. Međutim, sve nabrojene tvrtke uspjele su održati svoje zasebne identitete i nastavile su poslovati više-manje neovisno. U međuvremenu je Keyes nastavljao širiti svoje poslovno carstvo. Tijekom godina ekonomske depresije, relativno jeftino uspio je steći Sperry Gyroscope Company, Pitcairn Aviation Inc. (bivši Eastern Air Transport), Berliner-Joyce Aircraft Corporation, Ford Instrument, Transcontinental and Western Air (današnji TWA), Intercontinent Aviation Inc. te značajan dio tvrtke Douglas Aircraft Corporation. Godine 1933. General Motors kupuje veliki dio dionica North American Aviation Inc. Osim NAA, GM je kupio i General Aviation Corporation (koja je ranije preuzela Fokker Aircraft Corp.) i Dayton-Wright Corporation. Za predsjednika North American Aviation Inc. postavljen je Ernest R. Breech, a tvrtke u vlasništvu NAA grupirane su u dva velika konglomerata: General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation (u koji su ušli Berliner-Joyce, General Aviation i Curtiss-Caproni) i Sperry Corporation (u koji su ušli Sperry Gyroscope, Ford Instrument, Curtiss-Wright i Intercontinent Aviation). GM je nakon par mjeseci prodao Sperry. Pored toga, prema saveznom Zakonu o zračnoj pošti iz 1934. tvrtke proizvođači zrakoplova više nisu smjele držati većinske udjele u tvrtkama zračnim prijevoznicima, pa je North American morao prodati svoje udjele u Easternu i TWA. U to je vrijeme mjesto Ernesta Breecha ponuđeno Jamesu H. «Dutch» Kindelbergeru, koji je raspolagao bogatim iskustvom na području zrakoplovstva i kao pilot i kao diplomirani inženjer aeronautike. Kindelberger je prihvatio posao uz uvjet da u tvrtku kao potpredsjednik dođe njegov kolega i prijatelj John Leland «Lee» Atwood. Pod Kindelbergerovim vodstvom North American Aviation je preustrojen iz holdinga u «pravi» proizvodni koncern. Glavni proizvođač postala je tvrtka General Aviation sa pogonima u Dundalku, Maryland a 1936. je otvorena nova tvornica u Inglewoodu u Kaliforniji, smještena u blizini uzletišta Mines Field (današnja međunarodna zračna luka Los Angeles). Dutch Kindelberger nije bio samo izvrstan biznismen, već i vrlo sposoban inženjer. Već 1938. je u više navrata otputovao u Europu tražeći narudžbe za svoju kompaniju, pa se imao prilike «iz prve ruke» pogledati zrakoplove koji će se boriti u predstojećem ratu, za kojeg su svi u Europi bili uvjereni da je neizbježan. Po izbijanju neprijateljstava, Kindelberger je marljivo prikupljao sve dostupne informacije o naravi zračnih borbi, na osnovu kojih je razradio neke svoje zamisli. Premda NAA nije imala prijašnjeg iskustva sa lovačkim zrakoplovima, Kindelberger i Lee Atwood izradili su nacrt projekta za novog lovca. Na projektu su radili i Raymond H. Rice, Edgar Schmued, Larry Waite i E. Horkey. Oko Schmueda su se raspredale svakojake legende, primjerice da je svojevremeno radio za Willyja Messerschmitta i da je Mustang nastao pod snažnim utjecajem Bf 109. Nakon izbijanja rata u Europi 1939. godine, britanska komisija za nabavu na čelu sa sir Henryjem Selfom stigla je u New York kako bi razmotrila mogućnost nabave američkih borbenih zrakoplova za RAF. Britanci su naručili veću količinu lovaca Bell P-39 Airacobra i Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, mada ti zrakoplovi nisu u potpunosti zadovoljavali standarde najnovijih britanskih i njemačkih lovaca. Tijekom boravka u SAD, Self je između ostalog kontaktirao i North American Aviation, koja je u to vrijeme za RAF proizvodila školske zrakoplove NA-16 pod imenom Harvard. U travnju 1940. britanska komisija je upitala Kindelbergera može li North American Aviation za potrebe RAF-a licencno proizvoditi lovce Curtiss Hawk 87 (P-40D). Kindelberger je odgovorio da NAA može bez problema odraditi taj posao, ali je dodao da njegova tvrtka može projektirati lovački zrakoplov koji će biti bolji od P-40, i to u istom vremenu koje će biti potrebno za pokretanje proizvodnje P-40. Britanci su prihvatili tu ponudu pa je 10. travnja 1940. potpisan ugovor o narudžbi, pod uvjetom da prvi prototip novog lovca bude dovršen u roku od 120 dana. Projekt je dobio tvorničku oznaku Model NA-73. U to je vrijeme zrakoplovstvo američke kopnene vojske (US Army Air Corps – USAAC) smjelo blokirati bilo koju isporuku ratnog materijala stranoj zemlji ako ta isporuka iz bilo kojeg razloga nije u interesu američke vojske. USAAC je 4. svibnja 1940. nevoljko odobrio isporuku NA-73 Britancima, ali je dodan jedan uvjet – dva primjerka iz prve serije NA-73 za Veliku Britaniju biti će besplatno predani USAAC-u za potrebe ispitivanja. Ugovor za izradu prototipa NA-73X potpisan je 23. svibnja 1940. godine. Pošto je NAA još od ljeta 1939. tiho radio na projektu lovačkog zrakoplova, većina detaljne projektne dokumentacije već je bila spremna. Dana 29. svibnja sastavljena je provizorna narudžba za 320 primjeraka koji će biti isporučeni po uspješnom okončanju ispitivanja prototipa. NAA se obvezao započeti sa isporukama u siječnju 1941. Zrakoplov je u RAF-ovoj službi dobio naziv Mustang I. Još jedna (netočna) legenda kaže da je Mustang u najvećoj mjeri temelji na Curtissovom projektu XP-46 i da su North Americanovi inženjeri u stvari «ukrali» Curtissov projekt. Istina je da su Britanci insistirali da North American, koji nije imao nikakvog prijašnjeg iskustva sa lovcima, od Curtissa nabavi sve dostupne podatke o P-40 i XP-46. North American je platio Curtissu 56.000 $ za tehničku dokumentaciju i aerodinamičke podatke o XP-46, ali činjenica jest da postoji vrlo mala sličnost između XP-46 i NA-73X. Curtissov lovac imao je sličnu konfiguraciju hladnjaka motora i ulja, ali nije imao krila laminarnog profila. U stvari, rad na XP-46 tekao je znatno sporije od NA-73X, i prvi prototip Curtissovog zrakoplova bio je spreman za let tek u veljači 1941. Osim toga, preliminarni projekt za NA-73 bio je dovršen prije nego što je North American dobio Curtissovu tehničku dokumentaciju. Točnije bi bilo reći da su podaci o XP-46 najviše pomogli North Americanovim inženjerima u onome što NE TREBAJU činiti. Završni proizvod NA-73X nije rađen na temelji niti jednog tadašnjeg lovačkog zrakoplova. NA-73 je imao potpuno metalnu konstrukciju sa ojačanom oplatom. Krilo je imalo glavnu ramenjaču od višeslojnog prešanog čeličnog lima i skoro jednako snažnu stražnju ramenjaču koja je nosila ailerone i zakrilca. Velika pažnja bila je posvećena jednostavnoj i jeftinoj proizvodnji. Dvije ramenjače krila morale su biti dovoljno međusobno udaljene kako bi se u krilima dobio prostor za ugradnju strojnica kal. .50 in (12,7 mm), pa su tako samo usta cijevi virila ispred glavne ramenjače. Svi raniji North Americanovi zrakoplovi imali su lijevo i desno krilo pričvršćeno na horizontalni centroplan, dok su na Mustangu lijevo i desno krilo bili spojeni na središnjoj uzdužnoj liniji trupa, i dihedral krila započinjao je na toj liniji. Mustang je dobio krilo posebnog NACA laminarnog aeroprofila. Kod laminarnog profila, maksimalna debljina krila nalazi se dosta iza uobičajenog mjesta, na 50% duljine korijena krila umjesto na uobičajenih 20% duljine korijena krila. Laminarno krilo ima vrlo mali faktor zaobljenosti, i donja površina krila predstavlja gotovo zrcalnu sliku gornje površine. Zbog toga laminarno krilo ima vrlo mali koeficijent otpora zraka u odnosu na starije konvencionalne aero-profile, osobito pri većim brzinama leta. Međutim, takvo krilo proizvodi manji uzgon pri manjim brzinama leta, pa su na NA-73X postavljena velika zakrilca kako bi se brzina slijetanja održala na prihvatljivoj razini (da ne bude previsoka). Struktura krila projektirana je da bude što je moguće više jednostavna i lagana izradu. Napadni i izlazni rub krila projektirani su kao što je moguće duže ravne linije, a oplata je jednostavna i lagana za proizvodnju. Krilo je izvedeno u lijevoj i desnoj polovici koje su spojene na središnjoj liniji. Svako krilo ima dvije ravne ramenjače (prednja i stražnja), između kojih su postavljene strojnice. Glavne noge stajnog trapa razmaknute su gotovo 12 ft (3,65 m), zbog čega je slijetanje i rulanje puno jednostavnije nego na, primjerice Spitfireu ili Bf 109. Glavne noge uvlače se prema unutra a kotači leže u kućištima u napadnom rubu krila, zbog čega napadni rub krila ima izražen zgib na mjestu gdje se krilo spaja sa trupom. Kućišta kotača imaju velike poklopce sa zglobovima uz središnju uzdužnu liniju trupa. Uvlačivi repni kotač je upravljiv i povezan sa kormilom smjera. Britanci su također zatražili tekuće hlađen redni motor, a jedini dostupan američki motor bio je dvanaestcilindrični V-motor Allison V-1710. Allisonov motor je bio malo veći i nešto lakši od britanskog Rolls Royce Merlina, i razvijao je sličnu snagu na manjoj visini. Međutim, povećanjem visine leta snaga Allisonovog motora rapidno je opadala u odnosu na Merlin. U North Americanu su nakratko razmatrali mogućnost ugradnje turbokompresora kako bi se poboljšale visinske performanse, ali su od toga odustali zbog vrlo kratkog roka za dovršenje prototipa. Rasplinjač motora Allison V-1710 je imao gornji ulazni ventil za zrak, pa je uvodnik zraka na NA-73X smješten na gornjem dijelu kućišta motora. Rashladnu tekućinu motora (etilen-glikol) i ulje hladio je zajednički izmjenjivač topline postavljen u aerodinamički oblikovanom tunelu ispod stražnjeg dijela trupa. Ovaj tunel čak je stvarao dodatni potisak, pošto se zrak koji je ulazio u tunel prolaskom kroz izmjenjivač topline zagrijavao i zatim izlazio iz tunela većom brzinom od ulazne. Nedostatak ovakvog načina hlađenja motora bila je dodatna težina te osjetljivost na borbena oštećenja dugačkih cjevovoda koji su spajali motor i izmjenjivač topline. Gorivo je bilo smješteno u dva samozaptivajuća spremnika postavljena u krilima između ramenjača, po jedan u unutrašnjem dijelu svakog krila. Ukupan kapacitet goriva iznosio je 180 US gal (682 l), što je bilo gotovo dvostruko više nego kod Spitfirea. Na britansko insistiranje, naoružanje je bilo teže od tadašnjih američkih standarda. Dvije strojnice Browning kal. .50 in (12,7 mm) bile su postavljene u donjem dijelu nosa, sa svake strane reduktora motora, i sinkronizirane sa propelerom. Desna strojnica bila je uvučena u odnosu na lijevu tako da kutije sa streljivom budu jedna iza druge. Dvije .50 in strojnice bile su postavljene uspravno u krilima, s vanjske strane glavne noge stajnog trapa. Dalje u vanjskom dijelu krila bile su postavljene četiri strojnice Browning kal. .30 in (7,62 mm) pri čemu je vanjska strojnica bila postavljena niže, tako da cijev viri ispod napadnog ruba krila. Streljivo za strojnice u krilima bilo je smješteno u tri dugačke paralelne kutije položene po dužini krila, sa vanjske strane strojnica. Završno sklapanje prototipa i ugradnja motora započelo je 9. rujna 1940. godine, točno 102 dana nakon potpisivanja prve britanske narudžbe. Prototip NA-73X izišao je iz tvorničke hale u Inglewoodu nakon samo 102 dana, čime je ispunjen zadani rok od 120 dana, mada je NA-73X izišao iz tvornice bez motora kojeg je Allison zakasnio predati. Pošto novi kočioni diskovi još nisu stigli, NA-73X je rulao na kotačima posuđenim sa školskog zrakoplova North American AT-6. Prototip nije bio obojen, osim šest oznaka na napadnom rubu krila na mjestima gdje će se nalaziti cijevi strojnica. Naknado je na trupu ispisana civilni registarski broj NX 19998 a gornji dio trupa ispred kokpita obojen je anti-refleksnom crnom bojom. Razlog za kašnjenje u isporuci motora bila je činjenica da je motor bio tzv. «vladina oprema» koja se isporučivala obzirom na dostupnost. Pošto je NA-73X bio privatan projekt, nije imao prioritet u odnosu na P-40 koji su se u to vrijeme proizvodili a koristili su isti motor. Motor koji je na kraju ugrađen na NA-73X bio je Allison V-1710-F3R bez turbokompresora, konstrukcijske snage 1.100 ks. Pokusni pilot Vance Breese prvi je put uzletio na NA-73X dana 26. listopada 1940. godine. Masa praznog zrakoplova iznosila je 6.728 lb (3.052 kg) a normalno napunjenog zrakoplova 7.965 lb (3.613 kg). Zrakoplov je bio punih 25 mph (40 km/h) brži od P-40 kojeg je pokretao identičan motor. Nakon ispitivanja izvršene su neke promjene u geometriji podtrupnog tunela i zakrilaca. Kada je NA-73 odobren za serijsku proizvodnju, uvodnik zraka za podtrupni tunel je spušten tako da gornji rub uvodnika bio niži od donje površine krila, čime je eliminirano usisavanje turbulentnog graničnog sloja zraka u izmjenjivač topline. Dana 20. studenog 1940., tijekom petog pokusnog leta NA-73X, pilot Paul Balfour zaboravio je preusmjeriti napajanje motora gorivom iz drugog spremnika, motor je ostao bez goriva i pilot je morao prisilno sletjeti. Zrakoplov je završio u obližnjem polju, preokrenut na leđa. Ova nezgoda prizemljila je prototip na nekoliko mjeseci. Međutim, pošto nesreću nije uzrokovao zrakoplov nego pilotova greška, program nije kasnio. NA-73X je nastavio sa letovima 11. siječnja 1941. i predviđeni razvojni program je nastavljen sve do 15. srpnja 1941. godine. U rujnu 1940. RAF je naručio još 300 primjeraka Mustanga I koji su se samo u detaljima razlikovali od prototipa. Mustang I je dobio tvorničku oznaku model NA-83, a od NA-73 se razlikovao samo po širokim plosnatim ispušnim cijevima motora. XP-51 Mustang US Army je 1940. odobrila isporuku Mustanga Velikoj Britaniji uz uvjet da dva primjerka NA-73 namijenjenih RAF-u budu besplatno predana US Army za potrebe ispitivanja. Posebnim ugovorom zaključenim 20. rujna 1940. dogovoreno je da će US Army dobiti četvrti i deseti primjerak NA-73 koji će dobiti službenu oznaku XP-51. Zrakoplovi su uredno isporučeni u svibnju 1941. i određeni su za ispitivanja bazi Wright Field, Ohio. Dobili su serijske brojeve 41-038 i 41-039. U početku nisu bili obojani, osim nacionalnih oznaka i crnog anti-refleksnog panela na trupu ispred kokpita. Sa svake strane nosa ispisani su brojevi 1038 odn. 1039. i simbol WRIGHT na stražnjem dijelu trupa. Kasnije su oba zrakoplova obojena u smeđe-maslinastu boju (OD – olive drab). Ispitivanja dva XP-51 u Wright Fieldu isprva su tekla prilično sporo. Izgledalo je kao da američka vojska nije željela gubiti vrijeme sa ovim zrakoplovima, kao da im predstavljaju smetnju koje su se željeli riješiti. Pojedinci smatraju da je ovakvo oklijevanje imalo mračne, skrivene motive, mada se uzrok ovom sporom ispitivanju XP-51 najvjerojatnije treba tražiti u inerciji birokratskog aparata američke vojske. U to je vrijeme USAAC bio angažiran na paralelnim ispitnim projektima Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Bell P-39 Airacobra i Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, za koje se pretpostavljalo da će u potpunosti zadovoljiti sve očekivane potrebe za lovačkim zrakoplovima. Osim toga, Mustang je bio «inozemni» projekt koji nije bio rađen po američkim specifikacijama, pa nije imao tako visok prioritet kao spomenuti lovci. Bez obzira na sve smetnje, ispitivanje XP-51 naposljetku je ipak započelo, i ispitni piloti su se vrlo povoljno izražavali o performansama ispitnih zrakoplova. Međutim, US Army neobjašnjivo nije naručila serijsku proizvodnju. Nekoliko godina kasnije, posebni senatski odbor za reviziju nacionalnog obrambenog programa (poznatiji kao Trumanov odbor po svom predsjedniku, senatoru Harryju S. Trumanu iz Missourija) dobio je zadatak ispitati sustav po kojem se zaključuju ugovori o proizvodnji vojnog materijala u ratnim uvjetima. Između ostalog, odbor je detaljno ispitao razlog zbog kojeg je US Army tako dugo izbjegavala naručiti ijedan primjerak lovca Mustang koji je već bio potvrdio izrazito superiorne performanse. Neki su svjedoci navodili da je od predsjednika North Americana Dutcha Kindelbergera zatražen mito za potpisivanje ugovora o serijskoj proizvodnji Mustanga, ali da je on vrlo jasno odbio takve zahtjeve. Pravi razlog zakašnjele narudžbe Mustanga od strane US Army nije toliko zlokoban. Mustang je najvjerojatnije bio žrtva sindroma NIO (Nije Izmišljen Ovdje), jer je američka vojska sa podozrenjem gledala na svaki novi zrakoplov koji nije bio projektiran u skladu sa njezinim službenim specifikacijama.A-36 Invader Tek nakon Pearl Harbora US Army je konačno pristala naručiti Mustanga. Ključna osoba u slamanju birokratskog zastoja bio je general Henry H. Arnold, načelnik stožera USAAF (US Army Air Forces – zrakoplovstvo kopnene vojske). 16. travnja 1942. US Army je napokon naručila 500 primjeraka NA-97. Model NA-97 je bio verzija Mustanga prilagođena za napad na ciljeve na zemlji, pa je dobio službenu oznaku A-36A. A-36 je početku je nazvan Apache, ime koje je US Army u početku odredila za P-51, da bi nakon savezničkog iskrcavanja na Siciliji u službenim krugovima predloženo novo ime Invader. Međutim, velika većina A-36 povezuju sa imenom Mustang. Osnovna razlika između A-36 i ranijih verzija Mustanga su hidraulički pokretane perforirane zračne kočnice postavljene na sredini duljine korijena na gornjim i donjim površinama na vanjskom dijelu krila, s vanjske strane strojnica. U zatvorenom položaju, kočnice su uvučene krila, u položaj pod kutem od 90° se podižu prilikom poniranja kako bi se brzina poniranja zadržala ispod 250 mph (400 km/h). Ispod svakog krila postavljen je jedan nosač za bombu od 500 lb (225 kg), spremnik goriva od 75 US gal (285 l) ili uređaj za stvaranje dimne zavjese. Ugrađeno naoružanje sastojalo se od šest strojnica kal. 0.50 in (dvije u nosu i četiri u krilima; strojnice u nosu često su se skidale na terenu). Strojnice u krilima bile su postavljene bliže nozi stajnog trapa kako bi se smanjilo opterećenje krila pri rulanju i polijetanju. Motor je bio Allison V-1710-87 (F21R) snage 1.325 ks na 3.000 ft (914 m). Normalna i maksimalna napunjena težina zrakoplova porasli su na 8.730 lb (3.960 kg) odn. 10.700 lb (4.854 kg), a najveća brzina pala je na 356 mph (573 km/h) na 5.000 ft (1.500 m) bez podvjesnog tereta odn. 310 mph (500 km/h) sa dvije 500 lb bombe. Sa bombama, dolet je iznosio 550 milja (885 km) a plafon leta 25.100 ft (7.650 m). Prvi A-36A poletio je 21. rujna 1942. a posljednji je isporučen do ožujka '43. godine. Jurišnicima A-36A bile su opremljene 27th i 86th Fighter Bomber Group (FBG). Zrakoplovi su bili obojeni smeđe-maslinasto i svijetlo sivo, za žutim prugama na krilima i žutim rubom oko nacionalnih oznaka. Obje grupe stigle su u sjevernu Afriku u travnju 1943., upravo pred kraj borbi u Tunisu. Prve borbene akcije bili su napadi na otok Pantelleriju, a prvi borbeni let izveden je 6. lipnja 1943. A-36A su sudjelovali u borbama za Monte Cassino i u potapanju talijanskog broda Conte di Savoia. Jedini preostali korisnik A-36A bila je 311th Fighter Bomber Group u Indiji. A-36 se intenzivno koristio u borbama na bojištu Kina-Burma-Indija (CBI). Iako je imao relativno visoke gubitke u operativnoj uporabi, pogotovo u napadima u niskom letu, A-36A je bio prilično dobar obrušavajući bombarder, i stabilan i učinkovit u napadima iz brišućeg leta. Motor je bio vrlo tih, pa je A-36 vrlo često uspijevao prići točno iznad cilja prije nego što neprijatelj shvati da je napadnut. U obrušavanje se obično ulazilo na visini od 10.000 ft (3.000 m) do 12.000 ft (3.660 m) pri čemu su zračne kočnice održavale brzinu poniranja oko 300 mph (480 km/h). Bombe su se odbacivale na visini od oko 3.000 ft (900 m) a izvlačenje iz poniranja izvodilo se na oko 1.500 ft (450 m). Invader je bio prilično robustan i jednostavan za održavanje na terenu. Mogao pouzdano letjeti 20 ft (5-6 m) iznad tla i jednostavno manevrirati između stabala, zgrada i drugih prepreka. A-36 je mogao podnijeti znatna borbena oštećenja i vratiti se sigurno u bazu. Usprkos tome, u akciji je izgubljeno ukupno 177 A-36A. A-36 u pravilu nisu sudjelovali su zračnim borbama, pošto je zrakoplov bio prilagođen za operacije na malim visinama i efikasnost je drastično opadala na iznad 10.000 ft (3.000 m). Općenito se smatralo da se A-36 ne može mjeriti sa Messerschmittom Bf 109 na većim visinama, pa je najbolje da piloti A-36 izbjegavaju takve susrete. Ukoliko je zračna borba neizbježna, najbolje je bilo forsirati sukob na visinama ispod 8.000 ft (2.500 m) kako bi se maksimalno iskoristile performanse A-36 na malim visinama. Iako A-36 nije bio lovac, njegovi piloti uspjeli su uništiti 101 neprijateljski zrakoplov u zračnim borbama. Jedan pilot 27th FBG, por. Michael T. Russo, postao je jedini as na Mustangu sa Allisonovim motorom, a još nekoliko njegovih kolega postiglo je više od jedne zračne pobjede. Prema nekim pričama, zračne kočnice na A-36A su navodno su bile gotovo beskorisne, pa su u ih radnici već tvornici zavarili tako da se ne mogu otvoriti. Takve priče su potpuno netočne. Naprotiv, zračne kočnice pokazale su se izuzetno učinkovitima u borbi, i zrakoplov je sa otvorenim zračnim kočnicama bio izuzetno stabilan u poniranju pa je bombardiranje iz obrušavanja bilo vrlo precizno. Izgleda da su ove priče nastale još u Sjedinjenim Državama prije nego što su Invaderi poslani na bojište. Navodno su pojedini časnici kazali svojim pilotima da su zračne kočnice beskorisne i da je pametnije da ih se zavari tako da se ne mogu otvoriti u letu. To se pokazalo netočnim, i zračne kočnice vrlo su uspješno djelovale tijekom borbi na Siciliji i kasnije u Italiji. Jedan A-36A je u ožujku 1943. bio predan RAF-u za potrebe ispitivanja. P-51 Mustang Kada je donesen Zakon o zajmu i najmu, Velika Britanija je u skladu sa odredbama tog zakona naručila veći broj primjeraka NA-91 kao Mustang I. Međutim, nisu svi NA-91 stigli u Veliku Britaniju. Naime, isporuke su započele nakon Pearl Harbora pa je američka vojska preuzela dobar dio naručenih zrakoplova. Primjerci za USAAC bili su naoružani sa četiri strojnice kal. .50 in umjesto 20 mm topova za RAF, te su nosili dvije kamere F-24 u trupu. Većina primjeraka zadržala je RAF-ova kamuflaža i serijske brojevi. Ovi zrakoplovi bili su označeni kao taktički izvidnici pa su dobili oznaku F-6A, koja je vrlo brzo bila promijenjena u P-51. P-51 su poslani u Peterson Field, Colorado, gdje su predani novoutemeljenoj školi za zrakoplovno izviđanje. U ožujku 1943. nekoliko F-6A/P-51 raspoređeno je u sastav 154th Observation Squadron (motrilačka eskadrila) u Oujdi u Maroku. To je bila prva američka postrojba opremljena Mustangom. Prva operativna zadaća bilo je fotografsko snimanje uzletišta Kairouan u Tunisu 10. travnja 1943., što je istovremeno bila prva američka borbena zadaća Mustanga. RAF-ov No. 225 Squadron često je posuđivao Mustange iz 154th OS, pošto su njihovi Spitfirei imali bitno kraći dolet. F-6A/P-51 je bio vrlo uspješan u ovim zadaćama, ali je imao jedan značajan nedostatak – izgledom je nalikovao njemačkom lovcu Messerschmidt Bf 109. 154th OS svoj prvi zrakoplov izgubila uslijed zabune, kada je savezničko protuzrakoplovno topništvo oborilo jedan Mustang, sa fatalnim posljedicama za pilota. Dva primjerka P-51 iskorištena su za projekt XP-78. P-51A Mustang Idući ugovor sklopljen je 24. kolovoza 1942. pri čemu je naručeno 1.200 primjeraka verzije NA-99, službene oznake P-51A. Za razliku od A-36A, ovi su zrakoplovi u startu bili predviđeni kao lovci, a ne bombarderi. Prvi P-51A poletio je 3. veljače 1943. a prvi primjerci isporučeni su početkom idućeg mjeseca. Na kraju je između ožujka i svibnja 1943. bilo isporučeno samo 310 primjeraka P-51A, pošto se u međuvremenu prešlo na proizvodnju modela P-51B sa motorom Merlin. P-51A je imao istu borbenu nosivost kao i A-36A, ali bez zračnih kočnica na krilima i bez strojnica u nosu, pa je naoružanje bilo ograničeno na četiri .50 in strojnice u krilima, unutrašnji par sa 350 kom. streljiva a vanjski sa 280 kom. streljiva. Potkrilni borbeni teret sastojao se od dvije 250 lb (113 kg), 350 lb (160 kg) ili 500 lb (227 kg) bombe. Maksimalna poletna masa porasla je na 10.600 lb (4.800 kg) a najveći dolet pri preletu povećan je na 2.350 milja (3.784 km). P-51A je imao motor Allison V-1710-81 (F20R) snage 1.200 ks pri polijetanju i 1.125 ks na 18.000 ft (5.500 m), sa značajno boljim performansama na većoj visini od motora V-1710-39 koji je bio ugrađen na P-51. Motor je imao novi kompresor koji je dodatno poboljšao performanse na manjoj visini. Pored toga, ugrađen je propeler većeg promjera. Maksimalna brzina porasla je na 409 mph (658 km/h) na 11.000 ft (3.350 m), što je bilo brže od bilo kojeg tadašnjeg lovca na srednjim visinama. Zbog tankog krila, strojnice su bile postavljene bočno, pa su redenici streljiva morali proći kroz prilično oštre kutove. To je dovodilo do čestih zaglavljivanja strojnica, pogotovo nakon oštrih manevara sa visokim g-opterećenjima. Od 310 napravljenih P-51A, na 35 primjeraka bile su ugrađene dvije kamere K-24, a strojnice su bile uklonjene. Ti primjerci dobili su oznaku F-6B. 50 primjeraka P-51A isporučeno je RAF-u, gdje su dobili oznaku Mustang II. Ovi zrakoplovi predstavljali su zamjenu za NA-91 koje je USAAC preuzeo iz RAF-ove narudžbe Mustanga IA, a koji su američkoj službi dobili oznaku F-6A (kasnije P-51). Isporuke su dovršene krajem 1942. Jedan Mustang II (ser. br. FR901) dobio je posebne duboke spremnike goriva ispod krila za ultra-velike dolete. Na ispitivanjima u Boscombe Downu, Mustang II je pokazao najbolju brzinu penjanja od 3.800 ft/min (1.158 m/min) na 6.000 ft (1.800 m), penjanje do 20.000 ft (6.000 m) za 6,9 minuta i do 34.000 ft (10.360 m) za 24 minute. Zrakoplovi Mustang I, Mustang IA i Mustang II imali su iznenađujuće dugu karijeru u RAF-u. Posljednji RAF-ov Mustang sa motorom Allison povučen je tek početkom 1945. godine. Prva USAAF-ova postrojba P-51A bila je 54th Fighter Group (FG), koja je ostala na Floridi na izobrazbi. Kasnije su P-51A poslani u Aziju u sastavu 23rd, 311th i 1st Air Commando Group. Gotovo svi P-51A služili su na CBI bojištu. Dana 25. studenog 1943. godine 530th Fighter Bomber Squadron iz sastava 311th Fighter Bomber Group izveo je prvu Mustangovu dalekometnu eskortnu zadaću, kada su P-51A opremljeni podvjesnim spremnicima goriva pratili bombardere B-24 Liberator u napadu na Rangoon. Cijeli let do cilja i natrag iznosio je gotovo 900 milja (1.450 km). Izvidnička verzija F-6B korištena je u Europi, uglavnom u sastavu 107th Tactical Reconaissance Squadron u Engleskoj. Jedan P-51A predan je američkoj ratnoj mornarici (US Navy – USN) za potrebe ispitivanja. Proizvodnja Mustanga sa motorom Allison završena je sa ukupno 1.580 proizvedenih primjeraka.Specifikacije za P-51A Motor: jedan 12-cilindrični tekuće hlađen V redni motor Allison V-1710-81 snage 1.200 ksPerformanse: maksimalna brzina 547 km/h na 1.500 m, 580 km/h na 4.570 m i 628 km/h na 6.100 m; dolet sa gorivom u unutrašnjim spremnicima 1.208 km pri 480 km/h na 3.000 m; dolet sa dva dodatna spremnika (570 l) 3.220 km pri 370 km/h; penjanje do 1.500 m za 2,2 min, do 3.000 m za 4,4 min, do 6.000 m za 9,1 min; plafon leta 9.555 mMasa: prazan 2.918 kg; normalno napunjen 3.900 kg; maksimalno napunjen 4.800 kgDimenzije: raspon krila 8,23 m; duljina 9,82 m; visina 2,64 m; površina krila 21,65 m²Naoružanje: osam strojnica kal. 12,7 mm (unutrašnji par 350 km. streljiva; vanjski par 280 kom. streljiva); potkrilni borbeni teret dvije 113 kg, 160 kg ili 227 kg bombe P-51B/C Mustang Ronald W. Harker, pokusni pilot tvrtke Rolls Royce, je 30. travnja 1942. nakratko iskušao jedan RAF-ov Mustang u bazi u Duxfordu. Kao i brojni drugi piloti, i Harker je bio oduševljen Mustangom, koji je bio 30 mph (50 km/h) nego Spitfire VB sa motorom slične snage, a uz skoro dvostruko veći dolet. Nakon leta, Harker je izjavio da je bi Mustang bio prirodan odabir za novi motor Merlin 60 koji je Rolls Royce upravo počeo proizvoditi. Merlin 60 je izvorno bio predviđen za presuriziranu visinsku verziju bombardera Wellington VI, ali je ubrzo prilagođen za Spitfire VIII. Inženjeri u Rolls Royceu bili su zainteresirani ovim prijedlogom, i odmah su se dali na posao. Zatražili su da im se posude tri Mustanga kako bi na njih ugradili motore Merlin. Rolls Royce je iskušavao različite varijante Merlina, primjerice Mk XX sa jednostupnjevanim kompresorom ili Mk 61 sa dvostupnjevanim kompresorom. Dvostupnjevani Mk 61 se pokazao kao bolje rješenje, zbog svojih superiornih performansi na većoj visini. Radilica motora Merlin 61 bila je preko reduktora spojena na dva kompresorska puhala postavljena su seriji. Zbog brzog stlačivanja zraka u kompresoru, temperatura zraka koji je prolazio kroz dva kompresorska stupnja povećavala se za 200°C. Kako bi se smanjila temperatura (i time posljedično povećao volumen odn. količina) zraka koji ulazi u motor, dodan je tzv. intercooler (međuhladnjak) što je iziskivalo ugradnju dodatnog hladnjaka. Nakon dugotrajnog razmatranja, odlučeno je postaviti dodatni hladnjak ispod nosa, u istom uvodniku kroz koji je dolazio zrak u rasplinjač (rasplinjač za Merlin imao je donji ulazni ventil, pa se uvodnik zraka za rasplinjač nalazio ispod nosa). Konverzija Mustanga za motor Merlin odobrena je 12. kolovoza 1942. godine. Za program su u početku izdvojena tri Mustanga I, a kasnije su dodana još dva. RAF-ova oznaka ovako preuređenih zrakoplova bila je Mustang X. Svi Mustanzi X međusobno su se razlikovali, ali svi su ispod motora imali mali hladnjak i četverokrake propelere kako bi se bolje iskoristila veća snaga motora, te motor Merlin 65, koji je u odnosu na Merlin 66 imao manji raspon gasa, ali je razvijao veću snagu na manjoj visini. U usporedbi sa motorom Allison V-1710, bio je za 205 ks jači na 20.000 ft (6.000 m) i za 490 ks jači na 25.000 ft (7.500 m). Prvi Mustang X poletio je 12. listopada 1942. Pilot je bio kap. Shepherd. U početku je bio ugrađen standardni propeler Rotol sa Spitfirea IX, a kasnije je postavljen novi, posebno konstruiran propeler. Drugi primjerak poletio je 13. studenog, 1942. a treći 13. prosinca 1942. Treći primjerak poslan je na službena ispitivanja u AFDU u Duxfordu. Četvrti i peti primjerak ispitivala je USAAF sa potpunim američkim oznakama. Svih pet Mustanga X zadržani su u službi do kraja rata, i koristili su se za ispitivanje različitih kasnijih verzija motora Merlin. Performanse Mustanga sa novim motorom bile su izvanredne. Na ispitivanjima je postignuta maksimalna brzina od 433 mph (697 km/h) na visini od 22.000 ft (6.700 m). Međutim, povećana bočna površina nosa poremetile je stabilnost zrakoplova po okomitoj osi. Uspjeh ispitivanja potaknuo je Rolls Royceove inženjere da službeno predlože proizvodnju 500 motora Merlin 65 za konverziju kompletne RAF-ove flote Mustanga na standard Mk X. Međutim, nije postojala tvornica u kojoj bi se mogle provesti te konverzije, pa taj prijedlog nikada nije realiziran. Jedan od neobičnijih prijedloga bila je ugradnja motora Griffon 63 u Mustang. Motor bi bio postavljen po sredini trupa (kao na P-36 Airacobra), sa produženom osovinom koja bi pokretala kontra-rotirajuće propelere. Kokpit bi se pomaknuo prema naprijed, ispred krila. Predviđalo se da bi ovakva pregradnja omogućila brzine preko 500 mph (800 km/h). Pripremljen je i model u prirodnoj veličini, ali koncepcija je odbačena prije pokretanja serijske proizvodnje. U međuvremenu, u svibnju 1942. Rolls Royce je obavijestio maj. Thomasa Hitchcocka, američkog vojnog atašea u Londonu, o svojoj namjeri da ugrade motor Merlin na Mustang. Slučajno je maj. Hitchcock i sam razmišljao o istoj pregradnji, pa je obavijest proslijedio na Wright Field i NAA. Zamisao je odmah privukla pažnju nadležnih. Igrom slučaja, u to vrijeme su se vodili pregovori sa tvrtkom Packard Motor Car Company iz Detroita o pokretanju licencne proizvodnje motora Merlin u Sjedinjenim Državama. Dana 25. srpnja 1942. North American je dobio odobrenje da na dva Mustanga ugradi motore Merlin 65 uvezene iz Engleske. Ovi zrakoplovi bili su dovoljno različiti da dobiju novu oznaku – XP-78. North American je odabrao dva P-51 iz grupe Mustanga IA koje je USAAF preuzeo iz pošiljke određene za RAF. Projekt je dobio tvorničku oznaku NA-101. Tijekom rada na zrakoplovima, službena oznaka promijenjena je u P-51B. Mada je rad Rolls Royca na ugradnji motora Merlin na Mustang bio vrlo koristan North Americanovim inženjerima, britanski proizvođač više nije sudjelovao u ovom projektu. North Americanovi inženjeri prebacili su uvodnik zraka za rasplinjač ispod nosa u skladu sa donjim ventilom na rasplinjaču motora Merlin. Hladnjak intercoolera dodan je grupi hladnjaka smještenoj u tunelu ispod stražnjeg dijela trupa. Cijeli podtrupni sklop hladnjaka postao je uočljivo dublji nego ranije a novi uvodnik zraka dobio je oštar profil, i bio je skoro 5 cm odvojen od donjeg dijela trupa. Promijenjena je i geometrija izmjenjivača topline. Hladnjak ulja, koji je ranije bio smješten u središtu kružnog hladnjaka rashladne tekućine motora, sada je premješten u prednji dio tunela i dobio je vlastiti izlazni otvor na stražnjem dijelu tunela. U stražnjem dijelu tunela, koji je sada bitno uvećan, nalazio se veliki pravokutni izmjenjivač topline sa većim izlaznim otvorom straga. Konstrukcija zrakoplova je ojačana zbog povećane snage motora. Ugrađeni su novi aileroni, a jači potkrilni nosači mogli su ponijeti bombu od 1.000 lb (454 kg) ili spremnike goriva jednake težine. Ugrađen je novi četverokraki propeler Hamilton Standard Hydromatic sa širokim krakovima. Strojnice u trupu su eliminirane, i predviđene su samo četiri strojnice u krilima. Prvi XP-51B poletio je 30. studenog 1942. Pilot je bio Bob Chilton. Na prvom letu zrakoplov nije nosio naoružanje. Poboljšanje performansi bilo je jednostavno fantastično. XP-51B je postizao brzinu u horizontalnom letu od 441 mph (710 km/h) na 29.800 ft (9.083 m), što je bilo više od 100 mph (160 km/h) brže od P-51 sa Allisonovim motorom na istoj visini. Brzina penjanja na svim visinama bila je približno dvostruko veća. USAAF je konačno dobio zrakoplov koji se u svakom pogledu mogao usporediti sa Fw 190 i posljednjim modelima Bf 109. Američka vojska napokon je prihvatila Mustanga, i odmah je potpisan ugovor o nabavi 2.200 primjeraka P-51B. Pogonski stroj je trebao biti Packard V-1650-3, rađen na temelju Merlina 68. Dok se 1942. godina bližila kraju, program proizvodnje Mustanga naglo je proširen. Masovna proizvodnja motora Merlin pokrenuta je u tvornicama Packard u Detroitu i Continental u Muskegonu. Ogromna North Americanova tvornica u Inglewoodu još je proširena i angažirana isključivo na proizvodnji Mustanga, pošto je program B-25 Mitchell prebačen u Kansas City. Proizvodnja školskih zrakoplova AT-6 već ranije je iz Inglewooda prebačena u novi pogon koji je velikom brzinom bio izgrađen u Dallasu u Teksasu. USAAF je zatražio od NAA da još proširi tvornicu u Dallas, kako bi se tamo uspostavila druga proizvodna linija za Mustanga. Mustanzi proizvedeni u Inglewoodu dobili su oznaku P-51B, a oni proizvedeni u Dallasu su označeni P-51C. Ove dvije verzija Mustanga bile su identične, i moguće ih je razlikovati samo po serijskim brojevima. Do kraja siječnja 1943. proizvodnja standardnog modela P-51B/C se uhodala. Kako bi se u potpunosti iskoristila veća snaga novog motora, cijela konstrukcija zrakoplova je ojačana, pa je Mustang sada mogao operirati sa znatno većim težinama nego raniji modeli. Potkrilni nosači mogli su ponijeti bombe težine do 1.000 lb (454 kg) ili razne druge terete, uključujući spremnike goriva ili trostruke raketne lansere. Instalacija pogonskog stroja je dorađena, pa je sa svake strane uvodnika zraka za rasplinjač dodan četvrtasti uvodnik, a ispušni plinovi motora izlazili su kroz pojedinačne ispušne cijevi koje su virile iz uskog kućišta. Aileroni su modificirani aerodinamički i strukturalno, a jedina vidljiva razlika bile su trim površine koje su sada bile izrađene od plastike. Naoružanje se sastojalo od četiri strojnice Browning MG53-2 kal. .50 in (12,7 mm) u krilima, sa 350 kom. streljiva za unutrašnje i 280 kom. streljiva za vanjske strojnice. Strojnice u nosu su eliminirane. Prvi P-51B poletio je 5. svibnja 1943. a prvi P-51C je poletio 5. kolovoza iste godine. Tvornica u Inglewoodu proizvela je 1.988 primjeraka P-51B a tvornica u Dallasu 1.750 P-51C. Model P-51C rađen u proračunskoj godini 1942. i 1943. dobio je tvorničku oznaku NA-103 (napravljeno je 1.350 primjeraka) a P-51C rađeni tijekom 1944. su dobili tvorničku oznaku NA-111. Isprva su P-51B i C imali motor Packard V-1650-3 snage 1.400 ks pri polijetanju i 1.450 ks na 19.800 ft (6.035 m) i bili su naoružani sa četiri .50 in strojnice sa ukupno 1.260 kom. streljiva. Napravljeno je ukupno 400 P-51B-1-NA i 250 P-51C-1-NT. U nastojanju da se Mustangu omogući još veći dolet, na jedan P-51B eksperimentalno je iza pilotovog sjedala ugrađen dodatni samozaptivajući spremnik goriva, čime je ukupna količina goriva (zajedno sa potkrilnim spremnicima) porasla na 419 US gal (1.588 l). Iako je Mustang već imao izvanredne performanse, dodatno gorivo još ih je poboljšalo. Povećani dolet bio je nužan u predstojećim operacijama u Europi i na Pacifiku. Međutim, ugradnjom dodatnog spremnika goriva, težište zrakoplova se premjestilo prema natrag, pa je uzdužna stabilnost Mustanga postala prilično loša; tijekom prvog sata leta, sve dok se gorivo u tom spremniku ne potroši, pilot je morao biti maksimalno koncentriran na održavanje točnog pravca leta. Ovaj dodatni spremnik goriva ugrađen je na posljednjih 550 primjeraka P-51B-5-NA, pa je oznaka promijenjena u P-51B-7-NA, te na sve P-51C-1-NT koji su postali P-51C-3-NT. Pored toga, neki raniji P-51B i C modificirani su na terenu ugradnjom dodatnog spremnika goriva. Problem sa upravljivošću po pravcu kojeg je uzrokovao ovaj spremnik predstavljao je ozbiljnu smetnju novijim, neiskusnim pilotima pa se u službi spremnik najčešće ograničavao na 65 US gal (245 l) goriva. Međutim, dodatni spremnik omogućavao je bitno povećanje borbenog doleta, i standardno se ugrađivao na sve kasnije verzije Mustanga. Sa dodatnim gorivom, Mustang je mogao pratiti bombardere cijelim putem od baza u Velikoj Britaniji do Berlina i natrag. Tijekom proizvodnje serije P-51B-10-NA i P-51C-1-NT odlučeno je da se zrakoplovi više neće bojati u standardnu smeđe-maslinastu kamuflažnu boju, nego da će se isporučivati postrojbama neobojeni, sa prirodnim sjajnim metalnim finišom. Namjera je bila privući lovce Luftwaffe u borbu, a ne skrivati se od njih. Time su sniženi troškovi proizvodnje, smanjena je težina zrakoplova kao i aerodinamički otpor. Na serijama P-51C-5-NT i P-51B-15-NA usvojen je motor Packard V-1650-7, snage 1.450 ks pri polijetanju i 1.695 ks u iznimnim uvjetima na 10.300 ft (3.140 m). Najveća brzina na 20.000 ft (6.000 m) smanjena je sa 440 mph (708 km/h) na 435 mph (700 km/h), ali na 25.000 ft (7.600 m) je porasla sa 430 mph (692 km/h) na 439 km/h (707 km/h). Napravljeno je 398 P-51B-10-NA, 390 P-51B-15-NA i 1.350 P-51C-10-NT, svi sa motorom V-1650-7. Na 91 primjerku iz serije Block 10 (71 P-51B-10-NA i 20 P-51C-10-NT) ugrađene su dvije kose kamere K-24 ili jedna K-17 i jedna K-22, čime su postali foto-izvidnici F-6C-NA odn. Većina ovih izvidnika zadržala je strojnice u krilima. U svakom slučaju, kamere su bile ugrađene neposredno ispred konstrukcijske pregrade ispred repnog kotača, sa objektivima na lijevoj strani. Jedan od problema sa P-51B/C Mustangom sa motorom Merlin bio je slab pregled iz kokpita, osobito prema natrag. Jedan od prvih koraka za rješavanje ovog nedostatka bila je ugradnja tzv. Malcolm pokrova kokpita. Izvedena je relativno značajna modifikacija, i originalni pokrov kokpita sa metalnim okvirima koji se otvarao preklapanjem u jednu stranu zamijenjen je zaobljenim pokrovom od prozirnom Perspex materijala koji se otvarao klizanjem unatrag. Novi pokrov pilotu je ostavljao puno više prostora za glavu, a veliki loptasti prozirni pokrov omogućavao je nesmetan pogled ravno dolje i prema natrag. Pokrov je proizvodila i ugrađivala britanska tvrtka R. Malcolm & Co. pa je među pilotima postao poznat kao «Malcolm poklopac», i postavljen je na većinu RAF-ovih Mustanga III te na brojne američke P-51B i C iz sastava Osme i Devete zračne armije. U potrazi za trajnijim rješenjem problema slabe preglednosti iz kokpita, jedan P-51B je modificiran ugradnjom kapljičastog jednodijelnog pokrova i dobio je oznaku XP-51D. Pošto se modifikacija pokazala izvedivom, još dva P-51B su na proizvodnoj traci dobila kapljičaste pokrove kokpita i oznaku P-51D. To su postali prototipovi poznate serije P-51D. Međutim, mnogi piloti smatraju P-51B/C sa Malcolm poklopcem najboljom verzijom Mustanga. Bio je lakši, brži i bolje je reagirao na komande od kasnije verzije P-51D sa kapljičastim pokrovom, a čak je imao i bolju preglednost iz kokpita u svim smjerovima. Osnovna slabost verzije P-51B/C bilo je naoružanje – samo četiri .50 in strojnice koje su često bile sklone zaglavljivanju. Neke izmjene provedene na P-51D u svrhu otklanjanja problema zaglavljivanja strojnica kasnije su ugrađene i na P-51B/C. Sa tako modificiranim strojnicama i Malcolm poklopcem kokpita, P-51B/C je bio bolji lovac od P-51D, sa boljom preglednošću iz kokpita, manjom masom i bez strukturalnim problema prisutnih na modelu D, te sa boljim poletno-sletnim karakteristikama. Ukupno je bilo proizvedeno 3.740 primjeraka P-51B i C. Neki su služili u operativnim postrojbama sve do kraja rata, a pojedini su preuređeni u trenažne dvosjede ili u zrakoplove za vezu za zapovjednika eskadrile. Posljednji P-51B povučen je iz službe 1949., ali pod oznakom F-51B (od 1948.). Specifikacije za P-51B-1-NA Motor: jedan 12-cilindrični redni tekuće hlađen V-motor Packard Merlin V-1650-3 snage 1.620 ksPerformanse: maksimalna brzina 625 km/h na 1.500 m, 654 km/h na 3.000 m, 688 km/h na 6.000 m, 692 km/h na 7.500 m, 708 km/h na 9.000 m; dolet sa internim gorivom 885 km pri 552 km/h na 7.500 m, 1.305 km pri 407 km/h na 3.000 m, dolet sa maksimalnim dodatnim gorivom 3.540 km pri 393 km/h; penjanje do 1.500 m za 1,8 min, do 3.000 m za 3,6 min, do 6.000 m za 7 min; plafon leta 12.802 mMasa: prazan 3.103 kg; normalno napunjen 4.170 kg; maksimalno napunjen 5.080 kg Dimenzije: raspon krila 11,28 m; duljina 9,83 m; visina 2,64 m; površina krila 21,65 m²Specifikacije za P-51C-10-NT Motor: jedan 12-cilindrični redni tekuće hlađen V-motor Packard Merlin V-1650-7 snage 1.650 ksPerformanse: maksimalna brzina 636 km/h na 1.500 m, 671 km/h na 3.000 m, 686 km/h na 6.000 m, 707 km/h na 7.500 m, 700 km/h na 9.000 m; dolet s internim gorivom 1.548 km pri 640 km/h na 7.500 m, 2.093 km pri 420 km/h na 3.000 m, dolet s maksimalnim dodatnim gorivom 3.930 km pri 400 km/h; penjanje do 1.500 m za 1,6 min, do 3.000 m za 3,1 min, 6.000 m za 6,9 min; plafon leta 12.771 mMasa: prazan 3.168 kg; normalno napunjen 4.445 kg; maksimalno napunjen 5.350 kgDimenzije: raspon krila 11,28 m; duljina 9,83 m; visina 2,64 m; površina krila 21,65 m²Služba P-51B/C u USAAF Prva operativna postrojba opremljena novom verzijom Mustanga sa motorom Merlin bila je 354th Fighter Group, koja je stigla u Englesku u listopadu 1943. godine. 354th FG se sastojala od eskadrila 353rd, 355th i 356th Fighter Squadron. Grupa je bila dio američke Devete zračne armije (Ninth Air Force) zadužene za taktičke zračne udare u sklopu priprema za predstojeću savezničku invaziju u Europi. Međutim, odmah po dolasku 354th FG je dobila zadatak podržavanja bombarderskih operacija Osme zračne armije (Eighth Air Force). Prvi let preko La Manchea 354th FG je izvela 1. prosinca 1943. a prva zračna pobjeda postignuta je 16. prosinca tijekom napada na Bremen. Međutim, neiskusni piloti i tehničko osoblje i brojni tehnički problemi sa novim zrakoplovima znatno su otežavali operacije P-51B/C sve do početka 1944. godine. Od ranog proljeća '44. Mustang sa motorom Merlin postaje najvažniji američki lovac na europskom bojištu. Prvi as na P-51 postao je maj. James H. Howard iz 354th FG. Dana 11. siječnja 1944. maj. Howard je oborio pet njemačkih lovaca i tako postao «as u jednom danu». Za taj podvig odlikovan je medaljom časti. Druga postrojba P-51B/C bila je 357th Fighter Group, također isprva dodijeljena Devetoj zračnoj armiji ali odmah prebačena pod operativni nadzor Osme zračne armije i angažirana na eskortu bombardera. Svoju prvu eskortnu zadaću 357th FG je izvela 11. veljače 1944. 364rd Fighter Group je 23. veljače 1944. postala treći korisnik P-51B/C u Europi. U studenom 1943. formirana je američka Petnaesta zračna armija (Fitfteenth Air Force) sa tri grupe lovaca P-38 Lightning koji su trebali pratiti savezničke bombardere. Bili su smješteni na području Sredozemlja. Tijekom travnja 1944. P-51B/C Mustanzi su počeli zamjenjivati Spitfire u sastavu 31st i 52nd Fighter Group, koje su prebačene iz Dvanaeste zračne armije (Twelfth Air Force) u sastav Petnaeste zračne armije. 31st FG je prvu borbenu zadaću izvela 21. travnja 1944. kada su Mustanzi pratili bombardere B-24 u napadu na naftne rafinerije u Ploestiju u Rumunjskoj. 332nd Fighter Group je bila treća lovačka grupa u sastavu Petnaeste zračne armije. To je bila postrojba popunjena isključivo crnim pilotima, čuvenim «letačima iz Tuskegeeja». Grupa je prešla na P-51C u lipnju 1944. dok su bili smješteni u Foggiji u Italiji. Letači 332nd FG morali su se jednako uporno boriti sa rasnom segregacijom (koja je u to vrijeme bila službena politika američke vojske) kao i sa Nijemcima. Najuspješniji lovac bio je Lea Archer sa pet zračnih pobjeda i šest zrakoplova uništenih na tlu, ali jedna zračna pobjeda kasnije je pripisana drugom pilotu da Archer ne postane as. Piloti 332nd FG najviše su bili ponosni na činjenicu da nikada nisu izgubili niti jedan bombarder kojeg su štitili. U ožujku 1944. P-51B/C su po prvi put pratili bombardere B-17 i B-24 u napadu na Berlin – let od ukupno 1.100 milja (1.770 km). sposobnost eskortnih lovaca da prate bombardere cijelim putem do cilja i natrag i istovremeno se uspješno suprotstave lovcima Luftwaffe stvorila je nesavladive probleme njemačkoj obrani, podigla (klimavi) moral američkim bombarderskim posadama i poslužila kao dodatni poticaj američkoj dnevnoj bombarderskoj ofenzivi protiv Njemačke. Najveći broj P-51B/C raspoređen je u sastav Osme i Devete zračne armije u Engleskoj, a nešto manji boj u sastav Dvanaeste i Petnaeste zračne armije u Italiji. P-51B/C je ostalo glavna verzija Mustanga od prosinca 1943. pa do ožujka 1944. kada se pojavila verzija P-51D sa kapljičastim pokrovom kokpita. Međutim, lovci P-51B/C bili su najbrojniji sve do sredine 1944. a nastavili su se operativno koristiti sve do kraja rata u Europi, čak i nakon dolaska većeg broja P-51D. Čak i u posljednjem mjesecu rata, od 2.500 Mustanga u Europi, 1.000 ih je bilo verzije P-51B/C. Možda najpoznatiji P-51B je Shangri La (P-51B-5-NA ser. br. 44-6913) na kojem je letio Don Gentile, as 4th FG. Iako je verzija P-51D sa kapljičastim pokrovom kokpita danas puno poznatija, P-51B/C je zrakoplov koji je donio preokret u zračnom ratu iznad Njemačke. P-51B i C su bili raspoređeni u sastavu slijedećih lovačkih grupa u Europi: Osma zračna armija (Eighth Air Force): 4th Fighter Group 20th Fighter Group 335th Fighter Group 339th Fighter Group 352nd Fighter Group 357th Fighter Group 359th Fighter Group 361st Fighter Group 479th Fighter Group Deveta zračna armija (Ninth Air Force): 354th Fighter Group 363rd Fighter Group Dvanaesta zračna armija (Twelfth Air Force): 52nd Fighter Group Petnaesta zračna armija (Fifteenth Air Force): 325th Fighter Group 31st Fighter Group 332nd Fighter Group U rujnu 1944. 10th Tactical Reconnaissance Group dobila je 12th i 15th Reconnaissance Squadron opremljene foto-izvidničkom verzijom Mustanga F-6B i F-6C. Izvidnici F-6 služili su u sastavu Osme, Devete, Dvanaeste i Petanaeste zračne armije te u sastavu Pete zračne armije na Dalekom Istoku. Izvidnici F-6 zadržali su strojnice u krilima i često su se susretali sa neprijateljskim lovcima. Kap. Clyde East iz 15th RS bio je najuspješniji «lovac-izvidnik» cijelog rata sa 15 zračnih pobjeda. Mustang sa motorom Merlin pojavio se na CBI bojištu u rujnu 1943. i to u sastavu 23rd i 51st Fighter Group Pete zračne armije (Fifth Air Force). Početkom 1944. Mustanzi iz 311th FG iz sastava Desete zračne armije (Tenth Air Force) sudjelovali u akciji iznad Burme u sklopu savezničkih zračnodesantnih operacija protiv japanskih komunikacija. Najuspješniji Mustangov as na ovom bojištu bio je maj. John C. «Pappy» Herbst sa 18 zračnih pobjeda.