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One of the most common anemias, iron-deficiency anemia, is caused by insufficient iron, an element essential for the formation of hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. In most adults (except pregnant women) the cause is chronic blood loss rather than insufficient iron in the diet, and, therefore, the treatment includes locating the source of abnormal bleeding in addition to the administration of iron. Pernicious anemia causes an increased production of erythrocytes that are structurally abnormal and have attenuated life spans. This condition rarely occurs before age 35 and is inherited, being more prevalent among persons of Scandinavian, Irish, and English extraction. It is caused by the inability of the body to absorb vitamin B12 (which is essential for the maturation of erythrocytes). There are several conditions that cause the destruction of erythrocytes, thereby producing anemia. Allergic-type reactions to bacterial toxins and various chemical agents, among them sulfonamides and benzene, can cause hemolysis, which requires emergency treatment. In addition, there are unusual situations in which the body produces antibodies against its own erythrocytes; the mechanism triggering such reactions remains obscure. There are several inherited anemias that are more common among dark-skinned people. Sickle cell disease is inherited as a recessive trait almost exclusively among blacks; the condition is characterized by a chemical abnormality of the hemoglobin molecule that causes the erythrocytes to be misshapen. In 1957 Vernon Ingram determined the amino acid sequence of hemoglobin, and found the beta-globins (which is one of the two polypeptide chain types) that are found in the tetrameric (four-chain) hemoglobin protein. In sickle cell disease a single mutation produces the amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid in one of the protein chain types that make up the hemoglobin molecule. In thalassemia major (Cooley's anemia), which is the most serious of the hereditary anemias among people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and S Chinese ancestry, the erythrocytes are abnormally shaped. Symptoms include enlarged liver and spleen and jaundice. Thalassemia major usually causes death before adulthood is reached. Any disease or injury to the bone marrow can cause anemia, since that tissue is the site of erythrocyte synthesis. Bone marrow destruction can also be caused by irradiation, disease, or various chemical agents. In cases of renal dysfunction, the severity of the associated anemia correlates highly with the extent of the dysfunction; it is treated with genetically engineered erythropoietin. Blood disorder (see hemoglobinopathy) seen mainly in persons of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and their descendants and in those from the Middle East, the Mediterranean area, and India. About 1 in 400 blacks worldwide has the disease, caused by inheriting two copies of a recessive gene that makes those with one copy (about 1 in 12 blacks worldwide) resistant to malaria. The gene specifies a variant hemoglobin (hemoglobin S or Hb S) that distorts red blood cells (erythrocytes) into a rigid sickle shape. The cells become clogged in capillaries, damaging or destroying various tissues. Symptoms include chronic anemia, shortness of breath, fever, and episodic “crises” (severe pain in the abdomen, bones, or muscles). Hydroxyurea treatment triggers production of fetal hemoglobin (Hb F), which does not sickle, greatly lessening severity of crises and increasing life expectancy, previously about 45 years. Learn more about sickle-cell anemia with a free trial on Britannica.com. Slow-developing disease in which vitamin B12 (see vitamin B complex) deficiency impairs red-blood-cell production. It can result from a diet lacking in vitamin B12 or when intrinsic factor, a substance needed for intestinal absorption of B12, either is not produced by stomach cells or cannot bind to the vitamin. It causes weakness, waxy pallor, shiny tongue, and stomach, intestinal, and neurological problems. Its slow development can allow anemia to become very severe by the time of diagnosis. Monthly B12 injections into muscle soon reverses the anemia, but the injections must be continued for life. Learn more about pernicious anemia with a free trial on Britannica.com. Most common type of anemia, which may develop in times of high iron loss and depletion of iron stores (e.g., rapid growth, pregnancy, menstruation) or in settings of low dietary iron intake or inefficient iron uptake (e.g., starvation, intestinal parasites, gastrectomy). Much of the world's population is iron-deficient to some degree. Symptoms include low energy level and sometimes paleness, shortness of breath, cold extremities, sore tongue, or dry skin. In advanced cases, red blood cells are small, pale, and low in hemoglobin, blood iron levels are reduced, and body iron stores are depleted. Treatment with iron usually brings quick improvement. Learn more about iron-deficiency anemia with a free trial on Britannica.com. Inadequate blood-cell formation by bone marrow. Pancytopenia is the lack of all blood-cell types (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets), but any combination may be missing. Drug, chemical, or radiation exposure most often causes the disease, but about half of all cases have no known cause. It may occur at any age. Acute disease may be quickly severe, even fatal; chronic disease has symptoms including weakness, shortness of breath, headache, fever, and pounding heart. There is usually a waxy pallor. Hemorrhages occur in mucous membranes, skin, and other organs. Lack of white blood cells lowers resistance to infection and becomes the major cause of death. Very low platelet count may lead to severe bleeding. The treatment of choice is bone-marrow transplantation. Otherwise treatment involves avoiding any known toxic agent and giving fluids, glucose, and proteins (often intravenously) as well as blood components and antibiotics. Learn more about aplastic anemia with a free trial on Britannica.com. Condition in which erythrocytes are reduced in number or volume or are deficient in hemoglobin. The patient is usually noticeably pale. Close to 100 varieties exist (including aplastic anemia, pernicious anemia, and sickle-cell anemia), distinguished by cause; erythrocyte size, shape, and hemoglobin content; and symptoms. Anemia may result from blood loss; increased destruction, reduced production, or inhibited formation of red cells; or hormone deficiency. Treatment may involve nutrition, toxin removal, drugs, surgery, or transfusion. Seealso folic-acid-deficiency anemia, iron-deficiency anemia. Learn more about anemia with a free trial on Britannica.com. Anemia (AmE) or anæmia/anaemia (BrE) (from the Ancient Greek Ἀvaιuίa anaîmia, meaning “without blood”) is defined as a qualitative or quantitative deficiency of hemoglobin, a molecule found inside red blood cells (RBCs). Since hemoglobin normally carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, anemia leads to hypoxia (lack of oxygen) in organs. Since all human cells depend on oxygen for survival, varying degrees of anemia can have a wide range of clinical consequences. Anaemia is caused by the lack of iron in the body as well. The three main classes of anemia include excessive blood loss (acutely such as a hemorrhage or chronically through low-volume loss), excessive blood cell destruction (hemolysis) or deficient red blood cell production (ineffective hematopoiesis). Anemia is the most common disorder of the blood. There are several kinds of anemia, produced by a variety of underlying causes. Anemia can be classified in a variety of ways, based on the morphology of RBCs, underlying etiologic mechanisms, and discernible clinical spectra, to mention a few. There are two major approaches of classifying anemias, the "kinetic" approach which involves evaluating production, destruction and loss, and the "morphologic" approach which groups anemia by red blood cell size. The morphologic approach uses a quickly available and cheap lab test as its starting point (the MCV). On the other hand, focusing early on the question of production may allow the clinician more rapidly to expose cases where multiple causes of anemia coexist. Pallor (pale skin, mucosal linings and nail beds) is often a useful diagnostic sign in moderate or severe anemia, but it is not always apparent. Other useful signs are cheilosis and koilonychia. Pica, the consumption of non-food such as dirt, paper, wax, grass, ice, and hair, may be a symptom of iron deficiency, although it occurs often in those who have normal levels of hemoglobin. Chronic anemia may result in behavioral disturbances in children as a direct result of impaired neurological development in infants, and reduced scholastic performance in children of school age. In modern counters, four parameters (RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, MCV and RDW) are measured, allowing others (hematocrit, MCH and MCHC) to be calculated, and compared to values adjusted for age and sex. Some counters estimate hematocrit from direct measurements. For adult men, a hemoglobin level less than 13.0 g/dl (grams per deciliter) is diagnostic of anemia, and for adult women, the diagnostic threshold is below 12.0 g/dl. Reticulocyte counts, and the "kinetic" approach to anemia, have become more common than in the past in the large medical centers of the United States and some other wealthy nations, in part because some automatic counters now have the capacity to include reticulocyte counts. A reticulocyte count is a quantitative measure of the bone marrow's production of new red blood cells. The reticulocyte production index is a calculation of the ratio between the level of anemia and the extent to which the reticulocyte count has risen in response. If the degree of anemia is significant, even a "normal" reticulocyte count actually may reflect an inadequate response. If an automated count is not available, a reticulocyte count can be done manually following special staining of the blood film. In manual examination, activity of the bone marrow can also be gauged qualitatively by subtle changes in the numbers and the morphology of young RBCs by examination under a microscope. Newly formed RBCs are usually slightly larger than older RBCs and show polychromasia. Even where the source of blood loss is obvious, evaluation of erythropoiesis can help assess whether the bone marrow will be able to compensate for the loss, and at what rate. When the cause is not obvious, clinicians use other tests: ESR, ferritin, serum iron, transferrin, RBC folate level, serum vitamin B12, hemoglobin electrophoresis, renal function tests (e.g. serum creatinine). When the diagnosis remains difficult, a bone marrow examination allows direct examination of the precursors to red cells. Here is a simplified schematic of this approach: * For instance, sickle cell anemia with superimposed iron deficiency; chronic gastric bleeding with B12 and folate deficiency; and other instances of anemia with more than one cause. ** Confirm by repeating reticulocyte count: ongoing combination of low reticulocyte production index, normal MCV and hemolysis or loss may be seen in bone marrow failure or anemia of chronic disease, with superimposed or related hemolysis or blood loss. Here is a schematic representation of how to consider anemia with MCV as the starting point: Other characteristics visible on the peripheral smear may provide valuable clues about a more specific diagnosis; for example, abnormal white blood cells may point to a cause in the bone marrow. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall and it has many causes. RBCs often appear hypochromic (paler than usual) and microcytic (smaller than usual) when viewed with a microscope. Macrocytic anemia can be further divided into "megaloblastic anemia" or "non-megaloblastic macrocytic anemia". The cause of megaloblastic anemia is primarily a failure of DNA synthesis with preserved RNA synthesis, which result in restricted cell division of the progenitor cells. The megaloblastic anemias often present with neutrophil hypersegmentation (6-10 lobes). The non-megaloblastic macrocytic anemias have different etiologies (i.e. there is unimpaired DNA globin synthesis,) which occur, for example in alcoholism. In addition to the non-specific symptoms of anemia, specific features of vitamin B12 deficiency include peripheral neuropathy and subacute combined degeneration of the cord with resulting balance difficulties from posterior column spinal cord pathology. Other features may include a smooth, red tongue and glossitis. The treatment for vitamin B12-deficient anemia was first devised by William Murphy who bled dogs to make them anemic and then fed them various substances to see what (if anything) would make them healthy again. He discovered that ingesting large amounts of liver seemed to cure the disease. George Minot and George Whipple then set about to chemically isolate the curative substance and ultimately were able to isolate the vitamin B12 from the liver. All three shared the 1934 Nobel Prize in Medicine. During pregnancy, women should be especially aware of the symptoms of anemia, as an adult female loses an average of two milligrams of iron daily. Therefore, she must intake a similar quantity of iron in order to make up for this loss. Additionally, a woman loses approximately 500 milligrams of iron with each pregnancy, compared to a loss of 4-100 milligrams of iron with each period. Possible consequences for the mother include cardiovascular symptoms, reduced physical and mental performance, reduced immune function, fatigue, reduced peripartal blood reserves and increased need for blood transfusion in the postpartum period. Iron deficiency from nutritional causes is rare in non-menstruating adults (men and post-menopausal women). The diagnosis of iron deficiency mandates a search for potential sources of loss such as gastrointestinal bleeding from ulcers or colon cancer. Mild to moderate iron deficiency anemia is treated by iron supplementation with ferrous sulfate or ferrous gluconate. Vitamin C may aid in the body's ability to absorb iron. Vitamin supplements given orally (folic acid) or subcutaneously (vitamin B-12) will replace specific deficiencies. In anemia of chronic disease, anemia associated with chemotherapy, or anemia associated with renal disease, some clinicians prescribe recombinant erythropoietin, epoetin alfa, to stimulate red cell production. In severe cases of anemia, or with ongoing blood loss, a blood transfusion may be necessary. In severe, acute bleeding, transfusions of donated blood are often lifesaving. Improvements in battlefield casualty survival is attributable, at least in part, to the recent improvements in blood banking and transfusion techniques. Transfusion of the stable but anemic hospitalized patient has been the subject of numerous clinical trials, and transfusion is emerging as a deleterious intervention. Four randomized controlled clinical trials have been conducted to evaluate aggressive versus conservative transfusion strategies in critically ill patients. All four of these studies failed to find a benefit with more aggressive transfusion strategies. In addition, at least two retrospective studies have shown increases in adverse clinical outcomes with more aggressive transfusion strategies. In 2002, Van Meter reviewed the publications surrounding the use of HBO in severe anemia and found that all publications report a positive result.
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Anemija- sipmtomi, uzroci i terapija Premda je riječ o jednom od najučestalijih krvnih poremećaja prisutnom kod gotovo 10% opće populacije, prve simptome anemije, poput malaksalosti, inertnosti i glavobolje većina ne uzima u dovoljnoj mjeri kao razlog zbog kojega bi potražili pomoć liječnika. Međutim, u nešto težim slučajevima, anemija može uzrokovati ozbiljne poteškoće stoga je prevencija i pravodobna reakcija od iznimne važnosti. Što je anemija? Anemija je stanje za koje je karakterističan nedostatak crvenih krvnih stanica (eritrocita) odnosno smanjena koncentracija hemoglobina koji se nalazi u njima i služi za prijenos kisika iz pluća u tkiva i organe. Vrste i uzroci anemije Anemija je široko rasprostranjeni krvni poremećaj prisutan u gotovo 400 pojavnih oblika od kojih su neki poput nedostatka željeza lako izlječivi promjenom prehrambenih navika i dodacima željeza, dok drugi oblici mogu biti opasni po život. S obzirom na uzroke anemija razlikovat će se simptomi pa i sama terapija koja će biti primijenjena u pojedinim slučajevima. Premda postoje različite podjele anemija, njezini oblici se ovisno o uzrocima mogu podijeliti u tri osnovne grupe: - Anemiju uzrokovanu gubitkom eritrocita odnosno hemoglobina karakterizira polagani i dugi period krvarenja koji može proći posve neopaženo. Ovo krvarenje može biti uzrokovano gastrointestinalnim poremećajima, korištenjem nesteroidnih antiupalnih lijekova kao što je aspirin, a također može biti i posljedica menstrualnog krvarenja i gubitka krvi tijekom poroda. - Anemija kao posljedica nedovoljne sinteze eritrocita i hemoglobina može biti uzrokovana nedovoljnom proizvodnjom crvenih krvnih stanica ili njihovom disfunkcijom pri čemu se krvne stanice smanjuju zbog nedostatka minerala i vitamina potrebnih za njihovo ispravno funkcioniranje. - Anemija također može biti uzrokovana i hemolizom odnosno razaranjem krvnih stanica. U takvom stanju stanice su krhke i ne mogu izdržati stres cirkulacijskog sustava. Sideropenična anemija U većini slučajeva anemiju uzrokuje nedostatak željeza u prehrani i/ili nemogućnost apsorpcije željeza tokom probave. U ovom slučaju riječ je o najčešćem obliku, sideropeničnoj anemiji koja je učestala kod ženske populacije uslijed značajnijeg gubitka krvi menstruacijom, tijekom trudnoće te dojenjem. Smanjeni unos željeza prehranom kao uzrok sideropenije čest je samo u dojenčadi i djece. Kod starijih osoba je osim slabijeg unosa željeza prehranom, često važan faktor i postojanje infekcije parazitima te krvarenje iz gastrointestinalnog trakta. Također, neki od uzroka sideropenične anemije su kronično krvarenje te pojačano razaranje eritrocita (hemoliza) kao posljedica dugih bolesti. Osim najzastupljenijeg oblika, sideropenične anemije, razlikujemo još neke rasprostranjene oblike: - Aplastična anemija jedan je od vrlo ozbiljnih oblika anemije koji u težim slučajevima može biti opasan po život, a posljedica je smanjene ili nikakve proizvodnje crvenih krvnih zrnaca kojoj su uzrok oštećenje ili neaktivnost koštane srži. - Megaloblastična anemija uzrokovana je manjkom vitamina B12 ili folne kiseline, a ponekad se javlja i u trudnoći. Karakterizirana je razlikom u sazrijevanju jezgre i citoplazme zbog pogreške u sintezi DNK. - Hemolitična anemija uzrokovana je preuranjenim raspadom crvenih krvnih zrnaca pri čemu ih koštana srž ne uspjeva nadomjestiti u dovoljnoj mjeri. Ova vrsta anemije prisutna je kod nekih autoimunih bolesti. - Srpasta anemija uglavnom se javlja kod osoba porijeklom iz Afrike, a obično se počinje razvijati već u djetinjstvu. Naziv je dobila po neprirodnom, srpastom obliku crvenih krvnih stanica koje su slabije fleksibilnosti što rezultira njihovom ograničenom pokretljivošću. - Perniciozna anemija nastaje kao posljedica nedovoljne apsorpcije vitamina B12, a javlja se u odraslih kao posljedica atrofije želudca. Simptomi i terapija kod anemije Klinička slika anemije uključuje sljedeće opće simptome: slabost, pojačani umor, otežana koncentracija, bljedoća kože i sluznica, vrtoglavica, zujanje u ušima, kratak dah, poremećaji sna, gubitak apetita i depresija. Često se javljaju glavobolja i iritabilno ponašanje. Teži oblici anemije mogu dovesti do pojačanog rada srca, pa i uzrokovati njegovo zatajenje prilikom većih napora. Također, anemija može uzrokovati i različite neurološke probleme praćene mentalnim poteškoćama. Ukoliko osoba primijeti neke od navedenih simptoma, trebala bi se obratiti liječniku, koji će na temelju simptoma i laboratorijske analize krvi postaviti dijagnozu te odrediti adekvatnu terapiju kako bi se otklonio prvobitni uzrok anemije. S obzirom na različite pojavne oblike ovog poremećaja dijagnoza i terapija se uvelike može razlikovati u pojedinim slučajevima, pa će tako primjerice kod sideropenične anemije naglasak biti na promjeni prehrambenih navika i nadomjestku željeza, dok će kod megaloblastične i perniciozne anemije biti potrebno nadomjestiti manjak vitamina B12. Sensifer Plus Djelotvoran kod anemije, bez nuspojava. bioENER Mix Smanjuje umor i iscrpljenost.