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It's a living legal community making laws accessible and interactive. Click Here to get Started » Human Rights From lawbrain.com Basic rights that fundamentally and inherently belong to each individual. Human rights are freedoms established by custom or international agreement that impose standards of conduct on all nations. Human rights are distinct from civil liberties, which are freedoms established by the law of a particular state and applied by that state in its own jurisdiction. Specific human rights include the right to personal liberty and due process of law; to freedom of thought, expression, religion, organization, and movement; to freedom from discrimination on the basis of race, religion, age, language, and sex; to basic education; to employment; and to property. Human rights laws have been defined by international conventions, by treaties, and by organizations, particularly the United Nations. These laws prohibit practices such as torture, slavery, summary execution without trial, and arbitrary detention or exile. History Modern human rights law developed out of customs and theories that established the rights of the individual in relation to the state. These rights were expressed in legal terms in documents such as the English Bill of Rights of 1688, the U.S. Declaration of Independence of 1776, the U.S. Bill of Rights added to the U.S. Constitution in 1789, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen added to the French Constitution in 1791. Human rights law also grew out of earlier systems of international law. These systems, developed largely during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, were predicated on the doctrine of national sovereignty, according to which each nation retains sole power over its internal affairs without interference from other nations. As a result, early international law involved only relations between nation-states and was not concerned with the ways in which states treated their own citizens. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the notion of national sovereignty came under increasing challenge, and reformers began to press for international humanitarian standards. In special conferences such as the Hague Conference of 1899 and 1907, nations created laws governing the conduct of wars and handling of prisoners. Not until after World War II (1939–45) did the international community create international treaties establishing human rights standards. The United Nations, created in 1945, took the lead in this effort. In its charter, or founding document, the United Nations developed objectives for worldwide human rights standards. It called for equal rights and self-determination for all peoples, as well as "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion" (art. 55). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1948, also became an important human rights document. To develop the U.N. Charter into an international code of human rights law, the international community created a number of multilateral human rights treaties. The two most significant of these are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, both put into effect in 1976. These treaties forbid discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status. The two covenants, along with the U.N. Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and an accord called the Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976), constitute a body of law that has been called the International Bill of Human Rights. The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights includes protections for the right to life, except after conviction for serious crime (art. 6); freedom from torture and other cruel and inhumane punishment (art. 7); freedom from slavery and prohibition from slave trade (art. 8); freedom from arbitrary arrest or detention (art. 9); humane treatment of prisoners (art. 10); freedom of movement and choice of residence (art. 12); legal standards, including equality before the law, fair hearings before an impartial tribunal, presumption of innocence, a prompt and fair trial, the right to counsel, and the right to review by a higher court; freedom of thought, conscience, and religion (art. 18); and freedom of association, including association in trade unions (art. 22). The Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights protects additional rights, many of which have yet to be realized in poorer countries. These include the right to work (art. 6); to just wages and safe working conditions (art. 7); to social security and social insurance (art. 9); to a decent standard of living and freedom from hunger (art. 11); to universal basic education (art. 13); and to an enjoyment of the cultural life and scientific progress of the country. The international community has also adopted many other human rights treaties. These include the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948); the Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1953); the Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery (revised 1953); the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment (1987); the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990); and the Convention on Protection of the Rights of Migrant Workers (2003). In addition to worldwide human rights agreements, countries have also established regional conventions. These include the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the American Convention on Human Rights, and the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. The United States and Human Rights Although the United States was an active participant in the formation and implementation of international human rights organizations and treaties following World War II, and although it ratified selected treaties such as the Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery in 1967 and the Convention on the Political Rights of Women in 1976, it did not ratify any of the major rights treaties until 1988, when it approved the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Four years later it ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The U.S. Senate, which has authority to ratify all treaties, has been slow to review and approve human rights provisions, for a number of reasons. Senators have expressed concern about the effect of international treaties on U.S. domestic law. Article VI of the U.S. Constitution provides, "This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land." Treaties therefore stand as federal law, though they are not considered to be law if they conflict with the Constitution (Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1, 77 S. Ct. 1222, 1 L. Ed. 2d 1148 [1957]). Conservative senators blocked early ratification of human rights treaties largely out of concern that the treaties would invalidate racial segregation laws that existed in the United States until the 1960s. Many human rights advocates claimed that these laws violated existing international treaties. Some senators argued that human rights should fall under domestic authority only and should not be subject to international negotiations. Others contended that ratification of human rights treaties would federalize areas of law better left to the states. Since the late 1960s, such objections in the Senate have been overcome by attaching to treaties modifying terms called reservations, understandings, and declarations (RUDs). RUDs modify the treaties so that their effect on U.S. law will be acceptable to the two-thirds majority required for treaty ratification in the Senate. A reservation, for example, may state that the United States will not accept any element of a treaty found to be in conflict with the U.S. Constitution or existing laws, or that ratification will not federalize areas of law currently controlled by the states. The U.S. Congress has also enacted its own human rights legislation. Under the leadership of Representative Donald M. Fraser (D-Minn.) during the 1970s, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs added language to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1973 (22 U.S.C.A. § 2151 et seq.) that required the president to cancel military and economic assistance to any government that "engages in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights," including torture and arbitrary detention without charges (§§ 2151n, 2304). This new legislation authorized the State Department to collect and analyze data on human rights violations. Congress has also passed laws that require cutting off or limiting aid to countries with significant human rights violations. In 1977, Congress gave human rights greater priority within the executive branch by creating a new State Department office, the Bureau on Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, headed by an assistant secretary of state (Pub. In 1994, the administration of President Bill Clinton renamed the office the Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. The bureau is charged with administering programs and policies to promote democratic institutions and respect for human rights and workers' rights around the world. It also presents to Congress an annual report on the status of human rights all over the globe. Nongovernment Organizations Amnesty international, the Center for Constitutional Rights, Human Rights Watch, the International Commission of Jurists, and other international human rights organizations closely monitor states' compliance with human rights standards. These groups also publicize rights violations and coordinate world public opinion against offending states. In many cases they induce governments to modify their policies to meet rights standards. Domestic human rights organizations such as the Vicaria de Solidaridad, in Chile, and the Free Legal Assistance Group of the Philippines also play a significant role as human rights watchdogs, often at great personal risk to their members. Further Readings Amnesty International Website. Available online at   (accessed September 25, 2003). Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor Website. Available online at   (accessed September 25, 2003). Curry, Lynne. The Human Body on Trial: A Handbook with Cases, Laws, and Documents. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. Golove, David. "Human Rights Treaties and the U.S. Constitution." DePaul Law Review 52 (winter): 579–625. Kennedy, David. "The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?" Harvard Human Rights Journal 15 (spring): 101–25. See Also Contributors
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Ujedinjeni narodi Povelja Ujedinjenih naroda sa Statutom Međunarodnog suda (Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice), potpisana u San Franciscou 26. lipnja 1945., stupila na snagu 24. listopada 1945., s izmjenama koje su stupile na snagu 31. kolovoza 1965., 12. lipnja 1968. i 24. rujna 1973. godine. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Povelje Ujedinjenih naroda od 22. svibnja 1992. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju Povelje Ujedinjenih naroda sa Statutom Međunarodnog suda (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 15. od 16.12.1993. i broj 7. od 02.08.1994. – ispravak) Konvencija o sprječavanju i kažnjavanju zločina genocida (Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide), usvojena na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 9. prosinca 1948. godine, rezolucija broj 260 A (III), stupila na snagu 12. siječnja 1951. godine. Službeni prijevod teksta Konvencije objavljen je u “Službenom vjesniku Prezidijuma Narodne skupštine Federativne Narodne Republike Jugoslavije” i još uvijek je jedini službeni prijevod. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Konvencije o sprječavanju i kažnjavanju zločina genocida od 8. listopada 1991. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju mnogostranih međunarodnih ugovora kojih je Republika Hrvatska stranka na temelju notifikacija o sukcesiji (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 15.10.1993.) - Ukaz o ratifikaciji Konvencije o sprečavanju i kažnjavanju zločina genocida (“Službeni vjesnik Prezidijuma Narodne skupštine Federativne Narodne Republike Jugoslavije” broj 2. od 15.07.1950.) Opća deklaracija o ljudskim pravima (Universal Declaration of Human Rights), usvojena i proglašena na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 10. prosinca 1948. godine, rezolucija broj 217 A (III). Deklaracija je značajan međunarodni instrument (koji nije pravno obvezujući), a čija načela Republika Hrvatska ugrađuje u zakone i praksu državnih tijela. - Odluka o objavi Opće deklaracije o ljudskim pravima (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 27.11.2009.) Međunarodna konvencija o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije (International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination), usvojena na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 21. prosinca 1965. godine, rezolucija broj 2106 A (XX), stupila na snagu 4. siječnja 1969. godine. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Međunarodne konvencije o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije od 8. listopada 1991. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju mnogostranih međunarodnih ugovora kojih je Republika Hrvatska stranka na temelju notifikacija o sukcesiji (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 15.10.1993.) - Ukaz o proglašenju Zakona o ratifikaciji Međunarodne konvencije o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije i Zakon o ratifikaciji Međunarodne konvencije o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije (“Službeni list Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije” broj 31. od 19.07.1967.) - Međunarodna konvencija o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije / Convention internationale sur l’elimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (“Službeni list Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije – međunarodni ugovori i drugi sporazumi” broj 6. od 20.07.1967.) Konvencija o nezastarijevanju ratnih zločina i zločina protiv čovječnosti (Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity), usvojena na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 26. studenoga 1968. godine, rezolucija broj 2391 (XXIII), stupila na snagu 11. studenoga 1970. godine. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Međunarodne konvencije o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije od 8. listopada 1991. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju mnogostranih međunarodnih ugovora kojih je Republika Hrvatska stranka na temelju notifikacija o sukcesiji (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 15.10.1993.) - Uredba o ratifikaciji Konvencije o nezastari ratnih zločina i zločina protiv čovječanstva (“Službeni list Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije – međunarodni ugovori i drugi sporazumi” broj 50. od 12.11.1970.) Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), usvojen na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 16. prosinca 1966. godine, rezolucija broj 2200 A (XXI), stupio na snagu 23. ožujka 1976. godine. Službeni prijevod teksta Međunarodnog pakta objavljen je u “Službenom listu Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije” i još uvijek je jedini službeni prijevod. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima od 8. listopada 1991. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju mnogostranih međunarodnih ugovora kojih je Republika Hrvatska stranka na temelju notifikacija o sukcesiji (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 15.10.1993.) - Ukaz o proglašenju Zakona o ratifikaciji Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima i Zakon o ratifikaciji Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima (“Službeni list Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije” broj 7. od 04.02.1971.) Fakultativni protokol uz Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima (Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), usvojen na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 16. prosinca 1966. godine, rezolucija broj 2200 A (XXI), stupio na snagu 23. ožujka 1976. godine. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Fakultativnog protokola uz Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima od 12. siječnja 1996. godine. - Odluka o proglašenju Zakona o potvrđivanju Fakultativnog protokola uz Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima i Zakon o potvrđivanju Fakultativnog protokola uz Međunarodni pakt o građanskim i političkim pravima (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 7. od 21.06.1995.) Članak 41. Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima (Article 41 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), usvojen na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 16. prosinca 1966. godine, rezolucija broj 2200 A (XXI), stupio na snagu 23. ožujka 1976. godine. Republika Hrvatska priznaje nadležnost Odbora za prava čovjeka, sukladno odredbama Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima. - Odluka o proglašenju Zakona o potvrđivanju članka 41. Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima od 16. prosinca 1966. godine i Zakon o potvrđivanju članka 41. Međunarodnog pakta o građanskim i političkim pravima od 16. prosinca 1966. godine (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 7. od 21.06.1995.) Međunarodni pakt o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), usvojen na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 16. prosinca 1966. godine, rezolucija broj 2200 A (XXI), stupio na snagu 3. siječnja 1976. godine. Službeni prijevod teksta Međunarodnog pakta objavljen je u “Službenom listu Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije” i još uvijek je jedini službeni prijevod. Republika Hrvatska stranka je Međunarodnog pakta o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima od 8. listopada 1991. godine. - Odluka o objavljivanju mnogostranih međunarodnih ugovora kojih je Republika Hrvatska stranka na temelju notifikacija o sukcesiji (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 12. od 15.10.1993.) - Ukaz o proglašenju Zakona o ratifikaciji Međunarodnog pakta o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima i Zakon o ratifikaciji Međunarodnog pakta o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima (“Službeni list Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije” broj 7. od 04.02.1971.) Deklaracija o pravima osoba koje pripadaju nacionalnim ili etničkim, vjerskim ili jezičnim manjinama (Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities), usvojena i proglašena na Općoj skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda u New Yorku, 18. prosinca 1992. godine, rezolucija broj 47/135. Deklaracija je značajan medunarodni instrument (koji nije pravno obvezujući), a čija načela Republika Hrvatska ugrađuje u zakone i praksu državnih tijela. Ugovor o suradnji između Vlade Republike Hrvatske i Visokog povjerenika Ujedinjenih naroda za ljudska prava, potpisan u New Yorku 6. lipnja 2000. godine. - Odluka o proglašenju Zakona o potvrđivanju Ugovora o suradnji između Vlade Republike Hrvatske i Visokog povjerenika Ujedinjenih naroda za ljudska prava i Zakon o potvrđivanju Ugovora o suradnji između Vlade Republike Hrvatske i Visokog povjerenika Ujedinjenih naroda za ljudska prava (“Narodne novine – međunarodni ugovori” broj 11. od 19.10.2001.)