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Part one: The history of feudalism and its earliest forms By the end of the 15th century, French language was introduced with a term féodalité which represented laws and customs that were effective in France as of the Carolingian period until the end of the Middle Ages. These laws were typical of martial polity, a system that protected the man, and of non-existence of public government. The first to have used the term „feudalism“ were English lawyers in the 17th century. They implied a legal system of fiefs, which was at that time the only surviving part of the medieval system.1 As to fully comprehend feudalism and its development, we shall go back to earlier periods. „The feudal society“ is a typical type of society where agriculture is a predominant type of economy and it was mostly developed in such circumstances. In times when the Western Roman Empire was at its last breaths, the life of small landowners was exceptionally hard. In such conditions, they had to give away their land to the Church as insurance, after which the Church gave it back to them in a form of a gift (beneficium). Cultivators that had no land or didn’t have enough, and had a desire to live off their work as farmers, went to see the overlord whom they would formally ask (preces) for land in exchange for a compensation. Such property was called a precarium.2 I. e., the land that is formally and legally owned by one individual, is possessed by some other individual. Whilst the Roman law permitted that precarium be consumed until the provider chooses so, in Frankish law it became a sort of a land lease for a predetermined period of time. As much as this was an important element in the uprise of feudal society, what we call a fief was a special type of benefit; a gift to the vassal in exchange for his military service. Honor, loyalty and military service will, at last, constitute something that is, in medieval terms, called a vassal relationship.3 A vassal enters willingly into a relationship with an overlord, agreeing thereby to certain obligations and thus bonding with him by personal loyalty. The overlord and his vassal are bound by a vassal agreement, in which the vassal swears loyalty to his overlord. The establishment of a feudal relationship is followed by a ceremony in which the vassal puts his hands into his overlord’s, and the overlord folds his hands around the vassal’s. The vassal’s obligation to his overlord is called consilium, i.e. council, or auxilium which represents military or more rarely financial assistance. In return, the overlord is obligated to provide protection to the vassal.4 In order to obtain funds for living and for obligatory military service, vassals provided pieces of land to other vassals or to serfs directly. Without this procedure, the feudal hierarchy would not have been maintained, and the entire production would have been significantly smaller. Serfs were forced into subordinant and dependent position, and for the purpose of upkeep, they were forced to lease land from a feudal. In case they wished to leave the land or free themselves, they were forcefully prevented from doing so. In exchange for ceded land, the serfs were obliged to pay a feudal fee to their master, which was usually paid in three different types; labor, natural goods or money. Even though these types of rent appeared mostly individually, due to different types of deals and feudals increasingly burdening the serfs, there are cases where some of these types appeared together. The political system in the area of Western Europe, that fully grew during the Carolingian era in 8th century, was developed as a synthesis of the two prior systems; imperial and barbaric, in time when the assignment of feuds on one hand, and the establishment of vassal-overlord relationship on the other, were connected. In parallel with the Frankish conquests during the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century, feudalism spread towards Italy, Spain, Germany, to the East towards Hungary and to some Slavenic lands. The Normans also spread it to lands they conquered. Thus it arrived to England and to the south of Italy. From England it spread to Ireland and Scotland. Feudalism appears in the Middle East as well, when the Crusader states were formed round the end of the 11th century, but also in Byzantine Empire, where we find pronoia as an equivalent to feud. Japan and China, as great non-European civilizations, went through a feudal period in their histories. Japanese feudalism is comparable to European, and in China a similar process evolves already in the 2nd century BC, and retains until the 20th century. In 12th century, in some of the most developed European countries such as England and France, feudalism finds itself under pressure from different social groups, and by maturity of organized society, feudal relations are gradually replaced by relations of masters to their subjects. Under such circumstances, feudalism loses its significance as a political and social phenomenon, especially in the 14th century. Despite such turn of events, feudalism left a deep mark in European societies, having influenced on modern political systems and their development. Finally, feudalism was abolished in England in the 16th century, in France in 1789, in Russia in 1861, and in Croatia in 1848.5 Langobard feudalism After conquering Italy, the Langobards inhabited it by tribal communities (farae). The royal government and the dukes as representatives of Langobard ancestral aristocracy thus occupied properties that were preowned by the Empire, along with the lands of large landowners that had been exiled or murdered, whilst the ancestral communities seized lands of smaller landowners or abandoned properties. In the process of forming of Langobard villages, tribal communities were divided into individual economical units, i.e. large families that consisted of three or four generations that collectively cultivated the ploughlands. The pastures and forests remained a common property of the entire village community. However, shortly after the conquest, the economical and social relations go through a reform, thus the „Edict of Rothari“ was published in 643, by which the tribal village community becomes a neighboring community or mark. It can be seen from the fore mentioned edict that large families, which were until then basic economical units of ancestral villages, were split into smaller families of single married couples. Common lands of large families were divided into allodial lands of smaller families which were governed by the father of the family, and sold, pledged or granted solely at his will. Forests and pastures remain at disposal to all villagers, and ploughlands and meadows are left as a free pasture for the whole village’s live stock.6 In the middle of the 7th century the Langobard population was divided into four groups: - Fulcfree et haamund – completely free and independant people - Fulcfree – free, but economically dependant people - Aldi – half-free people - Slaves Under the Rothari law, fulcfree was free, but economically dependent individual, and he was brought into this position due to impoverishment (given the fact that before this he was free and independent) or if he was a slave or aldio, and was subsequently granted freedom by his master. The social status of aldi was similar to slavery. Aldio had a piece of land which was owned by his master who was responsible for him, which made him legally dependent. Aldio also had features of freedom which meant that he was able to govern his land and employ slaves, and he could also marry a free woman, which lead to her losing freedom. Above these four basic categories of Langobard society there was former military tribal aristocracy, which served to highest bearers of political authority. The royal government had its court, which hired servants such as marshals, majordoms, treasurers, sword bearers etc. Some royal estates were governed by gastalds who had civil, military and judicial authority, and besides them there were also other administrative and judicial officials such as judices. Lands were cultivated by laborers, who were either slaves, aldi or fulcfree. However, free and independent people are increasingly called arimani or exercitales in the 7th and 8th century. The feature of this group of people was right and duty to participate in war.7 In the middle of the 8th century, king Aistulf legally forbade all the libertines and dependent liberals to leave their masters, unless they were given a special muniment granting them a right to leave. The land was given for cultivation to a free man that had no land of his own, under terms of a written contract (libellus scriptus). The forming of such relationships is a result of Liutprand’s law from 727. Libellarius is a free man that is granted a piece of land from the landlord to cultivate, in exchange for toll. By this act, he keeps his personal freedom, but accepts land and judicial dependency to the landlord.8 - The word „feudalism“ was first used by the 17th century English lawyers. - Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995. - Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo, Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1964. - Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku, Zagreb: Novi Liber, 2008. - 1 Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku, Zagreb: Novi Liber, 2008, p. 150-151 - 2 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo, Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1964, p. 7-9 - 3 Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku …, p. 151-152 - 4 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo…, p. 38-43 - 5 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo…, p. 154-156 - 6 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995, p 117-118 - 7 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995, p 118-119 - 8 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995, p 119-120
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Prvi dio: Povijest feudalizma i njegovi najraniji oblici Krajem 15. st. u francuskom jeziku počeo se upotrebljavati termin féodalité koji je predstavljao zakone i običaje koji su u Francuskoj vrijedili od karolinškog razdoblja do kraja srednjeg vijeka. Ti zakoni bili su karakteristični po vladavini ratničkog sloja, sustavu koji je štitio čovjeka, te nepostojanju javne vlasti. Prvi koji su upotrebljavali riječ „feudalizam“ bili su engleski pravnici u 17. st. Oni su pod tim pojmom podrazumjevali pravni sustav feuda (lena) koji je u to doba jedini preživjeli dio srednjovjekovnog sustava.1 Kako bi u potpunosti razumjeli feudalizam i njegov razvoj, vratit ćemo se u ranija razdoblja. „Feudalno društvo“ tipično je za društva u kojima je poljoprivreda dominantan tip privređivanja i uglavnom se razvijalo u takvim okolnostima. U doba kada je Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo bilo na izdisaju, život malih zemljoposjednika bio je izrazito težak. U takvim okolnostima oni predaju svoju zemlju Crkvi kako bi se osigurali, a natrag su je dobivali kao dar (beneficium). Oni obrađivači koji nisu imali zemlje ili je nisu imali dovoljno, a htjeli su živjeti od svoga rada kao zemljoradnici, odlazili su baštiniku kojeg bi formalno zamolili (preces) da dobiju zemlju u zamjenu za naknadu. Takav posjed zvao se prekarij.2 Dakle, zemlju koja je formalno i pravno u vlasništvu jedne osobe, posjeduje netko drugi. Dok je u rimski zakon dozvoljavao da se prekarij uživa dok davalac to dozvoljava, u franačkom zakonu on postaje svojevrstan oblik posjedovanja zemlje na određen period. Koliko god je ovo važan element u stvaranju feudalnog društva, ono što nazivamo feud bila je posebna vrsta beneficija; dar vazalu u zamjenu za vojnu službu. Upravo čast, vjernost i vojna služba činit će ono što se u srednjem vijeku naziva vazalni odnos.3 Vazal svojevoljno stupa u odnos sa seniorom prema kojem ima određene obaveze i s njim je povezan osobnom lojalnošću. Senior i njegov vazal povezani su vazalskim ugovorom, u kojem se vazal zaklinje na vjernost svom senioru. Uspostava feudalnog odnosa praćena je ceremonijom na kojoj vazal stavlja sklopljene ruke u ruke seniora, a senior sklapa ruke preko njegovih. Dužnost vazala prema svome senioru naziva se consilium, odnosno savjet, te auxilium koja označava vojnu ili rijeđe financijsku pomoć. Zauzvrat je senior dužan vazalu pružiti zaštitu.4 Kako bi prikupili sredstva za život i za potrebe vojničke službe koja je obavezna, vazali su davali pojedine čestice zemlje drugim vazalima ili kmetovima direktno. Bez ovog postupka feudalna hijerarhija ne bi bila uzdržavana, a cjelokupna feudalna proizvodnja bila bi znatno manja. Kmetovi u podređen i ovisan položaj dospjevaju prisilom, a kako bi se održali, prisiljeni su unajmiti zemlju od feudalca. U slučaju da žele napustiti zemlju ili se osloboditi, sprečavani su silom. Za ustupljenu zemlju, kmetovi su bili dužni svome gospodaru davati feudalnu rentu, koja se javlja u tri oblika; radna, naturalna i novčana. Iako se ove vrste rente javljaju pojedinačno, radi različitih oblika podavanja i feudalaca koji sve više terete kmetove, nailazimo i na njihovu paralelnu pojavu. Politički sustav koji je na području zapadne Europe u potpunosti stasao za vladavine Karolinga u 8. st., rođen je kao sinteza dvaju prijašnjih sustava; carskog i barbarskog, u doba kada je dodjela lena s jedne, i uspostava vazalsko – seniorskih odnosa s druge strane, bila povezana. Usporedno s franačkim osvajanjima krajem 8. i početkom 9. st., feudalizam se proširio prema Italiji, Španjolskoj, Njemačkoj, prema istoku Europe u Ugarsku i u neke slavenske zemlje. Normani su ga također prenosili u zemlje koje su osvajali. Tako je dospio u Englesku i na jug Italije. Iz Engleske se proširio u Irsku i Škotsku. Feudalizam se pojavljuje i na Bliskom istoku osnivanjem kržarskih država potkraj 11. st., ali i u Bizantskom Carstvu gdje se pronija javlja kao ekvivalent lenu. Japan i Kina kao velike izvaneuropske civilizacije, u svojoj su povijesti prošle kroz feudalno razdoblje. Japanski feudalizam može se usporediti s europskim, a u Kini se sličan proces javlja već u 2. st. pr. Kr. i zadržava se sve do 20. st. U 12. st. feudalizam je u najrazvijenijim europskim zemljama poput Engleske i Francuske naišao na pritisak od strane različitih društvenih skupina, a stasanjem organiziranog društva feudalni odnosi polako su se počeli zamjenjivati odnosima vladara i njemu podčinjenih. Pod takvim okolnostima feudalizam gubi na značenju kao politička i društvena pojava što do izražaja dolazi u 14. st. Unatoč takvom raspletu događaja, feudalizam je ostavio dubok trag u europskim društvima utjecavši na suvremene političke sustave i njihov razvoj. U konačnici feudalizam je u Engleskoj ukinut u 16. st., u Francuskoj 1789., u Rusiji 1861., a u Hrvatskoj 1848. godine.5 Langobardski feudalizam Prilikom osvojenja, Langobardi su Italiju naselili krvnorodbinskim zajednicama (farae). Kraljevska vlast i vojvode kao predstavnici langobardske rodovske aristokracije tada su zaposjeli imanja koja su bila u posjedu Carstva, te zemlje velikih zemljoposjednika koji su bili protjerani ili umoreni, dok su rodovske skupine zauzele zemlje manjih posjednika ili napuštena imanja. U procesu formacije langobardskih sela, krvnorodbinske zajednice podjeljene su u samostalne gospodarske jedinice, odnosno velike porodice koje su se sastojale od tri ili četiri generacije koje su kolektivno obrađivale oranice. Ispaše i šume ostale su zajednički posjed cijele seoske zajednice. No, nedugo po osvojenju gospodarski i društveni odnosi doživljavaju reformu, te je tako 643. godine objavljen „Edikt kralja Rotarija“ kojim krvnorodbinska seoska općina postaje susjedska općina ili marka. Iz navedenog edikta vidi se da su velike porodice, koje su do tada bile osnovne gospodarske jedinice rodovskih sela, raspale na manje porodice jednog bračnog para. Zajednički posjedi velikih porodica dijele se na alodijalna imanja manjih porodica kojima raspolaže otac obitelji, te ih po svojoj volji prodaje, zalaže ili dariva. Šume i pašnjaci i dalje ostaju na raspolaganju svim stanovnicima sela, a njive i livade prepuštaju se stoci cijelog sela kao slobodna ispaša.6 Sredinom 7. st. Langobardsko stanovništvo bilo je podjeljeno u četiri grupe: - Fulcfree et haamund – potpuno slobodni i nezavisni ljudi - Fulcfree – slobodni, ali ekonomski zavisni ljudi - Aldiji – poluslobodni ljudi - Robovi U vrjeme Rotarijeva zakona fulcfree je bio slobodan, ali ekonomski zavisan čovjek, a u taj položaj bio je doveden zbog osiromašenja (ukoliko je prije bio slobodan i nezavisan čovjek) ili ako je ranije bio rob ili aldij, a od gospodara bi dobio status slobodnog čovjeka. Društveni položaj aldija bio je sličan ropskome. Aldij je imao česticu zemlje koja je bila u vlasništvu njegova gospodara koji odgovara za njega što ga čini pravno zavisnim. Aldij ima i obilježja slobode što znači da može upravljati svojim gospodarstvom i zapošljavati robove, a može i stupiti u brak sa slobodnom ženom što dovodi do gubitka njezine slobode. Iznad ove četiri osnovne kategorije langobardskog društva postojala je nekadašnja vojno plemenska aristokracija, koja obavlja službe kod najviših nositelja političke vlasti. Kraljevska vlast je imala svoj dvor na kojem su dužnost obavljali službenici poput maršala, majordoma, rizničara, mačonoše itd. Nekim kraljevskim posjedima upravljali su gastaldi koji su imali civilne, vojne i sudske ovlasti, a osim njih postojali su i drugi upravni i sudski činovnici kao što su judices. Zemljoposjede su kao radna snaga obrađivali, robovi, aldiji ili fulcfree. Međutim, slobodne i nezavisne ljude dokumenti 7. i 8. st. označavaju sve češće nazivom arimani ili exercitales. Obilježje ove skupine ljudi bilo je pravo i dužnost da sudjeluju u ratnim pohodima.7 Sredinom 8. st. kralj Aistulf zakonskim je propisima zabranio svim oslobođenicima i zavisnim slobodnjacima da ostavljaju svoje gospodare, osim u slučaju da im je posebnom poveljom dano pravo na odlazak. Zemlja je na obradu bila dana slobodnom čovjeku koji nema svojega posjeda na temelju pisanog ugovora (libellus scriptus). Formiranje takvih odnosa rezultat je Liutprandovog zakona iz 727. godine. Libellarius je slobodan čovjek koji od vlasnika zemlje dobiva česticu na obradu uz davanje dažbina. Time zadržava svoju osobnu slobodu, ali prihvaća zemljišnu i sudsku ovisnost o veleposjedniku.8 Vezani članci: - Riječ „feudalizam“ prvi su upotrijebili engleski pravnici u 17. st. - Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995. - Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo, Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1964. - Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku, Zagreb: Novi Liber, 2008. - 1 Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku, Zagreb: Novi Liber, 2008., str. 150-151. - 2 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo, Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1964., str. - 3 Ivo GOLDSTEIN – Borislav GRGIN, Europa i Sredozemlje u srednjem vijeku …, str. 151-152. - 4 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo…, str. 38-43. - 5 Joseph CALMETTE, Feudalno društvo…, str. 154-156. - 6 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995., str 117-118. - 7 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995., str 118-119. - 8 Miroslav BRANDT, Srednjovjekovno doba povijesnog razvitka, zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995., str 119-120.