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Function of the nervous system and some key concepts of neurobiology You may know that the nervous system consists of nerve cells (neurons) within which the signal is propagated electrically - by excitation and depolarization of the neuronal cell membrane. Between each neuron, information is propagated chemically - using molecules of chemicals called neurotransmitters, or neurotransmitters. Maybe you know that a typical neuron has electrical supply leads called dendrites, a body that integrates dendritic information and a single cable called the axon. The neurons are linked together by synapses - the clones in which they touch the axon of one neuron with the dendrite of another neuron. It is the synapse that lets the signal from the axon of one neuron (called presynaptic neuron) pass into another neuron (called the postsynaptic neuron). This is done by releasing a neurotransmitter from the membrane of the presynaptic neuron (presynaptic membranes)which acts on the membrane of dendritic postsynaptic neuron (postsynaptic membrane). This is so that the neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic membrane is distinguished by special protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane, called the nerve receptors. When the receptors detect a neurotransmitter, it causes the excitation of dendrite and thus the entire postsynaptic neuron. The electrical excitation of the presynaptic neuron through the synapse through the chemical neurotransmitter goes to the postsynaptic neuron. This principle works by the brain and the entire nervous system.causes the excitation of dendrite and thus the entire postsynaptic neuron. The electrical excitation of the presynaptic neuron through the synapse through the chemical neurotransmitter goes to the postsynaptic neuron. This principle works by the brain and the entire nervous system.causes the excitation of dendrite and thus the entire postsynaptic neuron. The electrical excitation of the presynaptic neuron through the synapse through the chemical neurotransmitter goes to the postsynaptic neuron. This principle works by the brain and the entire nervous system. Receptor systems Classical neurotransmitters commonly found in the brain include glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine and others. Each of these molecules has a specific receptor that recognizes it on the postsynaptic membrane. We say that the neurotransmitter, along with its receptor, forms the receptor system. The receptor system also includes a cascade of proteins that serve the path of release of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane excitation pathway after the neurotransmitter is detected by the receptor. The names of the receptor systems are derived from their neurotransmitters: - glutamate => glutaminergic receptor system - GABA => GABAergy receptor system - acetylcholine => cholinergic receptor system - serotonin => serotonergic receptor system - dopamine => dopaminergic receptor system, etc. Agonists and antagonists In addition to the neurotransmitters themselves that naturally occur in receptor systems, there are many chemicals that interfere with the functioning of receptor systems. Substances that activate the receptors of the system are called agonists. Substances that inhibit receptors are called antagonists. The most typical natural agonist of a given receptor system is, of course, the neurotransmitter itself. The agonists and antagonists differ in their potency on their receptor system. Strong agonists and antagonists find many nerve poisons and drugs. For example, the alcohol is a GABA receptor agonist, and when we eat in the pub, it's because the alcohol consumed mimics the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid on its receptor, causing all well-known symptoms. When another sect in the metric wears with sarine again, it is because it acts as a cholinergic system antagonist - killing by blocking the transmission of acetylcholine signal from motor neurons axons to cholinergic receptors in the muscles. Receptor systems agonists and antagonists include thousands of different poisons and highly potent drugs. Neuromodulators Neuromodulator is a chemical that affects any receptor system but is not an agonist or antagonist. We can say that in neurobiology we recognize two types of effect of substances on receptor systems: - a direct effect when the agent is an agonist or antagonist of the receptor system - an indirect, or neuromodulatory effect, when the active substance only slightly modifies the functioning of the receptor system The boundary between direct and neuromodulatory effects is not strictly defined. However, the neuromodulatory effect is less drastic than the direct effect. Neurotropic effects The word neurotropic sounds professional, but it simply means that the substance somehow affects the nervous system. The term neurotropic includes both direct (agonist / antagonist) and neuromodulatory effects. A special type of neurotropic effect is a nootropic effect. Nootropics are defined as substances that increase intelligence and improve the functioning of the nervous system. Since ginseng and other adaptogens have been described as such, I wrote a special page about the nootropic effect of adaptogens . Neurotropic effects of adaptogens The definition of adaptogen requires that it does not interfere with the normal functioning of the organism more than is necessary to increase non-specific resistance, sic. It also follows from this definition that adaptogens must not be poisonous in a relatively high dose. Adaptogens therefore largely lack the drastic direct effects of strong agonists and antagonists of the nerve receptor systems. This does not mean that the adaptogens are ineffective: their effect on the brain and the nervous system is mainly neuromodulatory. Additionally, the adaptogen has historically been linked to the concept of stress since its inception . The science of adaptogens was, at the time, considered to be the cutting-edge discipline of theoretical medicine , which Brechman followed up on the discovery of the Generalized Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) at that time . Because of the continuity of stress with the GAS and the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, scientists nowadays tend to mark adaptive plants as stimulating their hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Discussion of the mechanisms of this effect is therefore of great importance for adaptogens. In terms of mechanism, adapters are particularly important for the neurosteroidal effects of their triterpenoid saponins. The concept of neurosteroids was introduced by the French physiologist Etienne Baulieu in the 1980s, who noticed that triterpenoids have neuromodulatory abilities. Due to their amphoteric character, saponins of ginseng and other adapogenics have the ability to bind to the cell membrane and nonpolar pockets of cellular receptors and other proteins. For the same reason, these saponins also have the ability to penetrate the cell membrane into the nucleus and act directly on gene expression. These adaptive saponins can be seen as neuromodulators by the character of the body close to their own hormones and neurosteroids. For the same reason, the effects of adaptogens are generally long-lasting, ie they require long-term use for their realization. Effects of adaptogens on selected receptor systems The non-modulatory effects of genuine ginseng saponins have been the subject of intensive research since the mid-20th century. The gypsy gypsies found out in the 1970s that they contain various components, some of which cause CNS activation, others are reassuring ( Saito1977epg ). Soon the first specific neuromodulatory panaxosides, ginsenoside Rb 1 and Rg 1 ( Tsang1985gsi , Benishin 1992 ) were identified . Since then, research into the neurosteroidal and neuromodulatory effects of individual panaxosides and other adaptive saponins has begun on various CNS receptor systems: Other neurotrophic effects In this section I mention the effects of adaptogens on the brain and the nervous system that did not come under the above-mentioned receptor systems. These are effects on other neuronal molecules and more general effects on the CNS. First of all, I mention the ginseng right, which was the most researched: - Protective and regenerative effect - Ginseng saponins improve nerve fiber growth ( Takemoto1984png ) and protect brain cells from death in brain ischemia ( Wen1996grp ), chemical damage ( eg alcohol ), psychological stress and other stressful factors. The carrier of this effect is gssd. Rg 1 ( Wen1996grp , Lim1997pih ), which also counteracted the aging of cortical neurons ( Li1997eag , Jiang1996mag , Liu1995egr ) and cells in general ( Choo2003aag ). - Effect on GABA Receptors - Y-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA) are the most abundant receptors in the human brain. Neurostoroidal effect on GABA A and GABA B having ginsenosides Rb 1 , Rb 2 , Rc , Re , Rf and Rg 1 ( Kimura1994igw ). The stabilizing effect on the GABA system explains in part the adaptogenic anti-stress effect of ginseng ( Bhattcharya1999epg , Yuan1998mag ). - Examples of other effects - Ginsenoside 20 (S) -rg 3 inhibits P / Q Ca 2 + channels Kv 1.4 K + channels and Na + IIA channels in rat brain with an IC 50 of tens um ( Jeong2004sgr ). According to Jiang1996mag and Liu1995egr , gssd. Rb 1 and Rg 1 increase Na / K-pump activity. According Cao1990ieg ginsenoside Rb 1 Na / K-pump conversely inhibited with IC 50 6.3uM. Ginseng has direct effects against pain perception (and also indirect side effects against pain by suppressing the inflammation reaction). Ginseng positively affects sleep - for example panaxosid majonoside-R 2 in stressed animals restores sleeping capacity ( Huong1998aem ). The positive effect on sleep states and animal studies Lee1990cip and clinical studies Han2013erg . At the same time, ginseng facilitates the ability to suppress sleep, so " insomnia " is the most common complaint when using ginseng. Ginseng stabilizes the activity of neurons and makes it easier to overcome withdrawal symptoms in drug withdrawal . Other plants and fungi In addition to the model ginseng right adaptogene , American ginseng is considered to be typically neurotrophic in the genus Panax , while ginseng ( P. pseudoginseng ) or ginseng notoginseng ( P. notoginseng ) are traditionally used to modify metabolism. For eleutherocok the situation is unclear, while the use of Rhodiola pink ( Rhodiola rosea ) and hailing snodárné ( Withania somnifera ) in the role of neuromodulation adaptogen is supported in the literature. The stairway affects serotonin and other neurotransmitters and has the potential to quit drug addiction ( Mannucci2012sir ). There are also indications that Rhodiola has the ability to induce regeneration of CNS neurons ( Chen2009err ). A modulation effect on serotonin receptors, GABA receptors and central acetylcholine receptors ( Hsieh2001aew ) has been shown in Schisanra chinensis ( Schisanra chinensis ) and is indicative of a nootropic effect ( Pan2002spa , Egashira2008srm ). Of the medicinal fungi , the effects of glans glossy ( Ganoderma lucidum ) on the brain are primarily protective (neuroprotective). It can be assumed that pancreatic gynostema ( Gynostemma pentaphyllum ) will also be neurotrophic . Among neurotropic adaptogens include Cordyceps sinensis ( Cordyceps spp.) , Watercress Peruvian ( Lepidium meyenii ) incorrectly referred to as Peruvian ginseng , ginkgo ( Ginkgo biloba ) and others that part I do not want to mention (for so the page is long enough), partly know , and partly unknown to science at all - that's why ethnobotanics are studying systems of native traditional medicine .
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Funkcioniranje živčani sustav i neke ključne koncepte neurobiologije Vi znati da živčani sustav sastoji od živčanih stanica (neurone), u kojem je signal se širi električni - uz pobuđivanje i depolarizaciju stanične membrane neurona. Između neurona zatim kemijski širenje informacija - pomoću molekule nazivaju neurotransmiteri, kemikalije, ili neurotransmiteri. Možda znate da je tipično neuron ima kabel za napajanje pod nazivom dendrita, tijela koje integrira informacije isporučuju dendrita i jedan izlaz kabela pod nazivom aksona. Neuroni su međusobno povezani tako sinapsi - veza pogođene aksona jednog neurona na dendrita drugog neurona. To omogućuje sinapsa na signal iz aksona neurona (tzv presinaptični neurona) prošao u drugi neuron (tzv postsinaptički neuron). U tom slučaju, tako da se membrana aksona u presinaptički neuron (sinaptičke membrane) se otpušta neurotransmiter koji djeluje na membranu za postsinaptičke neuronskih dendritima (presinaptički membrana). U tom slučaju, tako da se oslobađa iz presinaptičkih neurotransmiter membrana prepoznat od specifičnih molekula bjelančevina u postsinaptičkom membrani, nazvane živčanih receptora. Kada su receptori otkriti neurotransmiter uzrokuje pobuđivanje u dendrita a time i postsinaptični neurona. Električne uzbude presinaptički neuron i sinapsi preko kemijskom neurotransmitera prenosi postsinaptičkom neuronu. Na tom principu radi mozak i cijeli živčani sustav. sustavi receptor Među klasičnim neurotransmiter u mozgu glutamat, y-aminomaslačnu kiselinu (GABA), glicin, acetilkolin, serotonin, dopamin i drugi. Svaki od tih molekula ima određeni receptor, prepozna postsinaptičku membrane. Kažemo da je dao neurotransmiter, zajedno s njihovim receptorima čine sustav receptora. Sustav također uključuje proteinskih receptora koji služe slijeda kaskadu neurotransmitera iz presinaptičkog otpuštanja membrane i ekscitacija postsinaptički membrana naprijed nakon otkrivanja receptora neurotransmitera. Imena su izvedeni receptorskih sustava po svojim neurotransmitera: - glutamat => sustav glutaminergic receptor - GABA => sustav GABAergično receptor - acetilkolin => sustav kolinergičke receptor - Serotonina => sustav serotoninske receptor - Dopamina => sustav dopaminergičkih receptora itd Agoniste i antagoniste Osim neurotransmitera koji se prirodno nalaze u receptorskih sustava postoji veliki broj kemikalija koje utječu na funkcioniranje receptorskih sustava. Tvari koje aktiviraju receptor-sustava, koji su nazvani agoniste. Tvari koje inhibiraju receptore nazivaju antagonisti. Najtipičniji prirodni agonist receptora sustava je sama neurotransmiter naravno. Agonisti i antagonisti razlikuju silu koja djeluje na svom sustavu receptora. Među moćan agonista i antagonista nalazimo mnoge živčane otrove i lijekove . Na primjer, alkohol je agonist GABA receptora, a kada pub Ozer slika, tako da se pod utjecajem alkohola oponaša djelovanje y-aminomaslačnu kiselinu na njegov receptor i time uzrokuju nas svih poznatih simptoma. Kad se pak neki Sect trovanja podzemne Sarin, činjenica je da je plin djeluje kao antagonist kolinergičkog sistema - ubijanja blokira transdukciju signala acetilkolina iz motoneurona aksona na holinergijske receptore u mišićima. Agonisti i antagonisti receptorskih sustava uključuju tisuće različitih otrova i potentnih lijekova. neuromodulatori Neuromodulatori je kemikalija koja utječe na neki receptor sustavi, ali je agonist ili antagonist. Možemo reći da je u neurobiologije razlikovati dvije vrste učinaka tvari na receptorskih sustava: - izravni efekt da tvar agonist ili antagonist receptora sustava - ili neizravni neuromodulatornim učinkom aktivnog materijala samo malo mijenja funkcioniranje sustava receptora Granica između izravne i neuromodulatornim učinak nije oštro definirana. No, može se reći da je učinak neuromodulaciju je za razliku od izravnog učinka manje drastičan. neurotropni učinci Neurotropni riječ zvuči profesionalno, ali jednostavno znači da je tvar nekako djeluje na živčani sustav. Pojam neurotrofnim nalazi izravnu (agonist / antagonist) i neuromodulatornim učinke. Posebna vrsta neurotrofhom efekt je neotropni učinak. Nootropni agenti su definirane kao tvari povećava inteligenciju i poboljšanje funkcioniranja živčanog sustava. Zbog ginsenga i drugih adaptogena je opisan takav utjecaj, pisao sam o nootropnim učinak adaptogena posebnu stranicu . Neurotropni učinci adaptogens Definicije adaptogen zahtijeva da to ne ometa normalno funkcioniranje tijela više nego što je potrebno kako bi se poboljšala nespecifičnu otpornost, SiC. Ova definicija podrazumijeva da adaptogena ni na relativno visoku dozu otrova. Adaptogenům stoga uglavnom bez drastične jake izravnih učinaka agonista i antagonista živčanog receptorskih sustava. To ne znači da su oni adaptogens nedjelotvornim: njihov utjecaj na mozak i živčani sustav je uglavnom neuromodulaciju. Štoviše adaptogen povijesno povezani od svog osnutka sa pojmom stresa . Znanost o adaptogena je u to vrijeme namijenjeno kao vrhunsku discipline teorijske medicine , koji Brechman graditi na tada novoj otkriće sindrom generalizirani adaptaciju (plin) . To je zbog stresa kombinaciji s plinom i hipotalamo-hipofiza osi, znanstvenici danas imaju tendenciju da se naljepnica biljaka Adaptogens za njihovu stimulativni učinak na hipotalamo-hipofiza osi. Rasprava mehanizam ovog učinka je stoga od velike važnosti u adaptogena. Što se tiče mehanizma su među adaptogena posebno važno neurosteroida učinci triterpenoid saponini. Koncept neurosteroidi uveden u 80 francuskog fiziologa 20. stoljeća Etienne Baulieu, koji je primijetio da je triterpenoidi imaju mogućnost neuromodulaciju. Zbog svoje prirode amfoternog ginseng saponini i druge Adaptogens vmezeřit Sposobnost stanične membrane i nepolarne džepovi receptora i ostalih staničnih proteina. Iz istog razloga i ti saponini imaju sposobnost prodrijeti stanične membrane do jezgre i djeluju izravno na ekspresiju gena. Ove saponini, adaptogens se može vidjeti kao neuromodulatori karaktera kod vlastitih tjelesnih hormona i neurosteroidům. Iz istog razloga, učinci adaptogena općenito dugoročno, tj. Zahtijevaju provedbu svoje dugotrajne upotrebe. Učinci na odabranim adaptogens receptorskih sustava Neuromodulaciju učinci saponini ginsenga su predmet intenzivnog istraživanja od sredine 20. stoljeća. Japanska Ginseng je već u 70 utvrdio da su razne komponente, od kojih svi uzrokuju aktivaciju CNS někeré, drugi su umirujuće ( Saito1977epg ). Rano identificirati specifičan prvi neuromodulaciju panaxosidy, ginsenoside Rb 1 i Rg 1 ( tsang1985gsi , Benishin1992agr ). Od tada vodio neurosteroida istraživanja i neuromodulaciju posljedice individualne panaxosidů i drugih adaptogeni saponini u raznim receptorskih sustava CNS: Još neurotropni učinci U ovom poglavlju sam spomenuo Adaptogens učinke na mozak i živčani sustav koji ne odgovaraju prethodno navedenim receptorskih sustava. Tu su učinci na druge molekule neurona i također više opće učinke na CNS. Na prvom mjestu još jednom sam predstaviti pravi ginseng na kojem je učinjeno većina istraživanja: - Zaštitni stimulirajućeg djelovanja - ginseng saponin povećati rast živčanih vlakana ( Takemoto1984png ) i štite stanice od umiranja tijekom mozga cerebralne ishemije ( Wen1996grp ), kemijske ozljede ( npr alkohola ), mentalnim stresom i drugih čimbenika stresa. Nositelj ovog efekta je gssd. Rg 1 ( Wen1996grp , Lim1997pih ), koji djeluju protiv starenja neurona ( Li1997eag , Jiang1996mag , Liu1995egr ) i stanicama općenito ( Choo2003aag ). - Učinak na GABA receptora - receptora Y-aminomaslačnu kiselinu (GABA), su najbrojnija receptora u mozgu. Neurosteroida učinak na GABA A i B su GABA ginsenosides Rb 1 , Rb 2 , Rc , Re , Rf i Rg 1 ( Kimura1994igw ). Stabilizirajući učinak na GABA sustava dijelom objašnjena adaptogenic antistresni učinak ginsenga ( Bhattcharya1999epg , Yuan1998mag ). - Primjeri drugih učinaka - ginsenoside 20 (S) 3 -Rgje inhibira P / P Ca2 + kanala kV 1.4 K + kanala i Na + kanala IIA u mozgu štakora s IC50 od nekoliko desetaka um ( Jeong2004sgr ). Prema Jiang1996mag i Liu1995egr , gssd. Rb 1 i Rg 1 povećava aktivnost Na / K-pumpe. Prema Cao1990ieg ginsenoside Rb 1 Na / K-pumpe naprotiv inhibirana s IC50 od 6.3uM. Ginseng ima izravne učinke protiv percepciju boli (također i neizravnih učinaka lijekova protiv bolova prigušivanja upalni odgovor ). Ginseng pozitivno utječe na san - na primjer panaxosid Majonosid-R2 u životinja izloženih stresu vraća mogućnost za spavanje ( Huong1998aem ). Pozitivan učinak na stanja mirovanja i životinja proučava Lee1990cip i kliničke studije Han2013erg . No, ona također čini mogućnost ginseng će potisnuti spavati, tako da je „ nesanica ” je konačno u korištenju ginsenga najčešćih prigovora. Ginseng stabilizira neuronske aktivnosti i olakšava prevladavanje simptome odvikavanja od ovisnosti . Druge biljke i gljive Osim modela adaptogen ginsenga za neurotrofhe obično iz roda Panax smatra i američki ginseng , dok ginseng lažan (P. pseudoginsng) ili ginseng notoginseng (P. notoginseng) tradicionalno se koriste, a za izmjenu metabolizam. Za eleutherocok je situacija nejasna, dok je uporaba Rhodiola roza (Rhodiola rosea) i dovikuje snodárné (withania somnifera) u ulozi neuromodulaciju adaptogen je podržan u literaturi. Rhodiola utječe na razine serotonina i drugih neurotransmitera i ima potencijalne ovisnosti od ovisnosti o drogama ( Mannucci2012sir ). Također postoje naznake da Rhodiola ima sposobnost da inducira regeneraciju CNS neurona ( Chen2009err ). Za Schizandra chinensis (Schisanra chinensis) pokazali su djelovanje modulatora na serotoninske receptore, GABA-receptora i središnje receptore za acetilkolin ( Hsieh2001aew ) i indikacija nootropického učinak ( Pan2002spa , Egashira2008srm ). Ljekovite gljive određeni učinci Lingzhi gljiva (Ganoderma lucidum) na mozgu prvenstveno se zaštitna (neuroprotektivni). Pretpostavlja se da je neurotropni će panaxosidy sastoji Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Gynostemma pentaphyllum) . Među neurotropnih adaptogena uključuju cordyceps sinensis (Cordyceps spp.) , Potočarka peruanski (Lepidium meyenii) pogrešno naziva peruanski ginseng , ginko (Ginkgo biloba) i drugi koji dio ne želim spomenuti (tako je stranica dovoljno dugo), dijelom znam a dijelom i znanost nisu poznati svi - to je razlog zašto ethnobotanicals proučavanje sustava autohtone tradicionalne medicine .