http___ljubavnadjelu.hr_stranica.php_str_rak_jetre_jezik_HRV_1.xml
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Breast Cancer Staging If the biopsy shows that you have breast cancer, your doctor needs to learn the extent (stage) of the disease to help you choose the best treatment. The stage is based on the size of the cancer, whether the cancer has invaded nearby tissues, and whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body. Staging may involve blood tests and other tests: - Bone scan: The doctor injects a small amount of a radioactive substance into a blood vessel. It travels through the bloodstream and collects in the bones. A machine called a scanner detects and measures the radiation. The scanner makes pictures of the bones. The pictures may show cancer that has spread to the bones. - CT scan: Doctors sometimes use CT scans to look for breast cancer that has spread to the liver or lungs. An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes a series of detailed pictures of your chest or abdomen. You may receive contrast material by injection into a blood vessel in your arm or hand. The contrast material makes abnormal areas easier to see. - Lymph node biopsy: The stage often is not known until after surgery to remove the tumor in your breast and one or more lymph nodes under your arm. Surgeons use a method called sentinel lymph node biopsy to remove the lymph node most likely to have breast cancer cells. The surgeon injects a blue dye, a radioactive substance, or both near the breast tumor. Or the surgeon may inject a radioactive substance under the nipple. The surgeon then uses a scanner to find the sentinel lymph node containing the radioactive substance or looks for the lymph node stained with dye. The sentinel node is removed and checked for cancer cells. Cancer cells may appear first in the sentinel node before spreading to other lymph nodes and other places in the body. These tests can show whether the cancer has spread and, if so, to what parts of your body. When breast cancer spreads, cancer cells are often found in lymph nodes under the arm (axillary lymph nodes). Also, breast cancer can spread to almost any other part of the body, such as the bones, liver, lungs, and brain. When breast cancer spreads from its original place to another part of the body, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the primary (original) tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer. For that reason, it is treated as breast cancer, not bone cancer. Doctors call the new tumor “distant” or metastatic disease. These are the stages of breast cancer: Stage 0 is sometimes used to describe abnormal cells that are not invasive cancer. For example, Stage 0 is used for ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). DCIS is diagnosed when abnormal cells are in the lining of a breast duct, but the abnormal cells have not invaded nearby breast tissue or spread outside the duct. Although many doctors don’t consider DCIS to be cancer, DCIS sometimes becomes invasive breast cancer if not treated. Stage I is an early stage of invasive breast cancer. Cancer cells have invaded breast tissue beyond where the cancer started, but the cells have not spread beyond the breast. The tumor is no more than 2 centimeters (three-quarters of an inch) across. Stage II is one of the following: - The tumor is no more than 2 centimeters (three-quarters of an inch) across. The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. - The tumor is between 2 and 5 centimeters (three-quarters of an inch to 2 inches). The cancer has not spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. - The tumor is between 2 and 5 centimeters (three-quarters of an inch to 2 inches). The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. - The tumor is larger than 5 centimeters (2 inches). The cancer has not spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. Stage III is locally advanced cancer. It is divided into Stage IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC. Stage IIIA is one of the following: - The tumor is no more than 5 centimeters (2 inches) across. The cancer has spread to underarm lymph nodes that are attached to each other or to other structures. Or the cancer may have spread to lymph nodes behind the breastbone. - The tumor is more than 5 centimeters across. The cancer has spread to underarm lymph nodes that are either alone or attached to each other or to other structures. Or the cancer may have spread to lymph nodes behind the breastbone. Stage IIIB is a tumor of any size that has grown into the chest wall or the skin of the breast. It may be associated with swelling of the breast or with nodules (lumps) in the breast skin: - The cancer may have spread to lymph nodes under the arm. - The cancer may have spread to underarm lymph nodes that are attached to each other or other structures. Or the cancer may have spread to lymph nodes behind the breastbone. - Inflammatory breast cancer is a rare type of breast cancer. The breast looks red and swollen because cancer cells block the lymph vessels in the skin of the breast. When a doctor diagnoses inflammatory breast cancer, it is at least Stage IIIB, but it could be more advanced. Stage IIIC is a tumor of any size. It has spread in one of the following ways: - The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes behind the breastbone and under the arm. - The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes above or below the collarbone. Stage IV is distant metastatic cancer. The cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the bones or liver. Recurrent cancer is cancer that has come back after a period of time when it could not be detected. Even when the cancer seems to be completely destroyed, the disease sometimes returns because undetected cancer cells remained somewhere in your body after treatment. It may return in the breast or chest wall. Or it may return in any other part of the body, such as the bones, liver, lungs, or brain.
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Primarni rak jetre započinje u hepatocitima (stanicama jetre). Ovaj tip raka naziva se hepatocelularnim karcinomom ili malignim hepatomom. Djeca mogu razviti hepatocelularni karcinom ili hepatoblastom. Kada se rak jetre širi (metastazira) izvan jetre, stanice raka imaju tendenciju širenja u obližnje limfne čvorove, kosti i pluća. Kada se to dogodi, novi tumor ima istu vrstu abnormalnih stanica kao i primarni tumor u jetri. Primjerice, ako se rak jetre raširi u kosti, stanice raka u kostima zapravo su stanice raka jetre. Bolest je metastatički rak jetre, ne rak kosti. Tretira se kao rak jetre, a ne kao rak kosti. Slično, rak koji se iz drugih organa proširi na jetru različit je od primarnog raka jetre. Stanice raka u jetri, u tom slučaju, su kao stanice u originalnom tumoru. Kada se stanice raka rašire s drugog organa (debelo crijevo, pluća ili dojku) na jetru, liječnici mogu tumor u jetri nazvati sekundarnim tumorom. U SAD-u su sekundarni tumori jetre češći nego primarni tumori. Rak jetre ponekada se naziva tihom bolešću zbog toga što u ranim fazama često nema simptoma, ali kako rak napreduje mogu se pojaviti sljedeći simptomi: Bol u gornjem dijelu abdomena na desnoj strani. Bol se može širiti u leđa i ramena. · Otečeni abdomen (nadutost) · Gubitak na težini · Gubitak apetita i osjećaji sitosti · Oslabljenost ili osjećaj umora · Vrtoglavica i povraćanje · Žuta koža i oči i tamni urin od žutice · Povišena tjelesna temperatura Navedeni simptomi nisu siguran znak raka jetre. Druge bolesti jetre i drugi zdravstveni problemi također mogu uzrokovati simptome. Osoba s navedenim simptomima trebala bi posjetiti liječnika. Samo liječnik može postaviti dijagnozu i liječiti bolest. Ukoliko pacijent pokazuje navedene simptome raka jetre liječnik može provesti jednu ili više pretraga: Tjelesni pregled – liječnik opipava abdomen kako bi provjerio, odnosno, utvrdio kvržice ili promjene u veličini na jetri, slezeni i drugim organima. Liječnik također provjerava prisustvo ascitesa (abnormalne nakupine tekućine u abdomenu). Liječnik može pregledati kožu i oči u potrazi za znakovima žutice. · Krvne pretrage · CT · Ultrazvuk · MRI · Angiogram · Biopsija Stadij raka jetre Ukoliko se dijagnosticira rak jetre, liječnik treba znati stadij ili razmjer bolesti kako bi isplanirao najbolji tretman za pacijenta. Utvrđivanje stadija bolesti zapravo je pokušaj određivanja veličine tumora, da li se bolest proširila i ukoliko je – na koje dijelove tijela, da li se tumor može odstraniti operacijom. Tretman Mnogi pacijenti s rakom jetre žele imati aktivnu ulogu pri odlučivanju o tretmanu. Žele naučiti sve što mogu o svojoj bolesti i odabiru tretmana. Međutim, šok i stres koji pacijenti dožive kada čuju dijagnozu otežava im razmišljanje o svemu što bi željeli pitati liječnika. Često pomaže sastaviti listu pitanja prije susreta s liječnikom. Kako bi zapamtili sve što liječnik kaže, pacijenti mogu uzimati zabilješke ili povesti člana obitelji. U današnje vrijeme se rak jetre može izliječiti samo ukoliko se otkrije u ranoj fazi (prije nego što se proširi) i samo ako je pacijentovo opće zdravstveno stanje dovoljno dobro da podnese operaciju. Međutim, osim operacije postoje i drugi tretmani koji mogu pomoći u kontroli bolesti, pomoći da se pacijenti bolje osjećaju i produžiti im život. Lokalizirani operabilni rak Lokalizirani operabilni rak jetre je rak koji se može odstraniti tijekom operacije te nema dokaza da se rak proširio na obližnje limfne čvorove ili druge dijelove tijela, a laboratorijski testovi ukazuju na dobru funkciju jetre. Operacija kojom se odstranjuje dio jetre naziva se hepatektomija. Opseg operacije ovisi o veličini, broju i lokaciji tumora i o tome koliko jetra dobro radi. Liječnik može odstraniti dio tkiva koje sadrži tumor, cijeli režanj ili veći dio jetre. Kod djelomične hepatektomije kirurg odstranjuje tumor do granice normalnog tkiva koje preuzima funkciju jetre. Kod nekih pacijenata opcija može biti transplantacija jetre. Kod ove procedure kirurg odstranjuje cijelu jetru i zamjenjuje je zdravim organom od donora. Transplantacija jetre je opcija samo ako se bolest nije proširila izvan jetre i samo ako se može pronaći odgovarajući donor. Lokalizirani neoperabilni rak Lokalizirani neoperabilni rak ne može se odstraniti operacijom iako se nije proširio na obližnje limfne čvorove ili druge dijelove tijela. Operacija nije moguća zbog ciroze (ili drugih stanja koja dovode do oslabljene funkcije jetre), lokalizacije tumora unutar jetre ili drugih zdravstvenih problema. Pacijenti s lokaliziranim neoperabilnim tumorom mogu biti pogodni za druge oblike tretmana kojima se nastoji kontrolirati bolest i produžiti život. Uznapredovali rak Uznapredovali rak je rak koji se nalazi u oba jetrena režnja ili koji se proširio na druge dijelove tijela. Iako se uznapredovali rak ne može izliječiti neki pacijenti primaju terapiju kojom se nastoji usporiti progresija bolesti. Drugi pacijenti, nakon razmatranja dobrobiti i štete od terapije odlučuju kako ne žele terapiju. Tretman uznapredovalog raka uključuje kemoterapiju i/ili radioterapiju. · Kemoterapija – predstavlja upotrebu lijekova koji ubijaju stanice raka. Pacijent može primiti jedan lijek ili kombinaciju lijekova. · Radioterapija – koriste se visoko-energetske zrake kako bi se ubile stanice raka. Radioterapija je lokalna terapija, odnosno, djeluje na stanice raka koje se nalaze u tretiranom području. Recidivirajući rak Recidivirajući rak predstavlja bolest koja se vraća nakon inicijalnog tretmana. Čak i kada se čini da je rak u jetri u potpunosti odstranjen ili uništen bolest se ponekad vraća zbog neopaženih stanica raka koje su ostale negdje u tijelu nakon tretmana. Rak se najčešće ponovno pojavljuje u periodu od dvije godine od tretmana