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Forget About Global Warming: We’re One Step From Extinction! Often, some of the most important news comes from local papers, stories that don’t make it up the feeding chain and onto the news wires or major newspapers or nightly network news. It can be news that at first glance wouldn’t appear to have a national or international impact. Second glance, and a good memory, can reveal that the impact may well be quite significant. The other day a reader sent us an article link that he found on another alt.news website: Bad news – we are way past our ‘extinct by’ date Since we had run the same story back when it first came out, we thought “yeah! Flashback!” After all, with all the talk about Global Warming, it served to remind readers that human caused CO2 levels are not all there is to what is going on here on the BBM today. Later in the evening, we had a conversation here at SOTT Central about this article and how it relates to a book that is currently being passed around in the house here: The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: Flood, Fire, and Famine in the History of Civilization by Richard Firestone, Allen West, Simon Warwick-Smith. This book is about the “Event” that took place about 12,000 years ago that is recorded in myth and legend variously as the Fall of Atlantis and Noah’s Flood. Plato describes a destruction that occurred in a day and a night, and the Bible recounts the story of torrential rains and an immense flood in which most of the life on earth perished. There is also a rich body of Native American literature about a worldwide cataclysm of fires, followed by floods and death raining down from the skies. As many as fifty different cultures around the globe record versions of this story, and physicist Firestone, along with his geologist co-authors, have put together a book, based on hard scientific evidence, describing a cosmic chain of events that they believe culminated in the global catastrophe of 12,000 years ago. They believe that the Event was triggered by a nearby supernova that occurred 41,000 years ago. Regular readers of SOTT are familiar with my Cassiopaea website and the experiment in superluminal communication that I began in 1992 which finally bore fruit in 1994 on the day that the fragments of Comet Shoemaker Levy began impacting the planet Jupiter. We find it amusingly synchronous that one of the themes of the Cassiopaean information is planetary destruction via a Comet Cluster that cycles through the solar system every 3,600 years as a consequence of the orbit of our Sun’s solar Companion, a smaller, dark, Twin Sun. As it happens, Firestone, West and Warwick-Smith also talk about a bombardment of Planet Earth by literally thousands of asteroids, comets, or other debris, though they attribute it to the supernova 28 or 29 thousand years earlier; it took that long for the ejecta from the supernova – along with debris it kicked out of the Oort cloud – to reach Earth. With the idea that there is a Cometary Bombardment Cycle, we have naturally been alert to the fact that the last few years have brought increasing evidence that this theory may very well be the correct one. This evidence includes the fantastic increase in the number of “moons” attached to Jupiter that have so recently been “discovered”, as well as the increase in frequency of comets over the past few years, along with the astonishing increase in meteorites and fireballs entering Earth’s atmosphere and falling to earth. In some cases, these events have resulted in damage to human beings and property, and one recent case even resulted in deaths as we will see further on… Anyway, to get back to our conversation about humanity being past its “extinct by” date, I mused that anybody with eyes and ears and a bit of scientific knowledge can look around and see that something is going on “out there”. It’s in the news everyday, you just have to search for it (or read SOTT: we do the searching for you). The problem is, of course, that the masses of humanity are so distracted by all the concerns of everyday life – many of which are quite serious nowadays, especially the threat of nuclear war brought to us by George W. Bush and the Ziocons – that most of them haven’t got a clue that they probably don’t have to worry about Global Warming. (And just because I say that people don’t have to worry about Global Warming doesn’t mean they don’t have to worry!) The evidence that is all around us nowadays even helps us to realize that there was nothing really magical or mysterious about the story of Noah. The Bible tells us that God told Noah that something was up, something was coming, and that he should build an ark and that would enable him and his family and a few critters to survive. But obviously, in this day and time, we really don’t need God to tell us that Something Wicked This Way Comes. Noah probably didn’t either. Then, of course, it was pointed out to me that it was the Cs that told me about the cycle of Cometary disasters. I thought about that for a moment and said, “well, partly”. I did write about all of this in my book The Noah Syndrome back in 1985, long before the Cs proper ever introduced themselves. (This book was never published, but much of it is incorporated into Secret History.) Of course, back then, I had started from a purely metaphysical question: “Is there going to be an end of the world as described in the Bible, and if so, what does it really mean?” It was that question that lead to a deep study of the Bible, which then led to a realization that the destruction described in the book of Revelation was almost identical to what was described in the story of the Exodus, so whatever happened then, was being predicted to happen again. It wasn’t until I read Velikovsky’s Worlds in Collision that I realized that this was very likely talking about a bombardment of the Earth by rocks and bolides from space. Velikovsky, of course, attributed it to an errant planet Venus that came careening into the solar system just as Firestone et al attribute it to a supernova 41,000 years ago. The Cyclic Comet Cluster related to a Companion Sun explanation is a better fit to all the data, though a supernova could also be involved as well as a “Newcomer” to the Solar System. Reading Velikovsky changed the flavor of my research from metaphysical to scientific, and the result was “The Noah Syndrome.” In any event, what is perfectly clear is that the story of Noah and the story of Atlantis are apocryphal: many small groups of people around the world survived the event of 12,000 years ago here and there, and very likely many of them survived because they realized what was coming – they “read the signs”. Afterward, in their stories and legends their descendants ascribed their survival to the intervention of their particular deity to give that deity more authority. Bottom line is: anybody can be a Noah today if they are informed and pay close attention to what is going on. Getting back to the article that started the discussion: Bad news – we are way past our ‘extinct by’ date, we are told: Some say the world will end in fire, some say in ice, wrote Robert Frost. But whatever is to be our fate, it is now overdue. After analysing the eradication of millions of ancient species, scientists have found that a mass extinction is due any moment now. Their research has shown that every 62 million years – plus or minus 3m years – creatures are wiped from the planet’s surface in massive numbers. Even worse, scientists have no idea about its source. ‘There is no doubting the existence of this cycle of mass extinctions every 62m years. It is very, very clear from analysis of fossil records,’ said Professor James Kirchner, of the University of California, Berkeley. ‘Unfortunately, we are all completely baffled about the cause.’ This part of the article is actually quite disingenuous. It is well known that there are other major extinctions and the cycle is not ONLY every 62 million years! There is also a very strong signal for a 26 million year extinction cycle. The different estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years are due mainly to what the individual researcher chooses as the threshold for naming an extinction event as “major” as well as what set of data he selects as the determinant measure of past diversity. As it happens, the 62 million event data stems mainly from marine fossil evidence. The report, published in the current issue of Nature, was carried out by Professor Richard Muller and Robert Rohde also from the Berkeley campus. They studied the disappearances of thousands of different marine species (whose fossils are better preserved than terrestrial species) over the past 500m years. Their results were completely unexpected. It was known that mass extinctions have occurred in the past. During the Permian extinction, 250m years ago, more than 70 per cent of all species were wiped out, for example. But most research suggested that these were linked to asteroid collisions and other random events. But Muller and Rohde found that, far from being unpredictable, mass extinctions occur every 62m years, a pattern that is ‘striking and compelling’, according to Kirchner. But what is responsible? Here, researchers ran into problems. They considered the passage of the solar system through gas clouds that permeate the galaxy. These clouds could trigger climatic mayhem. However, there is no known mechanism to explain why the passage might occur only every 62m years. Alternatively, the Sun may possess an undiscovered companion star. It could approach the Sun every 62m years, dislodging comets from the outer solar system and propelling them towards Earth. Such a companion star has never been observed, however, and in any case such a lengthy orbit would be unstable, Muller says. Or perhaps some internal geophysical cycle triggers massive volcanic activity every 62m years, Muller and Rohde wondered. Plumes from these would surround the planet and lead to a devastating drop in temperature that would freeze most creatures to death. Unfortunately, scientists know of no such geological cycle. ‘We have tried everything we can think of to find an explanation for these weird cycles of biodiversity and extinction,’ Muller said. ‘So far we have failed. And, yes, we are due one soon, but I would not panic yet.’ Well, they have a problem, don’t they? They think it’s coming and, based on the ancient legends, it happens very fast and almost without warning. The classical “Big Five” mass extinctions identified by Raup and Sepkoski in 1982 (interestingly, right about the same time I started asking questions about the End of the World as prophesied in Revelations culminating in The Noah Syndrome in 1985!) are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant. They are: The late Ordovician period (about 438 million years ago) – 100 families extinct – more than half of the bryozoan and brachiopod species extinct. 78 million years later: The late Devonian (about 360 mya) – 30% of animal families extinct. 106 million years later: At the end of the Permian period (about 245 mya) – Trilobites go extinct. 50% of all animal families, 95% of all marine species, and many trees die out. 37 million years later: The late Triassic (208 mya) – 35% of all animal families die out. Most early dinosaur families went extinct, and most synapsids died out (except for the mammals). 143 million years later: At the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary (about 65 mya) – about half of all life forms died out, including the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurs, ammonites, many families of fishes, clams, snails, sponges, sea urchins and many others. As you can see from the above, using the number “62 million years” and building a theory on it is really a bit misleading. Raup and Sepkoski are mentioned as identifying the “Big Five”, but the fact is that Sepkoski, a University of Chicago paleontologist actually suggested that the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago was part of a 26 million year cycle!! However, I would like to mention that if you multiply 26 there are interesting results such as: 3X 26 is 78 – which just happens to be the time between the Ordovician and Devonian extinctions; 4 X 26 is 104 which is very close to the 106 million years between the Devonian and Permian extinctions; and 5 X 26 is 130, which (when dealing with these kinds of numbers) is close enough to the gap between the Triassic and K-T extinction to be in the ballpark. So, maybe there is something to this 26 million year thing after all, only each “return” has varying effects based on many other solar system variables. A companion star with a 26 million year orbit might be more stable, since Muller has suggested that a 62 million year orbit is too great to be stable. As it happens, if we postulate the 26 million year orbit of a Companion Star, using the Big Five Extinctions as our jumping off point, we would find that there ought to have been a return about 39 million years ago, and then another 13 million years ago, which would put us half-way in the Companion star orbit cycle now. Question: is that half-way as in aphelion or perihelion? Wherever the theorized Twin Sun might be at the moment, what we know is that there are other extinction events of great magnitude that seem to have little to do with just a 62 million year cycle and a great deal to do with some other cycle. Another thing that is a fact is that extinction events occur far more frequently than the general public is aware of and yes, we are way overdue for one. Leaving the possible triggers for mass extinctions for the moment, let’s look at some hows extinctions might occur. Here is a handy little run-down of the problem: Of all the ways scientists have proposed to cause a mass extinction here are a few of the front runners. Conceptually there are 4 main ways: Freeze it (Snowball Earth) Boil it (Greenhouse Earth) Drop a meteor on it ( Meteor Impact) Cover it with ash and Lava (Giant Volcanic Eruption) It is important to realise that numbers 3 and 4 are essentially ways which have been put forward to explain 1 and 2, though Snowball earth and Greenhouse earth are still theories in their own right, as they are to some extent self replicating, i.e. we rather get stuck in vicious circles as the more we warm the earth, the more greenhouse gasses we can potentially release, (at least in theory). Now that’s all very well and good but, how do these physical effects [1 and 2 alone] cause mass extinctions? The simplest answer to this is climate. Every species alive on earth today and so presumably in the past is adapted to a certain range of conditions. In the same way that if we were suddenly whisked off to the North Pole and expected to live there for a year with only a woolly jumper and a Mars bar, we would surely die. It is the same in an extinction event, climatic zones essentially shift around the globe (so us being placed on the north pole is not as far fetched as you first thought), or ecosystems are starved of light or nutrients. This results in plants and animals being out of equilibrium with their surroundings, this not only causes the death of individuals but whole species. With the death of a species there is a gap in the food chain, and so even animals which have adapted to the new climate find themselves with no food so die out and so on… EXTINCTION PROBLEMS IN A STRANGE ECOSYSTEM If we consider the example of us at the North Pole, but this time with a whole box of Mars bars, assuming we did not freeze to death in the first day, we would slowly become more accustomed to the cold, maybe we would find shelter from the cold, but either way as soon as our prey (the Mars Bars) ran out, unless we found an alternative source of food we would starve. To create a more dynamic ecosystem let us assume we provide a food source for another organism such as a polar bear, now if we died what would the polar bear eat? Unfortunately my example falls down here as no one is going to believe that without us eating Mars bars they’re going to reproduce uncontrollably. However, in our North Pole ecosystem of Mars bars, us and Polar bears, let us assume we find extra clothes and shelter, so the cold no longer controls our numbers, and we manage to find the recipe and ingredients for mars bars (and by some freak coincidence they provide us with all the essential nutrients for life), in this case it would be the polar bears controlling our numbers since they are our direct predators. So if polar bears were wiped out, then our numbers would no longer be controlled, so our population would over many generations grow, until eventually we could no longer supply ourselves with mars bars, or we may have even eaten all the mars bars in the world. This would cause a huge population crash, or maybe even extinction of the human race (or at least those dependent on Mars Bars). This rather abstract example helps illustrate the point that all the trophic levels of a food chain (or web) need to be in place, otherwise there will be instability in all other populations. The above description of how Global warming or cooling can cause mass extinctions is clever, but it does not take into account the creativity of human beings. Certainly, there could be massive reductions in the human population as a consequence of Global Warming or Cooling, but it would be unlikely to produce a mass extinction such as those for which we have evidence in the past. Let me quote a bit from Secret History: Back in the 1940s Dr. Frank C. Hibben, Prof. of Archeology at the University of New Mexico led an expedition to Alaska to look for human remains. He didn’t find human remains; he found miles and miles of icy muck just packed with mammoths, mastodons, and several kinds of bison, horses, wolves, bears and lions. Just north of Fairbanks, Alaska, the members of the expedition watched in horror as bulldozers pushed the half-melted muck into sluice boxes for the extraction of gold. Animal tusks and bones rolled up in front of the blades “like shavings before a giant plane”. The carcasses were found in all attitudes of death, most of them “pulled apart by some unexplainable prehistoric catastrophic disturbance.”[Hibben, Frank, The Lost Americans (New York: Thomas & Crowell Co. 1946)] The evident violence of the deaths of these masses of animals, combined with the stench of rotting flesh, was almost unendurable both in seeing it, and in considering what might have caused it. The killing fields stretched for literally hundreds of miles in every direction.[ibid.] There were trees and animals, layers of peat and moss, twisted and tangled and mangled together as though some Cosmic mix master sucked them all in 12000 years ago, and then froze them instantly into a solid mass. [Sanderson, Ivan T., “Riddle of the Frozen Giants“, Saturday Evening Post, No. 39, January 16, 1960.] Just north of Siberia entire islands are formed of the bones of Pleistocene animals swept northward from the continent into the freezing Arctic Ocean. One estimate suggests that some ten million animals may be buried along the rivers of northern Siberia. Thousands upon thousands of tusks created a massive ivory trade for the master carvers of China, all from the frozen mammoths and mastodons of Siberia. The famous Beresovka mammoth first drew attention to the preserving properties of being quick-frozen when buttercups were found in its mouth. What kind of terrible event overtook these millions of creatures in a single day? Well, the evidence suggests an enormous tsunami raging across the land, tumbling animals and vegetation together, to be finally quick-frozen for the next 12000 years. But the extinction was not limited to the Arctic, even if the freezing at colder locations preserved the evidence of Nature’s rage up to our present time. Paleontologist George G. Simpson considers the extinction of the Pleistocene horse in North America to be one of the most mysterious episodes in zoological history, confessing, “no one knows the answer.” He is also honest enough to admit that there is the larger problem of the extinction of many other species in America at the same time. [Simpson, George G., Horses, New York: Oxford University Press) 1961] The horse, giant tortoises living in the Caribbean, the giant sloth, the saber-toothed tiger, the glyptodont and toxodon. These were all tropical animals. These creatures didn’t die because of the “gradual onset” of an ice age, “unless one is willing to postulate freezing temperatures across the equator, such an explanation clearly begs the question.” [Martin, P. S. & Guilday, J. E., “Bestiary for Pleistocene Biologists“, Pleistocene Extinction, Yale University, 1967] Massive piles of mastodon and saber-toothed tiger bones were discovered in Florida. [Valentine, quoted by Berlitz, Charles, The Mystery of Atlantis (New York, 1969)] Mastodons, toxodons, giant sloths and other animals were found in Venezuela quick-frozen in mountain glaciers. Woolly rhinoceros, giant armadillos, giant beavers, giant jaguars, ground sloths, antelopes and scores of other entire species were all totally wiped out at the same time, at the end of the Pleistocene, approximately 12000 years ago. This event was global. The mammoths of Siberia became extinct at the same time as the giant rhinoceros of Europe; the mastodons of Alaska, the bison of Siberia, the Asian elephants and the American camels. It is obvious that the cause of these extinctions must be common to both hemispheres, and that it was not gradual. A “uniformitarian glaciation” would not have caused extinctions because the various animals would have simply migrated to better pasture. What is seen is a surprising event of uncontrolled violence. [Leonard, R. Cedric, Appendix A in “A Geological Study of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge“, Special Paper No. 1 ( Bethany: Cowen Publishing 1979)] In other words, 12000 years ago, a time we have met before and will come across again and again, something terrible happened – so terrible that life on earth was nearly wiped out in a single day. Harold P. Lippman admits that the magnitude of fossils and tusks encased in the Siberian permafrost present an “insuperable difficulty” to the theory of uniformitarianism, since no gradual process can result in the preservation of tens of thousands of tusks and whole individuals, “even if they died in winter.” [Lippman, Harold E., “Frozen Mammoths“, Physical Geology, (New York 1969)] This is true especially when many of these individuals have undigested grasses and leaves in their belly. Pleistocene geologist William R. Farrand of the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, who is opposed to catastrophism in any form, states: “Sudden death is indicated by the robust condition of the animals and their full stomachs … the animals were robust and healthy when they died.” [Farrand, William R., “Frozen Mammoths and Modern Geology”, Science, Vol.133, No. 3455, March 17, 1961] Unfortunately, in spite of this admission, this poor guy seems to have been incapable of facing the reality of worldwide catastrophe represented by the millions of bones deposited all over this planet right at the end of the Pleistocene. Hibben sums up the situation in a single statement: “The Pleistocene period ended in death. This was no ordinary extinction of a vague geological period, which fizzled to an uncertain end. This death was catastrophic and all inclusive.” [Hibben, op. cit.] The conclusion is, again, that the end of the Ice Age, the Pleistocene extinction, the end of the Upper Paleolithic, Magdalenian, Perigordian, and so on, and the end of the “reign of the gods,” all came to a global, catastrophic end about 12,000 years ago. [The Secret History of the World] This is the event that Firestone, West and Warwick-Smith discuss in their book, The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: Flood, Fire, and Famine in the History of Civilization, mentioned above. But if the above accounts are the result of such a catastrophe, what might the catastrophe itself be like? The following is condensed and adapted from Chapter 11 of Firestone, West, and Warwick-Smith’s book: It begins with meteors failing like raindrops, a few here and there. Perhaps a few hit the sun, provoking large solar flares. The solar flares provoke colourful auroras even in the daytime sky. Then the day of the comets arrive. From horizon to horizon, growing larger every second, they streaked into the atmosphere, lighting up brighter than the sun. Heated to immense temperatures by its passage through the atmosphere, the lethal swarm exploded into thousands of mountain-sized chunks and clouds of streaming icy dust. The smaller pieces blew up high in the atmosphere, creating multiple detonations that turned the sky orange and red. Then the largest comet smashed through the sheet of ice covering part of the northern hemisphere in what is now Hudson Bay. Other comets struck in Lake Michigan, Canada, Siberia and Europe. Then the ground shock waves hit, shaking the earth violently for ten minutes in great rolling waves and shudders. Fissures opened, trees shook and fell, and rivers and streams disappeared into the cracked earth. Within seconds of the impact, the blast of superheated air expanded outward at more than 1,000 miles an hour, racing across the landscape, tearing trees from the ground and tossing them into the air, ripping rocks from mountainsides, and flash-scorching plants, animals, the earth, as well as any humans in its way. The only living things to survive would have been those who had sought shelter underground or underwater. Across the upper part of North America and Europe, the immense energy from the multiple impacts blew a series of ever-widening, giant, overlapping bubbles that pushed aside the atmosphere to create a near vacuum inside. As the bubble passed by, the air pressure dropped making it difficult to breathe. Behind the expanding edge of the bubble, the Earth was stripped of the protective shield of the atmosphere. The blast had ejected tiny, fast-moving grains in all directions through the thin air. Some lodged into trees, plants and animals, while others went up only to fall back again at incredible speeds as there was no atmosphere to break their fall. At the same instant, high speed cosmic rays bombarded the area with radiation. Animals and humans dropped dead on the spot from the bombardment. Inanimate objects appeared to come to life and shiver and quake on the ground from the barrage. When the outward push of the shock wave ceased, the vacuum began to draw back the air. As the expanded atmosphere rushed back toward the impact site, the bubbles collapsed, sucking white-hot gases and dust inwards at tornado speeds and then channelling them up and away from the ground. Some of the dust escaped from the Earth’s atmosphere while the rest flowed out as a red mushroom cloud that flattened out for thousands of miles across the upper atmosphere, blocking the sun and engulfing the Earth in darkness. The dust and debris that was too heavy began crashing back down to earth. Still super hot from the blast, it gave off a powerful lava-like glow. The pieces landed on the continental ice sheet, instantly melting untold gallons of water that coursed off the ice sheet in all directions causing flooding. The raging updraft through the hollow bubbles created an equally powerful downdraft of frigid, high-altitude air, travelling at hundreds of miles per hour. With temperatures exceeding 150 degrees F below zero, the downward stream of air hit the ground and radiated out from the many blast sites in all directions, flash-freezing within seconds everything it touched. The howling, frigid blast turned trees and plants into brittle ice statues and flash froze mastodons and mammoths with food in their mouths that we have uncovered still frozen in Siberia. The rapid temperature fluctuations meant the end of millions of plants and animals…. but the destruction was only beginning. The impacts and shock waves triggered enormous earthquakes along existing fault lines from the Carolinas to California while shaking awake dormant volcanoes from Iceland across to the Pacific. Erupting with furious activity, they spewed hot lava across the landscape and noxious chemicals into the air, adding to the already heavy cloud cover. The impacts, the blast waves, and the eruptions started thousands of ground fires wherever there was fuel to feed them, some of which continued to burn for days. Fast-moving, wind-driven wildfires formed spiralling tongues of raging flames that twisted for thousands of feet into the air and the inferno raced through forests faster than birds and animals could flee. The roar of the fire shook the ground, and the fierce heat blew apart trees like bombs, exploded rocks like shrapnel grenades, and set off steam explosions wherever the fast-moving fire-front jumped across frozen ponds and streams. When the fires had finally burned themselves out, there was little left besides smoldering stumps and telltale charcoal strewn across the continents. The noxious chemicals in the atmosphere fell back to earth as poisoned rain. In some places, the air was too toxic and oxygen-depleted to support life. The impact in Hudson Bay sent up 200,000 cubic miles of the glacier, throwing off the icy debris that followed the pieces of the comet out across the continent. A rain of incandescent debris and chunks of steaming ice showered down across most of North America, Europe and Asia. Within minutes, the massive, low-flying clumps crashed into the Carolinas and the eastern seaboard, exploding into fireballs and gouging out the Carolina Bays, over 500,000 of them. Other lumps exploded across the plains from Nebraska and Kansas to Arizona. Pieces of flying ice and debris, large and small, fell from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic, from Europe over to Asia and even down to Africa. More than one-quarter of the planet was under siege. But even that was not all. The impact through the glacier at Hudson Bay sent high velocity melt-water surging under the ice sheet. The surges lifted and floated large sections of ice, causing monolithic ice blocks to slide southward along hundreds of miles of the ice front. Moving nearly as quickly as a horse is able to run, the blocks plowed over forests, shearing off the trees. The oceans, too, were targets. Thousands of ice chunks and clouds of slushy water hit the Atlantic, exploding with colossal detonations. The multiple concussions triggered immense underwater landslides off the Carolinas and Virginia, releasing thousands of cubic miles of mud. In turn, the mud unleashed a 1,000 foot high tidal wave that raced away towards Europe and Africa at 500 miles an hour. Nine hours later the wave hit [Europe], 1,000 feet tall at 400 miles per hour, probably taking with it some of the survivors of the first explosions. The wave broke over hundreds of miles inland, devastating everything in its path. Anything living on the coast was killed instantly. Its momentum spent, the churning water paused briefly and then began its rush backwards to the coast, pulling with it the battered remains of plants and animals under its tow. The surge provoked, in turn, offshore landslides in Europe and Africa, sending a second round of mega-waves back towards North and South America. Miles of coast land was hit by the 100 foot waves that triggered yet another wave of tsunamis that hit Europe and Africa once again. But little was left to damage. Within minutes of the impacts, the subzero air and rising water vapour combined to produce heavy snow and sleet that reached as far south as Mexico, the Caribbean, and Northern Africa. In the south, the snow turned to rain and the northern hemisphere was under a steady downpour for months, a downpour of noxious water contaminated and deadly. Anyone lucky enough to survive was now a potential victim of acid, toxic metals, cyanide, formaldehyde, and arsenic, a combination that would kill many and render the rest gravelly ill. The melted water of the glaciers had another effect: flooding into the North Atlantic, it turned off the ocean conveyor that brought warm water to the northern climes. Once shut off, coupled with the clouds of dust blocking the sun, the temperature fell drastically. Within days or weeks after the impacts, continental temperatures fell well below freezing, and a brutal ice age chill once again spread across the land, remaining in place for another thousand years. And all of this in an instant, in less time than it takes to cook a meal or write an email. You will, of course, notice that “12,000 years ago” is just a rough estimate because some of the dates of their data come back as old as 14 KYA and as recent as 10 KYA. When considering a 3600 year Comet Cluster Cycle, this range could cover more than one event. But what is important is that the main event did, apparently, happen in a single day and based on the scientific data collected by Firestone et al, it was one of the most horrifying events ever to happen on planet earth since modern Homo-Sapiens appeared. Why do I keep referring to a 3600 year cycle? Well, in addition to having been explicated within the context of the Cassiopaean experiment, it seems that this 3600 year period was important enough to certain ancient peoples that it was the basis of their mathematics. Around 3,200 BC, the Sumerians devised their numerical notation system, giving special graphical symbols to the units 1, 10, 60, 600, 3,600. That is to say, we find that the Sumerians did not count in tens, hundreds and thousands, but rather adopted base 60, grouping things into sixties, and multiplying by powers of sixty. Our own civilization utilizes vestiges of base 60 in the ways we count time in hours, minutes and seconds, and in the degrees of the circle. Sixty is a large number to use as a base for a numbering system. It is taxing to the memory because it necessitates knowing sixty different signs (words) that stand for the numbers from 1 to 60. The Sumerians handled this by using 10 as an intermediary between the different sexagesimal orders of magnitude: 1, 60, 602, 603, etc. The word for 60, geš;, is the same as the word for unity. The number 60 represented a certain level, above which, multiples of 60 up to 600 were expressed by using 60 as a new unit. When they reached 600, the next level was treated as still another unit, with multiples up to 3,000. The number 3,600, or sixty sixties, was given a new name: šár, and this, in turn, became yet another new unit. So, the mystery is: why did the Sumerians enshrine the number 60 – and its multiple 60 X 60 – in their numbering system? Zecariah Sitchin believed that it was because there was a 10th planet in the solar system that had an orbit 3600 years long, and that they based their numbering system on the cycle of this event. But the evidence for the 10 planet – as a planet – and his related ideas, is rather skimpy, while the evidence for bombardment of the earth by masses of cometary debris is growing every day. Examining the hard data, it doesn’t take a genius to figure out that if there is something that returns every 3600 years, it is more likely to be a cluster of cosmic bodies than a 10th planet. And that is bad news. COMETS AND DISASTER IN THE BRONZE AGE At a certain point in our history, the major civilisations of the world collapsed, simultaneously it seems. The Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia, the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the Early Bronze Age civilisation in Israel, Anatolia and Greece, as well as the Indus Valley civilisation in India, the Hilmand civilisation in Afghanistan and the Hongshan Culture in China – the first urban civilisations in the world – all fell into ruin at more or less the same time. Not long afterward, in archaeological time, disaster overtook the Myceneans of Greece, the Hittites of Anatolia, the Egyptian New Kingdom, Late Bronze Age Israel, and the Shang Dynasty of China. The reasons for these widespread and apparently simultaneous disasters – which coincided also with changes of cultures and societies elsewhere, such as in Britain – have long been a fascinating mystery. Traditional explanations include warfare, famine, and more recently ‘system collapse’, but the apparent absence of direct archaeological or written evidence for causes, as opposed to the effects, has led many archaeologists and historians into a resigned assumption that no definite explanation can possibly be found. Some decades ago, the hunt for clues passed largely into the hands of natural scientists. Concentrating on the earlier set of Bronze Age collapses, researchers began to find a range of evidence that suggested that natural causes rather than human actions, may have been initially responsible. There began to be talk of climate change, volcanic activity, and earthquakes – and some of this material has now found its way into standard historical accounts of the period. Agreement, however, there has never been. Some researchers favoured one type of natural cause, others favoured another, and the problem remained that no single explanation appeared to account for all the evidence. Over the past 15 years or so, however, a new type of ‘natural disaster’ has been much discussed and is beginning to be regarded, by many scholars, as the most probable single explanation for widespread and simultaneous cultural collapse, but not only in the Bronze Age but at another times as well. The new theory has been advanced largely by astronomers, and remains almost completely unknown amongst archaeologists (a few notable exceptions include the dendrochronologist Prof Mike Baillie of Queen’s University, Belfast, and Dr Euan MacKie at Glasgow University). The new idea is that these massive cultural disasters were caused by the impact of comets or other types of cosmic debris on the Earth. Yet what was the cause of these earthquakes, eruptions, tidal waves, fire-blasts and climate changes? By the late 1970s, British astronomers Victor Clube and Bill Napier of Oxford University had begun to investigate cometary impact as the ultimate cause.. Then in 1980, the Nobel prizewinning physicist Luis Alvarez and his colleagues published their famous paper in Science that argued that a cosmic impact had led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. He showed that large amounts of the element iridium present in geological layers dating from about 65 million BC had a cosmic origin. Alvarez’s paper had immense influence and stimulated further research by such British astronomers as Clube and Napier, Prof Mark Bailey of the Armagh Observatory, Duncan Steel of Spaceguard Australia, and Britain’s best known astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle. All now support the theory of cometary impact and loosely form what is now known as the British School of Coherent Catastrophism. These scholars envisage trains of cometary debris which repeatedly encounter the Earth. We know that tiny particles of cosmic material penetrate the atmosphere every day, but their impact is insignificant. Occasionally, however, cosmic debris measuring between one and several hundred metres in diametre strike the Earth and these can have catastrophic effects on our ecological system, through multimegaton explosions of fireballs which destroy natural and cultural features on the surface of the Earth by means of tidal-wave floods (if the debris lands in the sea), fire blasts and seismic damage. Depending on their physical properties, asteroids or comets that punctuate the atmosphere can either strike the Earth’s surface and leave an impact crater, such as the well-known Barringer Crater in Arizona caused by an asteroid made of iron some 50,000 years ago. At least ten impact craters around the world dating from after the last Ice Age, and no fewer than seven of these date from around the 3rd millennium BC – the date of the widespread Early Bronze Age collapses – although none occurred in the Near East. Alternatively, comets and asteroids can explode in the air. A recent example – known as the Tunguska Event – occurred in 1908 over Siberia, when a bolide made of stone exploded about 5km above ground and completely devastated an area of some 2,000 km’ through fireball blasts. The cosmic body, although thought to have measured only 60 m across, had an impact energy of about 20 to 40 megaton, up to three times as great as the Arizona example (about 15 megaton), and was equivalent to the explosion of about 2,000 Hiroshima-size nuclear bombs – even though there was no actual physical impact on the Earth. Until recently, the astronomical mainstream was highly critical of Clube and Napier’s giant comet hypothesis. However, the crash of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 on Jupiter in 1994 has led to a change in attitudes. The comet, watched by the world’s observatories, was seen split into 20 pieces and slam into different parts of the planet over a period of several days. A similar impact on Earth, it hardly needs saying, would have been devastating. According to current knowledge, Tunguska-like impacts occur every 100 years or so. It is, therefore, not far fetched to hypothesize that a super-Tunguska may occur every 2000, 3000 or 5000 years and would be capable of triggering ecological crises on a continental or even global scale. In the past, skeptics have demanded the evidence of a crater before they would accept an argument of cosmic impact, but it is now become understood that no crater is necessary for disastrous consequences to ensue. The difficulty this leaves scholarship, however, is that in a Tunguska Event no direct evidence is left behind. It may be impossible to prove that one ever took place in the distant past. The extent to which past cometary impacts were responsible for civilisation collapse, cultural change, even the development of religion, must remain a hypothesis. But in view of the astronomical, geological and archaeological evidence, this ‘giant comet’ hypothesis should no longer be dismissed by archaeologists out of hand. [Dr Benny J Peiser: BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGY, December 1997, No 30, pp. 6-7. Dr Benny J Peiser is a historian and anthropologist at Liverpool John Moores University. With Mark Bailey and Trevor Palmer, he is editing “Natural Catastrophes during Bronze Age Civilisations” (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, in preparation) ] Among the many side-effects of cometary bombardments is earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. As it happens, there was a significant volcanic event at the time of the collapse of the Bronze Age civilizations that gives us a firmly fixed date: Thera. Recent developments published in the April 2006 issue of Science fix the date of the eruption between 1627 and 1600 B.C. with 95 % certainty. This, of course, is rejected by many archaeologists because they have spent their entire careers trying to date things according to the Bible, and it really upsets the apple cart to realize that they’ve been chasing an illusion. Yoshiyuki Fujii and Okitsugu Watanabe demonstrate that “large scale environmental changes possibly occurred in the Southern Hemisphere in the middle of the Holocene.” [Microparticle Concentration And Electrical Conductivity of A 700 m Ice Core from Mizuho Station Antarctic, published in Annals of Glaciology (1-, 1988) pp. 38-42] (Within the last 10,000 years). Their depth profiles of microparticle concentration, electrical conductivity and Oxygen 18 at circa 1600 BC indicates a spike in readings for all of these elements. The evidence shows that this disturbance covered this designated period, but with a “huge spike” at c. 1600 BC. Similar evidence exists at 5200 BC. This period shows less severe but similar climatological stress. The oxygen 18 profile is close to normal, but there is a visible volcanic dirt band. The dating of this segment is less close because it is clear that nobody is really looking for this cycle, but it appears to correspond to the ash band from the Byrd station core. [ cf. G. Cope Schellhorn, Ph.D.:Evidence of Cyclical Earth Changes, from When Men are Gods] In an article in Nature, November 1980, C.U. Hammer, H. B. Clausen and Dansgaard date a disturbance from the Camp Century ice core to 5470 BC +/- 120 years. This compares to the proposed Hekla eruption which was radiocarbon dated to 5450 BC +/- 190 years. There is an appreciably high acidity signal at these sections of the core which indicates a high level of volcanic activity – again, right at the 3600 year cycle mark. It is conjectured that the cycle goes unnoticed because of long-term after-effects, such as cooling climate, as well as the fact that each cycle has greater or lesser effects on the earth depending on the particular dynamical interactions within the solar system at any disruption. What is clear is that something happens at 3600 year intervals as shown by the ice cores, and is capable of setting off prolonged periods of earth changes that are above the levels of ordinary uniformitarian geologic and climatological changes. Looking further: Michel R. Legrand and Robert J. Delmas of Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Geophysique de l’Environment published an article “Soluble Impurities in Four Antarctic Ice Cores Over the Last 30,000 Years” [Annals of Glaciology (10, 1988, pp 116-120)], in which they graphed the Oxygen 18 variations and the ionic components Na,NH 4 and Ca2 and H and Cl and NO3 and SO4. The time scale for each ionic component level as well as the O18 levels stretches back 30,000 years. The graph shows correlations to spikes at 5,200 BC, 8,800 BC, 12,400 BC, c. 16,000 BC, c. 19,600 BC. All of these were times of great geologic stress. When looking at the data and taking into account the acknowledged dating inaccuracies (some of the ranges of dates can go 100 years in either direction of the spike, even though the spiking is regular and rhythmic) for the more recent dates, and 3 to 600 years variance for the older dates – especially when one considers that these are broad analyses and nobody was really looking for anything specific – they just said “wow! look at that wavy line!” – we find that the southern ice cores do not always register the same as the northern ones. The 1628 BC event that really slammed the tree rings in the northern hemisphere shows almost no registration in the Antarctic cores in terms of volcanic activity. But the northern cores show the activity beginning 1644 BC. The evidence for the 5200 BC event is strong in the Dome C core. The 8,800 BC event is well marked – in fact, seems to be the strongest of them all. Keep in mind that this was 10,800 years ago – exactly within the range of dates reported by Herodotus and Plato. The oxygen 18 isotope variation is noticeable, the rise in sea-salt, elevated levels of C1 and C1/Na. There is an extreme spike in SO4 and H readings suggesting widespread volcanic activity – great earth changes were happening at that time, and they registered in the climate, the oceans, and were preserved in ice. The 12,400 BC event is also extremely pronounced in the cores. The graphs show a quick, vast change including the end of the Wisconsin Ice Age. There is a great Oxygen 18 isotope variation as well as peaks of Na and very pronounced spikes in Ca, SO 4 and H. There is absolutely no question that the Santorini event occurred. The acid signal in the ice core is very strong. Which means that there is very little question about when it occurred. Something very unusual and specific happened then, starting in 1644, and culminating in a major cataclysm, and it seems that it walked all over the Aegean and Anatolian area, leaving tracks that are impossible to miss. Impossible for anyone, that is, except Egyptologists and their kin. All over the Mediterranean there were kingdoms and cultures that communicated and traded with one another. Reading the many books on each region, produced by the various experts on the different cultures, again and again one encounters the fact that a period of severe disruption was noted in the historical and archaeological record. Somehow, such an event in one region is not necessarily connected to a similar event in another region. The idea that all of the disruptions in a given general time period may be simultaneous cannot be considered because it would disrupt the carefully constructed chronology that is based on endless acts of tetraphyloctomy. [Splitting a hair four ways; coined by Umberto Eco in Foucault’s Pendulum]. In his book Stratigraphic Comparée et Chronologie de l’Asie Occidentale, [London, Oxford University Press, 1948] Claude Shaeffer’s lifelong archaeological investigations led him to propose that a great natural catastrophe brought about the end of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, and also devastated by fire and earthquake almost every other populated region of Crete, Cyprus, the Caucasus, Syria, Palestine, Persia, and Asia Minor in general. That’s one heck of a “local event.” It is only logical to conclude that the Santorini event and the end of the Middle Bronze Age are one and the same event. And it happened a little over 3,600 years ago. In other words, we are overdue. Now, let’s come back to what I mentioned above about being half-way through a 26 million year Companion Star orbit. We really have no idea where the theorized critter is or what it is up to, but we do have some clues. But the first question we want to ask is what is the relation between this companion star – Nemesis – and extinction? How can a star, way out beyond the solar system, have an effect on the third rock from the sun? Far beyond the orbit of Pluto lies the Oort cloud. Click on the above image to study the larger copy. The solar system is engulfed by this cloud comprised of billions of comets. Imagine what would happen if a star passed through that cloud, knocking the comets in the same way a bowling ball sends bowling pins scattering in all directions. Imagine then a certain number of those comets heading towards the centre of the cloud, our sun and its solar system. The sun, being the largest object in the neighborhood, would be the attraction point. The comets in the incoming cloud would be pulled into an orbit around the sun. Although no direct observations have been made of such a cloud, it is believed to be the source of most or all comets entering the inner solar system (some short-period comets may come from the Kuiper belt), based on observations of the orbits of comets. So far, only one potential Oort cloud object has been discovered; 90377 Sedna. With an orbit that ranges from roughly 76 to 928 AU, it is much closer than originally expected and may belong to an “inner” Oort cloud. If Sedna indeed belongs to the Oort cloud, this may mean that the Oort cloud is both denser and closer to the Sun than previously thought. So, we have a mechanism which can hypothetically trigger the launching of a swarm of comets into the solar system. The orbit of the proposed binary twin of our sun conforms to the cycles of major extinctions on Earth. But it is still a hypothesis. More importantly, you might ask, even if we assign a high probability to the truth of the hypothesis, if these cycles happen every 26 million years, what evidence do we have that we are alive during one of the, shall we say, unlucky periods? One of the corollaries of the Nemesis theory is that the dark companion might well become visible as a second sun in the sky when it was closest to the sun. Is there any evidence that might suggest that people have ever seen a “second sun”? In her book Comets and Popular Culture and the Birth of Modern Cosmology, Sara J. Schechner writes: The sunny disposition of the weather during the coronation (of Charles II) was seen as the fulfillment of a prophecy. In 1630, at the time of Charles’ birth, a noonday star or rival sun allegedly had appeared in the sky. Aurelian Cook in Titus Britannicus explained its import: ‘As soon as Born, Heaven took notice of him, and eyed him with a star, appearing in defiance of the Sun at Noonday….’ For Cook, the extra sun announced that Charles ruled by divine right. Moreover, the timing of Charles’ entry into London on his birthday was politically calculated to fulfill what had been portended at his birth. Abraham Cowley, poet, diplomat and spy for the court wrote: ‘No Star amongst ye all did, I believe, Such Vigorous assistance give, As that which thirty years ago, At Charls his Birth, did in despight of the proud Suns’ Meridian Light, His future Glories, this Year foreshow. Edward Matthew devoted an entire book to the fulfillment of the prophecy declaring Charles “ordained to be the most Mighty Monarch in the Universe…” Charles’ return was seen as a rebirth of England and duly recorded by a special act in the statute book, which proclaimed that 29 May was the most memorable Birth day not only of his Majesty both as a man and Prince, but likewise as an actual King… Well, that certainly sounds like it fits the bill: 377 years ago a second sun appeared and no one, so far as I know, has ever linked this to either a comet or a supernova. Interestingly, it was followed thirty years later by the sighting of several comets. But the 17th century was interesting for another anomaly involving our sun: the Maunder Minimum. Between the years 1645 and 1715, our sun stayed in a period of solar minimum. During one 30-year period within the Maunder Minimum, for example, astronomers observed only about 50 sunspots, as opposed to a more typical 40,000 – 50,000 spots. The Maunder Minimum coincided with the middle — and coldest part — of the so-called Little Ice Age, during which Europe and North America, and perhaps much of the rest of the world, were subjected to bitterly cold winters. Recently published research suggests that the Sun’s rotation slowed in the deep Maunder minimum (1666-1700).[1] At our current level of understanding of solar physics, a larger and slower Sun necessarily implies a cooler Sun that provides less heat to Earth. Perhaps the close approach, astronomically speaking, of the dark companion was the cause of this dampening. The lower solar activity during the Maunder Minimum also affected the amount of cosmic radiation reaching the Earth. The resulting change in the production of carbon-14 during that period caused an inaccuracy in radiocarbon dating until this effect was discovered. In total, carbon 14 analysis as well as tree rings and ice core studies indicate there seem to have been 18 periods of sunspot minima in the last 8,000 years, and studies indicate that the sun currently spends up to a quarter of its time in these minima. We can only speculate at the moment whether these cycles have a relationship to our dark companion and/or its cometary children. Returning to our hypothesis, if we are correct, the dark star was seen 377 years ago. If it was in fact the companion, Nemesis, then the comets heading to the inner solar system should be heading our way. Depending on their locations and orbits in the Oort cloud, there would be variable groups – variable both in size and arrival time. Is there any evidence for this? The third edition of the university textbook Exploration of the Universe, by George O. Abell, published in 1975, informs us that Jupiter has 9 moons as of 1974. It says: The outer seven, however, have rather eccentric orbits, some of which have a large inclination to Jupiter’s equator. The four most distant satellites revolve from east to west, contrary to the motions of most of the other objects in the solar system. They may be former minor planets captured by Jupiter. Please note that Abell is suggesting that some of Jupiter’s moons have been captured by Jupiter’s gravity. Now let’s time travel back to the future, and see what the latest information tells us about Jupiter’s moons: Jupiter is now given 63 satellites. Forty-seven of those satellites have been discovered since 1999. What if they weren’t there before? What about Saturn. Our 1975 text tells us that Saturn has 10 satellites. Well, there are so many that one source declines to give a precise number! However, counting the named satellites on the Timeline of discovery of solar system planets and their natural satellites gives us a count of 62, with 41 being discovered since 2000 and another ten in the 80’s and 90’s. Moving outward, we come to Uranus, given five satellites in 1975, it now has 28, with ten being discovered in the 1980’s, six in the 90’s, and 7 since 2000. Neptune had two satellites in 1975, now it has 13. Table 1. Number of moons The explanation given most often to explain this surge in the numbers of satellites for these planets is that telescopes have gotten better. That is, we can see further, with greater detail, and can therefore find things that we couldn’t see before. It is an explanation that makes sense. One small problem with this theory is that the “new” moons of Neptune and Uranus showed up before the new moons of Jupiter and Saturn. One would think that powerful telescopes capable of finding moons as far away as the seventh and eighth planets would have found the hard to see moons of the fifth and sixth first. Another possible explanation, and one which fits with new moons appearing around Neptune and Uranus prior to appearing around Jupiter and Saturn, is that these new moons, or some of them, are objects that have been trapped into orbits around these planets only recently, that they were captured by the gravity of these planets and removed from the incoming comet cloud. Passing the orbits of the outer planets first, they would arrive at the inner planets afterward. We also note that the much derided Immanuel Velikovsky, in his book Worlds in Collision, gives a time frame of nine years as the time it would take for a comet to cover the distance between Jupiter and Earth. The new Jovian moons were discovered beginning in the late nineties. Do the math. Which brings us to a series of local stories that give impact a less than metaphoric meaning. Friday, February 16, the SOTT page brought us this story: Strange noise might have been meteor By JIM SABIN City Editor NEWARK — Something happened at around 9 p.m. Wednesday that a lot of people heard, or even felt. What it was, though, might forever remain a mystery. “It” was a loud bang, something loud enough to be heard across southern and central Ohio, and loud enough to make small objects move in houses. Reports have rolled into The Advocate from Hanover to Heath, from Buckeye Lake to Granville, and NBC4 heard reports from Muskingum, Fairfield and Pickaway counties. Rumors range from an earthquake to a meteor strike, a sonic boom to something ice-related. Jeff Gill, of Granville, said he saw a meteor with a relatively long trail, with red, green and gold coloration. It was headed east to west and lasted about three seconds; after it faded, the sonic boom washed over him, he said. “I saw it first. It was the most eerie, cool, scary, wonderful thing. You just see this dragon tail going across the sky,” said Gill, who also writes a religion column for The Advocate. “All of a sudden, everything goes boom.” The reports came in from Ohio to New Jersey. Notice the reference to the dragon tail. Could reports of meteorites be the basis for some of the ancient myths about dragons fighting in the sky? Check out Mike Baillie’s book Exodus to Arthur for more on that subject. Some weeks ago, while much of the United States was watching the XLI Super Bowl, some people in the Midwest were being treated to a different type of spectacle: Local residents witness meteor’s flaming flash. If you saw a bright light with a flaming tail plummeting to earth Sunday night, you may have seen a minor meteor shower, according to reports in Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa. James T. Luedke of Ripon said he was driving in Green Lake County between 7:30 and 8 p.m. Sunday when he saw a “half-dollar sized flaming ball falling at a rapid speed to the earth” in the southern sky. He described it as a round, orange flaming ball with a blue/green tail. Kay Diederich of St. Cloud was driving out of the village about 7:50 p.m. with a friend when they saw a “ball of fire” shooting to the south. “It almost looked like a plane crash,” she said. Her friend is an EMT and she listened to her scanner, but no reports came in. People across the Midwest reported seeing balls of fire streaking across the sky Sunday night, according to state news reports. A preliminary report does indicate the objects came from a meteor. Most reports described the objects as bright lights with a flaming tail. Several of the objects were seen exploding when they hit the ground, according to WEAU. Sightings were reported from Minnesota through Missouri and east through Illinois. Then we have this report on February 7, 2007 from the United Kingdom: Meteor lights up the sky. By Rachel Pegg The Argus A meteor has been spotted falling to the Earth. The shooting star was engulfed in bright flames as it shot towards the ground over Hangleton, Hove, at about 8.15pm yesterday. Not to mention a report from Turkey: Meteorite lands in Didim Friday, February 02 Voices POLICE were inundated with calls from scores of people from Didim to Bodrum after they heard a big bang and a flash of light across the skies. Despite officers being unable to explain the flashing green, yellow and red lights, Voices has solved the phenomena. It was not a UFO but a meteorite which crash through the earth’s atmosphere and landed in Yeşilkent. A startled Abdullah Arıtűrk revealed that the rock had smashed a hole in the ground at the Green Park Complex, at Yeşilkent, narrowly missing him by ten metres. Police reported that people from Bodrum, Milas and Didim had heard a bang and seen the flashing light across the skies at about 5.30pm on Thursday (Jan 31). Mr Arıtűrk said: “I thought this was it. I thought it was the apocalypse. I saw the bang and the flashing lights and this rock smashed into the ground quite near me. It was very frightening.” After telling the Voices of his story, Mr Arıtűrk is now awaiting scientists from Aegean University, in İzmir, to take the meteorite away for closer examination. Fortunately, no one was hurt with these meteors, but people in India weren’t so lucky: Three Killed In Suspected Meteorite Fall In India’s Rajasthan February 8th 2007 Three people were killed and four injured in a mysterious blast in a village in India’s northern Rajasthan state Thursday that villagers claim was caused by a meteorite, news reports said. Residents of Banchola village in Bundi district, about 200 kilometres south of Rajasthan capital Jaipur, said the victims were sitting with some iron scrap in an open field when an “object” fell from the sky and hit them, IANS news agency reported. “The matter is under investigation. We know that there was a blast but looking at the crater it does not seem that it happened due to a meteorite,” a Bundi police official was quoted as saying by IANS. He said the crater was just 8-10 inches in diameter and two inches deep. A team from the state-run forensic science laboratory in Jaipur was collecting evidence from the site, the official said. Then there was the meteorite that crashed into a house in New Jersey recently and embedded itself in the wall: Possible Meteorite Crashes Through New Jersey Roof By Chris Newmarker Associated Press posted: 4 January 2007 Freehold Township, New Jersey – Authorities were trying to identify a mysterious metallic object that crashed through the roof of a house in eastern New Jersey. Nobody was injured when the golf-ball sized object, weighing nearly as much as a can of soup, struck the home and embedded itself in a wall Tuesday night. Federal officials sent to the scene said it was not from an aircraft. The rough-surfaced object, with a metallic glint, was displayed Wednesday by police. “There’s some great interest in what we have here,” said Lt. Robert Brightman. “It’s rather unusual. I haven’t seen anything like it in my career.” He said he hoped to have the object identified within 72 hours, but declined to name the other agencies whose help he has enlisted. Approximately 20 to 50 rock-like objects fall every day over the entire planet, said Carlton Pryor, a professor of astronomy at Rutgers University. “It’s not all that uncommon to have rocks rain down from heaven,” said Pryor, who had not seen the object that struck the Monmouth County home. “These are usually rocky or a mixture of rock and metal.” And the cottage destroyed by a meteorite in Germany in October 2006: German cottage destroyed by meteor . Reuters October 20, 2006 BERLIN (Reuters) – A fire that destroyed a cottage near Bonn and injured a 77-year-old man was probably caused by a meteor and witnesses saw an arc of blazing light in the sky, German police said on Friday. Burkhard Rick, a spokesman for the police in Siegburg east of Bonn, said the fire gutted the cottage and badly burnt the man’s hands and face in the incident on October 10. “We sought assistance from Bochum observatory and they noted that at that particular moment the earth was near a field of meteoroid splinter and it could be assumed that particles had entered the atmosphere,” he said. “The particles usually don’t reach the surface because they disintegrate in the atmosphere,” he added. “But some can make it to the ground. We believe this was a bolide (meteoric fireball) with a size of no more than 10 mm.” And the falling ice that hit a car in Florida: Mysterious, Large Ice Chunk Falls on Tampa Man’s Car. TAMPA, FL (AP) — Raymond Rodriguez was changing a tire when an 18-inch chunk of ice plummeted from the sky with a piercing whistle, then a metallic crunch. The ice chunk crushed the roof of a nearby Ford Mustang on Sunday morning. No one was hurt. “I was scared,” Rodriguez said, who was only feet away. “It’s crazy, man.” The Federal Aviation Administration is reviewing flight schedules to see if the ice fell off a plane. The ice did not have a blue tint that would indicate it came from a plane’s lavatory. The National Weather Service said conditions in Tampa were not favorable for the formation of large balls of ice, known as megacryometeors. “It’s not an act of God,” said Carlos Javage, whose son’s car was wrecked by the mystery ice. “This came off an airplane.” So, what are we to make of this sudden appearance of so many “once in a lifetime” meteors across the globe? Anything? Coincidence? Or something else? Let’s put together an overview of the data we have been collecting and outline the working hypothesis that we have to explain it. It isn’t very hopeful, we’ll tell you that right at the start. It may well make Tunguska look like a firecracker in comparison. The blast at Tunguska has been described thusly: The explosion was probably caused by the air burst of a meteorite or comet 6 to 10 kilometers (4-6 mi) above the Earth’s surface. The energy of the blast was later estimated to be between 10 and 15 megatons of TNT, which would be equivalent to Castle Bravo, the most powerful nuclear bomb ever detonated by the US. It felled an estimated 60 million trees over 2,150 square kilometers (830 sq mi). The Binary System We look out at our sky and we see only one sun. We naturally conclude that our star system includes only the sun. However, binary star systems are very frequent. There is an hypothesis that argues that our sun is part of such a binary system. The sun’s hypothetical companion has been named, as mentioned above, “Nemesis”. The projected orbit of Nemesis is 26 million years, give or take the time necessary for the rising and falling of several civilizations. Studies of the fossil record by Dave Raup and Jack Sepkoski have shown that there is a cyclic repetition to periods of extinction. The Nemesis theory was drawn up to explain the extinction cycle. We can offer no proof for the working hypothesis outlined above. We are working on a limited data set. The most that we can say is that an argument can be made suggesting the following scenario: The sun’s dark companion, on its 26 million year orbit, came close to the solar system 377 years ago, showing itself and pushing in front of it comets, a few of which appeared thirty years after the 1630 showing of the dark star itself. The passage of the companion through the Oort cloud dragging hundreds of thousands of other bodies in its wake, swung around in its orbit, and flung a swarm of them our way, travelling now for nearly four hundred years. Members of that swarm have been picked off by the gravitational fields of the outer planets, increasing the numbers of moons in recent years. If the swarm has passed by Jupiter, then it may be arriving here very soon. Are the articles pulled from papers around the world over the last few months the announcement of their arrival? One final point. There have been reports that Earth is not the only planet being hit by “global warming”. Might it be possible that this apparently widespread change of “climate” in the solar system is linked to an incoming comet cloud? We do not know and are sorely lacking in the means to acquire data to refine or reject the working hypothesis. Perhaps someone else out there does have the means. Whatever the explanation for a generalized warming of several planets, it is clear that we know very little about the fundamental mechanisms behind it. We are a speck in the universe, a drop in an ocean more vast, more complex, and more mysterious than we can imagine. To close, I want to quote from the final pages of The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: Flood, Fire, and Famine in the History of Civilization because the words there should have meaning for all of us. NOT-SO-HARMLESS SHOOTING STARS If you want more evidence for what happened to the mammoths, you need only to look up at the clear night sky. In almost any month, you can see shooting stars from one of many meteor showers. Nearly every fiery streak you see is the tiny remnant of some giant comet that broke up into smaller pieces. Of course, most of those pieces are microscopic, but their parent comet was not – it was enormous. Astronomers know that, even today, hidden in those cosmic clouds of tiny remnants, there are some huge chunks of comet pieces. We pass through their clouds every year like clockwork, so eventually we will collide with some of bigger pieces. In 1990, Victor Clube, an astrophysicist, and Bill Napier, an astronomer, published The Cosmic Winter, a book in which they describe performing orbital analyses of several of the meteor showers that hit Earth every year. Using sophisticated computer software, they carefully looked backward for thousands of years, tracing the orbits of comets, asteroids, and meteor showers until they uncovered something astounding. Many meteor showers are related to one another, such as the Taurids, Perseids, Piscids, and Orionids. In addition, some very large cosmic objects are related: the comets Encke and Rudnicki, the asteroids Oljato, Hephaistos, and about 100 others. Every one of those 100-plus cosmic bodies is at least a half-mile in diameter and some are miles wide. And what do they have in common? According to those scientists, every one is the offspring of the same massive comet that first entered our system less than 20,000 years ago! Clube and Napier calculated that, to account for all the debris they found strewn throughout our solar system, the original comet had to have been enormous. So was this our megafauna killer? All the known facts fit. The comet may have ridden in on the supernova wave, [or was knocked into the solar system by the Companion Star – LKJ] then gone into orbit around the sun less than 20,000 years ago; or, if it was already here, the supernova debris wave may have knocked it into an Earth-crossing orbit. Either way, any time we look up into the night sky at a beautiful, dazzling display of shooting stars, there is an ominous side to that beauty. We are very likely seeing the leftover debris from a monster comet that finished off 40 million animals 12 to 13,000 years ago. Clube and Napier also calculated that, because of subtle changes in the orbits of Earth and the remaining cosmic debris, Earth crosses through the densest part of the giant comet clouds about every 2 ,000 to 4,000 years [or 3,600 years?]. When we look at climate and ice-core records, we can see that pattern. For example the iridium, helium-3, nitrate, ammonium, and other key measurements seem to rise and fall in tandem, producing noticeable peaks around 18,000, 16,000, 13,000, 9,000, 5,000, and 2,000 years ago. In that pattern of peaks every 2,000 to 4,000 years, we may be seeing the “calling cards” of the returning mega-comet. Fortunately, the oldest peaks were the heaviest bombardments, and things have been getting quieter since then, as the remains of the comet break up into even smaller pieces The danger is not past, however. Some of the remaining miles-wide pieces are big enough to do serious damage to our cities, climate, and global economy. Clube and Napier (1984) predicted that in the year 2000 and continuing for 400 years, Earth would enter another dangerous time in which the planet’s changing orbit would bring us into a potential collision course with the densest parts of the clouds containing some very large debris. Twenty years after their prediction, we have just now moved into the danger zone. It is a widely accepted fact that some of those large objects are in Earth-crossing orbits at this very moment, and the only uncertainty is whether they will miss us, as is most likely, or whether they will crash into some part of our planet. That may seem like bad news, but there is a glimmer of good news too. For the first time in human kind’s known history, we have ways to detect those objects and prevent them from hitting us again. One such effort is Project Spaceguard, a multinational cooperative attempting to locate those Earth threatening objects, and other similar programs include the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) telescope and the Spacewatch Project at the University of Arizona. Unfortunately, not one of them is funded nearly well enough to complete the job for many years, bur they are working at it steadily. No one knows exactly how many dangerous comets and asteroids are out there, but astronomers are certain that hundreds to thousands of them remain undiscovered. The worst part is that many of those space objects are so dark and difficult to see that they are nearly invisible until they come very close, and by then it is too late. It is certain that one of these monsters is on a collision course with Earth – we just do not know the details. Is it days from now or hundreds of years from now? Even if we were sure one was coming, there is just very little that we can do about it currently. We are years away from being able to control our own destiny as it relates to supernovae and giant comets and asteroids, but scientists are working on solutions. This is not a high priority with the world’s governments, however, which typically prefer to confront terrestrial threats rather than cosmic ones. To prevent one of those giant objects from smashing into us, collectively, we spend about $10 to $20 million annually, an amount less than the cost of one or two sophisticated fighter jets. Almost no money is spent trying to detect imminent supernovae [or comets]. Our politicians are seriously underestimating these severe threats, which are capable of ending our species, just as they snuffed out the mammoths a mere 13,000 years ago, only an eye blink in cosmic terms. There are few threats of that magnitude facing us today. The survival of the human race is not seriously threatened by the avian flu, Al Qaeda attacks, the end of the Age of Oil, monster hurricanes, giant earthquakes, or enormous tsunamis; if any of those occur, most of us will continue with our lives. Furthermore, nothing on that list is broadly accepted as having caused worldwide extinctions in the past. The same cannot be said about supernovae and massive [cometary] impacts. Those two cosmic events are implicated in many of the largest extinctions on our planet over the last millions of years. Fortunately, we survived them, but many of our fellow species did not. Humankind might not survive the next one. It seems reasonable to forgo several of our military fighter jets each year to decrease our chances of being” nuked” from space by a supernova or a comet. So, indeed, humanity has passed its “extinct by” date and, as it was in the days of Noah… They did eat, they drank, they married wives, they were given in marriage, until the day that Noe entered into the ark, and the flood came, and destroyed them all. Likewise also as it was in the days of Lot; they did eat, they drank, they bought, they sold, they planted, they builded; But the same day that Lot went out of Sodom it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all. SOTT posted an article from Ivan Eland where he said: Spending all that money to combat a threat that is as rare as a catastrophic comet hitting the United States makes little sense. If NASA were able to use the same scare tactics as DHS, perhaps the space agency could persuade a reluctant Congress to give it the paltry $1 billion (by comparison) for its equally absurd Spaceguard Survey program, which tracks asteroids and comets that have an equal probability of killing Americans as terrorists do. As you can see from the article above, Mr Eland knows not of what he speaks. But how many people on the planet do? How many of your fellow citizens have any idea that the human species has passed its due date? Think about that the next time you see a shooting star or read about a fireball in the newspaper…
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Zaboravite na globalno zatopljenje, na jedan korak smo od izumiranja! Često, neke od najvažnijih vijesti dolaze iz lokalnih novina, priče koje ne završe na vrhu hranidbenog lanca informativnih tokova, glavnih novina ili noćnih vijesti. To mogu biti vijesti koje na prvi pogled izgledaju kao da nemaju nacionalni ili internacionalni utjecaj. Drugi pogled, te dobro pamćenje, mogu otkriti da taj utjecaj može biti jako značajan. Neki dan nam je čitatelj poslao link članka kojeg je našao na drugoj web stranici alternativnih vijesti: Loše vijesti – mi smo prošli naš datum ‘za izumiranje’. Budući da smo objavili istu priču kad je prvi put izašla, pomislili smo “Da! Sjećamo se!” Uostalom, sa svom pričom o globalnom zatopljenju, poslužila je kao podsjetnik čitateljima da ljudski uzrokovane razine CO2 nisu sve ono što se danas događa ovdje na Velikoj plavoj kugli. Kasnije navečer, razgovarali smo ovdje u SOTT sjedištu o ovom članku i kako je povezan s knjigom koja se trenutno prenosi iz ruke u ruku ovdje u našoj kući: Ciklus kozmičkih katastrofa: poplave, vatra i glad u povijesti civilizacije koju su napisali Richard Firestone, Allen West i Simon Warwick-Smith. Ta knjiga je o “Događaju” koji se dogodio otprilike prije 12 000 godina, a koji je različito zabilježen u mitovima i legendama kao Pad Atlantide i Noina poplava. Platon opisuje uništenje koje se dogodilo u jedan dan i noć, a Biblija pripovijeda priču o obilnim pljuskovima i ogromnoj poplavi u kojoj je većina života na zemlji iščezla. Postoji također bogata literatura američkih domorodaca o kataklizmi požara diljem svijeta, praćenoj poplavama i smrti koja je padala s neba. Oko pedeset različitih kultura svijeta je zabilježilo verzije ove priče, a fizičar Firestone i njegovi suradnici geolozi su zajedno složili knjigu, baziranu na čvrstim znanstvenim dokazima, opisujući kozmički lanac događaja za koji vjeruju da je dosegnuo vrhunac globalnom katastrofom prije 12 000 godina. Vjeruju da je Događaj pokrenula obližnja supernova koja se dogodila prije 41 000 godina. Redoviti čitatelji SOTT.net-a su upoznati s mojom Cassiopaea web stranicom i eksperimentom u superluminalnoj komunikaciji koji sam započela 1992. godine, a koji je napokon urodio plodom 1994. godine na dan kada su fragmenti kometa Shoemaker-Levy počeli udarati u planet Jupiter. Zanimljivo nam je kako je istovremeno jedna od tema Kasiopejskih informacija planetarno uništenje skupinom kometa koji ciklički prolaze kroz solarni sustav svakih 3600 godina kao posljedica orbite našeg Sunčevog solarnog Pratioca, manjeg, tamnog, Sunčevog blizanca. Firestone, West i Warwick-Smith također pričaju o bombardiranju planeta Zemlje doslovno tisućama asteroida, kometa i drugih krhotina, iako oni to pripisuju supernovi 28 ili 29 tisuća godina ranije; toliko dugo je trebalo onome što je izbacila supernova – zajedno s krhotinama koje je izbacila iz Oortova oblaka – da stigne do Zemlje. S idejom da postoji Ciklus kometarnog bombardiranja, mi smo naravno obratili pozornost na činjenicu da je u zadnjih nekoliko godina porastao broj dokaza da je ova teorija vrlo vjerojatno i točna. Dokazi uključuju fantastičan porast u broju “mjeseca” pričvršćenih za Jupiter koji su nedavno “otkriveni”, kao i porast u učestalosti kometa u zadnjih nekoliko godina, zajedno sa zapanjujućim porastom meteora i vatrenih kugli koje ulaze u Zemljinu atmosferu i padaju na Zemlju. U nekim slučajevima, ovi događaji su rezultirali u nanošenju štete ljudskim bićima i njihovoj imovini, a jedan noviji slučaj je čak rezultirao smrtnim slučajevima kao što ćemo vidjeti u nastavku… Uglavnom, da se vratimo našem razgovoru o čovječanstvu koje je prošlo datum “izumiranja”, razmišljala sam da svatko s otvorenim očima i ušima i malo znanstvenog znanja može pogledati uokolo i vidjeti da se nešto događa “tamo vani”. U vijestima je svaki dan, samo trebate potražiti (ili čitati SOTT.net: mi tražimo za vas). Problem je, naravno, da su mase čovječanstva tako ometane svim brigama svakodnevnog života – mnoge koje su jako ozbiljne ovih dana, posebice prijetnja nuklearnim ratom koju su nam donijeli George W. Bush i Ciokoni – da mnogi od njih nemaju pojma da se vjerojatno ne trebaju brinuti o globalnom zatopljenju. (I samo zato što ja kažem da se ljudi ne trebaju brinuti o globalnom zatopljenju ne znači da se ne trebaju brinuti!) Dokazi koji su svuda oko nas danas, čak nam pomažu da shvatimo da nije bilo ničeg zaista magičnog ili misterioznog oko Noine priče. Biblija nam kaže da je Bog rekao Noi da se nešto događa, da nešto dolazi, te da bi on trebao izgraditi arku i to će omogućiti njemu, njegovoj obitelji i nekolicini životinja da prežive. Ali očito, ovih dana i u ovom vremenu, nama zaista ne treba Bog da nam kaže da nešto opako ide prema nama. Noi vjerojatno isto nije trebalo. Zatim mi je, naravno, bilo istaknuto to da su mi Cs (skraćeno od Cassiopaeans – Kasiopejci, op. prev.) rekli o ciklusu kometarnih katastrofa. Razmislila sam o tome na trenutak i rekla, “pa, djelomično”. Ja jesam pisala o svemu tome u mojoj knjizi The Noah Syndrome 1985. godine, mnogo prije nego što su se Cs odgovarajuće predstavili. (Ova knjiga nije bila objavljena do trenutka pisanja ovog članka, ali veliki dio nje je uklopljen u knjigu Secret History.) Naravno, u to vrijeme sam započela s potpuno metafizičkim pitanjem: “Hoće li biti kraj svijeta kakav je opisan u Bibliji, te ako je tako, što to zapravo znači?” To je bilo pitanje koje je vodilo do dubokog proučavanja Biblije, koje je zatim dovelo do spoznaje da je uništenje koje je opisano u knjizi Otkrivenja skoro identično onome što je opisano u priči Izlaska, te što god se dogodilo tada, bilo je predviđeno da će se dogoditi ponovno. Tek kad sam pročitala knjigu Velikovskog – Worlds in Collision, shvatila sam da se tu vrlo vjerojatno radilo o bombardiranju Zemlje kamenjem i meteorima iz svemira. Velikovsky je, naravno, to pripisao lutajućem planetu Veneri koji je uletio u solarni sustav, kao što je i Firestone (i drugi) to pripisao supernovi koja se dogodila prije 41 000 godina. Objašnjenje o cikličnoj skupini kometa povezanoj sa Sunčevim pratiocem se bolje uklapa u sve te podatke, iako bi i supernova također mogla biti uključena kao “pridošlica” Sunčevom sustavu. Čitanje Velikovskog promijenilo je okus mog istraživanja iz metafizičkog u znanstveno, a rezultat je bio The Noah Syndrome. U svakom slučaju, ono što je savršeno jasno je da su priče o Noi i Atlantidi neautentične: mnoge male grupe ljudi diljem svijeta su tu i tamo preživjele događaj od prije 12 000 godina, a vrlo vjerojatno je mnogo od njih preživjelo zato što su shvatili što dolazi – oni su “pročitali znakove”. Nakon toga, u svojim pričama i legendama njihovi potomci su pripisali njihovo preživljavanje intervenciji svojeg specifičnog božanstva kako bi dali tom božanstvu više autoriteta. Radi se o tome da – danas svi mogu biti Noa ako su informirani i ako obraćaju dovoljno pažnje na ono što se događa. Vratimo se na članak koji je započeo ovu raspravu: Loše vijesti – mi smo prošli naš datum ‘izumiranja’, u kojem nam je rečeno: Neki kažu da će svršetak svijeta biti u vatri, neki kažu u ledu, napisao je Robert Frost. Ali kakva god da će biti naša sudbina, već se trebalo dogoditi. Nakon što su analizirali istrebljenje milijuna drevnih vrsta, znanstvenici su saznali da se masovno izumiranje može dogoditi svakog trenutka. Njihovo istraživanje je pokazalo da su svakih 62 milijuna godina – plus ili minus 3 milijuna godina – bića izbrisana s površine našeg planeta u ogromnim brojevima. Još gore, znanstvenici nemaju pojma o izvoru tog događaja. ‘Nema sumnje u postojanje ovog ciklusa masovnog izumiranja svakih 62 milijuna godina. To je vrlo, vrlo očito iz analize fosilnih zapisa,’ rekao je James Kirchner, profesor sa Sveučilišta u Kaliforniji, Berkeley, SAD. ‘Nažalost, svi smo potpuno zbunjeni oko uzroka.’ Ovaj dio članka je zapravo prilično neiskren. Dobro je poznato da postoje druga velika izumiranja i da ciklus nije SAMO svakih 62 milijuna godina! Postoji također vrlo jak signal za ciklus izumiranja od 25 milijuna godina. Drugačije procjene broja velikih masovnih izumiranja u zadnjih 540 milijuna godina su većinom zbog onoga što pojedini istraživač odabere kao prag za nazivanje događaja izumiranja kao “veliko”, kao i koji skup podataka on odabere kao odlučujuću mjeru o raznovrsnosti prošlosti. Podaci o događaju prije 62 milijuna godina dolaze uglavnom preko dokaza iz morskih fosila. Izvještaj koji je objavljen u trenutnom izdanju časopisa Nature su iznijeli profesor Richard Muller i Robert Rohde, također s Berkeley kampusa. Proučavali su nestanke tisuća različitih morskih vrsta (čiji su fosili bolje očuvani nego oni zemaljskih vrsta) kroz zadnjih 500 milijuna godina. Njihovi rezultati su bili potpuno neočekivani. Zna se da su se masovna izumiranja događala u prošlosti. Tijekom permskog izumiranja, prije 250 milijuna godina, više od 70 posto svih vrsta je izbrisano, na primjer. Ali većina istraživanja je sugerirala da su ta izumiranja povezana s asteroidnim sudarima i drugim nasumičnim događajima. Ali Muller i Rohde su saznali da se, daleko od toga da je nepredvidivo, masovna izumiranja događaju svakih 62 milijuna godina, uzorak koji je ‘upečatljiv i uvjerljiv’ po riječima Kirchnera. Ali što je odgovorno? Ovdje su istraživači naišli na probleme. Razmotrili su prolazak Sunčevog sustava kroz oblake plina koji prožimaju galaksiju. Ovi oblaci bi mogli pokrenuti klimatski kaos. Međutim, ne postoji poznati mehanizam koji bi objasnio zašto bi se prolazak mogao događati samo svakih 62 milijuna godina. Alternativno, Sunce možda posjeduje neotkrivenu zvijezdu pratioca. Mogla bi se približiti Suncu svakih 62 milijuna godina, istjerujući komete iz vanjskog Sunčevog sustava i bacajući ih prema Zemlji. Takva zvijezda pratioc nikad nije viđena, međutim, u svakom slučaju bi takva dugačka orbita bila nestabilna, Muller kaže. Ili možda neki unutarnji geofizički ciklus pokreće masivnu vulkansku aktivnost svakih 62 milijuna godina, pitali su se Muller i Rohde. Oblaci pepela i plina bi tada okružili planet i doveli do razarajućeg pada temperature koja bi smrtno smrznula većinu bića. Nažalost, znanstvenici ne znaju za takav geološki ciklus. ‘Pokušali smo sve čega smo se mogli sjetiti kako bi našli objašnjenje za ove čudne cikluse bioraznovrsnosti i izumiranja’, rekao je Muller. ‘Za sada smo neuspješni. I, da, jedan nam slijedi uskoro, ali ja još ne bih paničario.’ Pa, oni imaju problem, zar ne? Oni misle da dolazi, te bazirano na drevnim legendama, to se dogodi jako brzo i skoro bez upozorenja. Klasičnih “Velikih pet” masovnih izumiranja koje su identificirali Raup i Sepkoski 1982. godine (zanimljivo, u skoro isto vrijeme kada sam počela postavljati pitanja o kraju svijeta kao što je prorokovano u Otkrivenju i što je doseglo vrhunac u The Noah Syndrome 1985. godine!) su široko prihvaćeni kao neki od najvažnijih. Oni su: Kasni period Ordovicija (prije oko 438 milijuna godina) – 100 obitelji izumrlo – više od polovice vrsta mahovnjaka i ramenonošaca je izumrlo. 78 milijuna godina kasnije: Kasni Devon (prije oko 360 milijuna godina) – 30% životinjskih porodica izumrlo. 106 milijuna godina kasnije: Na kraju razdoblja Perm (prije oko 245 milijuna godina) – Trilobiti su izumrli. 50% svih životinjskih porodica, 95% svih morskih vrsta, te mnoga stabla, su izumrli. 37 milijuna godina kasnije: Kasni Trijas (prije oko 208 milijuna godina) – 35% svih životinjskih porodica izumrlo. Većina ranih porodica dinosaura je izumrla kao i većina sinapsida (osim sisavaca). 143 milijuna godina kasnije: Na granici Kreda-Tercijar (K-T) (prije oko 65 milijuna godina) – oko polovice svih životnih oblika je izumrlo, uključujući dinosaure, pterosaure, pleiosaure, mosasaure, amonite, mnoge porodice riba, školjki, puževa, spužvi, ježinaca, te mnogih drugih. Kao što može vidjeti iznad, koristiti se brojem “62 milijuna godina” i izgraditi teorije na tom broju je malo obmanjujuće. Raup i Sepkoski su spomenuti kao odgovorni za identificiranje “Velikih pet”, ali činjenica je da je Sepkoski, paleontolog Sveučilišta u Chicagu, SAD, zapravo predložio da je izumiranje dinosaura prije 65 milijuna godina bio dio ciklusa od 26 milijuna godina!! Međutim, željela bih spomenuti da ako pomnožite broj 26 dobijete zanimljive rezultate kao što su: 3×26 je 78 – što je baš vrijeme između ordovicijskog i devonskog izumiranja; 4×26 je 104 – što je vrlo blizu 106 milijuna godina između devonskog i permijskog izumiranja, te 5×26 je 130, što (kad radite s ovakvim brojevima) je dovoljno blizu praznini između trijasa i K-T izumiranja da ima značaj. Stoga, možda ipak ima nešto u ovom ciklusu od 26 milijuna godina, samo što svako “vraćanje” ima promjenjive efekte bazirane na mnogim drugim varijablama Sunčevog sustava. Zvijezda pratioc s orbitom od 26 milijuna godina bi mogla biti stabilnija, budući da je Muller predložio da je orbita od 62 milijuna godina prevelika da bude stabilna. Ako pretpostavimo orbitu od 26 milijuna godina za zvijezdu pratioca, koristeći se s pet velikih izumiranja kao polazištem, saznali bismo da je povratak trebao biti prije oko 39 milijuna godina, te još jednom prije 13 milijuna godina, što bi nas trenutno stavilo na pola puta u ciklusu orbite zvijezde pratioca. Pitanje: je li tih pola puta afel ili perihel? Gdje god da je teoretizirani Sunčev blizanac u ovom trenutku, ono što znamo je da postoje drugi događaji izumiranja velike magnitude koji se čine da imaju malo toga sa samim ciklusom od 62 milijuna godina, a puno više s nekim drugim ciklusom. Još jedna činjenična stvar je da se događaji izumiranja događaju puno češće nego što je javnost svjesna – i da, već smo prošli datum kada se trebalo dogoditi. Ostavimo moguće pokretače masovnih izumiranja na trenutak, te pogledajmo kako se neka izumiranja mogu dogoditi. Slijedi korisni sažetak problema: Načini na koje je moguće uništiti život Od svih načina koje su znanstvenici predložili kao uzrok masovnog izumiranja, evo nekoliko glavnih. Konceptualno postoje 4 glavna načina: - Zalediti ga (Zemlja-snježna kugla) - Skuhati ga (Zemlja-staklenik) - Baciti meteor na njega (udar meteora) - Pokriti ga pepelom i lavom (divovska vulkanska erupcija) Važno je shvatiti da su brojevi 3. i 4. esencijalno načini koji su postavljeni kako bi objasnili brojeve 1 i 2, iako su Zemlja-snježna kugla i Zemlja-staklenik još uvijek teorije, jer su one donekle samo-replicirajuće, tj. zaglavimo u groznim krugovima, jer što više zagrijavamo Zemlju, više stakleničkih plinova možemo potencijalno ispustiti, (barem u teoriji). To je sve u redu i dobro, ali kako ovi fizički utjecaji [1. i 2.] uzrokuju masovna izumiranja? Jednostavan odgovor na to je klima. Svaka vrsta koja živi na Zemlji danas, a vjerojatno i u prošlosti, prilagođena je određenom rasponu uvjeta. Da smo iznenadno prebačeni na Sjeverni pol i da se od nas očekuje da živimo tamo godinu dana s vunenim džemperom i Mars čokoladicom, zasigurno bi umrli. Isto je kod događaja izumiranja, klimatske zone se esencijalno mijenjaju diljem Zemlje (tako da naše premještanje na Sjeverni pol i nije tako nategnuto kao što ste prvo pomislili), te su ekosustavi lišeni svjetla i hranjivih tvari. To rezultira time da su biljke i životinje izvan ravnoteže sa svojom okolinom, a to ne samo da uzrokuje smrt pojedinaca nego čitavih vrsta. Sa smrću vrsta dolazi praznina u hranidbenom lancu, tako da i životinje koje su se prilagodile novoj klimi ostanu bez hrane, te izumiru, i tako dalje. PROBLEMI IZUMIRANJA U STRANOM EKOSUSTAVU Ako razmotrimo primjer nas na Sjevernom polu, ali ovaj put s čitavom kutijom Mars čokoladica, pretpostavljajući da se nismo smrznuli na smrt prvog dana, polako bi postali bolje naviknuti na hladnoću, možda bi pronašli zaklon od hladnoće, u svakom slučaju čim bi naš plijen (Mars čokoladice) nestao, osim ako bi pronašli alternativni izvor hrane, umrli bi od gladi. Kako bi stvorili dinamičniji ekosustav, pretpostavimo da osiguramo izvor hrane za drugi organizam kao što je polarni medvjed, te ako umremo, što bi polarni medvjed jeo? Nažalost, moj se primjer ovdje raspada, jer nitko neće vjerovati da bi se bez našeg konzumiranja Mars čokoladica oni razmnožavali nekontrolirano. Međutim, u našem ekosustavu Mars čokoladica, nas i polarnih medvjeda, pretpostavimo da nađemo dodatnu odjeću i sklonište, tako da hladnoća više ne kontrolira broj nas samih, te da uspijemo pronaći recept i sastojke za Mars čokoladice (i da nas one nekom jako čudnom slučajnošću osiguraju svim esencijalnim hranjivim tvarima potrebnim za život), u ovom slučaju bi polarni medvjedi upravljali našim brojem budući da su oni naši direktni predatori. Da su polarni medvjedi izbrisani, onda broj nas samih više ne bi bio kontroliran, tako da bi naša populacija tijekom mnogo generacija rasla, sve dok se na kraju više ne bi mogli opskrbljivati Mars čokoladicama, ili smo možda čak i pojeli sve Mars čokoladice na svijetu. Ovo bi izazvalo veliki pad populacije, a možda i izumiranje ljudske rase (ili barem onih ovisnih o Mars čokoladicama). Ovaj dosta apstraktan primjer pomaže objasniti poantu da sve prehrambene razine hranidbenog lanca (ili mreža) moraju biti na mjestu, inače će postojati nestabilnost u svim drugim populacijama. Gore navedeni opis o tome kako globalno zatopljenje ili zahlađenje može uzrokovati masovna izumiranja je pametan, ali ne uzima u obzir kreativnost ljudskih bića. Doista, može doći do masovnih smanjenja ljudske populacije kao posljedica globalnog zatopljenja ili zahlađenja, ali je malo vjerojatno da bi to izazvalo masovno izumiranje poput onih u prošlosti za koje imamo dokaz. Dopustite mi da citiram malo iz Secret History: Nazad u 1940-im godinama, Dr. Frank C. Hibben, profesor arheologije na Sveučilištu u New Mexicu, SAD, je vodio ekspediciju na Aljasku kako bi tražio ljudske ostatke. Nije našao ljudske ostatke; našao je milje i milje ledenog mulja nakrcanog samo s mamutima, mastodontima, te nekoliko vrsta bizona, konja, vukova, medvjeda i lavova. Odmah sjevernije od Fairbanksa, Aljaska, SAD, članovi ekspedicije su u užasu gledali dok su buldožeri gurali poluotopljeni mulj u provodne kutije za ekstrakciju zlata. Životinjske kljove i kosti skupljene ispred oštrica “kao strugotine ispred divovske tokarilice”. Leševi su pronađeni u svim stadijima smrti, većina njih “rastrgana nekim neobjašnjivim pretpovijesnim katastrofalnim poremećajem”. [Frank Hibben, The Lost Americans, New York: Thomas & Crowell Co., 1946.] Vidljivo nasilna smrt ovih masa životinja, zajedno sa smradom raspadajućeg mesa, je bila skoro nepodnošljiva za gledati, te razmatrati što je mogao biti uzrok. Polja smrti su se protezala doslovno stotinama milja u svim smjerovima. [ibid] Bilo je stabala i životinja, slojeva treseta i mahovine, uvrnutih, zapletenih i raskomadanih zajedno kao da ih je neki kozmički mix master sve usisao prije 12 000 godina, a zatim ih odmah zaledio u čvrstu masu. [Ivan T. Sanderson, Riddle of the Frozen Giants, Saturday Evening Post, br. 39, 16. siječanj 1960.] Odmah sjeverno od Sibira čitavi otoci su formirani od kostiju pleistocenskih životinja koje su pometene sjeverno od kontinenta u smrzavajući Arktički ocean. Jedna procjena predlaže da je nekih deset milijuna životinja možda zakopano uz rijeke sjevernog Sibira. Tisuće i tisuće kljova su stvorile masivnu trgovinu bjelokosti za stručne klesare Kine, sve od smrznutih mamuta i mastodonata Sibira. Poznati Berezovka mamut je prvi privukao pažnju na zaštitne karakteristike brzog zaleđivanja kad su našli cvijeće u njegovim ustima. Kakav grozni događaj je pogodio milijune ovih bića u jednom danu? Pa, dokazi sugeriraju na ogromni tsunami koji je poharao kopnom, prevrćući životinje i vegetaciju zajedno, kako bi se na kraju brzo zaledili na sljedećih 12 000 godina. Ali izumiranje nije bilo ograničeno na Arktik, iako je smrzavanje na hladnijim područjima očuvalo dokaze bijesa Prirode do sadašnjeg vremena. Paleontolog George G. Simpson smatra da je izumiranje pleistocenskog konja u Sjevernoj Americi jedno od najmisterioznijih epizoda u zoološkoj povijesti, te priznaje, “nitko ne zna odgovor”. Također je dovoljno iskren da prizna da postoji veći problem izumiranja mnogih drugih vrsta u Americi u isto vrijeme. [George G. Simpson, Horses, New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.] Konj, divovske kornjače koje su živjele na Karibima, divovski ljenjivac, sabljasti tigar, gliptodont i toksodont. Ovo su sve bile tropske životinje. Ove životinje nisu uginule zbog “postupnog nastupanja” ledenog doba, “osim ako netko želi pretpostaviti smrzavajuće temperature diljem ekvatora, takvo objašnjenje očito postavlja pitanje.” Martin & J. Guilday, Bestiary for Pleistocene Biologists, Pleistoceno izumiranje, Yale Sveučilište, 1967.] Masovne gomile kostiju mastodonata i sabljastih tigrova su otkrivene na Floridi, SAD. [Valentine, citirao Charles Berlitz, The Mystery of Atlantis, New York, 1969.] Mastodonti, toksodonti, veliki ljenivci i druge životinje su pronađene u Venezueli u brzo zamrznutom stanju u planinskim ledenjacima. Dlakavi nosorozi, divovski pasanci, divovski dabrovi, divovski jaguari, kopneni ljenivci, antilope i brojne druge čitave vrste su potpuno izbrisane u isto vrijeme, na kraju pleistocena, prije približno 12 000 godina. Događaj je bio globalan. Mamuti Sibira su izumrli u isto vrijeme kao i divovski nosorozi Europe; mastodonti Aljaske, bizoni Sibira, azijski slonovi i američke deve. Očito je da je uzrok ovih izumiranja morao biti zajednički objema hemisferama, te da nije bio postupan. “Uniformitarijanska glacijacija” ne bi uzrokovala izumiranja, jer bi razne životinje jednostavno migrirale na bolje pašnjake. Ono što se vidi je iznenađujući događaj nekontrolirane nasilnosti. Cedric Leonard, Dodatak A u A Geological Study of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Posebni članak br. 1, Bethany: Cowen Publishing, 1979.] Drugim riječima, prije 12 000 godina, vrijeme koje smo upoznali prije i koje ćemo susresti ponovo i ponovo, nešto se grozno dogodilo – tako grozno da je život na Zemlji skoro izbrisan u jednom danu. Harold P. Lippman priznaje da veličina fosila i kljova u sibirskom permafrostu predstavlja “nepremostivu teškoću” teoriji uniformitarijanizma, budući da nijedan postupni proces ne može rezultirati očuvanjem na desetke tisuća kljova i čitavih pojedinaca, “čak i da su umrli po zimi.” [Harold E. Lippman, Frozen Mammoths, Physical Geology, New York, SAD, 1969.] Ovo je istina posebno zbog toga što mnogi od ovih pojedinaca imaju neprobavljenu travu i lišće u svojim želucima. Pleistocenski geolog William R. Farrand s Lamont-Doherty geološkog opservatorija, koji se protivi katastrofizmu u bilo kojem obliku, kaže: “Iznenadna smrt je pokazana snažnim stanjem životinja i njihovim punim želucima … životinje su bile snažne i zdrave kada su uginule.” [William R. Farrand, Frozen Mammoths and Modern Geology, Science, vol. 133, br. 3455, 17. ožujka 1961.] Nažalost, unatoč ovom priznanju, izgleda da se ovaj jadni čovjek nije mogao suočiti sa stvarnošću svjetske katastrofe koju predstavljaju milijuni kostiju položenih po čitavom planetu točno na kraju pleistocena. Hibbens sažima situaciju u jednoj rečenici: “Period pleistocena je završio smrću. Ovo nije bilo obično izumiranje nejasnog geološkog perioda, koji je dočekao nesiguran kraj. Ova smrt je bila katastrofalna i sveobuhvatna.” [Hibben] Zaključak je, ponovno, da je završetak ledenog doba, pleistocensko izumiranje, kraj gornjeg paleolitika, magdalenijana, perigordijana i tako dalje, te kraj “vladavine bogova”- sve došlo do globalnog, katastrofalnog kraja otprilike prije 12 000 godina. [The Secret History of the World] Ovo je događaj o kojem Firestone, West i Warwick-Smith razgovaraju u svojoj knjizi, The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: Flood, Fire, and Famine in the History of Civilization, spomenutoj gore. Ali ako su gore navedena izvješća rezultat takve katastrofe, kakva bi sama katastrofa mogla biti? Ono što slijedi je sažeto i prilagođeno iz 11. poglavlja knjige autora Firestone, West i Warwick-Smith: Počinje s meteorima koji padaju kao kapi kiše, nekoliko ovdje, nekoliko ondje. Možda ih nekolicina pogodi Sunce, izazivajući solarne baklje. Solarne baklje izazivaju raznobojne aurore na nebu, čak i po danu. Onda dan kometa stigne. Od horizonta do horizonta, sve veći svake sekunde, uletjeli su u atmosferu, zasvijetlili blistavije od Sunca. Zagrijana do ogromnih temperatura svojim prolaskom kroz atmosferu, smrtonosna skupina meteora je eksplodirala u tisuće blokova veličine planina i u oblake strujajuće ledene prašine. Manji dijelovi su eksplodirali visoko u atmosferi, stvarajući višestruke detonacije koje su pretvorile nebo u narančasto i crveno. Tada je najveći komet razbio ploču leda koja je pokrivala dio sjeverne hemisfere u dijelu koji je danas poznat kao Hudson Bay, SAD. Drugi kometi su pogodili jezero Michigan, Kanadu, Sibir i Europu. Onda su nastupili udarni valovi na tlu, tresući zemlju nasilno deset minuta u velikim kotrljajućim valovima i podrhtavanjima. Otvorile su se pukotine, stabla su se tresla i padala, a rijeke i potoci su nestali u napukloj zemlji. U sekundama nakon udara, mlaz iznimno zagrijanog zraka se proširio prema van, brzinom većom od 1000 milja na sat, harajući krajolikom, čupajući stabla iz zemlje i bacajući ih u zrak, otkidajući kamenje s padina planina, te u trenutku pržeći biljke, životinje, zemlju i ljude koji su se našli na putu. Jedina bića koja su preživjela su bila ona koja su potražila sklonište pod zemljom ili vodom. Kroz gornji dio Sjeverne Amerike i Europe, ogromna energija od višestrukih udara je stvorila seriju stalno-širećih, divovskih, preklapajućih mjehura koji su odgurali atmosferu u stranu kako bi stvorili skoro bezračni prostor. Dok su mjehuri prolazili, tlak zraka se spustio tako da je postalo teško disati. Iza širećeg ruba mjehura, Zemlja je lišena obrambenog štita atmosfere. Eksplozija je izbacila malena, brza zrna u svim smjerovima kroz prorijeđeni zrak. Neka su se zabila u stabla, biljke i životinje, dok su druga otišla u vis samo da bi ponovno pala na zemlju nevjerojatnom brzinom jer nije bilo atmosfere koja bi usporila njihov pad. U istom trenutku, brze kozmičke zrake su bombardirale područje radijacijom. Životinje i ljudi su na mjestu pali mrtvi. Beživotni objekti su izgledali kao da su oživjeli dok su podrhtavali i tresli se na zemlji. Kad se udarni val prestao širiti, vakuum je počeo povlačiti zrak. Dok je proširena atmosfera jurila nazad prema mjestu udara, mjehuri su se raspali, usisavajući bijelo-vruće plinove i prašinu prema unutra brzinom tornada, a zatim ih usmjeravajući prema gore udaljavajući ih od Zemlje. Nešto prašine je pobjeglo iz Zemljine atmosfere, dok je ostatak tekao kao crveni oblak oblika gljive koji se u ravnini širio tisućama milja preko gornje atmosfere, blokirajući sunce i obuzevši Zemlju tamom. Prašina i ostaci koji su bili preteški su počeli padati na Zemlju. Još uvijek iznimno vrući od eksplozije, moćno su sjajili poput lave. Dijelovi su sletjeli na kontinentalni ledeni pokrivač, instantno otapajući neviđene količine vode koji su krenuli od ledenog pokrivača u svim smjerovima izazivajući poplave. Divljajući mlaz zraka koji se kretao prema gore kroz šuplje mjehure stvorio je jednako moćni ledeni mlaz zraka koji se kretao prema dolje, zrak visoke nadmorske visine, putujući stotinama milja na sat. S temperaturama koje su bile niže od -100°C, silazni mlaz zraka je pogodio Zemlju, šireći se prema van u svim smjerovima iz mnogih takvih udarnih područja, u sekundama zaleđujući sve što dotakne. Urlajuća, ledena eksplozija je pretvorila stabla i biljke u krhke ledene kipove, te zaledila mastodonte i mamute s hranom u njihovim ustima, a koje smo otkrili još zaleđene u Sibiru. Brze temperaturne fluktuacije su značile kraj za milijune biljaka i životinja…. ali uništenje je bilo samo početak. Udari i udarni valovi su izazvali ogromne potrese duž postojećih rasjeda od Karolina do Kalifornije, SAD, dok su s podrhtavanjima probudili neaktivne vulkane od Islanda pa sve do Tihog oceana. Eruptirajući žestokom aktivnošću, izbacivali su vruću lavu diljem krajolika, te štetne kemikalije u zrak, doprinoseći već gustom oblačnom pokrivaču. Udari, udarni valovi i erupcije su prouzročili tisuće požara gdje god je to bilo moguće, a nekolicina ih je nastavila goriti danima. Brzi, vjetrom poticani požari su oblikovali spiralne jezike divljih plamenova koji su se uvijali tisućama stopa u zrak, a vatrena stihija je jurila kroz šume brže nego što su ptice i životinje mogle pobjeći. Tutnjava vatre je tresla tlo, a bijesna vrućina je raznijela drveća poput bombi, rasprskavajući kamenje poput šrapnela granata, te je pokrenula eksplozije pare gdje god je brza vatra skakala preko zamrznutih jezeraca i potoka. Kad su vatre konačno prestale, malo toga je ostalo osim tinjajućih panjeva i razasutog drvenog ugljena diljem kontinenata. Štetne kemikalije u atmosferi su pale nazad na zemlju kao otrovna kiša. Zrak je u nekim područjima bio previše otrovan, te nije imao dovoljno kisika da podrži život. Udar u Hudson Bayu, SAD, je poslao u zrak 200 000 kubičnih milja ledenjaka, razbacivajući krhotine leda koje su pratile dijelove kometa, preko kontinenta. Kiša užarenih krhotina i komada isparavajućeg leda je pljuštala po tlu preko većine Sjeverne Amerike, Europe i Azije. Unutar minuta, masivni, nisko leteći grumeni su udarili u Karoline i istočnu morsku obalu, eksplodirajući u vatrene kugle i izdubivši Carolina Bays, SAD, njih preko 500 000. Drugi komadi su eksplodirali preko ravnica, od Nebraske i Kansasa do Arizone. Dijelovi letećeg leda i krhotina, mali i veliki, su pali od Atlantskog do Tihog oceana, od Meksičkog zaljeva do Arktika, od Europe do Azije, pa čak i dalje do Afrike. Više od jedne četvrtine planeta je bilo pod opsadom. Ali čak ni to nije bilo sve. Udar koji je probio ledenjak Hudson Baya, SAD, je poslao jako brzu otopljenu vodu u stanje velike uzburkanosti ispod ledenog pokrivača. Navale su podigle i pokrenule velike dijelove leda, uzrokujući klizanje monolitskih ledenih blokova prema jugu zajedno sa stotinama milja vanjskih dijelova ledenog pokrivača. Krećući se skoro istom brzinom kojom konj može trčati, blokovi su orali kroz šume, sječući drveće. Oceani su također bili mete. Tisuće ledenih komada i oblaka bljuzgave vode su pogodili Atlantik, eksplodirajući kolosalnim detonacijama. Višestruki potresi su pokrenuli ogromna podvodna klizišta zemlje pored Karolina i Virginije, otpuštajući tisuće kubičnih milja blata. Slijedom toga, blato je oslobodilo 1000 stopa (300 metara, op. prev.) visok plimni val koji je jurio prema Europi i Africi brzinom od 500 milja na sat. Devet sati kasnije val je pogodio [Europu], 1000 stopa visok i brzine 400 milja na sat, vjerojatno uzimajući sa sobom neke preživjele iz prvih eksplozija. Val se probijao stotinama milja unutar kopna, razarajući sve na svom putu. Sve što je živjelo na obali je trenutno ubijeno. Kad se zamah potrošio, uzburkana voda je pauzirala nakratko, a zatim je počela juriti nazad prema obali, povlačeći sa sobom izudarane ostatke biljaka i životinja. Navala je pri povratku izazvala priobalno odronjavanje zemlje u Europi i Africi, šaljući drugu rundu mega valova nazad prema Sjevernoj i Južnoj Americi. Milje obalnog područja su pogođene sa 100 stopa visokim valovima koji su pokrenuli još jedan val tsunamija pogodivši Europu i Afriku još jednom. Ali malo toga je ostalo za oštetiti. Minutama nakon udara, kombinacija zraka temperature ispod nule i rastuće vodene pare je proizvela teški snijeg i susnježicu koja je dosegla južno do Meksika, Kariba i sjeverne Afrike. Na jugu, snijeg se pretvorio u kišu i sjeverna hemisfera je bila pod nepomičnim pljuskom mjesecima, pljuskom zagađene i smrtonosno štetne vode. Oni sretnici koji su preživjeli, su sada bili potencijalne žrtve kiseline, otrovnih metala, cijanida, formaldehida i arsena, kombinacija koja bi mnoge ubila, a druge učinila teško bolesnima. Otopljena voda ledenjaka je imala još jedan učinak: preplavljivanjem u sjeverni Atlantik, prekinula je oceansku struju koja je donosila toplu vodu sjevernim klimama. Prekidanje struje, zajedno s oblacima prašine koji su blokirali Sunce, je uzrokovalo drastičan pad temperature. Unutar dana ili tjedana nakon udara, kontinentalne temperature su pale dosta niže od točke smrzavanja, a brutalna hladnoća ledenog doba se opet proširila preko Zemlje, ostajući na mjestu sljedećih tisuću godina. I sve to u jednom trenutku, u manje vremena nego što je potrebno za skuhati jelo ili napisati e-mail. Primijetit ćete, naravno, da je “prije 12 000 godina” samo gruba procjena zato što su neki datumi kod njihovih podataka određeni na 14 tisuća godina starosti, a neki na bližih 10 tisuća godina starosti. Kada razmatramo 3600-godišnji ciklus skupine kometa, ovaj raspon može pokrivati više od jednog događaja. Ali ono što je važno je da se glavni događaj jeste, očevidno, dogodio u jednom danu i, temeljeno na znanstvenim podacima koje su prikupili Firestone i drugi, to je bio jedan od najstrašnijih događaja koji se ikada dogodio na planetu Zemlji otkad su se moderni Homo sapiensi pojavili. Zašto stalno spominjem ciklus od 3600 godina? Pa, osim toga što je razjašnjen unutar konteksta Kasiopejskog eksperimenta, čini se da je ovaj 3600-godišnji period bio dovoljno važan određenim drevnim ljudima da je bio baza njihove matematike. Oko 3200 godina pr. Kr., Sumerani su izumili svoj numerički sustav označavanja, dajući specijalne grafičke simbole jedinicama 1, 10, 60, 600, 3600. To jest, nalazimo da Sumerani nisu računali u deseticama, stoticama i tisućicama, nego da su primijenili bazu 60, grupirajući stvari u šezdesetice, te množili sa šezdeset. Naša civilizacija koristi znakove baze 60 u načinima na koje računamo vrijeme u satima, minutama i sekundama, te u stupnjevima kruga. Šezdeset je velik broj da bi se koristio kao baza brojevnog sustava. Opterećuje pamćenje, jer je potrebno znati šezdeset različitih znakova (riječi) koji stoje za brojeve od 1 do 60. Sumerani su se nosili s time koristeći 10 kao posrednik između različitih redova veličina osnovanih na broju 60: 1, 60, 602, 603, itd. Riječ za 60, geš, je ista riječ kao za jedinstvo. Broj 60 je predstavljao određenu razinu, iznad koje su višekratnici broja 60, sve do 600, izraženi koristeći se sa 60 kao novom jedinicom. Kada su došli do 600, s novom razinom se postupalo kao s još jednom jedinicom, s višekratnicima do 3000. Broju 3600 ili šezdeset šezdesetica, dano je novo ime: šár, a ovo je, zauzvrat, postalo još jedna nova jedinica. Dakle, zagonetka je: zašto su Sumerani brižljivo čuvali broj 60 – i njegov višekratnik 60×60 – u svojem brojevnom sustavu? Zecariah Sitchin je vjerovao da je to zbog toga što je postojao deseti planet u našem solarnom sustavu koji je imao orbitu dugu 3600 godina, te da su oni bazirali svoj brojevni sustav na ciklusu tog događaja. Ali dokaz za deseti planet – kao planet – i njegove ideje vezane uz to, je jako oskudan, dok dokaz za bombardiranje Zemlje mnoštvom kometarnih krhotina raste svaki dan. Proučavajući konkretne podatke, ne treba biti genij da bi se shvatilo da ako postoji nešto što se vraća svakih 3600 godina, vjerojatnije je da je to skupina kozmičkih tijela nego deseti planet. A to su loše vijesti. KOMETI I KATASTROFA U BRONČANOM DOBU U određenom trenutku u našoj povijesti, velike civilizacije svijeta su se raspale, istovremeno, čini se. Akadsko carstvo u Mezopotamiji, Staro egipatsko kraljevstvo, civilizacija Ranog brončanog doba u Izraelu, Anatolija i Grčka, a također civilizacija doline Inda u Indiji, Hilmand civilizacija u Afganistanu i Hongshan kultura u Kini – prve urbane civilizacije u svijetu – sve su propale u više-manje isto vrijeme. Nedugo nakon toga, u arheološkom pogledu vremena, nesreća je pogodila Mikence u Grčkoj, Hetite u Anatoliji, egipatsko Novo kraljevstvo, Izrael Kasnog brončanog doba, te Shang dinastiju Kine. Razlozi za ove rasprostranjene i očevidno istovremene katastrofe – koje se podudaraju također s promjenama u kulturama i društvima drugdje, kao u Britaniji – su dugo bili fascinantna zagonetka. Tradicionalna objašnjenja uključuju ratovanje, nestašicu hrane, te u novije vrijeme ‘slom sustava’, ali očevidni nedostatak direktnog arheološkog ili pisanog dokaza za uzroke, nasuprot efektima, naveo je mnoge arheologe i povjesničare u rezigniranu pretpostavku da nije moguće naći definitivno objašnjenje. Prije nekoliko desetljeća, lov na tragove je prešao većinom u ruke prirodnih znanstvenika. Koncentrirajući se na raniji skup krahova Brončanog doba, istraživači su počeli nalaziti niz dokaza koji su ukazivali da su prirodni uzroci, prije nego ljudska djela, možda bili početno odgovorni. Počeo je razgovor o klimatskim promjenama, vulkanskim aktivnostima i potresima – a nešto od ovog materijala je sada našlo svoj put u standardne povijesne prikaze tog perioda. Dogovora, međutim, nikad nije bilo. Neki istraživači su više voljeli jedan tip prirodnih uzroka, dok su ostali voljeli drugi, te je ostao problem da nijedno pojedinačno objašnjenje nije moglo objasniti sve dokaze. Tijekom zadnjih 15-ak godina, međutim, o novom tipu ‘prirodne katastrofe’ se mnogo raspravljalo, te se on počinje smatrati, od strane mnogih učenjaka, kao najvjerojatnije pojedinačno objašnjenje za rasprostranjen i istovremen kulturalni krah, ali ne samo u Brončanom dobu, nego i u drugim vremenima također. Novu teoriju su unaprijedili većinom astronomi, te ostaje skoro potpuno nepoznata među arheolozima (nekoliko značajnih iznimki uključuje profesora Mike Bailliea, dendrokronologa sa Sveučilišta Queen’s u Belfastu, Irska, te dr. Euan MacKie sa Sveučilišta Glasgow, Škotska). Nova ideja je da su ove masovne kulturalne katastrofe bile izazvane udarima kometa ili drugih tipova kozmičkih krhotina na Zemlju. Ali što je bio uzrok ovih potresa, erupcija, plimnih valova, vatrenih eksplozija i klimatskih promjena? Kasnih 1970-ih godina, britanski astronomi Victor Clube i Bill Napier sa Sveučilišta Oxford, su počeli istraživati udare kometa kao glavni uzrok… Zatim su 1980. godine nobelovac Luis Alvarez i njegovi kolege objavili svoj poznati rad u časopisu Science gdje se argumentiralo da je kozmički udar doveo do istrebljenja dinosaura. On je pokazao da su velike količine elementa iridija koji je prisutan u geološkim slojevima, a datira iz oko 65 milijuna godina pr. Kr., imale kozmičko porijeklo. Alvarezov rad je imao ogroman utjecaj i potaknuo je daljnje istraživanje takvih britanskih astronoma kao što su Clube i Napier, prof. Marka Baileya s opservatorija Armagh, Duncana Steela sa Spaceguard Australia, te britanskog najpoznatijeg astronoma Sir Freda Hoylea. Svi oni sada podržavaju teoriju kometarnog udara i čine ono što je sada poznato kao Britanska škola dosljednog katastrofizma. Ovi učenjaci zamišljaju “vlakove” kometarnih ostataka koji uzastopno susreću Zemlju. Znamo da sitne čestice kozmičkog materijala prodiru kroz atmosferu svakog dana, ali njihov udar je beznačajan. Ali povremeno, kozmičke krhotine veličine između jednog i nekoliko stotina metara u promjeru pogode Zemlju, te one mogu imati katastrofalne učinke na naš ekološki sustav, kroz multi-megatonske eksplozije vatrenih kugli koje uništavaju prirodne i kulturalne značajke na površini Zemlje putem poplavljujućih plimnih valova (ako krhotine padnu u more), vatrenih eksplozija i seizmičke štete. Ovisno o njihovim fizičkim karakteristikama, asteroidi ili kometi koji probiju atmosferu mogu pogoditi Zemljinu površinu i ostaviti udarni krater, kao što je dobro poznati Barringer krater u Arizoni, SAD, kojeg je izazvao asteroid izgrađen od željeza prije nekih 50 000 godina. Barem deset udarnih kratera diljem svijeta datiraju iz razdoblja poslije zadnjeg ledenog doba, te ne manje od sedam od njih datiraju otprilike iz trećeg tisućljeća pr. – datum rasprostranjenih slomova Ranog brončanog doba – iako se nijedan nije dogodio na Bliskom istoku. Alternativno, kometi i asteroidi mogu eksplodirati u zraku. Nedavni primjer – poznat kao eksplozija u Tunguskoj, Rusija – dogodio se 1908. godine iznad Sibira, kad je meteor izgrađen od kamena eksplodirao oko 5 km iznad zemlje, te kroz eksplozije vatrene kugle potpuno uništio područje od nekih 2000 kvadratnih kilometara. Kozmičko tijelo, iako su mislili da je bilo samo 60 metara u promjeru, je imalo energiju udara oko 20 do 40 megatona, do tri puta više nego primjer u Arizoni (oko 15 megatona), te je bio istovjetan eksploziji od oko 2000 Hiroshima nuklearnih bombi – iako nije bilo stvarnog fizičkog udara na Zemlju. Do nedavno, astronomska glavna struja je bila jako kritična prema hipotezi o divovskom kometu Clubea i Napiera. Ali, pad kometa Shoemaker-Levy 9 na Jupiter 1994. godine, je doveo do promjene u stavovima. Komet, kojeg su gledale zvjezdarnice diljem svijeta, prelomio se u 20 dijelova i udario u različite dijelove planeta u periodu od nekoliko dana. Sličan udar na Zemlju, ne treba ni spominjati, bi bio razoran. Prema trenutnom znanju, udari tipa Tunguskea se događaju svakih 100 godina ili slično. Nije, dakle, suludo hipotezirati da se super Tunguska može dogoditi svakih 2000, 3000 ili 5000 godina, te da bi bila sposobna izazvati ekološke krize u kontinentalnim ili čak globalnim razmjerima. U prošlosti su skeptici zahtijevali dokaz kratera prije nego što bi prihvatili argument o kozmičkom udaru, ali sada je priznato da nije potreban krater za katastrofalne posljedice. Međutim, teškoća koja se nameće učenjacima je da kod događaja tipa Tunguske nije ostavljen direktan dokaz. Može biti nemoguće dokazati da se uopće i dogodio u daljoj prošlosti. Razmjer do kojeg su prošli kometarni udari bili odgovorni za slom civilizacija, kulturalne promjene, čak i razvoj religije, mora ostati hipoteza. Ali u vidu astronomskih, geoloških i arheoloških dokaza, ovu hipotezu ‘divovskog kometa’ arheolozi ne bi trebali više odbacivati na stranu. Benny J. Peiser: BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGY, prosinac 1997., br. 30, str. Benny J. Peiser je povjesničar i antropolog sa Sveučilišta John Moores u Liverpoolu, Engleska. Zajedno s Markom Baileyem i Trevorom Palmerom uređuje Prirodne katastrofe tijekom civilizacija Brončanog doba (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, u pripremi)] Između mnogih nuspojava kometarnog bombardiranja su potresi, tsunamiji i vulkanske erupcije. Naime, dogodio se važan vulkanski događaj u vrijeme sloma civilizacije Brončanog doba koji nam daje čvrsto utvrđen datum: Thera. Nedavna otkrića objavljena u izdanju časopisa Science iz travnja 2006. godine utvrđuju datum erupcije između 1627. i 1600. god. pr. Kr. s 95% sigurnosti. To je, naravno, odbijeno od strane mnogih arheologa zato što su oni proveli svoje cijele karijere pokušavajući datirati stvari prema Bibliji, a najteža stvar za njih je prihvatiti da su trčali za iluzijom. Yoshiyuki Fujii i Okitsugu Watanabe su demonstrirali da je “moguće da su se opsežne ekološke promjene dogodile na Južnoj hemisferi sredinom holocena”. [Koncentracija mikročestica i električna provodljivost ledene jezgre A 700m s Mizuho stanice Antarktik, objavljeno u Anali glaciologije (1-, 1988. god.) str. 38-42] (Unutar zadnjih 10000 godina). Njihovi dubinski profili koncentracije mikročestica, električne provodljivosti, te kisika 18 iz oko 1600. godine pr. Kr., ukazuju na visoka očitanja svih ovih elemenata. Dokazi pokazuju da je ovaj poremećaj pokrivao ovo određeno razdoblje, ali s “ogromnim vrhuncem” 1600. godine pr. Slični dokazi postoje o vremenu 5200 godina pr. Taj period pokazuje manje snažan, ali sličan klimatološki nemir. Profil kisika 18 je blizu normale, ali postoji vidljivi pojas vulkanskog blata. Datiranje ovog segmenta nije tako blizu, jer je očito da nitko ni ne traži ovaj ciklus, ali čini se da se poklapa s pojasom pepela jezgre Byrd postaje. [pogledaj G. Cope Schellhorn, Ph.D.:Evidence of Cyclical Earth Changes, iz When Men are Gods] U članku časopisa Nature iz studenog 1980. godine, C. Hammer, H. Clausen i Dansgaard datiraju poremećaj ledene jezge iz Camp Centuryja na 5470 godina pr. To se uspoređuje s predloženom Hekla erupcijom koja je datirana radiokarbonski na 5450. god. pr. Postoji primjetno visok signal kiselosti u ovim presjecima jezgre što ukazuje na visoku razinu vulkanske aktivnosti – ponovno, točno na oznaci ciklusa od 3600 godina. Sluti se da ciklus prolazi neopaženo zbog dugoročnih posljedica, kao što je hladna klima, kao i činjenica da svaki ciklus ima veći ili manji utjecaj na Zemlju, ovisno o određenim dinamičkim interakcijama unutar Sunčevog sustava. Ono što je jasno je da se nešto dogođa na intervalima od 3600 godina kao što pokazuju ledene jezgre, te je sposobno pokrenuti dugotrajna razdoblja zemaljskih promjena koje su iznad razine običnih uniformitarijanskih geoloških i klimatoloških promjena. Gledajući dalje: Michael R. Legrand i Robert J. Delmas s Laboratorija glaciologije i geofizike okoliša su objavili članak Topljive nečistoće iz četiri ledene jezgre tijekom zadnjih 30000 godina. [Anali glaciologije, 10, 1988., str. 116-120] U članku su grafički prikazali varijacije kisika 18 i ionske sastojke Na, NH4; Ca2; H; Cl; NO3; SO4. Vremenski razmjer za razinu svakog ionskog sastojka kao i za razine O18 se proteže unazad 30 000 godina. Grafikon prikazuje korelacije s vrhuncima u 5200. god. pr. Kr., cca. 16 000. god. pr. Kr., te cca. 19 600. god. pr. Sve to su bila vremena velikih geoloških stresova. Kada gledamo u podatke i uzmemo u obzir priznate nepreciznosti u datiranju (neki rasponi u datumima mogu biti do 100 godina u bilo kojem smjeru vrhunca, iako su vrhunci regularni i ritmički) nama bližih datuma, te odstupanje od 300 do 600 godina za starije datume – posebice kad razmotrimo da su ovo opće analize i da nitko nije tražio nešto određeno – oni su samo rekli “vau! pogledajte tu valovitu liniju!” – nalazimo da jezgre leda s juga ne bilježe uvijek jednako onim sa sjevera. Događaj iz 1628. god. pr. Kr., koji je zaista ostavio pečat u godovima drveća Sjeverne hemisfere, ne pokazuje skoro nikakvi zapis u jezgrama Antarktike u smislu vulkanske aktivnosti. Ali sjeverne jezgre pokazuju aktivnost s početkom u 1644. god. pr. Dokaz za događaj iz 5200. god. pr. Kr. je jak u Kupola C jezgri. Događaj iz 8800. god. pr. Kr. je dobro zabilježen – u stvari, čini se da je on najjači od svih. Prisjetite se da je to bilo prije 10 800 godina – točno unutar dosega datuma o kojima su izvijestili Herodot i Platon. Varijacija izotopa kisika 18 je primjetljiva, porast morske soli, povišene razine C1 i C1/Na. Postoji ekstremni vrhunac u SO4 i H očitanjima što ukazuje na rasprostranjenu vulkansku aktivnost – velike zemaljske promjene su se događale u to vrijeme, a ostale su zabilježene u klimi, oceanima, te očuvane u ledu. Događaj iz 12 400. god. pr. Kr. je također ekstremno istaknut u jezgrama. Grafikoni prikazuju brzu, veliku promjenu uključujući kraj Wisconsin ledenog doba. Postoji velika varijacija izotopa kisika 18 kao i vrhunci Na, te vrlo izraženi vrhunci Ca, SO4 i H. Nema sumnje da se Santorini događaj dogodio. Signal kiseline u ledenim jezgrama je jako snažan. Što znači da ima jako malo sumnje o tome kad se dogodio. Nešto vrlo neobično i specifično se tada dogodilo, počevši 1644. pr. Kr. i dosegnuvši vrhunac u velikoj kataklizmi, te se čini da je pregazilo područje Egeja i Anatolije, ostavljajući tragove koje je nemoguće promašiti. Nemoguće za ikoga, to jest osim egiptologe i druge njihove vrste. Diljem Mediterana su postojala kraljevstva i kulture koje su komunicirale i međusobno trgovale. Čitajući mnoge knjige o svakoj regiji koje su napisali razni stručnjaci o različitim kulturama, uzastopno se susrećemo s činjenicom da je period teškog poremećaja zabilježen u povijesnim i arheološkim zapisima. Na neki način, takav događaj u jednoj regiji nije nužno povezan sa sličnim događajem u drugoj regiji. Ideja da su svi poremećaji u određenom okvirnom vremenskom razdoblju možda istovremeni se ne može uzeti u obzir zato što bi to poremetilo pažljivo izgrađenu kronologiju koja se temelji na beskrajnim radnjama tetrafiloktomije. [Cijepanje dlake na četiri dijela; termin kojeg je osmislio Umberto Eco u Foucaultovom njihalu]. U njegovoj knjizi Stratigraphic Comparée et Chronologie de l’Asie Occidentale, [London, tisak Sveučilišta Oxford, 1948.] Claudeovo Shaefferovo životno arheološko istraživanje ga je dovelo da predloži da je velika prirodna katastrofa uzrokovala kraj Srednjeg egipatskog kraljevstva, te da je također vatrom i potresom uništila skoro svaku drugu naseljenu regiju Krete, Cipra, Kavkaza, Sirije, Palestine, Perzije i Male Azije općenito. To je jedan pakleni “lokalni događaj.” Jedino je logično zaključiti da su Santorini događaj i kraj Srednjeg brončanog doba jedan te isti događaj. I dogodilo se prije malo više od 3600 godina. Drugim riječima, mi smo već prošli datum kada se izumiranje trebalo dogoditi. Sada se vratimo onome što sam spomenula iznad – o tome da smo na pola puta od 26 milijuna godina orbite zvijezde pratioca. Stvarno nemamo pojma gdje je to teoretizirano “stvorenje” ili što radi, ali imamo neke naznake. Ali prvo pitanje koje želimo postaviti je – koja je relacija između ove zvijezde pratioca (Nemesisa) i izumiranja? Kako može zvijezda, daleko izvan Sunčevog sustava, imati utjecaj na treći kamenčić od Sunca? Daleko iza orbite Plutona leži Oortov oblak. Oortov oblak (ponekad se naziva i Öpik-Oortov oblak) je pretpostavljeni sferni oblak kometa na udaljenosti od oko 50 000 do 100 000 AJ od Sunca. Ovo je približno za 2000 puta veća udaljenost od Sunca do Plutona ili, grubo rečeno, jedna svjetlosna godina, skoro četvrtina udaljenosti od Sunca do Proxima Centauri, Suncu najbliže zvijezde. Kliknite na sliku iznad kako biste proučili veći primjerak. Solarni sustav je potpuno okružen ovim oblakom koji sadrži milijarde kometa. Zamislite što bi se dogodilo da zvijezda prođe kroz taj oblak, udarajući komete na isti način kojim kugla za kuglanje razbacuje čunjeve u svim smjerovima. Zamislite tada kako se određen broj tih kometa kreće prema središtu oblaka – našem Suncu i njegovom solarnom sustavu. Sunce, koje je najveći objekt u susjedstvu, bi bilo točka privlačenja. Kometi u nadolazećem oblaku bi bili povučeni u orbitu oko Sunca. Iako ne postoje direktna promatranja takvog oblaka, vjeruje se da je on izvor većine ili svih kometa koji ulaze u unutarnji Sunčev sustav (neki kratkotrajni kometi mogu doći iz Kuiperovog pojasa), bazirano na opažanjima orbita kometa. Do sada, otkriven je samo jedan potencijalni objekt iz Oortovog oblaka; 90377 Sedna. S orbitom koja varira u rasponu od otprilike 76 do 928 AJ, puno je bliže nego što je prvobitno očekivano i može pripadati “unutarnjem” Oortovom oblaku. Ako Sedna doista pripada Oortovom oblaku, to može značiti da je Oortov oblak i gušći i bliži Suncu nego što se prije mislilo. Dakle, imamo mehanizam koji hipotetski može pokrenuti lansiranje skupine kometa u Sunčev sustav. Orbita pretpostavljenog binarnog blizanca našeg Sunca odgovara ciklusima velikih izumiranja na Zemlji. Ali to je još uvijek hipoteza. Još važnije, možda se pitate, čak i ako dodijelimo visoku vjerojatnost istinitosti toj hipotezi, ako se ovi ciklusi događaju svakih 26 milijuna godina, kakve dokaze imamo da ćemo biti živi tijekom jednog od, da kažemo, nesretnih perioda? Jedan od zaključaka Nemesis teorije je da tamni pratioc možda može postati vidljiv kao drugo sunce na nebu kad bude najbliže Suncu. Postoje li dokazi koji možda upućuju da su ljudi ikada vidjeli “drugo sunce”? U svojoj knjizi Comets and Popular Culture and the Birth of Modern Cosmology, Sara J. Schechner piše: Sunčana dispozicija vremena tijekom krunidbe (Karla II) viđena je kao ispunjenje proročanstva. 1630. godine, tijekom Karlovog rođenja, podnevna zvijeda ili sunce suparnik navodno se pojavilo na nebu. Aurelian Cook u Titus Britannicus objasnio je njegovu važnost: ‘Čim je rođen, Nebo ga je primijetilo, te ga promatralo kroz zvijezdu, koja se pojavila prkoseći Suncu u podne…’ Za Cooka, dodatno sunce je najavilo da Karlo vlada božanskim pravom. Povrh toga, vrijeme Karlovog ulaska u London na svoj rođendan, politički je proračunato da ispuni ono što je predviđeno pri njegovom rođenju. Abraham Cowley, pjesnik, diplomat i špijun za dvor napisao je: ‘Nijedna Zvijezda između svih vas, vjerujem, nije tako snažnu pomoć dala, kao ona koja je prije trideset godina, pri Karlovom rođenju, usprkos ponosnom Sunčevu meridijanskom svijetlu, njegovu buduću slavu, u toj godini predvidjela.’ Edward Matthew je posvetio čitavu knjigu ispunjenju proročanstva proglasujući Karla “određenim da bude Najmoćniji monarh u svemiru…” Karlov povratak je viđen kao ponovno rođenje Engleske i to je zabilježeno u knjizi statuta, gdje je proglašeno da je 29. svibnja nezaboravan dan rođenja, ne samo njegova veličanstva kao čovjeka i princa, nego i kao pravog kralja… Pa, to definitivno zvuči kao prikladno: prije 377 godina drugo sunce se pojavilo i nitko, koliko ja znam, nije ovo povezao s kometom ili supernovom. Interesantno je da je trideset godina kasnije to popraćeno viđenjem nekoliko kometa. Ali 17. stoljeće je bilo zanimljivo zbog još jedne anomalije koja uključuje naše Sunce: Maunderov minimum. Između 1654. i 1715. godine, naše Sunce je bilo u periodu solarnog minimuma. Tijekom jednog 30-godišnjeg perioda unutar Maunderovog minimuma, na primjer, astronomi su uočili samo 50 Sunčevih pjega, nasuprot tipičnom broju od 40 000–50 000 pjega. Maunderov minimum se podudarao sa srednjim – najhladnijim dijelom – takozvanog Malog ledenog doba, tijekom kojeg su Europa i Sjeverna Amerika, a možda i većina ostatka svijeta, bili izloženi jako neugodnim hladnim zimama. Nedavno objavljeno istraživanje upućuje na to da se Sunčeva rotacija usporila sredinom Maunderovog minimuma (1666.-1700. godine). Prema našoj sadašnjoj razini shvaćanja solarne fizike, veće i sporije Sunce nužno podrazumijeva i hladnije Sunce koje dostavlja manje topline na Zemlju. Možda je blisko približavanje tamnog pratioca, govoreći astronomski, bio uzrok ove prigušenosti. Smanjena solarna aktivnost tijekom Maunderovog minimuma također je utjecala na količinu kozmičke radijacije koja je dosezala na Zemlju. Rezultirajuća promjena u proizvodnji C14 tijekom tog perioda izazvala je netočnost u radiokarbonskom datiranju sve dok ovaj efekt nije pronađen. Sveukupno, analize ugljika 14, kao i studije godova drveća i ledenih jezgri, ukazuju da je bilo 18 perioda s minimalnom količinom Sunčevim pjegama u zadnjih 8000 godina, a studije pokazuju da Sunce trenutno provodi četvrtinu svog vremena u ovim minimumima. Možemo samo nagađati trenutno, imaju li ovi ciklusi vezu s našim tamnim pratiocem i/ili njegovom kometarnom djecom. Vraćajući se na našu hipotezu, ako smo u pravu, tamna zvijezda je viđena prije 377 godina. Ako je to stvarno bio pratioc, Nemesis, onda bi kometi koji idu prema unutrašnjem solarnom sustavu trebali ići u našem smjeru. Ovisno o lokaciji i orbiti u Oortovom oblaku, postojale bi razne grupe – s varijacijama u veličini i vremenu dolaska. Postoje li dokazi za to? Treće izdanje sveučilišnog udžbenika Exploration of the Universe, kojeg je napisao George O. Abell, objavljenog 1975. godine, informira nas da Jupiter od 1974. godine ima 9 mjeseca. Piše: Vanjskih sedam, doduše, imaju donekle ekscentričnu orbitu, neki od njih imaju veliki nagib prema Jupiterovom ekvatoru. Četiri najudaljenija satelita okreću se od istoka prema zapadu, suprotno gibanju većine drugih objekata u solarnom sustavu. Oni bi mogli biti prijašnji manji planeti koje je uhvatio Jupiter. Primijetite da Abell predlaže da su neki od Jupiterovih mjeseca zarobljeni Jupiterovom gravitacijom. Sada putujmo kroz vrijeme u budućnost, te pogledajmo što nam najnovije informacije govore o Jupiterovim mjesecima: Jupiter sada ima 63 satelita. 47 od tih satelita je otkriveno nakon 1999. godine. Što ako oni nisu prije bili tamo? A što je sa Saturnom? Naš tekst iz 1975. godine nam govori da Saturn ima 10 satelita. A u 2007. godini? Pa ima ih toliko puno da pojedini izvor odbija dati precizan broj! Međutim, brojeći imenovane satelite na vremenskoj liniji otkrivanja planeta Sunčevog sustava i njihovih prirodnih satelita, daje nam broj od 62 mjeseca, s 41 satelitom otkrivenim od 2000. godine, te još deset u ’80-ima i ’90-ima. Dolazimo do Urana, kojem je 1975. godine pripisano pet satelita, a sada ima 28, 10 otkrivenih u ’80-ima, 6 u ’90-ima, a 7 je otkriveno od 2000. godine. Neptun je 1975. godine imao dva satelita, a sada ima 13. Tablica 1. Broj satelita Objašnjenje koje se najčešće daje za ovaj veliki porast u broju satelita tih planeta je da su teleskopi postali bolji. To jest, možemo vidjeti dalje, s više detalja, te možemo stoga naći stvari koje prije nismo mogli vidjeti. To je objašnjenje koje ima smisla. Jedan mali problem s ovom teorijom je da su se “novi” mjeseci Neptuna i Urana pojavili prije novih mjeseca Jupitera i Saturna. Netko bi pomislio da bi moćni teleskopi, koji su sposobni za pronalazak mjeseca toliko daleko kao što je sedmi ili osmi planet, teško mogli promašiti mjesece petog i šestog planeta. Drugo moguće objašnjenje, ono koje se najbolje uklapa u pojavljivanje novih mjeseca oko Neptuna i Urana prije pojavljivanja oko Jupitera i Saturna, je da su ovi novi mjeseci, ili neki od njih, objekti koji su zarobljeni u orbite oko ovih planeta tek nedavno, te da su zarobljeni gravitacijom ovih planeta i maknuti iz nadolazećeg kometarnog oblaka. Prolazeći najprije orbite vanjskih planeta, stigli bi kasnije do unutrašnjih planeta. Također napominjemo da ismijani Immanuel Velikovsky, u svojoj knjizi Worlds in Collision, daje vremenski okvir od devet godina kao vrijeme koje bi trebalo kometu da prijeđe udaljenost između Jupitera i Zemlje. Novi jovijanski mjeseci su otkriveni početkom kasnih devedesetih godina. Izračunajte. To nas dovodi do serije lokalnih priča koje udarima daju manje nego metaforičko značenje. U petak, 16. veljače 2007. godine, SOTT.net stranica donijela nam je ovu priču: Čudna buka je možda bila od meteora Napisao JIM SABIN Newark Advocate NEWARK – Nešto se dogodilo oko 21:00, u srijedu, što su mnogi ljudi čuli ili čak osjetili. Što je to bilo, međutim, možda će zauvijek ostati zagonetka. “To” je bio jak udarac, nešto tako glasno da se čulo preko južnog i centralnog Ohija, SAD, te dovoljno glasno da se mali objekti u kući pomaknu. Izvješća su stizala u The Advocate od Hanovera do Healtha, od Buckeye Lakea do Granvillea, a NBC4 je čuo izvješća iz Muskinguma, Fairfielda i Pickaway okruga. Kruže glasine o potresu i meteorskom udaru, te da je zvučni udar nastao od nečega povezanog s ledom. Jeff Gill iz Grainvillea je rekao da je vidio meteor s relativno dugačkim repom, s crvenim, zelenim i zlatnim bojama. Kretao se od istoka prema zapadu i trajalo je oko tri sekunde; nakon što je nestao, osjetio je zvučni udar, rekao je. “Ja sam ga prvi vidio. Bio je jezovit, kul, strašan i čudesan. Samo se vidi taj zmajev rep kako ide kroz nebo,” rekao je Gill, koji također piše religijsku kolumnu za The Advocate. “Odjednom je sve prožela eksplozija.” […] Izvješća su pristizala od Ohija do New Jerseya, SAD. Primijetite usporedbu sa zmajevim repom. Mogu li izvješća o meteorima biti baza za neke od drevnih mitova o zmajevima koji lete po nebu? Pogledajte knjigu Mikea Bailliea Exodus to Arthur za više o toj temi. Prije nekoliko tjedana, dok je većina SAD-a gledala XLI Super Bowl, neki ljudi na srednje-zapadnom dijelu SAD-a su gledali drugi tip spektakla: Lokalni stanovnici svjedoče vatrenom bljesku meteora. Ako ste vidjeli jarku svjetlost s vatrenim repom kako se spušta na Zemlju u nedjelju navečer, možda ste vidjeli manji meteorski pljusak, prema izvještajimaa iz Wisconsina, Illinoisa i Iowe. James T. Luedke iz Ripona, SAD, je rekao da se vozio u Green Lake Countyju između 19:30 i 20:00 sati u nedjelju kad je vidio “vatrenu kuglu veličine pola dolara kako pada brzo prema Zemlji” na južnom nebu. On ju je opisao kao okruglu, narančastu vatrenu kuglu s plavim/zelenim repom. Kay Diederich iz St. Clouda je vozila izvan sela oko 19:50 s prijateljicom kada su vidjele “kuglu vatre” kako pada prema jugu. “Skoro pa je izgledalo kao pad aviona,” rekla je. Njezina prijateljica je medicinska tehničarka hitne službe i slušala je svoj skener, ali nije bilo izvješća. Ljudi diljem Srednjeg zapada SAD-a su prijavili viđenje kugli vatre koje prolaze nebom u nedjelju navečer, prema izvješćima državnih vijesti. Prethodno izvješće spominje da su objekti došli od meteora. Većina izvješća opisuje objekte kao jarka svjetla s gorućim repom. Nekoliko objekata je viđeno kako eksplodiraju pri udaru u Zemlju, prema izvještaju WEAU-a. Viđenja su prijavljivana od Minnesote do Missourija, te na istoku do Illinoisa, SAD. Onda imamo izvješće od 7. veljače 2007. godine iz Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva: Meteor osvjetljuje nebo. Napisala Rachel Pegg The Argus Meteor je viđen kako pada na Zemlju. Zvijezda padalica je bila prožeta jarkim plamenovima dok je padala prema tlu iznad Hangletona, Hove, jučer oko 20:15. Da ne spominjem izvješće iz Turske: Meteorit sletio u Didim. Petak, 02. veljače 2007. Voices POLICIJA je bila opterećena brojnim pozivima ljudi od Didima do Bodruma, Turska, nakon što su čuli jak udar i vidjeli bljesak svjetla na nebu. Unatoč tome što policajci nisu mogli objasniti bljeskove zelenog, žutog i crvenog svijetla, Voices je riješio problem. Nije to bio NLO, nego meteorit koji se probio kroz Zemljinu atmosferu i sletio u Yeşilkent. Iznenađeni Abdullah Aritűrk otkrio je da je kamen probio rupu u zemlji kod Green Park Complexa, u Yeşilkentu, tijesno promašivši njegovu kuću za deset metara. Policija je izvijestila da su ljudi iz Bodruma, Milasa i Didima čuli udarac i vidjeli bljesak svjetla preko neba oko 17:30 u četvrtak (31. siječnja). Gospodin Aritűrk je rekao: “Mislio sam da je to kraj. Mislio sam da je apokalipsa. Vidio sam udarac i bljeskove svijetla, i ovaj kamen je udario u zemlju blizu mene. Bilo je jako strašno.” Nakon što je ispričao svoju priču Voices-u, gospodin Aritűrk sada čeka znanstvenike iz Aegean Sveučilišta, u Izmiru, Turska, da preuzmu meteorit radi pobližeg istraživanja. Na sreću, nitko nije ozlijeđen s ovim meteorima, ali ljudi u Indiji nisu bili tako sretni: Troje poginulih u padu meteorita u Rajasthanu u Indiji. DPA 8. veljače 2007. Troje ljudi je poginulo i četvero je ozlijeđeno u misterioznoj eksploziji u selu u indijskoj sjevernoj saveznoj državi Rajasthan u četvrtak, za što mještani tvrde da je uzrok meteorit, kažu novinski izvještaji. Stanovnici sela Banchol u distriktu Bundi, oko 200 km južno od Rajasthanskog glavnog grada Jaipura, su rekli da su žrtve sjedile s otpacima željeza na otvorenom polju kada je “objekt” pao s neba i pogodio ih, izvijestila je novinska agencija IANS. “Slučaj je pod istragom. Znamo da je bila eksplozija, ali gledajući krater ne čini se da se dogodilo zbog meteorita,” IANS citirao je policijskog službenika iz Bundija. On je rekao da je krater samo 8-10 inča (20-25 cm, op. prev.) u promjeru i 2 inča (5 cm, op. prev.) dubok. Tim iz državnog forenzičkog znanstvenog laboratorija u Jaipuru je skupljao dokaze s mjesta događaja, rekao je službenik. Onda imamo meteorit koji je nedavno probio kuću u New Jerseyu, SAD, te se usadio u zid: Mogući pad meteorita kroz kuću u New Jerseyu. Napisao Chris Newmaker Associated Press 4. siječnja 2007. Freehold Township, New Jersey – Vlasti su pokušavale identificirati misteriozni metalni objekt koji je probio krov kuće u istočnom New Jerseyu. Nitko nije ozlijeđen kada je objekt veličine golf loptice, težine skoro kao limenka juhe, pogodio dom i usadio se u zid u utorak navečer.Federalni službenici koji su poslani na scenu su rekli da nije od zrakoplova. Objekt grube vanjštine, s metalnim odsjajem, izložen je u srijedu od strane policije. “Postoji veliki interes za ovo što imamo ovdje,” rekao je narednik Robert Brightman. “Jako je neobično. Nikad u karijeri nisam vidio ništa slično.” Rekao je da se nada da će se objekt identificirati unutar 72 sata, ali je odbio dati imena drugih agencija čiju je pomoć zatražio. Otprilike 20-50 kamenolikih objekata padne svaki dan diljem planeta, rekao je Carlton Pryor, profesor astronomije na Rutgers Sveučilištu. “Nije baš tako neuobičajeno da kamenje pada s neba,” rekao je Pryor, koji nije vidio objekt koji je pogodio kuću u Manmouth Countyju. “Obično su kameniti ili mješavina kamena i metala.” […] I koliba uništena meteoritom u Njemačkoj u listopadu 2006.: Njemačka koliba uništena meteorom. Reuters 20. listopada 2006. BERLIN (Reuters) – Vatra koja je uništila kolibu blizu Bonna i ozlijedila 77-godišnjaka vjerojatno je uzrokovana meteorom, a svjedoci su vidjeli luk blještećeg svjetla na nebu, njemačka policija je izjavila u petak. Burkhard Rick, glasnogovornik policije u Siegburgu istočno od Bonna rekao je da je vatra progutala kolibu i teško opekla čovjekove ruke i lice u događaju 10. listopada. “Potražili smo pomoć s Bochum zvjezdarnice i oni su primijetili da je u tom određenom trenutku Zemlja bila blizu polja krhotina meteorita i može se pretpostaviti da su čestice ušle u atmosferu,” rekao je. “Čestice većinom ne dosegnu površinu zato što se raspadnu u atmosferi,” dodao je. “Ali neke mogu doprijeti do tla. Mi vjerujemo da je ovo bolid (meteorska vatrena kugla) veličinom ne većom od 10 mm.” I padajući led koji je pogodio auto u Floridi: Misteriozni, veliki blok leda je pao na auto čovjeka iz Tampe. TAMPA, FL (AP) – Raymond Rodriguez je mijenjao gumu kada je komad leda od 18 inča (45 cm, op. prev.) pao s neba praćen probadajućim zviždukom, a onda se čulo metalno škripanje. Ledeni komad je razbio krov obližnjeg Ford Mustanga u nedjelju ujutro. Nitko nije ozlijeđen. “Bio sam uplašen,” rekao je Rodriguez, koji je bio samo nekoliko stopa od auta, “To je ludo, čovječe.” Federalna zrakoplovna administracija pregledava raspored letova kako bi vidjeli je li led pao iz aviona. Led nije imao plavu boju koja bi ukazivala da je došao iz zahoda aviona. Nacionalna vremenska služba je rekla da uvjeti u Tampi nisu bili pogodni za formaciju velikih kugli leda, poznatih kao mega-krio-meteori. “Nije to božje djelo,” rekao je Carlos Javage, otac čovjeka kojem je misteriozni led uništio auto. “Ovo je došlo iz aviona.” Dakle, kako gledati na ovo iznenadno pojavljivanje toliko mnogo meteora, koji se događaju “jednom u životu”, širom globusa? Bilo što? Slučajnost? Ili nešto drugo? Sastavit ćemo pregled podataka koje smo skupljali i istaknuti radnu hipotezu koju moramo objasniti. Nemamo puno nade, da vam odmah u početku kažemo. Vrlo lako bi Tunguska u usporedbi mogla izgledati poput petarde. Tunguska eksplozija je opisana ovako: Eksplozija je vjerojatno uzrokovana detonacijom meteorita ili kometa na visini od 6 do 10 kilometara iznad Zemljine površine. Energija udara je kasnije procijenjena na 10-15 megatona TNT-a, a što bi bio ekvivalent bombi Castle Bravo – najsnažnijoj nuklearnoj bombi ikada detoniranoj od strane SAD-a. Procijenjeno je da je srušila 60 milijuna stabala na površini od 2150 kvadratnih kilometara. Dvojni sustav Kada gledamo naše nebo vidimo samo jedno sunce. Mi naravno zaključujemo da naš zvjezdani sustav uključuje samo jednu zvijezdu. Ipak, dvojni zvjezdani sustavi su jako česti. Postoji hipoteza koja argumentira da je naše Sunce dio takvog binarnog sustava. Sunčev hipotetski pratioc nazvan je, kako je već spomenuto iznad, “Nemesis”. Projicirana orbita Nemesisa je 26 milijuna godina, manje ili više ovisno o vremenu potrebnom za rast ili pad nekoliko civilizacija. Studije fosilnih podataka od strane Davea Raupa i Jacka Sepkoskija pokazale su da postoji cikličko ponavljanje razdoblja izumiranja. Nemesis teorija je korištena kako bi se objasnio ciklus izumiranja. Ne možemo ponuditi dokaze za radnu hipotezu koja je navedena gore. Radimo s ograničenim skupom podataka. Najviše što možemo reći je da se može argumentirati predlažući sljedeći scenarij: Sunčev tamni pratioc, na svojoj orbiti od 26 milijuna godina, došao je blizu Sunčevog sustava prije 377 godina, otkrivajući se i gurajući ispred sebe komete, nekolicina kojih se pojavila prije trideset godina nakon pojave same tamne zvijezde 1630. godine. Prolazak pratioca kroz Oortov oblak, povlačeći stotine tisuća drugih tijela u svom pojavljivanju, zaljuljao ih je u svojoj orbiti, te poslao skupinu njih prema nama, putujući sada skoro četiri stotine godina. Članovi te skupine pokupljeni su gravitacijskim poljima vanjskih planeta, povećavajući broj mjeseca posljednjih godina. Ako je skupina prošla Jupiter, onda možda dolazi ovdje jako brzo. Jesu li članci izvučeni iz novina diljem svijeta zadnjih nekoliko mjeseci najava njihovog dolaska? Jedna završna pojedinost. Postoje izvješća da Zemlja nije jedini planet koji je pogođen “globalnim zatopljenjem”. Je li moguće da je ova naoko dalekosežna promjena u “klimi” u Sunčevom sustavu, povezana s nadolazećim kometarnim oblakom? Ne znamo i krajnje nam nedostaje sredstava da pribavimo podatke kako bi rafiniralli ili odbili radnu hipotezu. Možda netko drugi tamo vani ima mogućnosti. Kakvo god da je objašnjenje za generalizirano zatopljenje nekoliko planeta, jasno je da znamo jako malo o osnovnim mehanizmima iza toga. Mi smo mrlja u svemiru, kap u oceanu većem, složenijem i misterioznijem nego što možemo zamisliti. Za kraj, želim citirati iz zadnjih stranica knjige Ciklus kozmičkih katastrofa: poplave, vatra i glad u povijesti civilizacije zato što te riječi trebaju imati značenje za sve nas. NE BAŠ TAKO BEZOPASNE ZVIJEZDE PADALICE Ako želite više dokaza o onome što se dogodilo mamutima, samo trebate pogledati u vedro noćno nebo. U gotovo svakom mjesecu možete vidjeti zvijezde padalice iz jedne od mnogih kiša meteora. Gotovo svaki vatreni trag na nebu je mali ostatak nekog divovskog kometa koji se raspao u mnogo manjih dijelova. Naravno, najveći dio tih dijelova je mikroskopske veličine, ali takav nije bio i njihov roditeljski komet – on je imao divovske razmjere. Astronomi znaju da čak i danas, skrivene u tim svemirskim oblacima sitnih ostataka, jure i neke ogromne gromade dijelova kometa. Svake godine prolazimo kroz njihove oblake poput mehanizma sata, tako da ćemo se na kraju i sudariti s nekim od većih dijelova. Godine 1990., astrofizičar Victor Clube i astronom Bill Napier su objavili zajednički rad pod nazivom Kozmička zima, knjigu u kojoj su opisali izvođenje orbitalnih analiza nekoliko meteorskih rojeva koji pogađaju Zemlju svake godine. Koristeći sofisticiranu računalnu opremu i programe, pažljivo su gledali na tisuće godina u prošlost, ucrtavajući orbite kometa, asteroida i meteorskih rojeva, sve dok nisu naišli na nešto zapanjujuće. Mnogi su meteorski rojevi povezani jedan s drugim, poput Taurida, Perzeida, Piscida i Orionida. Osim toga, povezani su i neki veoma veliki svemirski objekti: kometi Encke i Rudnicki, asteroidi Oljato, Hefest, te oko stotinu drugih. Svako od tih više od stotinu svemirskih tijela ima promjer od najmanje 800 metara, a neki od njih su široki i kilometrima. A što im je svima zajedničko? Prema ovim znanstvenicima, svaki od njih je potomak istog golemog kometa, koji je ušao u naš sustav prije manje od 20 000 godina! Clube i Napier su izračunali da je taj komet izvorno morao biti divovske veličine, kada bi mu se pridodao sav onaj otpad koji su pronašli kao njegov trag po čitavom Sunčevom sustavu. Je li to bio ubojica mega-faune za kojim tragamo? Sve se poznate činjenice uklapaju. Komet je mogao stići na valu supernove, [ili ga je zvijezda pratioc gurnula u Sunčev sustav – Laura Knight Jadczyk], a zatim krenuti u orbitu oko Sunca prije manje od 20 000 godina; ili, ako je već bio ovdje, tada ga je materijal supernove mogao skrenuti na putanju koja je presijecala Zemljinu orbitu. U svakom slučaju, kad god pogledamo u noćno nebo i prelijepu, blještavu predstavu koju nam priređuju zvijezde padalice, moramo se prisjetiti da ta ljepota ima i svoju ružnu stranu. Vrlo je vjerojatno da pritom gledamo u ostatke krhotina čudovišnog kometa, koji je prije 12-13 tisuća godina pobio 40 milijuna životinja na našem planetu. Clube i Napier su također izračunali da zbog finih pomaka i promjena u orbiti Zemlje i orbiti preostalih svemirskih krhotina, Zemlja prolazi kroz najgušći dio divovskih oblaka kometa otprilike svakih 2000 do 4000 godina [ili 3600 godina?]. Pogledamo li na ritam promjena klime i tragove u ledenim jezgrama, možemo vidjeti taj obrazac događanja. Primjerice, čini se da iridij, helij-3, nitrat, amonijak i druga ključna mjerenja zajedno rastu i padaju, stvarajući uočljive vrhunce prije otprilike 18 000, 16 000, 13 000, 9000, 5000 i 2000 godina. U tim obrascima vrhunaca svakih 2000 do 4000 godina, možda možemo vidjeti “nagovještaje” povrataka tog mega-kometa. Na našu sreću, izgleda da su se najteža bombardiranja događala u vrijeme onih najstarijih vrhunaca, te da je od tada postajalo sve mirnije kako su se ostaci kometa na svom putovanju razbijali u sve manje dijelove. No, opasnost još nije prošla. Neki od tih razlomljenih kilometarskih komada su dovoljno veliki da učine ozbiljnu štetu našim gradovima, klimi i globalnom gospodarstvu. Clube i Napier su 1984. godine predvidjeli da će od 2000. godine Zemlja ući u novo, vrlo opasno razdoblje, koje će potrajati idućih 400 godina. U tom će nas razdoblju promjena orbite planeta dovesti na moguću putanju sudaranja s najgušćim dijelovima oblaka koji sadrže i vrlo velike krhotine. Dvadeset godina nakon njihovog predviđanja, upravo smo ušli u opasnu zonu. Široko je prihvaćena činjenica da neki od tih velikih objekata upravo u ovom trenutku presijecaju putanju Zemlje, a jedina neizvjesnost je hoće li nas promašiti, što je najvjerojatnije, ili će ipak udariti u neki dio našeg planeta. To se može činiti kao loša vijest, no također postoji i tračak dobre vijesti. Po prvi put u poznatoj povijesti čovječanstva imamo načine za pravodobno otkrivanje ovakvih opasnosti i pronalaženje takvih objekata, te ih stoga možemo i spriječiti da nas iznova pogode. Jedno od takvih nastojanja je projekt pod nazivom Spaceguard, zajednički pokušaj više naroda da se pronađu takvi objekti koji prijete Zemlji, a drugi slični programi uključuju teleskop NEAT ili Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking, te projekt Spacewatch kojim se bave na Sveučilištu Arizona, SAD. Nažalost, ovi projekti zasad ne raspolažu sredstvima dostatnim da bi se taj posao obavio kroz dugi niz godina, premda se neprestano radi na tome. Nitko ne zna točno koliko je opasnih kometa i asteroida tamo vani, ali su astronomi sigurni da na tisuće njih ostaje neotkriveno. Najgore je to što su mnogi od tih svemirskih objekata toliko tamni da ih je teško zamijetiti prije nego se sasvim ne približe, a tada bi ionako bilo prekasno. Sigurno je i to da je jedno od ovih čudovišta na sudarnoj putanji sa Zemljom – samo, ne znamo daljnje pojedinosti. Je li udaljeno danima ili stotinama godina od današnjeg dana? Čak i kad bi bili sigurni da dolazi, trenutno bi u vezi s tim mogli učiniti vrlo malo. Još smo godinama udaljeni od trenutka kada ćemo biti u stanju nadzirati vlastitu sudbinu što su nam je dosad krojile supernove, golemi kometi i asteroidi, ali znanstvenici rade na rješenjima. Međutim, svjetske vlade ovo ne smatraju visokim prioritetom, one tipično daju prednost suočavanju s ovozemaljskim, a ne svemirskim prijetnjama. Kako bismo spriječili udar jednog od tih divovskih objekata u Zemlju, svi zajedno u svijetu trošimo oko 10 do 20 milijuna dolara godišnje, količinu koja je manja od troška proizvodnje jednog ili dva sofisticirana borbena zrakoplova. Na otkrivanje prijetećih supernova ne troši se gotovo ništa novca. Naši političari ozbiljno podcjenjuju ove velike prijetnje koje su u stanju uništiti našu vrstu na isti onaj način na koji su prije 13 000 godina istrijebile mamute, što je samo treptaj oka promatramo li u kozmičkim mjerilima. Postoji nekoliko prijetnji ovih razmjera s kojima se danas susrećemo. Preživljavanje čovječanstva nije ozbiljno ugroženo od ptičje gripe, napada Al-Qaede, završetka naftnog razdoblja, čudovišnih uragana, snažnih zemljotresa ili strahovitih tsunamija; kada bi se išta od toga dogodilo ovoga trena, većina nas bi nastavila normalno živjeti. Nadalje, opće je prihvaćeno da ništa od spomenutoga nije u prošlosti uzrokovalo izumiranja diljem svijeta. No, to ne možemo reći i za supernove ili masivne [kometarne] udare. Ova dva kozmička događaja su upletena u mnoga od najvećih izumiranja na našem planetu tijekom posljednjih milijuna godina. Srećom, preživjeli smo ih, ali mnoge od drugih vrsta na Zemlji nisu. Možda će sljedeće zahvatiti baš ljude, možda upravo mi nećemo preživjeti. Stoga se razumnim čini prijedlog, da se svake godine odreknemo nekoliko vojnih borbenih zrakoplova, te tako smanjimo mogućnost da nas neka supernova ili komet izbrišu s lica Zemlje. Dakle, zaista, čovječanstvo je prošlo datum kada je trebalo biti “istrijebljeno” i, kao što je bilo u dane Noe… Jeli su, pili, ženili se i udavali, sve do dana kad je Noa ušao u korablju, a tada je došao potop i sve ih uništio. Slično kao što bijaše u dane Lotove: jeli su, pili, kupovali, prodavali, sadili, gradili. A onog dana kad Lot iziđe iz Sodome, zapljušti s neba oganj i sumpor i sve uništi. SOTT.net je objavio članak Ivana Elanda, u kojem je on rekao: Trošiti sav taj novac za obranu od prijetnje koja je rijetka kao i katastrofalni komet koji pogađa SAD ima malo smisla. Kad bi NASA bila u mogućnosti koristiti iste taktike zastrašivanja kao DHS (Ministarstvo domovinske sigurnosti, op. prev.), možda bi svemirska agencija mogla uvjeriti nevoljki Kongres da im da bijednih milijardu dolara (u usporedbi) za svoj podjednako besmislen Spaceguard Survey program, koji prati asteroide i komete koji imaju jednaku vjerojatnost da ubiju Amerikance kao i teroristi. Kao što možete vidjeti iz članka iznad, gospodin Eland ne zna o čemu priča. Ali koliko ljudi na planeti zna? Koliko naših sugrađana ima ikakvog pojma da je ljudska vrsta prošla svoj datum izumiranja? Razmislite o tome kad sljedeći put vidite zvijezdu padalicu ili pročitate o vatrenoj kugli u novinama…