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Recent inventions have shown immense promise, and scientists have made a claim that could change the entire engineering area. They have introduced a fuel with the highest potential compared to any other fuel; it clearly surpasses electricity and hydrogen. It can be referred to as the ignition, and the promised effects that it can have on combustion engines are truly remarkable. With this new technology, an effective implementation of a different approach can be expected. This article discusses the science behind this discovery, its possible consequences, and its workings.
Plasma ignition explained: how it replaces outdated spark plugs
Instead of relying on screw-in diesel glass tubes, plasma ignition runs off controlled electronic bursts that are much more powerful and help ignite fuel faster. In contrast to a typical spark plug that creates a momentary electric spark, which is limited in nature and capacity, plasma ignition ensures complete fuel combustion in a more rapid and effective manner. As a result of this advancement, the pollutants released by the engine have been significantly lowered, and the fuel usage economy has improved, too.
Lastly, one strong point that can be made about plasma is its wide array of fuels that it can use, ranging from different biofuels to more promising options, making it a potential candidate for different sectors. Furthermore, the technology guarantees the ability to tackle thermal efficiency, a challenge many have faced when finding alternative energy sources.
The carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides formed from burning fossil fuels are greenhouse gases that most transport and combustion engines use. Transportation is responsible for one-third of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States alone. A barrage of measures and mechanisms has been designed to ameliorate this ecological concern; however, internal combustion engines still contribute strongly to pollution.
Why plasma ignition may change the game for the environmental sustainability targets?
By enhancing the combustion process and increasing the engine’s efficiency, plasma ignition technology reduces the emissions and fuel consumption of the vehicle. It does not promise the elimination of the emissions, but it’s progress nevertheless. This could help extend the life of combustion engines without violating global sustainability targets.
Though plasma ignition can be revolutionary, its application has some challenges that must be addressed. The ability of plasma technology is not as high as that of a few emerging technologies that have been developed or are in development. For example, solar-powered additions do not provide much more car range and might only interest campers and people who commute in sunnier climates.
In addition to that, the cost of adoption is another hurdle. It’s not hard to guess that plasma ignition systems are not cheap. At the moment, they cost around $10,000. This brings possibilities of mainstream use under question. Even if the tech is appealing, it needs to have considerable benefits over cost and be better than other systems to be used more widely.
The future of clean energy is sparked by a discussion on plasma ignition; why is that?
It should not be implemented, and the reasons are valid. However, the promise of plasma ignition technology is grand and is building up toward energy innovation. Plasma as an ignition method is a clear move away from fossil fuels and their dependence, which society as a whole is quickly growing tired of. And even other alternatives need to be addressed to cover the clean energy requirement. Rather than usurping existing approaches such as hydrogen and battery power, plasma ignition is expected to be an added technology to existing technologies.
Its capacity to curb greenhouse emission gases will be ascertained by its ability to function in the real world. For the time being, this technology is a vital element in ensuring an energy-sustainable future. The identification of plasma ignition as a form of “perfect fuel” technology heralds a significant breakthrough in the search for a clean alternative to energy. While it is apparent that other cleaner fuels technologies cannot be dispensed with, there is still some room for improvement, and new ones, such as fuel additives, are forth coming.
In conclusion, plasma ignition technology is intriguing and holds great promise as a breakthrough. When fused with other clean energy technologies, its enablement for a wide fuel range and its effective and flawless combustion alongside low emission levels all add to its advantages. On the other hand, only time will tell how this clean energy fuel technology will work when commercially produced.
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Are you struggling to remember maths formulas? You are not alone! Whether you’re a student studying for an exam or a professional who has to retain mathematical concepts, understanding formulas properly is essential. However, rote memorisation can be tedious and inefficient. What is the good news? Some ways have been proven to make memorisation easier and more successful. In this article, we’ll look at the best way to memorize math formulas utilising science-backed methods, memory tricks, and interesting techniques. Prepare to improve your approach to maths and increase your confidence!
Why is Memorising Maths Formulas So Hard?
Math formulas are typically abstract and complex, making them difficult to remember. Unlike simple facts, formulae incorporate symbols, numbers, and relationships that necessitate a deeper understanding. Furthermore, students frequently fail because they attempt to memorise formulas without fully comprehending their reasoning. For long-term retention, memorisation strategies should be combined with conceptual comprehension.
Best Way to Memorize Math Formulas
1. Understand before you memorise
Before attempting to memorise a formula, make sure you understand the components.
- Consider the meaning behind each symbol.
- How is the formula derived?
- What are its real-world applications?
Understanding the logic behind a formula increases its meaning and recallability.
2. Use Mnemonics and Acronyms
Mnemonics are memory aids that allow you to recall facts fast. Here are some popular examples:
- BODMAS: Brackets, Orders, Division, Multiplication, Addition, and Subtraction (Order of Operations)
- SOHCAHTOA – A useful mnemonic for trigonometry: Sine = opposite/hypotenuse; cosine = adjacent/hypotenuse; tangent = opposite/adjacent.
Making your own acronyms or rhymes can help formulas stick better.
3. Break it down into smaller parts
Long formulas can seem overwhelming. Divide them into smaller, more palatable bits.
- Instead of memorising the entire quadratic formula, start with its components.
- Before assembling everything, repeat each part independently.
4. Use flashcards
Flashcards are a tried-and-true method for remembering information.
- On one side, write the formula, and on the other, explain or apply it.
- Regularly test yourself to strengthen your memory.
5. Practice using real-world examples
Applying mathematics to real-world situations makes them more relatable.
- Use percentages to compute discounts when purchasing.
- Use probability calculations for everyday decisions such as sports forecasts.
The more you apply a formula in real-world situations, the easier it becomes to recall.
6. Use Visual Aids
Visual learning is effective. Try:
- Create diagrams and graphs.
- Colour-coding different components of a formula.
- Creating mental maps to illustrate formula linkages.
7. Leverage Repetition and Spaced Learning
Repetition is essential, but avoid cramming! Instead, employ spaced repetition.
- Review the formulas after a few hours, a day, and a week.
- Regularly repeating formulas improve memory retention.
8. Teach someone else
Explaining maths to a buddy or a hypothetical student requires clarifying your understanding. Teaching is one of the most effective ways to consolidate knowledge in your brain.
9. Use technology and apps
Several apps and online programs can help reinforce arithmetic formulas, including:
- Anki (flashcard-based repetition)
- Khan Academy (Conceptual explanations)
- Wolfram Alpha (step-by-step problem solution).
10. Turn formulas into stories
Our brains adore stories. A short story or analogy based on a formula will make recalling it much easier. For example, connecting a physics formula to a superhero’s powers makes it fun and engaging.
11. Be Positive and Reduce Anxiety
Maths anxiety can make memorisation difficult. Maintain a positive attitude and employ relaxation techniques such as deep breathing to keep your mind focused.
Memorising maths formulas does not have to be difficult. Understanding can be combined with effective memory strategies like as mnemonics, imagery, and real-world application to dramatically boost recall. The key is to be consistent and actively engaged. So, start implementing these tactics today and watch your maths skills skyrocket!
Want expert guidance to make learning maths even easier? Click here to book your free consultation and get started with our classes!
Frequently Asked Questions About ChatGPT Prompts for Marketing
It depends on the formula’s complexity and the approach utilised. Active strategies such as spaced repetition and application can be completed in a matter of days.
The quickest technique is to first grasp the topic, and then reinforce it via mnemonics, visual aids, and consistent practice.
Yes! Cognitive research has shown that techniques such as mnemonics, chunking, and spaced repetition improve recall.
While rote learning will help you remember formulas briefly, you will most likely lose them soon. Understanding the underlying rationale ensures long-term retention.
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This lesson plan covers the split between Shia and Sunni Islam, focusing on the initial causes of the divide. The Origins article on this topic covers the topic in light of events in the early 21st century, and is written at a level which is not easily comprehensible to 7th graders. I decided to create this lesson plan in order to help students learn the core content of the article, especially as it pertains to the content area of 7th grade social studies. In this grade, students learn about the transition from antiquity to the medieval period. As the article mentions, few Americans understand the roots of sectarian violence in the Middle East. In order to correct this, as well as to present a less binary view of the Crusades which would shake the region in the Middle Ages, I decided to bring this topic into focus. To do this, students first watch a video about the Battle of Karbala. Students briefly discuss the events portrayed, and consider how the perspective of those who made the video informs its content. After, the students complete a short session defining the key vocabulary terms of the lesson. These are put to use in the main activity of the lesson, a Gallery Walk. In this activity, students view a variety of documents which explain the split in different ways – as a political, religious, cultural, and semantic one. Students fill in a worksheet which asks them questions about those differences as they move through the gallery. Students then discuss the day’s compelling question: “Why did the religious difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims turn into a political difference?” Before departing, they write down one difference they learned between Shia and Sunni Islam.
• Gallery Walk
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Understanding TCP/IP basics
Whenever we are connecting to a network by wireless connection or wired connection then we can find an IP address, we can check that IP address from our operating system settings. So it is a much known term to almost everybody and whoever is reading this article is already know about this term. IP means internet protocol. Also from any basic networking related talk you may hear about this term. On this article I would try my best to provide a clear concept about it.
IP is a logical address by combining four numbers. We can find IP addresses in different numbers like below:
And so many more IPs we may get.
Now, to understand these numbers we need to know about few terms here.
- IP address class
- Network address
- Broadcast address
- Host address
Bit is a one digit number which is either 1 or 0. In case of network it’s just number but in other electronics it may represent on or off.
Byte is a combination of 1 and 0. A combination or 8 digits 1 or 0 is a byte. It seems like below:
Using decimal conversion we can also represent it in a decimal number. In this case the decimal is 139.
In case of IP address we have four parts, each part is called octet. Because each part of IP address is a combination of 8 bits. So we can say that a combination of 8 bits is an octet.
IP address class:
This was done during the first introduction of IP addressing. It was presented so that different organizations can accommodate different size of network and keep them organized. If we follow this classification than we usually call that classfull addressing.
We can find three classfull addressing which are being used in organizations.
Class A: class A IPs classified by the first octet of the IP address. The first octet will be within 1-126 and the octet will be 00000001 to 01111110. Its first octet is the network part and the rest is network part.
Class B: in case of Class B IPs the first octet will be within 127-191 and the octet will be 10000000 to 10111111. Its first two octets are network parts and last two octets are host part.
Class C: class C IPs start from 192 and ends at 223. The octets are 11000000 to 11011111. Its first three octets are network part and the last part is host part.
Usually the first address of an IP series is the network address of that network. It depends on the prefix we put on an IP address. We can see that almost every IP address is given that have a number at the end of the address which is represented by /. Suppose we designed a network series which is 192.168.1.0/24, so here the network address is 192.168.1.0. But we have a prefix of 29. Suppose another IP address is 192.168.1.24/29. So here the network address is 192.168.1.24.
The address that is used to send information to the next node is known as broadcast address. Usually the last IP address of a network is known as broadcast address. This address is usually used to introduce itself to the neighbor networks.
In an IP series we have to leave two IP addresses for network address and broadcast address, the remaining addresses are host address. Host address means we can put these addresses to the end devices.
IP addressing rules:
- It is a 32 bit dotted decimal number with 4 octets, each octet of 8 bits.
- It is divided into two portions, network and host portion.
- IP addresses must be unique in a network.
- Each octet has a decimal value range of 0 to 255.
- The first cannot be 127, this is reserved for loopback.
- All 0 octets mean all networks in the world.
Every single point brought here has an elaborated and detailed description and I hope I would describe all those issues in next articles. But for now I believe this brief summary can give us a simple concept about TCP/IP model.
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1. Children’s learning is understood developmentally
Children are at different stages of development - socially, emotionally, physically and intellectually - and need to be responded to at their developmental level in each of these areas. Learners are responded to in a non-judgemental and accepting attitude, helping them to feel safe and secure.
2. The classroom offers a safe base
The classroom environment is inviting and nurturing for all. This includes offering a balance of educational and social, emotional and mental health experiences aimed at supporting the development of our learner’s relationships with each other and with staff.
Teaching staff are reliable and consistent in their approach and make the important link between emotional containment and cognitive learning.
Where possible, predictable routines are explained and practised, and there are clear expectations and positive models of how all adults in school relate to children and young people, both in and out of the classroom.
3. The importance of nurture for the development of wellbeing
Nurture involves listening and responding; everything is verbalised with an emphasis on the adults engaging with learners in reciprocal shared activities. Learners respond to being valued and thought about as individuals; this involves noticing and praising small achievements - nothing should be hurried.
Provision and strategies are in place to promote the welfare and wellbeing of learners and staff; celebrate achievements and attainments and promote the learners’ voice.
4. Language is a vital means of communication
We want our learners to understand and express their thoughts and feelings. Our staff understand the importance of their own language towards our learners and how this might impact them.
Informal opportunities for talking and sharing are just as important as more formal lessons teaching language skills. Words can be used instead of actions to express feelings, and imaginative play helps learners understand the feelings of others. Learners are helped to recognise emotions and name them, including early warning signs of anger or anxiety.
We provide opportunities for learners, parents and staff to express their views, and that adults model how to share feelings and experiences. Use of language is assessed, developed and embedded in all aspects of the curriculum at the appropriate level for learners.
Daily routines allow for conversation and sharing of experiences.
5. All behaviour is communication
People communicate through behaviour. Our teachers help children and young people to understand their feelings, express their needs appropriately, and use non-threatening and supportive language to resolve situations.
Our first responsibility in dealing with difficult or challenging behaviour, after safety, is to try to understand what the young person is trying to tell us? We ask why the behaviour is occurring; what is our learner trying to tell us? Staff try to respond in a firm, but non-punitive way, by not being discouraged or provoked.
Learners have a quiet area to become calm, and giving them time before a discussion can often help, as well as recognising potential triggers and anxieties that could be avoided or reduced.
6. The importance of transitions in children’s lives
Children and young people experience many transitions throughout their lives, and on a daily basis. Changes in routine are invariably difficult for vulnerable young people; teachers help transitions with carefully managed preparation and support.
Our staff understand the emotions that may be triggered by both small and large changes, and children should be pre-warned or reminded about changes in routines, using visual timetables to emphasise this as well as other coping strategies.
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Table of Contents
Voltage and current both are important aspects of an electrical circuit, that’s why one need to understand about these terms. Both of them are essentially required to drive an electrical circuit.
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CONCEPT
Current is something that is flowing like water flowing in river is known as water current and for wind we say air current is high or low today, similar to these
Electric Current is the rate of flow of electric charge (electrons) in a closed circuit. Electric current will divide in parallel branches (different in different loops or mesh) of a circuit while remaining the same in one loop (mesh) of a circuit. Current also follows a low resistive path.
The symbol for current is the letter “I”. The SI (Système international) unit is the Ampere, denoted by “A”. In simple words charge particles (electrons) flow in a direction in a closed circuit which causes electric current in a circuit.
NOTE: It is interesting to know Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive. Conventionally, Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative.
Voltage is also called an electromotive force. It is actually the potential difference of charges across two points/nodes/terminals in an electrical circuit. Voltage will drop in series resistance while the same in parallel branches of resistance, what we measure is actually voltage drop across load.
Voltage is present in an open circuit, that’s why when we insert line tester in plug but didn’t touch behind, it will not lead the LED glow but as we touched it, LED glows up and shows that line is active.
Voltage is denoted by the letter “V”. The standard unit of voltage is the Volt, also denoted by “V”.
To make it simpler take an example
- We have a table and two person pushing it in opposite direction with same forces, for example “FA=5 N& FB=5 N” so net potential difference (FA – FB) is “0 N” so the table don’t move in any direction, where N is Newton unit of force
- We have a table and two person pushing it in opposite direction with different forces, for example “FA=7 N& FB=5 N” so net potential difference (FA – FB) is “2 N” so the table will move in one direction (because A have more force, table will move in direction in which A is pushing/pulling), where N is Newton unit of force
- We have a table and one person pushing and one person is pulling it in same direction with some forces(either same or different forces),for example “FA=5 N & FB=4 N” so net potential difference (FA + FB) is “9 N” so the table will move in direction of pushing/pulling with force of “9 N”, where N is Newton unit of force
Conclusion: More the potential difference faster the table (electrons) move.
NOTE: To drive a circuit both current and Voltage are essentially required.
COMMON RELATION BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
V = IR
This formula is derived by German physicist Georg Ohm
Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship
I ∝ V
I = V / R
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. Ohm’s law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
R = V / I
If current is 0 it makes resistance infinite, means in open circuit (current = 0) resistance is infinite no matter how much voltage is present.
HOW ELECTRONS FLOW IN A CIRCUIT
First let us remember the basic concept of a magnet we all know, magnet has two poles one is the North Pole and other is the South Pole. “Like (same) magnetic pole” repel each other and “unlike (not same) magnetic poles” attract each other i.e. “North & South” (opposite) attract each other while “North & North or South & South” repel each other.
Same the concept above, electrons are negatively charged and many electrons push one electron (because same charge repel each other) then another electron then another electron this chain continues and electron emits from the source come back to the source if circuit is closed this process cause to flow current (electric charge) in a circuit.
Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive. Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative (conventionally).
HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC AND CURRENT ELECTRICITY
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Want to expand your vocabulary and remember words better? Here’s how you can do it:
- Graded Readers: Read books tailored to your language level to learn words in context.
- Spaced Repetition: Use apps like Anki or Quizlet to review words at intervals for long-term retention.
- Custom Word Lists: Create personalized word lists with examples and synonyms to focus on your goals.
- Flashcard Apps: Practice efficiently with tools that track your progress.
- AI Language Apps: Leverage adaptive tools for personalized vocabulary lessons.
- Subtitled Media: Watch shows or videos with subtitles to connect words with sounds and visuals.
- Audio + Text Pairing: Combine listening and reading to reinforce learning.
- Mnemonics: Use creative associations to make words memorable.
- Structured Plans: Follow a daily and weekly plan to stay consistent.
- Talk to Native Speakers: Practice real conversations to solidify your vocabulary.
Start with 5-10 new words daily, use them in sentences, and review regularly. Combine these methods for faster and better results. Ready to dive deeper? Keep reading for detailed strategies!
7 Effective Techniques to Memorize Vocabulary in a New Language
1. Read Graded Readers for Vocabulary Growth
Graded readers are simplified books designed to match your language level. They use controlled vocabulary and engaging stories to help you learn new words in context, making them easier to remember.
These books are available across different proficiency levels, from beginner (300-400 words) to advanced (up to 3,000 words). Each level introduces a manageable number of new words while reinforcing familiar ones.
Here’s how to make the most of graded readers:
- Pick the right level: Choose books where you understand about 95% of the words. This keeps the balance between familiar and new vocabulary.
- Read regularly: Dedicate 20-30 minutes daily to focused reading.
- Take notes: Use a vocabulary journal to jot down new words and example sentences.
For even better results:
- Preview key vocabulary before starting a new book.
- Write down unfamiliar words as you read.
- Summarize and review what you’ve read afterward.
Many graded readers also come with audio versions, letting you practice listening and reading at the same time. Over time, this consistent practice helps you turn passive vocabulary into active use.
To retain new words long-term, consider pairing graded readers with tools like spaced repetition. This combination reinforces learning and helps solidify your vocabulary.
2. Use Spaced Repetition to Remember Words
Graded readers help introduce vocabulary in context, but spaced repetition ensures you actually retain those words over time. This method, backed by science, helps you remember by reviewing words at carefully spaced intervals instead of cramming everything in one go.
Apps like Anki, Quizlet, and Memrise make this process easier. They automatically adjust review schedules based on how well you remember each word, ensuring you review at the perfect time to lock it into memory.
Here’s how to make the most of spaced repetition:
- Focus on 5–10 new words each day, pulling vocabulary from your reading practice.
- Review frequently at first, then space out reviews as words become familiar.
- Add example sentences, images, or personal associations to your flashcards for better recall.
- Test yourself in both directions – translate from your target language to your native one and vice versa.
What’s key here? Consistency. Even short daily sessions can lead to noticeable improvement in just 30 days. For the best results, pair spaced repetition with real-world practice.
To boost your progress:
- Use new words in conversations or writing as soon as you can.
- Take advantage of app features to monitor your progress.
- Stick to a regular review schedule to keep the momentum going.
Spaced repetition isn’t just about memorizing – it’s about building long-term recall. Combine it with active usage, and you’ll not only remember words but also be ready for more advanced learning challenges.
3. Make Your Own Word Lists
Creating your own word lists is a great way to take charge of your vocabulary learning. Unlike pre-made lists, custom ones allow you to focus on words that align with your specific interests or goals.
Here’s how to make word lists that actually work:
Organize by Themes
Group words into categories like work-related terms, travel phrases, or everyday conversation vocabulary. This makes it easier to focus on what’s most useful for you.
Add More Than Just Definitions
A simple word-definition pair isn’t enough. For each word, include extra details like:
- The definition
- An example sentence
- Synonyms and antonyms
Here’s an example:
Component | Example |
Word | Cuisine |
Definition | A style of cooking specific to a region |
Example | "The restaurant specializes in Italian cuisine." |
Use Digital Tools
Apps like Evernote or Google Sheets can help you keep your lists organized and accessible wherever you are.
Don’t just memorize – use the words! Try them out in conversations, writing exercises, or language exchanges. Update your lists regularly by removing words you’ve mastered and adding new ones to keep challenging yourself.
Once your lists are ready, tools like flashcards can make reviewing them easier and more effective.
4. Use Flashcard Tools for Efficient Practice
Flashcards are a great way to practice and remember words from your personalized lists. They work well alongside other methods like reading and listening exercises, helping you build your vocabulary more effectively.
Digital flashcard apps make this process even easier by tracking your progress and adjusting review schedules automatically. In fact, research shows that students using spaced repetition software retain 72% of what they learn, compared to just 36% with traditional study methods .
Here’s a quick look at some popular flashcard tools to help you pick the right one:
App Name | Features | Ideal For |
Anki | Custom decks, progress tracking, mobile-friendly | Self-paced learners |
Quizlet | Interactive games, shared decks, mobile-friendly | Visual learners |
WordUp | Interval-based review, structured learning guides | Learners who prefer a systematic approach |
Tips for Using Flashcard Tools Effectively
When creating flashcards, make them as engaging as possible. Add example sentences, images, and related phrases to improve your memory and understanding of each word.
Pro Tip: Start small – focus on 5-10 new words a day to keep things manageable and avoid burnout.
Combine Flashcards With Other Techniques
To get the most out of flashcards, use spaced repetition (as mentioned earlier) to review them regularly. While flashcards provide structure, mixing them with interactive media like videos or podcasts can make learning more enjoyable and effective.
5. Explore AI-Powered Language Apps
AI-powered language apps make learning new vocabulary easier by tailoring lessons to your skill level and progress. These tools adjust automatically, helping you learn words more effectively and at your own pace.
Key Features to Look For
When choosing an AI language app, focus on these important features:
Feature | How It Helps |
Adaptive Learning | Repeats words at the right time based on your progress |
Content Personalization | Creates custom lessons based on your interests and level |
Quick Translation | Instantly translates unfamiliar words for clarity |
Progress Tracking | Monitors your growth and pinpoints weak areas |
Tips for Using AI Tools
Make the most of these apps by incorporating them into your daily routine. For example, upload personal reading materials to the app. This lets you learn vocabulary in context, making the words more meaningful and easier to remember.
Combine AI with Traditional Methods
To get the best results, use AI tools alongside other learning techniques:
- Use translations for quick understanding.
- Let the app create flashcards from your reading.
- Stick to the app’s review schedule for better retention.
- Practice your new vocabulary in conversations.
Pro Tip: These apps are great for support, but they shouldn’t replace activities like reading, speaking, or engaging with native speakers.
Tracking Your Progress
AI apps can track which words you’ve mastered, highlight areas needing improvement, and suggest when to review. This targeted approach helps you focus on what matters most.
For even better results, pair app-based learning with immersive experiences, such as watching shows or chatting with native speakers. This combination can significantly boost your vocabulary skills.
6. Watch Media with Subtitles in the Target Language
Watching movies, TV shows, or online videos with subtitles in your target language is a great way to pick up new vocabulary. It combines visuals, audio, and text, helping you connect words to their meaning in context.
Setting Up Your Viewing Strategy
Use this guide to match your language level with the right content and subtitle setup:
Level | Content Type | Subtitle Setup |
Beginner | Children’s shows, documentaries | Subtitles in both your native and target languages |
Intermediate | TV series, news programs | Subtitles in the target language only |
Advanced | Movies, complex dramas | Subtitles in the target language or none |
Tips for Subtitled Learning
Platforms like Lingopie make it easier to learn through media by offering tools to reinforce vocabulary. Start with short episodes (15-20 minutes) to stay focused while absorbing new words.
Features that can help:
- Save new words instantly while watching.
- Practice pronunciation using native audio.
Pair this method with reading and recall exercises to make the vocabulary stick.
Turn Watching into Active Learning
Don’t just sit back – engage with the content using these strategies:
- Write down new words and their context in a notebook.
- Repeat phrases that catch your attention to practice speaking.
If the dialogue feels too fast, slow the playback to 0.75x speed. Struggling with accents or advanced material? Start with simpler shows to build confidence. Focus on common words that show up repeatedly – they’re the ones you’ll use most often.
Once you’ve made this a habit, you can combine it with other listening exercises to improve both retention and understanding.
7. Combine Listening and Reading Practice
Pairing audio with text is a great way to engage multiple senses, making it easier to learn and remember new vocabulary. This method works well alongside other tools like flashcards or spaced repetition, as it helps you connect written words with their spoken forms. The result? Better understanding and longer-lasting retention.
Learning Materials by Level
Level | Materials | Suggested Duration |
Beginner | Simplified audio-text content | 15-20 minutes per day |
Intermediate | Audiobooks with text | 20-30 minutes per day |
Advanced | Podcasts with transcripts | 30-45 minutes per day |
Useful Tools to Get Started
Apps like LingQ, Beelinguapp, or Audible (with WhisperSync) make it easy to sync audio and text. These platforms offer content tailored specifically to language learners, helping you practice effectively.
Tips for Making the Most of This Method
Here are some strategies to maximize your learning:
- Start with short sessions, about 15-20 minutes, to maintain focus.
- Jot down unfamiliar words as you go and review them later using spaced repetition apps.
- Read the text first, then listen while following along to reinforce understanding.
- Try shadowing – repeat after the audio to improve your pronunciation and rhythm.
Overcoming Common Challenges
If the audio feels too fast, slow it down or divide it into smaller sections. Transcripts can also help clarify tricky parts.
Consistency is key. Short, regular practice sessions are more effective than occasional long ones. As you advance, gradually increase the difficulty of your materials and extend your practice time. Adding mnemonic techniques can also help you remember new words more easily.
8. Use Mnemonics to Memorize Words
Mnemonics are a powerful tool for learning vocabulary. They help you form strong mental links between new words and familiar concepts, making it easier to remember them. By using creative techniques, mnemonics turn abstract words into something more relatable and memorable.
Types of Mnemonics That Work
Type | How It Works | Example |
Visual Imagery | Imagine a clear mental picture tied to the word | Think of "serene" as a peaceful lake mirroring the sky |
Storytelling | Build a short story around the word | Picture "ephemeral" as a soap bubble that bursts in seconds |
How to Create Effective Mnemonics
To get the most out of mnemonics, focus on what makes the word stand out. Tie it to something personal, use your senses, and keep it simple. Dr. Barbara Oakley notes that mnemonics are particularly helpful for people learning new languages, as they make vocabulary easier to grasp.
Tech Tools to Help You
Apps like WordUp and Vocabulary Cartoons make learning with mnemonics fun. For example, Vocabulary Cartoons uses funny illustrations and visual cues to help you lock in the meaning of words. These tools make studying feel less like a chore and more like an interactive experience.
9. Follow a Structured Vocabulary Plan
Research indicates that organized methods are more effective than casual ones. A clear and systematic plan can help you grow your vocabulary steadily and efficiently.
Building Your Learning Framework
Here’s a simple way to structure your vocabulary learning:
Timeframe | Activities to Focus On |
Daily/Weekly | Review flashcards, practice reading, update your vocabulary notebook |
Monthly | Assess progress and evaluate how well you’re using new words |
The Frayer Model: A Deeper Understanding
The Frayer model is a great tool for breaking down words. It encourages you to look at definitions, examples, and real-world applications. This deeper analysis helps solidify your understanding of each word.
Leverage Technology for Practice
Apps can be a convenient way to practice during downtime, like commutes or short breaks. However, they work best when used alongside your structured plan, not as a replacement.
Monitor Your Progress
Keep a dedicated vocabulary notebook that includes:
- Word categories with usage examples
- Review dates and a record of how well you’ve mastered each word
Make adjustments based on self-assessments. For words that are harder to grasp, schedule more frequent reviews. Research suggests starting with high-frequency words before moving on to specialized terms .
Begin by adding 5-10 new words to your routine each day. As you become more comfortable, you can gradually increase the number. This steady approach helps you avoid feeling overwhelmed.
While a structured plan is essential, conversations with native speakers can give your vocabulary a real boost.
10. Talk to Native Speakers Regularly
Flashcards and apps are great, but nothing beats real conversations with native speakers for building your vocabulary. Talking with native speakers helps turn the words you’ve studied into ones you can confidently use.
Finding Speaking Partners
Platforms like Tandem and iTalki are perfect for connecting with native speakers. Tandem is great for casual chats, while iTalki offers more structured lessons. Both options make it easy to practice regularly, no matter your level.
Making Conversations More Productive
Keep a notebook or app handy during chats to jot down new words. Prepare topics in advance, ask about words you don’t know, and request feedback on how you’re using the language. These small steps can make a big difference in how much you learn.
Overcoming Speaking Anxiety
Start small – short, simple conversations are a great way to ease into speaking. As language expert Steve Kaufmann says:
The best way to learn a language is by speaking it
Building confidence takes time, so don’t rush. Take it one step at a time.
Maximizing Learning Opportunities
Set goals to use new words in your conversations. If possible, record your sessions (with permission) to review later. Listening back can help you spot areas for improvement and track your progress. Plus, you’ll notice patterns in how native speakers use words, which can refine your understanding.
Pro tip: Combine these conversations with your flashcard and reading practice. This well-rounded approach gives you both the structure and real-world experience you need to grow your vocabulary effectively.
Expanding your vocabulary requires commitment, regular practice, and smart techniques. Research highlighted by WordUp reveals that using a mix of learning methods can improve retention by up to 40% compared to relying on just one .
A well-rounded strategy includes these three elements:
- Digital + Traditional: Combine AI-based tools with classic learning methods.
- Active + Passive: Balance speaking practice with reading and listening.
- Structure + Flexibility: Stick to a plan, but adjust it to suit your preferences.
Growing your vocabulary isn’t a quick process – it’s about steady, daily effort. According to Prodigy, spending just 15 minutes a day on vocabulary practice can lead to noticeable progress in as little as 8-12 weeks .
The key is to make vocabulary practice a natural part of your day. Whether it’s during your commute, on a lunch break, or in the evening, staying consistent is what drives results.
Pick a couple of methods that align with your goals and learning style. Gradually build momentum, and track your progress by noting new words each week and rating your confidence in using them. With persistence and the right tools, your vocabulary will keep growing.
Pro tip: Review your progress weekly to stay motivated and pinpoint areas that need extra focus.
Looking for more guidance? Check out our FAQs for answers to common vocabulary-building questions.
How can you improve your vocabulary skills?
Learning words in context works wonders. Focus on understanding word roots and building connections between words. Here are some practical tips:
- Group related words by theme.
- Create your own example sentences for better recall.
- Use new words in conversations to reinforce them.
- Review regularly with spaced repetition tools to retain what you’ve learned over time.
What are the main features of graded readers?
Graded readers are specially designed books that simplify language for learners. Here’s what makes them helpful:
Feature | Description |
Simplified Language | Uses vocabulary tailored to specific learning levels. |
Controlled Grammar | Matches grammar structures to the learner’s proficiency level. |
Word Count Limits | Keeps the total word count manageable and less intimidating. |
Progressive Levels | Gradually increases complexity as the learner progresses. |
What’s the quickest way to memorize words?
Contextual learning paired with spaced repetition is a game-changer. Studies show spaced repetition can improve retention by up to 90% compared to traditional methods . Follow these steps for the best results:
- Write personal example sentences using new words.
- Practice using the words in different situations.
- Review them at spaced intervals (e.g., 3 days, 1 week, 1 month).
- Combine writing exercises with speaking practice.
Pro tip: Try AI-powered language apps that use spaced repetition to create a personalized learning plan and track your progress.
For more strategies, check out the 10 tips mentioned earlier and customize your learning journey.
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Area Formula Of Basic Shapes Worksheet – Learning to recognize shapes is an important aspect of early preschool education. It is not just a way to help children develop their fine motor abilities and increase their ability to perceive spatial information, it also improves their problem-solving abilities. One of the most effective ways to introduce shapes to children is to use forms worksheets.
Types of Shapes
A. Basic Shapes
The basic shapes are the fundamental pieces of geometry. These include circles, triangles, squares, and ovals. These shapes are simple for children to identify and comprehend.
B. 2D Shapes
2D-shaped objects are flat and flattened shapes that only have length and width. They are squares, rectangles, triangles, circular shapes ovals, diamonds and squares.
C. 3D Shapes
3D shapes are forms that have width, length, and height. They are made up of cubes, cones, cones, and pyramids.
Activities for Learning Shapes
A. Drawing Shapes
Drawing shapes can be a fun method for children to grasp the names of and the features of various shapes. Let your kid draw different shapes using a pencil as well as paper. They can be provided with examples or templates to help them start. As they gain confidence help them draw these shapes using freehand.
B. Tracing Shapes
Tracing shapes is a fun and engaging game that helps kids develop their fine motor skills. Your child should be provided with shapes worksheets that have lines around every shape. Instruct them to trace every shape with an eraser or pencil. This helps them master the names of shapes and traits, as they learn how to manage the movements of their hands.
C. Identifying Shapes
It is essential to be able to recognize shapes. development skill for toddlers to grow. Give your child worksheets with various shapes on them and ask them to identify each shape. Also, you can encourage them by naming the main characteristics of each form, such as the number of sides or the appearance of the curve.
How to Use Shapes Worksheets
A. Downloading and Printing
For the worksheets to be used then you need to download and print them. There are many websites that offer free shapes worksheets that you print and download from home. Pick the worksheets appropriate to your child’s level of age and levels of skill.
B. Using Manipulatives
The manipulatives are the objects children could use to interact with shape in a way that is hands-on. Some examples of manipulatives are blocks along with puzzles, shape sorters. Encourage your child’s use of manipulatives to accompany their shapes worksheets in order to improve their education.
C. Encouraging Independent Learning
Shapes worksheets are also utilized to promote independent learning. Make sure your child is provided with the worksheets, and allow children to work on them with their preferred pace. Encourage them to inquire if they’re not certain about anything.
Incorporating worksheets about shapes into the curriculum of your child can be an engaging and effective method to help them learn about shapes. Activities such as drawing, tracing, and the identification of types of shapes can help your child develop your fine motor capabilities and spatial awareness. Making use of manipulatives along with worksheets will enhance their learning experience, by encouraging them to learn independently, and assist in building confidence. By using worksheets on shapes you can help your child learn essential skills that will aid them in the years to later.
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Industrial Revolution (1800’s-1940’s)
During a time of renowned technological advances and groundbreaking inventions that propelled American civilizations, the Underground Railroad became one of the most interconnected, well-known yet quiet inventions during this time period. The Underground Railroad was a secret corporation of abolitionists and slaves that fought against the chains of slavery in the 1800s. Although there is no exact timestamp of when the blueprints for this invention originated due to the efforts made to ensure knowledge of the path to freedom remained hidden, the Underground Railroad operated roughly between 1840-1950. At first glance, salvation for enslaved peoples may not seem industrial or technological, but the mechanics of this railroad reveal an ideology that was as revolutionary as a well-oiled machine. In this chapter you will learn about the science and technology that was utilized in the slaves’ grand escape to the Promised Land, and how this extraordinary network of heroes changed the lives of thousands.
The Underground Railroad as a movement in American history is known as the story of slaves escaping their abusive masters, travelling across the country in secret with the help of Quakers who believed in the betterment of all human life and finding their freedom. This understanding of the Underground Railroad is not a false understanding. However, it lacks the means by which the slaves were able to achieve success along their path, and the bigger picture of how this endeavor shaped all of America thereafter.
Science & Technology
Recent studies of old diaries and letters paint the picture of what was left undocumented during the Underground Railroad. Science and technology played huge roles in the slaves’ ability to escape right under the noses of their masters and travel great distances in secret, often to Canada. “Code words would be used in letters to “agents” so that if they were intercepted they could not be caught. Underground Railroad code was also used in songs sung by slaves to communicate among each other without their masters being aware” (Harriet Tubman Historical Society). Technology was not then as we know it now. Communication consisted of letters between “agents”, “conductors”, and “station masters” consisting of the location of the “stations” at which slaves were kept hidden (National Geographic Society, 2023). Their secret language was created by the abolitionists solely for the Underground Railroad while technical jargon and scientific notation were being created for the first steam engine.
Language was not the only tool utilized for the slaves’ salvation. Signals were also invented as a way to light the path such as “chimneys marked with a special row of white or variously colored bricks [that] assured the fugitive that the home beneath was really an underground railroad depot” (Gara, 1967). This evolving technology became a science that had to be studied and learned by the slaves and abolitionists just as a conductor must study the train engine. It was vital to their survival that they stay up to date on new advancements and safer routes for travel. Over the hundred years of operation, the technologies of the Underground Railroad were further developed, optimized, and it is believed that thousands of slaves were able to find freedom.
Impact on society
From the network of science and technology behind the Underground Railroad came salvation. The story of this path to freedom most commonly highlights the abolitionist, “a pure-hearted knight in shining armor” (Gara, 1967), as the heroes that risked everything to save those who were enslaved by their plantation owners in the south. However, it was the slaves that risked their own lives by escaping and travelling across the country that were often their own heroes. “Free Negros contributed much more to such enterprises than they have usually been given credit for, and fugitives who rode the underground railroad line often did so after having already completed the most difficult and dangerous phase of their journey alone and unaided” (Gara, 1967). Lost in the untold records of the secret society were the voices of the slaves that embarked on this dangerous road. Already with limited resources, the enslaved people sang their songs and came together as they changed the trajectory of their lives, and America’s. “The Railroad heightened divisions between the North and South, which set the stage for the Civil War” (National Geographic Society, 2023). Connected across the states, abolitionists and escaped slaves found their voices in the fight against slavery and left an impact on society that changed the federal decree in favor of the human life that was taken from these peoples. The slaves were officially set free by the Emancipation Proclamation in 1950.
With a little unconventional science and technology, the abolitionists and enslaved people from the 18 and 1900s found their own freedom and ignited the voices that were kept quiet. This battle for individualism continued as society was all but quick to accept previously believed slaves as people included in their social lives, leading to segregation. The lantern of the Underground Railroad not only shed light on the problems still apparent in the young American government in relation to slavery, but women also began to find their voices in the fight for their equality. The social construct of society may not seem like a scientific or technological advance during the Industrial Revolution at first glance, but The Underground Railroad was a well-oiled machine that changed the ideology of America.
Gara, L. (1967). The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad. University Press of Kentucky. https://books.google.com/books?id=gCnV7Yf420oC&lpg=PR7&dq=story%20of%20the%20underground%20railroad&lr&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q=story%20of%20the%20underground%20railroad&f=false
Harriet Tubman Historical Society. (). “Underground Railroad Secret Codes.” Harriet Tubman Historical Society.http://www.harriet-tubman.org/underground-railroad-secret-codes/#:~:text=Code%20words%20would%20be%20used,without%20their%20masters%20being%20aware.&text=Coordinator%2C%20who%20plotted%20courses%20of%20escape%20and%20made%20contacts
National Geographic Society. (2023) “The Underground Railroad.” National Geographic.
File:The Underground Railroad by Charles T. Webber, 1893.jpg. (2023, February 27). Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 15:14, November 27, 2023 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=File%3AThe_Underground_Railroad_by_Charles_T._Webber%2C_1893.jpg&id=736369794&wpFormIdentifier=titleform
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What is Synthetic Phonics?
•How sounds are represented by letters
•How to decode letters to say sounds
•How to blend (synthesise) sounds to read words
Children are systematically taught:
•to read words by blending sounds
•to spell by identifying sounds in words
(segmenting spoken words)
•to form letters
This is called 'segmenting' the sounds in a word.
When the sounds are read together, it is called 'blending'.
At the end of Year 1, all children must participate in the Government's 'Phonics Screening Check'. This is to see if they are working at, or towards, the required national standard in terms of phonics skills.
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Equation of Exchange
An equation that establishes the link or relationship between the velocity of money, money supply, expenditure index, and average price.
In economics, the equation of exchange establishes the link or relationship between the velocity of money, money supply, expenditure index, and average price.
The equation states that the total amount of money that changes hands in an economy equals the total monetary value of goods that change hands. In other words, nominal spending equals nominal income.
In economics, this equation is a mathematical expression of the quantity theory of money. It is a mathematical expression that establishes the link or relationship between the following:
- Money Supply
- Velocity of Money
- Price Level
- Expenditure Level
Economists often refer to the monetary quantity theory of money as the equation of exchange.
This equation of exchange has also been used to argue that inflation will be proportional to changes in the money supply and that the total demand for money can be divided into two categories:
- Demand for use in transactions
- Demand for the sake of its liquidity.
- The equation of exchange is a fundamental concept in monetary economics that describes the relationship between the money supply, the velocity of money, the price level, and the volume of transactions in an economy.
- The equation of exchange helps policymakers understand the impact of monetary policy. Central banks, for instance, use it to determine how changes in the money supply can affect inflation and economic growth.
- The equation of exchange assumes that the velocity of money is constant, but in reality, it can fluctuate due to various economic factors.
- Monetarists, especially Milton Friedman, stress the significance of the money supply in managing inflation. They argue that if the money supply grows faster than the real output of the economy, it leads to inflation.
John Stuart Mill is credited with deriving the equation for exchanging goods and services.
The amount of money that changes hands in an
equal to the total monetary value of goods and services that are traded means that the amount of nominal spending in an economy will always be similar to the amount of little income in an economy.The equation of exchange is also used to argue that inflation rates will be proportional to changes in the money supply. It states that the
can be broken down into the following categories:- The total amount of money that is needed to carry out transactions.
- The total amount of funds required for "holding in liquidity."
This equation can be expressed as follows:
Ms x V = P x T
- Ms is a measure of money supply or the average units in circulation during a period
- V is a measure of the velocity of money or the average number of times a currency unit changes hands within a given period
- P represents the level of average prices during that period for goods and services
- T is the index reflecting the actual value of all transactions within a specific period
The product of Ms & V (i.e., Ms x V) is the total amount of money that a particular economy spends in a specific period. In contrast, the product of P & T (i.e., P x T) can be interpreted as the sum of all the money spent within one's economy within a specific time.
So, it follows from the equation that the total amount of money spent within an economy by its citizens over a specific period is always equal to the total amount of goods and services over the same period.
The equation can be rewritten as follows:
Ms x V = P x Q
- Money supply (Ms) is the sum of the amount in circulation in each period
- The velocity (V) of money measures the average number of times a currency unit is exchanged during a given period
- P is the intermediate price level of goods and services in that period
- Q represents the index of all actual expenditures accumulated within that period
In economic terms, the product of P and Q (i.e., P x Q) is interpreted as a measure of the nominal GDP over a period.
It is evident from the rearranged equation that the total amount of money spent within an economy over a particular period is always equal to the total amount earned during the same period; in other words, nominal expenditures are always the same as little income.
is the most explicit expression in which changes in the money supply are explained because of changes in the level of prices for goods and services.The quantity theory of money explains how the level of prices and the level of money supply are intertwined. Irving Fisher derived this from an equation from related theoretical studies.
The original theory of new quantity states that there will always be a fixed proportional relationship between changes in the money supply and the levels of prices.
To determine the relationship between the money supply and the price level, one must assume that the velocity of money and actual output are constant. This will then help determine that any change in money supply will mirror a proportional change in the price level.
To demonstrate this, first solve for P:
P = M * (V/Q)
Differentiating concerning time:
dP/dt = dM/ dt
This means that the inflation rate will rise proportionately with an increase in the money supply. In this way, we see the fundamental ideas behind monetarism and the inspiration behind Milton Friedman's famous assertion that "Inflation is always and everywhere - a monetary phenomenon."
The theory supports the idea that any increase in the amount of money in circulation will incite inflation, and an increase in inflation will, in turn, necessitate more cash in circulation. Let us consider the following:
prints excess money such that the amount in the economy is doubled. As more dollars purchase the same goods, there would be a dramatic price rise, resulting in more US dollars being spent.The spending and the demand for goods will likely increase in the coming period, putting upward pressure on prices.
The "Covid-19" pandemic affected the entire world in 2020. The global economy shut down, and whole populations were quarantined at home to slow down the spread of the disease.
Central banks and government organizations released a record amount of stimulus into the economy, significantly increasing the total amount of money in circulation. This stimulus aimed to prevent most people from falling into poverty and stop their incomes from reaching zero.
Despite this, it did not translate into an increase in prices proportional to the rise in the money supply since the quantity theory of money assumes that an increase in money supply will lead directly to higher spending.
In such a situation, the money injected into the economy will not be immediately spent but instead used to pay bills and be saved. As a result of this condition, the quantity theory of money did not hold.
The equation of exchange can also be used to derive the total demand for money in an economy by solving the following formula:
M = (P*Q)/ V
If money supply equals money demand (i.e., if financial markets are in equilibrium), then we can conclude:
MD = (P*Q)/ V
MD = (P*Q) * (1/V)
According to this equation, the demand for money is proportional to the nominal income and inversely proportional to the velocity of money.
Economists usually interpret the inverse of the velocity of money as a demand to have cash on hand.
Therefore, in this version of the exchange equation, there is demand for money in an economy in terms of both transaction demand (P x Q) and liquidity demand (1/V).
Quantity Theory of Money in Practice
Two significant benefits can be derived from the equation of exchange. The quantity theory of money is based on the principle that an increase in overall prices will occur if the money supply increases and vice versa.
- If M is calculated as per the equation, we can gain insights into the demand for money by analyzing M's value.
- Additionally, the equation for the exchange rate can be used to provide information about the variables included in the equation. This can help in understanding the state of the economy.
Using this equation, economists can determine the impact of changes in the money supply on goods' prices. A nation's central bank is responsible for formulating the money supply and deciding whether these variables should be increased or decreased.
There are several economic theories on which monetarist approaches are based, all of which claim that the relationship between the price of goods and the money supply is an accurate indicator of the strength of an economy.
The influence that money supply creates on interest rates contrasts with the Keynesian view, which states that the economic condition of a nation determines its payroll levels. The impact payroll causes this has on interest rates and the level of employment.
According to the equation, if the index of expenditure and velocity of money, which are the money supply variables, remain constant over time, then an increase in the money supply would increase average price levels and vice versa.
Thus, it can be inferred that money supply and average price levels are directly related. It's common for Y, Q, and other letters to be used for the variable T whenever it appears in an equation.
One of the factors that influence the value of this variable is the industrial production that is connected to the final output of an economy. It is also possible to calculate the average price level of goods by dividing the gross domestic product by the actual domestic product.
Nominal GDP can be calculated by multiplying the money supply by the velocity of money. There may be cases when the variables in the equation of exchange fall regardless of what the equation predicts. This can be because of weak conditions or a country's economic situation.
Inflation and Money Supply
The concept of inflation is an important one in economic analysis because it has a direct impact on real life. Simply put, inflation refers to an increase in price levels across the economy.
An economy can suffer severe economic damage if there is a high inflation rate.
For instance, if wages don't keep up with prices, people won't be able to buy as much. To stay in business, firms must produce fewer goods and services if people can't afford to buy as much.
The frequency with which customers use the products they have already purchased will determine whether they will repeat their purchase.
There will be fewer jobs, businesses will close, and personal and business debt will not be paid if production slows down.
Several factors, such as the general level of aggregate supply and demand in the overall economy, contribute to inflation.
A money supply is the total amount of money available in an economy at any given time.
Whenever you hear the term "money supply," remember that it includes the bills and coins you carry in your pocket, the electronic balance
, and many other cash equivalents.A simple way to analyze the effect of the money supply on inflation is to use the equation of exchange.
The monetarist school of thought believes that the money supply (the total amount of money in an economy, in the form of coins, currency, and bank deposits) is the principal determinant of short-run economic activity.
One of monetarism's most prominent proponents is American
Friedman. However, macroeconomics theorists, Friedman, and other monetarists diverge considerably from the formerly dominant Keynesian school.The monetarist approach became dominant during the 1970s and early 1980s.
relies on the equation of exchange, which is written as MV = PQ.P.QM represents the supply of money, V means the velocity of the deal of money (i.e., how often the average dollar in the money supply is spent on goods or services), and P represents the average price at which each good or service is sold. Q represents the number of goods produced.
According to monetarists, the money supply increases through a constant and predictable V, leading to an increase in either P or Q.
As Q increases, P will remain relatively constant. P will increase if the quantity of goods and services produced does not grow correspondingly. Production, employment, and prices are directly affected by changes in the money supply.
However, changes in the money supply become apparent once a significant period has passed. Monetary history advocates a "monetary rule" over fiscal policy.
Friedman presented a detailed analysis of the US supply from the end of the Civil War to 1960 in "A Monetary History of the United States 1867-1960 (1963)" with Anna J. Schwartz.
As a result of this detailed study, other economists began to take monetarism seriously.
Friedman argued that the government must control the money supply growth rate to promote economic stability.
This could be accomplished by following a simple rule that stipulates an increase in the money supply at a constant annual rate, tied to the potential growth of gross domestic product (GDP) (for example, an increase from 3 to 5 percent).
Thus, according to monetarism, steady, moderate money supply growth could ensure a
rate with low inflation.During the 1970s, monetarists maintained that inflation was a purely monetary phenomenon resulting from an increase in the money supply that outpaced growth in capacity output.
Consequently, at any given moment, inflation was seen as a reflection of current and past monetary expansion.
In the 1980s, however, changes in the U.S. economy proved that monetarism's link between economic growth and the money supply was incorrect.
- First, new and hybrid bank deposits obscured the kinds of savings traditionally used by economists to calculate the money supply.
- In addition, a decrease in inflation caused people to spend less, reducing velocity—consequently, the ability to predict the impact of money growth on nominal GDP growth diminished.
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https://www.wallstreetoasis.com/resources/skills/economics/equation-of-exchange
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2025-06-17T10:28:42Z
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Credit: R. McMahon & N. Tanvir; Swift Project
A History of Looking Backward
In an expanding Universe, the past moves quickly away. Astronomers tell cosmological distance from the motion of a distant object away from us. This motion produces a cosmological redshift due to the Doppler shift, and, at greater distances light takes longer to reach the observer, so observing higher redshift objects allows astronomers to see farther back in time. The graph above shows how, gradually, astronomers have been able to look at higher and higher redshifts (and thus deeper and deeper into the past) by using a variety of astronomical objects. Normal galaxies are abundant in the Universe, but, composed of "only" trillions of stars, they are rather faint. It's taken astronomers a long time to build powerful enough telescopes to identify faint, distant, red galaxies. More promising are the quasars, powered by extremely bright supermassive black holes, and easier to spot at enormous distances. Extremely powerful explosions called gamma-ray bursts give astronomers a spotlight into the early Universe; they are so powerful they can shine brightly even at great distances, but they can be hard to pinpoint. Recent advances have enabled space-based satellites like the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst finder, large ground-based telescopes, and the Hubble Space Telescope to work together to determine the host galaxies of the burst, and to measure the host's redshift. In this way astronomers have used gamma-ray bursts to quickly identify host galaxies at large redshifts. The current redshift limits these techniques have achieved is about a redshift of 6, corresponding to a time when the Universe was only a small fraction of its current age.
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Each week the HEASARC
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Page Author: Dr. Michael F. Corcoran
Last modified Monday, 26-Feb-2024 17:36:31 EST
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Welcome to the next lesson of the Clean Code with Multiple Classes course! This lesson is all about putting polymorphism into practice, building on the foundations laid in previous lessons, such as class collaboration, abstract base classes, and dependency management. Polymorphism is a cornerstone concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that allows us to write more dynamic and flexible code. Today, we will explore its practical applications and how it can enhance code quality. Let's dive in!
Polymorphism in Python empowers developers to write flexible and scalable code. Rather than relying on explicit type declarations, Python embraces dynamic typing and duck typing, which allow objects to be treated according to their behavior.
Consider a scenario where you have multiple classes representing different types of payments: CreditCardPayment
. By using polymorphism, you can treat these different payment types in a unified way:
By using a common method like pay
, different payment methods can be handled through the concept of duck typing:
This example demonstrates the core benefit of polymorphism: the ability to write code that can work with objects of different classes in a unified manner. This flexibility reduces code duplication and makes it easy to add new payment types by simply ensuring they implement the required method without altering existing logic.
One of the recurring issues in software development is rigid code that's difficult to modify or extend. Polymorphism offers a way out by enabling more abstract and adaptive design patterns. Let's revisit a problem you might have seen before: a program littered with lengthy conditional logic to handle different behaviors based on object types.
For example, consider the following code without polymorphism:
In Python, duck typing helps eliminate such cumbersome conditional structures. Here's how the same functionality could be achieved using polymorphism:
By designing your classes to use polymorphism, you avoid lengthy conditional checks that can be error-prone and hard to maintain.
To effectively implement polymorphism in Python, leverage subclassing and duck typing. Let's revisit the payment example:
Python's flexibility allows you to add new payment methods with minimal changes, aligning with the Open/Closed Principle — modules are open for extension but closed for modification.
Understanding Python's method resolution order and dynamic typing will enhance your ability to create clean and adaptable code structures, promoting reuse and extension without rigid inheritance.
When implementing polymorphism, consider these practices to ensure effective and maintainable designs in Python:
- Embrace Duck Typing: Trust that objects will correctly implement the necessary methods, without enforcing explicit type checks.
- Favor Composition Over Inheritance: Although polymorphism often uses inheritance, prefer composition to share behavior across classes without rigid inheritance chains.
- Keep Methods Consistent: Ensure methods that will be invoked polymorphically have consistent signatures and behaviors across classes.
By adhering to these practices, your code will be more adaptable and modular, allowing for easier modifications and additions.
While polymorphism provides significant advantages, improper use can lead to pitfalls. Here are common mistakes to avoid in Python:
- Overusing Type Hints: Over-reliance on type hints can restrict the flexibility of dynamic typing. Use them judiciously to enhance readability without constraining polymorphism.
- Ignoring Proper Abstractions: Failing to correctly abstract common behavior can result in bloated or redundant methods. Carefully design your methods to support polymorphic use.
- Confusion Between Interface and Implementation: Make sure that method names and expected behaviors are consistently understood between different classes.
To sidestep these issues, ensure your classes have clear responsibilities, and test your code extensively to catch design flaws early.
Today, we've navigated the practical facets of polymorphism, linking back to concepts like subclassing and flexible design principles that you've learned throughout this course. The key takeaway is the power of polymorphic design in making your code flexible, maintainable, and adaptable. Now, it's time to put theory into action. Dive into the exercises ahead, where you will reinforce these concepts through hands-on coding. Remember, successful application of polymorphism requires experimentation and continuous refinement. Happy coding, and enjoy the challenge!
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https://codesignal.com/learn/courses/clean-code-with-modules-and-packages/lessons/polymorphism-in-practice
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Music education is more than just learning to play an instrument. It is a powerful tool for enhancing brain development and creativity, and is an essential component of a well-rounded education. By participating in music activities, students can develop their cognitive, motor, and emotional skills, and gain a deeper understanding of the world around them.
Enhancing Brain Development
Music education has been shown to have a positive impact on brain development, particularly in areas related to language, memory, and spatial-temporal skills. For example, playing a musical instrument requires the coordination of multiple motor skills, including the use of fine motor skills to play the instrument and the use of gross motor skills to maintain rhythm and beat. This can help students develop their motor skills and coordination, as well as their ability to process and retain information.
In addition, music education can also enhance language development. Singing songs and playing instruments can help students develop their ability to articulate words and sentences, improving their pronunciation and vocabulary skills. Furthermore, music can also help students develop their memory skills, as they learn to remember lyrics, melodies, and rhythms.
Music education also plays a crucial role in fostering creativity. By participating in music activities, students are encouraged to express themselves and tap into their imagination, developing their creative skills and problem-solving abilities. Whether it’s composing their own music, arranging a song, or improvising during a performance, music education provides students with opportunities to be creative and innovative.
Incorporating Music Education into the Classroom
Music education can be incorporated into the classroom in a variety of ways. For example, teachers can use music to enhance students’ learning in other subjects, such as history or science, by incorporating songs, instrumentals, and musical scores into the material. In addition, teachers can also incorporate music into their daily routines, such as playing music during transitions or incorporating music into physical education activities.
Furthermore, teachers can collaborate with local music organizations to bring music education into the classroom. This can include guest speakers, field trips to concerts or music festivals, and hands-on workshops. These opportunities can provide students with exposure to a wide range of musical styles and genres, and can inspire them to pursue their own musical interests and passions.
Music education is a powerful tool for enhancing brain development and creativity, and is an essential component of a well-rounded education. By incorporating music education into the classroom, teachers can provide students with opportunities to develop their cognitive, motor, and emotional skills, and express their creativity and imagination. With the right support and resources, students can reach their full potential and prepare them for a successful future.
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In the previous article, we examined the basic concepts of data visualization utilizing matplot. Now we will learn how to plot all the different kinds of possible graphs for analyzing data using matplot.
Before getting into the list of available plots in matplot we will just revise the necessary functions for plotting. Generally, while plotting we will follow the same steps for every plot. Matplotlib has a module called pyplot which aids in plotting a figure in matplot
• plt.plot( ) for plotting line plot. Similarly for other plots other functions are used . All plotting functions require data and it is provided in the function through parameters.
• plot.xlabel, plt.ylabel for labeling x and y-axis respectively.
• plt.xticks, plt.yticks for labeling x and y-axis observation tick points respectively.
• plt.legend( ) for signifying the observation variables in matplot.
• plt.title( ) for setting the title of the plot.
• plot.show( ) for displaying the plot.
Now we go through the list of the plots we are going to learn now Here are the Visualization We’ll Design using matplotlib • Scatter Plot
• Line Plot
• Bar Graph
• Box Plot
• Pie Chart
A scatter plot also called a scattergram, or scatter diagram is a type of plot or mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to display values for typically two variables for a set of data. If the points are coded (color/shape/size), one additional variable can be displayed. The data are displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the other variable determining the position on the vertical axis.
When to use a Scatter Plot
• When you have paired numerical data
• When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your independent variable
• When trying to determine whether the two variables are related.
A line chart or line plot is a type of chart that displays information as a series of data points called ‘markers’ connected by straight line segments. It is a basic type of chart common in many fields. It is similar to a scatter plot except that the measurement points are ordered typically by their x-axis value and joined with straight line segments. A line chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time a time series thus the line is often drawn chronologically. In these cases, they are known as run charts
When to use a Line Plot
• When we want to show trends chronologically.
• When we want to clearly display relationships with continuous periodical data.
• When we want to visualize data changes at a glance
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that presents categorical data with rectangular bars with heights or lengths proportional to the values they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. A vertical bar chart is sometimes called a column chart. A bar graph shows comparisons among discrete categories. One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared, and the other axis represents a measured value. Some bar graphs present bars clustered in groups of more than one, showing the values of more than one measured variable.
When to use a Bar Graph
• Bar charts have a discrete domain of categories and are usually scaled so that all the data can fit on the chart.
• When there is no natural ordering of the categories being compared, bars on the chart may be arranged in any order.
• Bar charts arranged from highest to lowest incidence are called Pareto charts.
A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights. In a histogram, each bar group numbers into ranges. Taller bars show that more data falls in that range. A histogram displays the shape and spread of continuous sample data
When to Use a Histogram
• Summarize large data sets graphically
• Compare measurements to specifications
• Communicate information to the team
• Assist in decision making
In descriptive statistics, a boxplot is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data through their quartiles. Box plots may also have lines extending from the boxes indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles, hence the terms box-and-whisker plot and box-and-whisker diagram
When to use a Box Plot
• Box Plot is ideal for comparing distributions because the center, spread, and overall range are immediately apparent.
• A Box Plot is a way of summarizing a set of data measured on an interval scale.
• Box Plot is often used in exploratory data analysis
A pie chart or a circle chart is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportions. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice and consequently its central angle and area are proportional to the quantity it represents. While it is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can be presented
When to use a Pie Chart
• Useful for displaying data that is classified into nominal or ordinal categories.
• Generally used to show percentage or proportional data. Scatter plot
General syntax for plotting scatter plot
scatter('xlabel', 'ylabel', data=obj) a = np.random.randint(10,50,10) b = np.random.randint(10,50,10) plt.scatter(a,b)
Line plot General syntax for plotting scatter plot
plot('xlabel', 'ylabel', data=obj) a = np.random.randint(10,50,10) plt.plot(a)
x=[2,5,8,10] y=[11,12,16,9] x2=[3,9,6,11] y2=[6,15,9,7] plt.bar(x,y) plt.bar(x2,y2,color=‘g') plt.title('Bar Graphs’) plt.xlabel(‘x-axis') plt.ylabel(‘y-axis')
a = np.random.randint(10,50,10) plt.hist(a) plt.title(‘Histogram’)
a = [np.random.normal(0, std,100) for std in range(1,4)]
lables = ‘python','c++','c','java' sizes = [ 215,130,245,210 ] colors = ['yellowgreen','lightcoral','lightskyblue','gold'] explode = (0.1 , 0.2 , 0 , 0.1) plt.pie(sizes ,explode=explode,labels=lables ,colors= colors,shadow=True,autopct='%1.1f%%') plt.axis('equal') plt.show()
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://www.h2kinfosys.com/blog/advanced-data-visualization-using-matplot/
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2025-06-12T19:17:30Z
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Herod's Temple, also known as the Second Temple, played a significant role in ancient Jewish culture and society. The temple was more than just a place of worship; it was a symbol of Jewish identity, a center of learning and scholarship, and a hub of social and political activity. In this article, we will explore the role of Herod's Temple in ancient Jewish culture and society.
The temple was the center of Jewish worship and pilgrimage. It was a place where Jews could come to connect with their faith and to offer sacrifices to God. The temple was also the site of several important religious festivals, including Passover, Yom Kippur, and the Feast of Tabernacles. These festivals brought Jews from all over the world to Jerusalem, and the temple was an essential destination for these pilgrims.
The temple was also a center of learning and scholarship. It was home to the Sanhedrin, a council of Jewish scholars and leaders who were responsible for interpreting Jewish law and resolving disputes. The Sanhedrin also oversaw the administration of justice and had the power to impose the death penalty. The temple was also home to the great Jewish sages of the time, such as Hillel and Shammai, who taught and studied there.
The temple was a hub of social and political activity. It was the site of important historical events, such as the Maccabean revolt, which resulted in the cleansing of the temple and the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty. The temple was also the site of the trial of Jesus, which had significant political implications for the Roman Empire and the Jewish people.
The temple was a symbol of Jewish identity and a reminder of Jewish history and tradition. It was a place where Jews could come to connect with their faith and to feel a sense of belonging to a larger community. The temple also served as a symbol of resistance against foreign domination, as it was destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout Jewish history.
Herod's Temple played a significant role in ancient Jewish culture and society. It was a place of worship, learning, and scholarship, a hub of social and political activity, and a symbol of Jewish identity and history. The destruction of the temple by the Romans in 70 CE was a significant event in Jewish history, and the temple remains an important symbol of Jewish identity and culture to this day.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://israelistampportraits.site/blog/the-role-of-herods-temple-in-ancient-jewish-culture-and-society
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2025-06-22T17:09:42Z
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How does a computer learn to recognize a face?
The technology behind face recognition is called computer vision. Computer vision is the science and technology that deals with how computers can be programmed to understand images and video in order to process them in some way. It is a branch of artificial intelligence that focuses on giving machines the ability to see, just as humans do.
The computer vision system used for face recognition is called a convolutional neural network (CNN). Convolutional neural networks are a type of deep learning architecture that has proven very effective at image recognition tasks, such as those related to faces or animals.
Face recognition technology can be used for many purposes like identifying criminals or finding missing persons by Face recognition technology is being used for an increasing number of purposes, but it still has many limitations. One such limitation is the reliance on databases that contain the face of a person who is being searched for. The bigger the database, the better the accuracy will be when attempting to identify someone.
There are two categories of face recognition technologies:
- One category is based on the geometry of a human face, such as the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth.
The field of facial geometry is a relatively new branch of mathematics that has so far not been utilized much outside the fields of biology, anthropology, and zoology. However, in recent years, mathematicians and computer scientists have been working to develop algorithms and software to measure facial geometry from photographs or 3D models. For example, researchers at MIT are developing artificial intelligence tools for analyzing facial images to determine gender, emotional states, age, and ethnicity in order to increase the accuracy of their detection and improve the user experience for different user types by understanding someone’s race, ethnicity, nationality or country of origin.
- The second category is based on the texture of a human face, such as the contours of each individual’s unique skin pores
The second category is based on the texture of a human face, such as the contours of each individual’s unique skin pores, or the direction and density of an individual’s hair follicles. This data can be used to analyze an individual’s age and gender.
Naveen Pandey has more than 2 years of experience in data science and machine learning. He is an experienced Machine Learning Engineer with a strong background in data analysis, natural language processing, and machine learning. Holding a Bachelor of Science in Information Technology from Sikkim Manipal University, he excels in leveraging cutting-edge technologies such as Large Language Models (LLMs), TensorFlow, PyTorch, and Hugging Face to develop innovative solutions.
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https://www.nomidl.com/computer-vision/how-does-a-computer-learn-to-recognize-a-face-and-what-is-the-technology-behind-it/
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2025-06-23T19:18:23Z
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More African children have access to education than ever before. But learning outcomes are low. The World Bank estimates that 89 percent of African children are “learning poor”—unable to read and understand a basic text at age 10 or when they complete third grade. The World Bank coined the term “learning poverty” to highlight the crisis in education and call the world to action.
Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic, climate shocks, and conflict left many African children out of school and set them back further in terms of learning losses. But the real challenge facing Africa is the speed by which the population is growing. Today, the continent has half a billion children ages zero to 14, and this number is expected to reach 580 million in 2030. In 2023, Africa will surpass South Asia as the region with the largest zero to 14 population. The size of this young population and the speed of its growth is historically unprecedented, making all efforts to educate children a massive undertaking.
However, the pandemic has taught us some critical lessons. Most important among them are:
- Schools are important spaces, not just for learning, but for socialization and providing equal opportunity for all children to access education.
- While teachers remain the most important input in the learning process, the role of parents is key in laying the path for their children’s future.
- Technology is an enabler; but it cannot replace schools and teachers.
- There is evidence on how kids learn and how teachers can teach better— countries can adapt approaches and don’t have to start from scratch.
Looking ahead and taking these lessons into account, African countries can ensure a stronger, resilient, and more inclusive recovery by focusing on five areas: First, getting children, especially girls, in safe schools and keeping them there. While African countries have succeeded in closing the gender gap in primary education, only 29 percent of children are enrolled in secondary schools at a grade appropriate for their age. Also, a third of teenage girls are out of school making them vulnerable to gender-based violence. Focusing on girls’ education is the smartest investment any country can make. When girls enter safe schools and complete their education, not only will they be able to reach their full potential as women and contribute to their communities, societies, and economies, but they also delay childbirth, have fewer, healthier children, and reduce the pace of population growth.
Second, a push for learning is critical—this can be achieved by ensuring children start school ready, supporting teachers and school leaders, providing learning and teaching material, and measuring performance to ensure children are learning. Children should be able to read and understand a basic text by the time they complete third grade. While reading is the most fundamental skill to succeed in their education and in life, children also need to acquire other sets of skills as they progress in school. This includes socioemotional skills in how to manage complex situations, and practical, relevant skills that allow them to contribute to their societies and economies as adults.
A push for learning is critical—this can be achieved by ensuring children start school ready, supporting teachers and school leaders, providing learning and teaching material, and measuring performance to ensure children are learning. Children should be able to read and understand a basic text by the time they complete third grade.
Technology is not the silver bullet but if leveraged appropriately, it can help accelerate learning, support teaching, measure learning, and support more efficient systems. A push for learning must be coupled with a pull for skills. Parents and employers need to demand from the education system applicable skills that help children continue to learn and succeed in life. That is, economies and societies should pull the system for competencies and not credentials (grades and diplomas).
The third important area of focus is for African countries to ensure a shared vision for their citizens and future generations. This would require a pact by all stakeholders— educators, politicians, leaders, employers, and parents. Education is everyone’s business. This is not easy where interests and ideologies vary. A shared vision requires strong leadership, commitment to roles and responsibilities, and robust governance systems that promote accountability.
Fourth, it is important to sustain structural education reforms that are comprehensive and sequenced even when politically difficult. Piecemeal reforms that keep changing with new governments will limit impact. Education is a long-term process and results take time. Changing policies before they reap their results will delay their impact further.
Finally, African countries need to prioritize education finance and ensure national resources allocated to education are ringfenced against shocks to the economy. Donors and development institutions can provide financial assistance, but the amounts are dwarfed when compared to what national resources can contribute. Recent shocks have put pressure on the fiscal situation of most African countries. Seeking to create greater efficiency in public spending is important, but it should not come at the expense of much needed financing for education.
I believe that the vision of Africa, powered with universal access to clean energy; a connected Africa with universal access to broadband internet, roads, and infrastructure; a healthy Africa with universal access to health, water, and sanitation; and an economically booming Africa with a thriving private sector can only be attained through investments in education. Only when we give Africa’s children and youth the foundations for learning and skill building, can this rich continent prosper.
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https://www.brookings.edu/articles/to-prosper-africas-children-and-youth-must-learn/
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If you are just getting into monitor and graphics card, you may have often heard the terms Refresh Rate and Frame Rate. Both these terms represent the number of frames you see per second. The refresh rate depends on the monitor, whereas the frame rate relates to the GPU.
The refresh rate is the maximum number of frames a monitor can display per second. On the other hand, frame rate means the number of image frames the GPU sends to the monitor per second.
This is where confusion begins for most readers. The above definition may not make much sense if you are completely new to the topics, refresh rate, and frame rate. This article explains both the topics and their differences in further detail.
What is a Refresh Rate?
Before we jump into the definition of refresh rate, first, you should know how LED lights on a monitor work. A computer sends data from the frame buffer to the monitor. This data, generated by the CPU or the GPU, contains the stream of pixel color information.
Your monitor sets the RGB details(Red, Green, and Blue) for each pixel using the data received from the PC. Once the video data changes, the monitor will also need to refresh and adjust RGB on each pixel.
In technical terms, the number of times a single pixel can refresh its RGB intensity in one second is a pixel’s refresh rate. In simpler terms, the refresh rate is the number of times a monitor can refresh an image per second. A refresh rate of a monitor is measured in Hertz.
For example, let us consider a monitor with 60 Hz. This monitor can display up to 60 frames in one second. However, this number also depends on your system’s GPU. The monitor, although 60Hz, will not be able to refresh 60 frames in a second if your system’s GPU is not powerful enough to supply 60 frames in a second.
However, if a powerful GPU can supply more than 60 frames, say 144 frames in a second. The monitor, being limited to 60 Hz, can only display 60 frames. Here, the monitor cannot show the remaining 84 (144-60) frames.
What is a Frame Rate?
Before we talk about frame rates, it is imperative that you know how a computer processes images. The CPU sends data to the GPU (Graphics Processing Unit), which processes this data and generates a series of still images.
Every still image is called a frame which consists of information for the display unit as to how the pixels need to light up. The brightness of the pixels, the color of an individual pixel, and so on.
The GPU then sends frames to the monitor per second. The monitor then displays these frames one after another, creating a visual output. Several fast-changing frames of images are played to create a sense of motion on the screen of the display unit.
Frame rate or Frames Per Second (FPS) is the number of frames that the GPU sends to the monitor. The frame rate entirely depends on how powerful of a GPU you have and the amount an application generates.
Most video files play 24FPS. This means that the monitor is displaying 24 images in one second, creating an illusion of objects moving. Certain games or applications are known to support high FPS, ranging from 60FPS to a massive 200+FPS, giving a seamless transition for the changing objects.
If you are using a system with a powerful GPU, it will be able to generate more frames per second. However, as discussed above, you will not be able to see all these frames unless your monitor supports an equally higher refresh rate.
If you are recording a video with a dedicated screen capture device, it will record all the frames that are being sent from the GPU. Even if you have a monitor of 60Hz, the screen capture device will record every video data sent from the GPU.
You can measure the FPS count using any FPS counter application. Some applications also have a built-in feature to display the FPS details.
Both refresh rate and frame rate go hand in hand as both are responsible for displaying smooth video output.
Refresh Rate | Frame Rate |
Refresh rate is the maximum number of times a monitor can refresh the image displayed. | Frame Rate is the number of frames the GPU sends to the monitor. |
Measured in Hz (Hertz) | Measured in FPS (Frames Per second) |
Can be low if the FPS itself is low or capped by the monitor. | Will be lower if the GPU does not have enough power to create frames frequently, or if the video data itself has a lower FPS. |
Completely depends on the type of monitor you use. | Depends on the GPU and application. Powerful GPU will provide more FPS |
A higher refresh rate monitor will not make a difference if you do not have enough FPS. | Independent of monitor’s capability. |
Higher Refresh Rate or Higher Frame Rate
A higher refresh rate does provide you means to view those extra frames. However, you can benefit from a higher refresh rate monitor only if your system is giving an equal number of FPS. You will not be able to get the most out of the monitor with a higher refresh rate without adequate FPS to support it.
Alternatively, if your monitor’s refresh rate is lower, but the GPU is able to provide higher frame rates, you will not see those extra frames. However, getting a higher FPS, even if you don’t have a monitor with a higher refresh rate, is always better than having lower frame rates.
Does Higher Frame Rate Mean Lower Input Latency?
In brief, yes higher frame rate does mean lower input latency. Let’s say you are working on a 60Hz monitor, but the FPS counter detects that the application is running on 144FPS. Although you will only see 60 frames in one second, the actual data sent from the GPU is 144 frames for the time interval.
These frames are not displayed but they are processed by the GPU. The system does record the input even if the monitor cannot display these extra frames Hence, the perceivable output is wasted.
Since the CPU has processed the information for all frames, More frames per second minimize the delay between an input command and its result on the screen. This results in input command being registered even though the display is not updated.
The response will feel a little abrupt and laggy even. But the actual scenario is that the information is being processed and input data is updated.
To further clarify, let us talk about a scenario where you are playing a game. Playing a game with 144FPS records your movement quite often compared to playing a game with 60FPS. Although the time difference between recording movement on higher and lower framed devices is in milliseconds, this delay might be the reason behind losing a match and winning them.
Another example to further illustrate this is how your computer responds to keyboards and mice input even when the screen is powered off. The switched-off screen equivalents 0 refresh rate, but maximum FPS supported by your graphics unit. The display is not updated but the input is registered.
Can I Increase Monitor’s Refresh Rate?
Depending on the monitor you use, you may be able to use a variable refresh rate. Gaming monitors with a higher refresh rate will most likely support overclocking. You can check if your monitor supports variable refresh rate in Display settings.
- Press the Windows + I key to open Settings.
- Navigate to System > Display > Advanced display.
- Under Choose a refresh rate, click on the dropdown menu.
- If it lists multiple refresh rates. Select a higher number and select Keep changes.
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- English Language Arts and Reading
- Grade 3
- Author's purpose and craft
Provide students with a text written by Dr. Seuss and have students identify and discuss the distinctive language used in the text that contributes to voice.
This assessment example requires students to identify and discuss how the use of language in a Dr. Seuss book contributes to voice (the distinct personality of a writing). The writing of Dr. Seuss has a recognizable, distinct personality that is evident to readers. His signature style of writing using rhythm, rhyme, and the creation of his own words provides rich examples of writing that sounds unique, makes readers feel silly, and comes alive. All of these elements contribute to voice.
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In the world of programming, mastering Boolean in Java is essential. Boolean is a data type that represents two possible values: true or false. Understanding how to use Boolean in Java is crucial for making decisions and controlling the flow of your program. In this blog post, we will explore the basics of Boolean in Java, including its definition, purpose, and various operators. We will also dive into conditional statements, loops, and Boolean methods. So, let’s get started with this comprehensive guide on how to use Boolean in Java.
Understanding Boolean in Java
Definition and Purpose of Boolean
At its core, Boolean is a data type that can hold either of two values: true or false. It is named after mathematician George Boole, who developed Boolean algebra. In Java, Boolean is expressed through the Boolean class, which wraps the primitive boolean data type. Boolean values are commonly used to determine the outcome of logical conditions or to control the flow of execution in conditional statements.
Boolean Data Type in Java
In Java, the boolean data type can only have two possible values: true or false. These values are case-sensitive, meaning ‘true’ and ‘false’ are not considered Boolean values.
Default Values and Initialization
When a boolean variable is declared but not initialized, it will have a default value of false. However, it is recommended to always explicitly initialize boolean variables to ensure clarity and avoid unexpected behavior in your code.
Boolean Operators in Java
Logical operators are used to combine Boolean expressions and evaluate their truth value. They include the following:
&& (AND) operator: Returns true if both Boolean expressions on either side of the operator evaluate to true. Otherwise, it returns false.
|| (OR) operator: Returns true if at least one of the Boolean expressions on either side of the operator evaluates to true. If both expressions are false, it returns false.
! (NOT) operator: Reverses the logical state of a Boolean expression. If the expression is true, it returns false, and vice versa.
Comparison operators are used to compare two values and evaluate their relationship. They include the following:
== (equal to) operator: Returns true if the operands are equal, and false otherwise.
!= (not equal to) operator: Returns true if the operands are not equal, and false if they are equal.
> (greater than) operator: Returns true if the left operand is greater than the right operand, and false otherwise.
< (less than) operator: Returns true if the left operand is less than the right operand, and false otherwise.
>= (greater than or equal to) operator: Returns true if the left operand is greater than or equal to the right operand, and false otherwise.
<= (less than or equal to) operator: Returns true if the left operand is less than or equal to the right operand, and false otherwise.
Conditional Statements with Boolean
The if statement is used to execute a block of code only if a specified condition is true.
Using if statement with Boolean conditions
To use the if statement with Boolean conditions, you specify a Boolean expression inside the parentheses. If the expression evaluates to true, the code block within the if statement is executed. Otherwise, it is skipped.
Nested if statements
You can also nest if statements within each other to create more complex conditions. This allows you to check multiple conditions and execute different blocks of code based on the outcome.
The if-else statement allows you to execute a block of code when the condition is true and a different block of code when the condition is false. This is useful when you have two possible outcomes based on a Boolean condition.
The if-else-if statement extends the if-else statement by allowing you to check multiple conditions and execute different blocks of code based on the outcome. This is useful when you have more than two possible outcomes based on Boolean conditions.
Switch statement with Boolean conditions
In Java, the switch statement is typically used with integral types such as int or char. However, with the help of Boolean expressions, you can use the switch statement with Boolean conditions as well. This allows you to execute different blocks of code based on the value of a Boolean variable.
Loops and Boolean in Java
The while loop is used to repeat a block of code as long as a specified condition is true.
Using while loop with Boolean conditions
To use the while loop with Boolean conditions, you specify a Boolean expression inside the parentheses. The code block within the while loop is executed repeatedly until the condition evaluates to false.
The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, but it guarantees that the code block is executed at least once, regardless of the condition.
The for loop is used to execute a block of code a specific number of times. It is ideal when you know the number of iterations in advance.
Using for loop with Boolean conditions
In addition to its traditional usage with a counter variable, the for loop can also be used with Boolean conditions. You specify a Boolean expression as the condition, and the loop continues as long as the condition evaluates to true.
Enhanced for loop
The enhanced for loop, also known as the foreach loop, simplifies iterating over elements of an array or a collection. It does not require explicit initialization or incrementing.
Boolean Methods and Functions
Defining Boolean Methods
In Java, you can define methods that return Boolean values. These methods can be used to perform specific operations and return the result as a Boolean value.
Using return type boolean
To define a method that returns a Boolean value, you specify the return type as boolean in the method signature. The method body contains the logic to evaluate the conditions and return the appropriate Boolean value.
Returning true or false
Inside a Boolean method, you can use conditional statements, comparisons, or other Boolean expressions to determine the result. You can directly return true or false based on the outcome of these expressions.
Commonly Used Boolean Methods in Java
Java provides several built-in methods that work with Boolean values. Here are a few commonly used Boolean methods:
equals() method: The equals() method is used to compare two Boolean objects for equality. It returns true if the values are equal, and false otherwise.
startsWith() and endsWith() methods: These methods are used to check if a string starts or ends with a specified prefix or suffix. They return true if the condition is satisfied, and false otherwise.
contains() method: The contains() method is used to check if a string contains a specific sequence of characters. It returns true if the sequence is found, and false otherwise.
Best Practices for Using Boolean in Java
Choosing Meaningful Names for Boolean Variables
When using Boolean variables, it is important to choose descriptive names that reflect their purpose in your code. This enhances code readability and helps others understand the intention of your program.
Using Short-Circuit Evaluation
Short-circuit evaluation is a technique where the evaluation of a Boolean expression stops as soon as the final outcome can be determined. By utilizing short-circuit evaluation, you can optimize your code and improve its efficiency.
Avoiding Unnecessary Boolean Operations
While Boolean operations are essential for decision making, it is important to avoid unnecessary operations to optimize your code’s performance. Unnecessary Boolean operations may lead to slower execution or confusion.
In conclusion, mastering Boolean in Java is crucial for making informed decisions and controlling the flow of your program. In this blog post, we explored the basics of Boolean in Java, including its definition, purpose, and various operators. We also discussed conditional statements, loops, Boolean methods, and best practices for using Boolean in Java. By understanding Boolean and its various applications, you can write more efficient and reliable code. So, keep practicing and exploring further with Boolean in Java to enhance your programming skills.
Key Takeaways from the Blog Post: – Boolean in Java represents true or false values. – Boolean data type has a default value of false if not initialized. – Logical operators (&&, ||, !) are used to combine or reverse Boolean expressions. – Comparison operators (==, !=, >, <, >=, <=) are used to compare values. - Conditional statements (if, if-else, if-else-if, switch) control the flow of execution. - Loops (while, do-while, for, enhanced for) allow repetitive execution of code. - Boolean methods return true or false based on specific conditions. - Choosing meaningful names, using short-circuit evaluation, and avoiding unnecessary operations are best practices for using Boolean in Java.
We hope this comprehensive guide has provided you with a solid foundation for using Boolean in Java. Happy coding!
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The History of Madhya Pradesh is divided into three periods.
Isolated remains of Homo erectus found in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley indicate that Madhya Pradesh might have been inhabited since the Middle Pleistocene era, around 500,000 years ago. Painted pottery dated to the later mesolithic period has been found in the Bhimbetka rock shelters. Chalcolithic sites belonging to Kayatha culture (2100–1800 BCE) and Malwa culture (1700–1500 BCE) have been discovered in the Western part of the state.
The city of Ujjain (also known as Avanti) arose as a major center in the second wave of Indian urbanization in the sixth century BC, and served as the chief city of the kingdom of Malwa or Avanti. Further east, the kingdom of Chedi lie in Bundelkhand. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India c. 320 BCE, establishing the Maurya empire (321 to 185 BCE), which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. King Ashoka’s wife was said to come from Vidisha- a town north of today’s Bhopal. The Maurya empire went into decline after the death of Asoka, and Central India was contested among the Sakas, Kushanas, and local dynasties during the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial center of western India from the first century BCE, located on the trade routes between the Ganges plain and India’s Arabian Sea ports. It was also an important Hindu and Buddhist center. The Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.
Northern India was conquered by the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, which became known as India’s “classical age”. The Vakatakadynasty were the southern neighbors of the Guptas, ruling the northern Deccan plateau from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. These empires collapsed towards the end of the 5th century.
The attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, and India broke up into smaller states. A king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion. King Harsha of Thanesar reunited northern India for a few decades before his death in 647. The Medieval period saw the rise of the Rajput clans, including the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The Paramara king Bhoj (c. 1010–1060) was a brilliant polymath and prolific writer. Present capital city of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal has been named after him. The Chandelas created the temple city of Khajuraho between c. 950 and c. 1050. Gond kingdoms emerged in Gondwana and Mahakoshal. Northern Madhya Pradesh was conquered by the Turkic Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate at the end of the 14th century, independent regional kingdoms reemerged, including the Tomara Rajput kingdom of Gwalior and the Muslim Sultanate of Malwa, with its capital at Mandu. The Malwa Sultanate was conquered by the Sultanate of Gujarat in 1531.
Most of Madhya Pradesh came under Mughal rule during the reign of the emperor Akbar (1556–1605). Gondwana and Mahakoshal remained under the control of Gond kings, who acknowledged Mughal supremacy but enjoyed virtual autonomy. After the death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal control began to weaken, and the Marathas began to expand from their base in central Maharashtra. Between 1720 and 1760 the Marathas took control of most of Madhya Pradesh, and Maratha clans were established semi-autonomous states under the nominal control of the Maratha Peshwa. The Holkars of Indore ruled much of Malwa, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur dominated Mahakoshal and Gondwana as well as Vidarbha in Maharashtra. Jhansi was founded by a Maratha general. Bhopal was ruled by a Muslim dynasty descended from the Afghan General Dost Mohammed Khan. Maratha expansion was checked at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
The British were expanding their Indian dominions from bases in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. The Third Anglo-Maratha War left the British supreme in India. Most of Madhya Pradesh, including the large states of Indore, Bhopal, Nagpur, Rewa, and dozens of smaller states, became princely states of British India, and the Mahakoshal region became a British province, the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories. In 1853 the British annexed the state of Nagpur, which included southeastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra and most of Chhattisgarh, which were combined with the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories to form the Central Provinces in 1861. The princely states of northern Madhya Pradesh were governed by the Central India Agency. Top
After Indian independence
Madhya Pradesh was created in 1950 from the former British Central Provinces and Berar and the princely states of Makrai and Chhattisgarh, with Nagpur as the capital of the state. The new states of Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, and Bhopal were formed out of the Central India Agency. In 1956, the states of Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, and Bhopal were merged into Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathi-speaking southern region Vidarbha, which included Nagpur, was ceded to Bombay state. Bhopal became the new capital of the state. In November 2000, as part of the Madhya Pradesh Reorganization Act, the southeastern portion of the state split off to form the new state of Chhattisgarh. Top
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Vertical farming is a revolutionary approach to agriculture that aims to address the challenges of food production in an increasingly urbanized and resource-constrained world. In this article, we will explore the principles and technologies behind vertical farming, its potential benefits, and the challenges that must be overcome to fully realize its potential. Throughout the article, we will provide relevant external links for further information.
1. What is Vertical Farming?
Vertical farming is a method of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, often within controlled environments such as buildings, shipping containers, or repurposed warehouses. This innovative approach to agriculture relies on advanced technologies, such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and artificial lighting, to create highly efficient and resource-conserving growing conditions. Some key components of vertical farming systems include:
- Controlled environment agriculture (CEA): Vertical farms typically operate within controlled environments that allow for precise management of temperature, humidity, light, and other factors that affect plant growth. This enables year-round cultivation of crops, regardless of external weather conditions or seasonal variations.
- Hydroponics and aeroponics: Vertical farming systems often rely on soilless cultivation techniques, such as hydroponics and aeroponics, which deliver water and nutrients directly to plant roots. These methods can significantly reduce water consumption and eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
- Artificial lighting: Vertical farms use energy-efficient artificial lighting systems, such as LED lights, to provide plants with the optimal light spectrum for photosynthesis and growth. This allows for more precise control over crop growth and development, as well as the potential for higher crop yields.
2. The Potential Benefits of Vertical Farming
The adoption of vertical farming has the potential to deliver numerous environmental, economic, and social benefits, including:
- Increased food production: Vertical farming can achieve significantly higher crop yields per unit area compared to traditional agriculture, thanks to the ability to grow crops in multiple layers and optimize growing conditions. This increased productivity can help address the growing demand for food as the global population continues to rise.
- Reduced land and water use: By growing crops in vertically stacked layers, vertical farming can dramatically reduce the amount of land and water required for food production. This can help alleviate pressure on arable land and freshwater resources, as well as minimize the environmental impacts of agriculture, such as deforestation and water pollution.
- Reduced food waste and transportation costs: Vertical farms can be located in or near urban areas, which allows for fresher produce to be delivered to consumers more quickly and with fewer transportation-related greenhouse gas emissions. This can help reduce food waste and transportation costs while improving the overall sustainability of the food supply chain.
- Climate-resilient agriculture: Vertical farming’s controlled environment agriculture (CEA) approach makes it less vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts, floods, and extreme weather events. This can help ensure a more stable and reliable food supply in the face of growing global challenges.
3. Challenges and the Path Forward
Despite the significant potential benefits of vertical farming, several challenges must be addressed to fully realize its potential:
- Energy consumption: The use of artificial lighting and climate control systems in vertical farms can result in high energy consumption, which could offset some of the environmental benefits of this approach to agriculture. Continued advances in energy-efficient lighting technologies and renewable energy sources are essential to minimize the energy footprint of vertical farming.
- High upfront costs: Vertical farming systems often require significant initial investment in infrastructure and technology, which can be a barrier to entry for many small-scale farmers and entrepreneurs. Financial incentives, such as grants or low-interest loans, may be needed to help promote the adoption of vertical farming practices.
- Technology and knowledge gaps: Vertical farming relies heavily on advanced technologies and specialized knowledge in areas such as controlled environment agriculture, hydroponics, and artificial lighting. Increased investment in research, development, and education is needed to close these gaps and drive innovation in the field of vertical farming.
- Consumer acceptance: As with any new approach to food production, vertical farming must overcome consumer skepticism and build public trust in the safety, quality, and sustainability of its products. Transparent communication, education, and outreach initiatives can help to address these concerns and foster consumer acceptance of vertical farming.
4. The Role of Government and Industry in Promoting Vertical Farming
Governments and industry can play a crucial role in supporting the development and adoption of vertical farming through various strategies and initiatives, such as:
- Funding research and development: Government funding and support for research and development in vertical farming can help drive innovation and bring about advancements in technology, efficiency, and sustainability.
- Establishing supportive policies and regulations: Governments can implement policies and regulations that support the growth of the vertical farming industry, such as zoning laws that allow for urban agriculture, tax incentives for vertical farm construction, and standards for the safe and sustainable production of vertical-farmed produce.
- Education and training: Governments and educational institutions can collaborate to develop specialized training programs and resources for aspiring vertical farmers, helping to build a skilled workforce capable of driving the growth of the industry.
- Public-private partnerships: Governments and private sector companies can work together to develop and deploy vertical farming projects, leveraging their respective strengths and resources to overcome barriers to entry and promote the adoption of this innovative approach to agriculture.
Vertical farming has the potential to revolutionize the way we produce food, offering a more sustainable, efficient, and climate-resilient approach to agriculture. By addressing the challenges associated with vertical farming, fostering collaboration between government and industry, and promoting public awareness and education, we can unlock the full potential of this innovative approach and pave the way for a more sustainable and food-secure future.
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https://alvernoalpha.com/vertical-farming-the-future-of-sustainable-agriculture/
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2025-06-12T19:26:41Z
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let's understand about Archimedes Principle
we all aware the fact that some objects float in water While others sink.
let's look at the balloon. Do you know what makes a balloon float on water?
Well, it's the upward force exerted by water that makes the balloon float, to experience this try pushing the balloon under water you will feel an upward force that makes it difficult to push the balloon down, now release the balloon. It bounces back to the surface.
What happens here? Is that the applied force acts in the downward Direction pushing the balloon down? But the water exerts an upward force on the balloon pushing it up. This upward force exerted by water in the balloon is known as up thrust or buoyancy and the upward force is called the buoyant force.
Have you ever wondered why an iron nail sinks while a huge giant ship floats on water.
Let's see, the iron nail sinks as it is solid and compact with less volume in water and its density is greater than water.
Thus the upthrust is exerted by water on the nail is less than the weight of the nail. This causes it to sink and iron ship floats as it is hollow shells were there and occupies more volume in water and its density is less than water. Does the up thrust exerted by water on the ship is greater than the weight of the ship letting it float these examples indicate that the magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the Volume = v of the immersed part of the body the density = rho of the fluid and the axial Direction due to gravity G thus up thrust of buoyant force is equal to v rho G. In general object experiences a loss of weight in water due to the upthrust and it is equal to the weight of water displaced by it. This is better answered using the law of buoyancy also known as Archimedes Principle. Named after the Greek scientist who discovered it.
Archimedes Principle states that when an object is immersed in a liquid the apparent loss of weight of an object is equal to the up trust and this is also equal to the weight of the liquid displaced .
we see the use of this principle in our daily lives. Ever caught a fish with a fishing line when pulling the line you would have felt the weight of the fish in water is lighter than when the fish has surfaced.
see the weight of the fish in water is four kilos. It's approximate wait outside would be 5 kilos. Well, the water level to has come down this difference in the volume of water level will equal the loss in weight of the fish when in water, that is the weight of the fish outside - its weight when immersed in water equals a loss in weight of the fish.
5kg - 4kg = 1kg
So the loss of weight of the fish will equal the weight of the decreased water. This is because upthrust of buoyant force is equal to the weight of the decreased amount of water does Archimedes principle is verified.
Certain Technologies today work based on the archimedies principle. To name a few, the designing of ships and submarines hydrometer is used to find the specific gravity of liquid and lacto meters used to determine purity of milk.
Things to remember
- The upward force exerted by a fluid is called a Thrust of buoyant force.
- Up trust of buoyant force = V Ro G.
- Archimedes principle states that "when a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
- Archimedes principle is also known as a law of buoyancy.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://www.marineengineersknowledge.com/2020/06/lets-understand-about-archimedes.html
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2025-06-17T08:12:43Z
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Soldering - what is it, characteristics, types and how to learn to solder?
Soldering is a quick way of joining two things together, but it requires precision and skill.
What is soldering?
Brazing is a method of joining various components in which a space is filled between the closely fitting surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary forces through a heated, molten adhesive. This method is mainly used to join metals together, but there is no obstacle to its use with non-metallic materials as well.
Brazing is one of three methods of permanently joining materials. We can also distinguish between welding and welding. The most characteristic feature of soldering is the joining of materials in a solid state - this is what distinguishes soldering from welding and welding. The joining of materials at low temperatures has allowed a significant development in industrial work and beyond.
What makes soldering so popular?
- Bypassing the complex and difficult metallurgical and technological considerations of joining metals and their alloys by other bonding methods;
- A very wide temperature range for the soldering process. Temperatures can range from 100 to as much as 1,400 degrees Celsius, depending on requirements;
- A wide variety of solutions in terms of solder joint design;
- It is possible to join together almost all metals and metal alloys, and even materials with very different physical and chemical properties;
- Combining metals with non-metals;
- Combining elements of different shapes and sizes;
- Ease of mechanisation and automation of soldering processes.
Methods of soldering - soft vs. hard
Soldering can be divided into two ways, depending on the melting temperature of the binders:
- Soft soldering - must take place at a temperature not exceeding 450 degrees Celsius, the most common being around 320 degrees. This method is most often used to weld parts with low joint stresses and low operating temperatures, these can be electronic circuits, electrical cables, sheet metal. The metals that are joined using soft loosening are steel, copper, zinc, brass and their alloys.
- Brazing - Similarly, brazing must involve brazing adhesives with a melting point above 450 degrees Celsius - usually up to 2000 degrees. It is used to join steels of various types as well as gold, silver, copper, brass and bronze.
We can divide hard solders into 8 types, which differ due to their basic ingredient, which has quite an impact on the properties of the binder:
- Aluminium solders (Class AL) - the melting point is in the region of 575-630 degrees Celsius.
- Silver (AG grade) - the most versatile binders, can be used for soldering most metals, with a melting point of approx. 420-1020 degrees Celsius.
- Copper-phosphorus solders (CP grade) - copper solders with added phosphorus, used for soldering copper, brass and bronze. They conduct electricity well and are extremely strong. The melting point is 645-890 degrees Celsius.
- Copper solders (CU grade) - pure copper used for soldering all steels and nickel. The melting point is approximately 1070-1085 degrees Celsius.
- Nickel alloys (NI grade) - used for stainless steel and alloys with cobalt, tungsten or molybdenum. The melting point is between 880 and 1070 degrees Celsius.
- Cobalt lutes (CO class) - used exclusively for brazing cobalt hard alloys.
- February gold (AU class) - have good soldering properties and resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.
- February with palladium (PD grade) - have between 40 and 60% of palladium, but their primary component is either silver or copper.
Soldering courses and training
The ability to solder is very useful in the labour market. Employers look favourably on those who possess it. It is not easy, but it is worth taking the time to enrich yourself with a new competence.
Courses and training in this area are run by the most competent people on the market. They are themselves specialists in their profession and impart knowledge in a skilful and enjoyable manner, making it even easier to absorb. Attending such a course can result in finding a job more quickly and, in addition, can become helpful at home.
As soldering is one of the most common methods of joining metals, it will be very useful for beginner electronics engineers. The course can illuminate a little and deepen the knowledge of what metals and electronic components can be joined together.
The course in this subject covers brazing and soft soldering of copper or aluminium materials used in central heating, refrigeration and air conditioning installations. The training consists of a theoretical and a practical part.
According to a regulation of the Minister of Economy from 2000, any person who wants to work with soldering must have a certificate of completion of such a training course. An exam is not needed to complete the whole thing and to be able to do soldering work, a certificate of completion of the course is completely sufficient. Training courses are paid for and the price depends on the location and length of the course.
If you are interested in this topic, don't wait and sign up for our soldering training. This will enhance your competence in the eyes of your employer, but will also bring a lot of benefits outside of work.
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Seriation skills are defined as the ability to arrange objects in order by size. The development of seriation skills in young children is a step-by-step process. As children grow and develop, their ability to place things in order will also improve. Good seriation skills help with higher order thinking and problem solving. In other words, to arrange three blocks in order from the smallest to the largest, the children must first be able to analyse the situation and then work out a solution.
In this infographic we explore several games that will teach your children this important skill.
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The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, excluding Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of the northeast. Centered in Magadha, it extended as far as present-day Iran. It featured a strong central government, efficient administration, and a powerful army. The Mauryas established uniform laws, a standardized system of measurement, and promoted fair governance. Under Emperor Ashoka, the empire played a key role in the spread of Buddhism across Asia. This remarkable governance model set the foundation for future Indian empires and significantly influenced the cultural and political landscape of ancient India. To know more, bookmark this article.
The Mauryan Empire History
The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya. The Mauryan empire was established in 321 B.C.E. and continued till 185 B.C.E. Alexander’s death in 323 B.C.E. left a large power vacuum, and Chandragupta took advantage, gathering an army and overthrowing the Nanda dynasty in Magadha, in present-day eastern India, marking the start of the Mauryan Empire. After crowning himself king, Chandragupta took additional lands through force and by forming alliances.
Chandragupta’s chief minister Kautilya, also called Chanakya, advised Chandragupta and contributed to the empire’s legacy. Kautilya is also known for writing the Arthashastra, which describes how a state should organize its economy and maintain power.
During Emperor Ashoka, the empire was expanded to its largest on the Indian subcontinent, spanning more than five million square kilometers. It was surrounded on three sides by mountains: the Himalayas, the Ganges River to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Indus River, and the Arabian Sea to the west. Patliputra, which resembles modern-day Patna in Bihar, was the capital of the Mauryan empire.
Mauryan Empire Map
The territorial extent of the Mauryan Empire can be seen in the given map:
It spans more than five million square kilometers. It was surrounded on three sides by mountains: the Himalayas, the Ganges River to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Indus River, and the Arabian Sea to the west as can be seen in the map.
Mauryan Empire Flag
Below, you can view the flag of the Mauryan Empire.
Rulers of the Mauryan Empire
Let’s examine the rulers who governed the Mauryan Empire below.
Chandragupta founded the Mauryan empire. He was supported by Chanakya. Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favor if his son, Bindusara. According to Jain texts, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and went to the hills of Shravanabelagola (near Mysore) and committed Sallekhana (death by slow starvation).
Bindusara, the second monarch of the Mauryan Dynasty, was the offspring of Chandragupta Maurya. Also recognized as Amitraghata, which translates to “killer of enemies,” he held dominion over a significant expanse of India, skillfully unifying 16 nations beneath the Mauryan Empire. Bindusara adeptly annexed the region stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, effectively establishing Mauryan influence across much of the subcontinent.
Notably, Bindusara cultivated harmonious diplomatic ties with the Greeks, with Deimachus serving as the envoy from the Seleucid emperor Antiochus I to Bindusara’s court.
Among his numerous spouses, Bindusara is believed to have fathered around 16 sons, including the renowned figure, Ashoka. Contrary to being the eldest, Ashoka, according to the Buddhist account of Ashokavadana, was designated as the governor of Ujjain during Bindusara’s rule. Following Bindusara’s demise, Ashoka ascended to power as the third Mauryan emperor.
Although historical records provide limited insight into Bindusara’s personal life and achievements, his reign significantly contributed to the expansion and consolidation of the Mauryan Empire. This laid a crucial foundation for the illustrious rule of his notable son, Ashoka.
Ashoka was the greatest king of the Mauryan Empire. As king, he was forceful and ambitious,
reinforcing the Empire’s dominance in southern and western India. However, his victory over Kalinga (262-261 BCE) was set out to be a defining moment in his life. After the Kalinga war, looking at the devastation and violence, he decided to abjure violence and follow the path of Ahimsa.
Ashoka put the tenets of Ahimsa into practice by repealing sports like hunting and putting an end to forced labour and indentured slavery. The Dhamma Vijay policy also placed a strong emphasis on non-violence, which was to be observed by denying war and conquests as well as by refusing the death of animals.
After Ashoka, a series of less powerful rulers served. Dasharatha Maurya, the grandson of Ashoka, succeeded him. His first child, Mahinda, was intent on making Buddhism popular everywhere. Due to his eye defect, Kunala Maurya was not good at taking the throne, and Tivala, the descendant of Kaurwaki, passed away even before the death of Ashoka. Jalauka, another son, has a relatively uneventful backstory of life.
Under Dasharatha, the Empire lost a great deal of land, which Kunala’s son Samprati eventually took to recover.
Brihadratha was the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, who reigned from around 187 BCE to 180 BCE. He was the grandson of Emperor Ashoka and the son of Ashoka’s son, Kunala.
Brihadratha’s reign was marked by political instability and internal strife, as many of his ministers and governors sought to increase their own power at the expense of the central government. According to tradition, Brihadratha was eventually assassinated by his minister, Pushyamitra Shunga, who then established the Shunga dynasty and became the new ruler of India.
Brihadratha’s reign marked the end of the Mauryan Empire, which had once been the most powerful empire in India. Despite the decline and eventual fall of the Mauryan dynasty, the empire’s legacy continued to influence Indian culture and society for centuries to come. The period of Mauryan rule was marked by significant advancements in art, architecture, literature, science, and philosophy, as well as the spread of Buddhism throughout India and beyond.
Decline of the Mauryan Empire
Ashoka’s rule came to an end in 232 BCE, marking the start of the Mauryan Empire’s decline. Several events were responsible for the demise of a huge empire. They include:
Economic crisis: The Mauryan empire maintained a huge army, resulting in significant expenditures for paying the soldiers and officials, which burdened the Mauryan economy. Ashoka opposed the killing of animals and pets. The Brahmanical society, which depended on the offerings made in the name of sacrifices, suffered due to Ashoka’s anti-sacrifice attitude. As a result, the Brahmanas formed some sort of animosity toward Ashoka.
Dissemination of new knowledge: This material knowledge acquired from the Magadha served as the foundation for the founding and expansion of other kingdoms like the Shungas, Kanvas, and Chetis.
Ignorance of the North-West Frontier: Ashoka was involved with both domestic and international missionary endeavors. It left the northwest frontier open to invasions. Also, successive rulers were not capable enough to safeguarding their boundaries.
Pushyamitra Shunga finally brought an end to the Mauryan empire and established the Shunga dynasty.
Want to Improve your General Knowledge? Have a look at these too! | |
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Important lakes of India |
National Emergency Definition, Introduction, Types: Article 352 and FAQs |
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RF Power Meter Basics
In simple terms, power is the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per unit time. For measurement simplification, microwave power is categorized into low power, medium power, and high power.
- Low power: Less than 10mWatt
- Medium power: From 10mWatt to 10Watt
- High power: Greater than 10Watt
The convenient units for power measurement are dBm and dBw.
- 30dBm = 1watt
- -30dBm = 1 microwatt
As shown in the figure, a simple power meter is made using a balanced bridge circuit. One arm of the bridge contains a bolometer, to which microwave power is applied. When power is applied, it changes the resistance in the bolometer arm, causing an imbalance in the bridge from its initial balanced condition (when no power is applied). The non-zero voltage is recorded using a voltmeter, which is calibrated to read the microwave/RF power.
A single bridge circuit gives false readings under ambient temperature changes. Also, changes in resistance due to mismatch at the input port result in wrong readings. Due to these drawbacks, a double bridge circuit is employed in the power meter design. In this type of RF power meter, the upper bridge measures RF power, and the lower bridge compensates for the effect of ambient temperature variation.
Power Meter Sensors
As mentioned above, a power meter consists of power sensors which helps measure microwave power. Based on the sensors, different types of power meters are manufactured by manufacturers as per applications which include CW, average, peak and average power meters.
We will explore the types of sensors used in power measurements: Schottky barrier diode, bolometer, and thermocouple.
Schottky Barrier Diode Sensor
It is used as a square law detector whose output is proportional to the input power.
It is a device whose resistance changes with temperature as it absorbs microwave power. Common types of bolometers are barretters and thermistors.
- Barretter: A thin metallic wire of platinum that has a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
- Thermistor: A semiconductor that has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
It is a junction of two dissimilar metals or semiconductors. It generates emf which is proportional to the incident microwave power when two ends are heated up differently by absorption of microwaves in a load deposited on a substrate.
Measurements Using RF Power Meter
In this section, we will see how power can be measured using a power meter. The Agilent E4418B series power meter is a popular choice.
Power meters are supplied with power heads or sensors, which are used for power measurement. The power heads are sensors that convert microwave signals to analog voltages.
- First, calibrate the power meter as per the instructions outlined in the power meter manual using the provided power head.
- Now, connect the power sensor with the signal port of which you would like to measure the power. The LCD display provides the power in various units supported by the device.
To convert power from one unit to another, refer to the links mentioned below.
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Enhancing comprehension for 8-year-olds is vital because it forms the bedrock of their academic and overall cognitive development. At this age, children transition from learning to read to reading to learn. Strong comprehension skills enable them to grasp not only the words on a page but also the underlying concepts, thereby boosting their ability to acquire new knowledge across all subjects.
First, good comprehension skills are crucial for academic success. When children understand what they read, they're better equipped to follow instructions, complete assignments, and engage in classroom discussions. This lays a solid foundation for future learning and helps build confidence in their abilities.
Second, strong comprehension skills foster critical thinking. Children learn to make connections between different pieces of information, analyze content, and draw logical conclusions. This cognitive ability extends beyond academics, helping them navigate daily social interactions and problem-solving situations effectively.
Finally, nurturing these skills at a young age encourages a lifelong love for reading, opening doors to endless sources of knowledge and imagination. Reading for pleasure not only fortifies their cognitive abilities but also enriches emotional and social intelligence by allowing them to explore different perspectives and cultures.
In sum, investing in comprehension skills by parents and teachers today equips 8-year-olds with tools essential for academic success, critical thinking, and life-long learning.
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Learn about Do While Loop in VBA
The VBA Do While Loop is used to repeat a block of code while a specified condition is true. It’s a part of VBA’s looping constructs and is particularly useful when you don’t know beforehand how many times the loop needs to execute. The loop continues to run as long as the condition remains true, and stops as soon as the condition becomes false.
A Do…While loop is used when we want to repeat a set of statements as long as the condition is true. The condition may be checked at the beginning of the loop or at the end of the loop.
There are two common ways to structure a Do While loop in VBA:
- Do While at the beginning (pre-test loop):
- Do While at the end (post-test loop):
condition: This is the logical expression that determines whether the loop will continue. If the condition is True, the loop continues; if it’s False, the loop ends.
- Do While at the beginning: Checks the condition before executing the loop body, so if the condition is false at the start, the code inside the loop may not execute even once.
- Do While at the end: Ensures the loop runs at least once because the condition is checked after executing the loop body.
Example 1: Basic Do While Loop
This loop will continue until the variable i is greater than 10.
This loop prints numbers from 1 to 10 in the Immediate Window.
Example 2: Do While at the End
This loop guarantees that the code runs at least once, regardless of the condition.
Here, the loop will exit once i reaches 5, even though the condition allows for values up to 10.
Q & A
- What is a Do While loop in VBA and how does it work?
Answer: A Do While loop in VBA repeatedly executes a block of code as long as the specified condition evaluates to True. The loop checks the condition before each iteration. If the condition is False from the start, the loop won’t execute at all.
2. How can I prevent a Do While loop from running indefinitely in VBA?
Answer: An infinite loop occurs when the condition never becomes False. To avoid this, ensure that a variable inside the loop is updated properly, so the loop condition will eventually be False.
You can also use Exit Do to force an early exit if certain criteria are met.
3. What is the difference between Do While and Do Until loops in VBA?
Answer: The main difference lies in the condition:
- Do While: Runs as long as the condition is True.
- Do Until: Runs as long as the condition is False.
Example of Do Until:
4. Can I use multiple conditions in a VBA Do While loop?
Answer: Yes, you can use multiple conditions in a Do While loop by using logical operators like And or Or.
This loop will only run when i is less than or equal to 10 and an even number.
5. How can I loop through a range of cells in Excel using a Do While loop in VBA?
Answer: You can use a Do While loop to iterate through a range of cells until you hit a blank cell or a certain condition is met. For example:
This code loops through cells in column A, displaying the value of each cell until it encounters a blank cell.
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Geography determined the site which became Rome because there were important benefits to settling there.
The story starts with the Italian Peninsula as a whole. Running down its spine stretches the Apennine Mountains, which take up some three fourths of the total area of the peninsula. The area east of the mountain range, that bordering the Adriatic Sea, is pinched and narrow with little arable land. North and east winds make the eastern shore cool and drafty. Nature planned for Italy to look westward rather than eastward.
With a two thousand mile coastline, one would imagine Italy as a seafaring nation -- but no. There are very few natural harbors and those were taken by the Greeks for their Magna Graecia. With virtually no tidal activity, the Mediterranean cannot wash away the silt from the river deltas to help make them into adequate harbors.
South of the hills of Etruria, where the Tiber and Arno flow, there are two plains named Latium and Campania. The soil there is rich, fertile, and full of volcanic ash. Abundant streams provide irrigation and a gentle southwest wind blows across the plains. But for many centuries the plain of Latium was inhospitable to man. As late as 1000 B.C. there were active volcanoes in the region -- more than fifty craters within twenty five miles of Rome.
Fifteen miles from its mouth, the Tiber winds through a group of hills that rise from the plain of Latium. Far enough from the sea to be protected from piracy, the original Roman settlements occupied six of the famous seven hills of Rome. The heights commanded a view of the Tiber valley adjacent to the best ford on the river. The hills were wooded, precipitous and defensible even though the lowlands between them were marshy and subject to flooding from the river. Geography provided protection from enemies. Geography through the Tiber and its ford provided the opportunity for trade. Geography described a soil rich in nutrients -- the same soil that would build a great agrarian society.
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Teachers do so much more than just teach. As teachers we create classrooms to support students academically, as well as socially and emotionally, in the school and the larger classroom community. Restorative practices are an effective way for us to hold students to high expectations, teach students how to process emotions and the choices they make, along with creating strong classroom communities.
Created by the International Institute of Restorative Practices (IIRP), restorative practices are conversation-focused strategies for preventing poor student choices or misconduct and developing strong relationships. Strategies include holding whole class, small group and one-on-one conversations with students. In doing this, teachers promote making positive choices, reflecting on actions taken by students and proactively building strong communities.
Restorative Practices that Benefit Classroom and School Communities
The purpose of restorative practices is to have discussions with students about misconduct and then restore the classroom community and welcome the student back so learning can continue. To do so, IIRP has created three types of practices:
- Group Conferences
- One-on-One Chats
When classrooms and school communities implement restorative practices, the positive effects are plentiful. Students are also able to build strong relationships with their peers and teachers that support their emotional and social growth.
Circles, as a strategy for implementing restorative practices, occur as a whole class on a weekly basis. The purpose of circles is to develop and maintain class relationships, while teaching strategies for common social and emotional stressors students may face in and out of the classroom. Circles can be both preventative (building social and emotional strategies) and responsive (responding to a recent incident of misconduct).
Within circles, the teacher places the class in a circle and establishes a talking stick. This allows students to see one another and have a routine for sharing their ideas in a respectful manner. Circles can consist of asking students to share how they are feeling about a recent community or class event, or share their ideas for how they would respond to a scenario. Circles are also a great time to have students participate in team building activities that increase the strength of the overall classroom community.
Group conferences, as another strategy, are a time to repair harm and restore relationships between students in response to an incident. This is a time to gather the students and discuss the incident and make plans to repair the harm done. After an incident, the teacher or facilitator informs the victim(s) and offender(s) that a group conference will occur.
The time before the conference allows the students to both reflect on the event and gather their thoughts. During the conference, the facilitator meets with both parties and establishes the purpose of the conference to repair harm. The facilitator then moderates a discussion between parties following a script that offers questions to ask the group. The victim is given time to share the details of the event and the resulting feelings they have. The offender listens, shares their feelings both during and after the event, and a plan is made to make amends. Here's a script to follow during a group conference.
A third strategy, the one-on-one chat, occurs between the teacher and the student as a response to classroom misconduct. After an incident of student misconduct, the teacher asks the student to complete a self-reflection either in a cool down space in the classroom or in another location. This reflection can be done either through writing, drawing, or picture identification to reflect on what happened in the classroom, how the student was feeling at the time, how their classroom community is affected by the student’s choice, and what they will do next time.
This reflection time allows the student to meet with the teacher having calmed down and prepared to answer the questions the teacher will ask during their chat. After the chat, the teacher should restore their relationship with the student in a positive manner and then welcome them back into the classroom for a fresh start. Questions to ask or statements to make during a one-on-one chat can be found here.
The benefits of implementing restorative practices in the classroom are endless. Restorative practices were developed to address student misconduct but to truly focus on preventative measures and developing strong relationships. Through restorative practices, educators and school communities are able to hold students to high expectations. Administration through restorative practices can also communicate that misconduct will not result in exclusion but restoring relationships and repairing harm while returning students to the classroom community. This results in the classroom to be remained focused on learning.
Want more? Check out all of the articles from Teaching Tuesday and return each week for a new post. Learn more about Grand Canyon University's College of Education and our degree programs and join in our efforts to elevate the education profession.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author’s and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Grand Canyon University. Any sources cited were accurate as of the publish date.
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In the very early days of our Universe, just over 13 billion years ago, there was very little structure. There were stars, and they were forming at a rapid rate, kicking off what's known as the Stelliferous Era. But the enormous, majestic galaxies that we see today, including our Milky Way galaxy, hadn't formed yet.
The first galaxies to form were dwarf galaxies, and over time, they merged together to build the types of spiral galaxies that we see today. Astronomers know that's what happened, but the exact timeline for the Milky Way has been unclear. Now a new study published in Nature Astronomy has revealed some of the detail in the formation of our home galaxy.
The new study, titled " Uncovering the birth of the Milky Way through accurate stellar ages with Gaia " is based on data from the ESA's Gaia spacecraft. Gaia's mission is to map the stars in the Milky Way. It won't map all of them, but it'll accurately measure the position and motion of just one percent of the galaxy's 100 billion stars. That sample reveals an overall picture of the galaxy.
The motion of a star is imparted to that star at the time of its formation. Gaia creates a 3D map of the Milky way by measuring this motion. Essentially, that map allows astronomers to look back in time, by tracing the star's motion backward. That's why the Gaia data is such a powerful tool for understanding the history of the Milky Way.
A team of astronomers from the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias (IAC) used this data to examine the history of the Milky Way and find out what it looked like in the past. The lead author of the article is Carme Gallart, a researcher at the IAC. In a press release, Gallart said, "We have analyzed, and compared with theoretical models, the distribution of colours and magnitudes (brightnesses) of the stars in the Milky Way, splitting them into several components; the so-called stellar halo (a spherical structure which surrounds spiral galaxies) and the thick disc (stars forming the disc of our Galaxy, but occupying a certain height range.)"
Astronomers have studied the Milky Way's galactic halo and found two distinct populations of stars there. One of those populations is dominated by blue stars. The motion of those stars told astronomers that they are the remnants of a dwarf galaxy that merged with the Milky Way. That ancient dwarf galaxy is named Gaia-Enceladus. The other population in the halo is made up of red stars. The history of those stars, and the timeline of the Milky Way / Gaia-Enceladus merger, was never well-understood.
Thanks to the Gaia mission and the work of these astronomers, we're now getting a better understanding of the merger.
"Analyzing the data from Gaia has allowed us to obtain the distribution of the ages of the stars in both components and has shown that the two are formed by equally old stars, which are older than those of the thick disc," says IAC researcher and co-author Chris Brook.
But that begs another question: If both populations of stars are the same age, how are they different? Mostly it boils down to their metallicity.
"The final piece of the puzzle was given by the quantity of "metals" (elements which are not hydrogen or helium) in the stars of one component or the other," explained Tomás Ruiz Lara, an IAC researcher and co-author. "The stars in the blue component have a smaller quantity of metals than those of the red component."
These findings, with the addition of the predictions of simulations which are also analyzed in the article, have allowed the researchers to complete the history of the formation of the Milky Way.
The results of this work tell a story of star formation and galactic merging and growth that results in the present-day Milky Way.
This story starts 13 billion years ago, several hundred million years after the Big Bang, when stars were forming in two separate systems. One was the Gaia-Enceladus dwarf galaxy, and the other was the progenitor of our Milky Way. The early Milky Way was about 4 times more massive than the dwarf galaxy, and was made up of younger, higher metallicity stars.
About 10 billion years ago, there was a violent collision between Gaia-Enceladus and the early Milky Way. That event set some stars from the dwarf galaxy and some from the larger Milky Way into chaotic motion, and eventually they formed the halo. Then there was a long period of chaotic outbursts of stellar formation, until things settled down about 6 billion years ago. Then, the gas settled into the disc of the galaxy, and gave us what we call the thin disc.
"Until now all the cosmological predictions and observations of distant spiral galaxies similar to the Milky Way indicate that this violent phase of merging between smaller structures was very frequent," explains Matteo Monelli, a researcher at the IAC and a co-author of the article. "Now we have been able to identify the specificity of the process in our own Galaxy, revealing the first stages of our cosmic history with unprecedented detail."
- Press Release: The early days of the Milky Way revealed
- Research Article: Uncovering the birth of the Milky Way through accurate stellar ages with Gaia
- ESA's Gaia Mission
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https://www.universetoday.com/articles/what-did-the-early-milky-way-look-like
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There are three types of muscle in the human body. The most abundant type is called skeletal muscle because virtually all these muscles are attached to the bones of the skeletal system. Skeletal muscle makes up the more than 600 muscles in the body, most of which are close to the surface of the body, between the integumentary system and the bones (Figure 8.1). Many muscles bulge when they contract; therefore, they are visible and can be felt as firm lumps under the skin. This chapter is concerned mainly with skeletal muscle.
Cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the heart (Chapter 4). Visceral muscle, or smooth muscle, is found within organs in many body systems.
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Studying Cells: Electron Microscopes (A-level Biology)
- Electron microscopes use electrons to form images. Because electrons are smaller than photons of light, electron microscopes have a much greater resolution than optical microscopes.
- The maximum resolution of an electron microscope is 0.002 micrometers. This means that electron microscopes can be used to produce very detailed images of tiny structures. Images produced by electron microscopes are called electron micrographs.
- The maximum magnification is x500,000. Because the resolution is so good, the useful magnification can be very high.
- Electron micrographs are typically black and white. Electrons cannot be seen by the human eye, so instead the electrons are projected onto a fluorescent screen, where they form a black and white image.
- There are two types of EM. There are two major types of electron microscopy: TEM and SEM (see below).
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
- TEM projects an electron beam through a sample. An electromagnetic beam of electrons is projected onto the sample, and a 2D image is formed.
- Denser tissue appears darker in the micrograph. In denser regions of the specimen, the electrons are easily absorbed, making these regions look darker on an electron micrograph. In less dense regions of a specimen, the electrons can easily pass through, making them appear lighter on an electron micrograph.
- A TEM produces very high-resolution images. TEM can be used to produce very detailed images of cell organelles, which is very useful. For example, you can see the stacked grana inside of chlorophylls.
- Limitation: TEM must be performed in a vacuum. TEM cannot be performed in normal air. Living specimens cannot survive in a vaccuum, so TEM cannot be used to visualise living material.
- Limitation: TEM can only be used for thin tissues. Another limitation of TEM is that it must be performed on very thin specimens, since thick specimens easily absorb the electrons and therefore do not produce good images.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
- SEM directs an electron beam across a sample. SEM is different from TEM in that it projects electrons across a specimen instead of simply passing electrons through it.
- Electrons are captured by a cathode ray tube. The scanning process releases electrons from the specimen which are captured in a special instrument known as a cathode ray tube. The electrons captured by this cathode ray tube can be used to create an image of a specimen.
- SEM can produce 3D images of a specimen. Because the SEM can scan the surface of a specimen and capture all the textures of the specimen’s surface.
- SEM can be used on thick specimens. Unlike the TEM, the SEM be used to see thick specimens.
- Limitation: SEM has a lower resolution. Compared to TEM, the SEM provides lower resolution images.
Staining in Electron Microscopy
- Stains used for electron microscopy specimens are heavy metals. Unlike stains for light microscopy which are dyes, the stains for electron microscopy are heavy metals. The metal ions cause the electrons in the specimen to scatter, which causes some areas of the specimen to appear darker than others (i.e. generates contrast in the image).
- The most commonly used stains are uranium and lead.
Benefits of Light over Electron Microscopy
Overall, electron microscopy is a very useful tool in biology compared to optical microscopy. However, there are several limitations:
- Light microscopy can be used to visualise living and non-living specimens. Whereas electron microscopy can only work with dead specimens.
- Light microscopy is relatively quick. The preparation process is very easy and does not take too much time to prepare specimens for microscopy. Electron microscopy is very time consuming and laborious, especially during the preparation of the specimen for microscopy.
- Light microscopy is less expensive. Electron microscopy is very expensive. A decent electron microscope can cost upwards of a million pounds, whereas an average light microscope is a few hundred pounds. Additionally, the reagents needed to prepare specimens for electron microscopy are much more expensive than the reagents needed to prepare specimens for light microscopy.
An Electron Microscope is a type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to produce high-resolution images of biological samples. Unlike light microscopes, which use light to form images, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons to produce images that are much more detailed and have a much higher magnification.
An Electron Microscope works by firing a beam of electrons at a biological sample, which then interacts with the sample and produces an image. The electrons are focused into a beam using magnetic lenses and are then directed towards the sample. The electrons penetrate the sample and interact with the atoms within it, producing an image that can be captured and viewed on a screen.
There are several benefits of using an Electron Microscope, including:
High magnification: Electron Microscopes have a much higher magnification than light microscopes, allowing for the observation of incredibly small structures within cells.
High resolution: The images produced by Electron Microscopes are much more detailed than those produced by light microscopes, providing a clearer picture of the structures within cells.
The ability to observe three-dimensional structures: Electron Microscopes can produce three-dimensional images of biological samples, allowing for the observation of structures that are not visible using light microscopes.
The ability to observe internal structures: Electron Microscopes can observe internal structures within cells, such as organelles, that are not visible using light microscopes.
There are two main types of Electron Microscopes: Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM). TEMs produce images by passing electrons through a thin section of a biological sample, while SEMs produce images by scanning the surface of a biological sample with a beam of electrons.
There are several limitations of Electron Microscopes, including:
Cost: Electron Microscopes are much more expensive than light microscopes and require specialized training to use.
Preparation of samples: Preparing biological samples for use in Electron Microscopes can be time-consuming and complex, requiring specialized training and equipment.
Sample damage: Electron Microscopes can damage biological samples, making it difficult to study living cells or tissues.
Size and complexity: Electron Microscopes are much larger and more complex than light microscopes and require specialized facilities to use.
The study of Electron Microscopes is important for A-Level Biology students as it provides a fundamental understanding of the techniques and technologies used to study cells and other biological samples. Understanding how Electron Microscopes work and their benefits and limitations can help students to understand the limitations of other techniques, such as light microscopy, and to develop a more comprehensive understanding of cell structure and function.
The use of Electron Microscopes has greatly contributed to scientific research by providing a much more detailed understanding of cell structure and function. Electron Microscopes have allowed scientists to study the structures within cells in much greater detail, leading to a better understanding of cellular processes such as protein synthesis, cellular respiration, and cell division. The use of Electron Microscopes has also helped to advance our understanding of diseases and medical conditions.
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https://studymind.co.uk/notes/studying-cells-electron-microscopes/?catid=25
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Free radicals are highly reactive and unstable molecules that contain one or more unpaired electrons. Because of their unstable nature, they seek to bond with other molecules, in a process called oxidation, which can cause damage to cells, proteins, and DNA.
Free radicals can be produced by various factors, such as exposure to radiation, pollution, smoking, and metabolism. Some free radicals, such as those produced by the immune system, are important for normal physiological processes. However, an excess of free radicals can lead to oxidative stress, which is associated with various health problems, including inflammation, aging, cancer, and heart disease. Antioxidants, found in many foods and supplements, can neutralize free radicals and help prevent their damaging effects.
The mitochondria in our cells are responsible for releasing energy from the molecules in our food, but they also unleash electron-stealing free radicals like reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species. Fortunately, antioxidants scavenge free radicals and prevent them from causing further damage. Read full article
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https://www.bioactivec60.com/what-are-free-radicals/
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sky 247, diamondexch9.com register, tigerexch:Online learning has become increasingly popular in recent years, with more and more individuals turning to virtual platforms to expand their knowledge and skills. With this shift towards online education, it is essential for instructors to develop clear and effective learning objectives to guide students through the learning process.
What are Learning Objectives?
Learning objectives are statements that define what students should be able to do or know by the end of a course or lesson. They serve as a roadmap for both instructors and students, outlining the specific goals and outcomes of the learning experience. Effective learning objectives are clear, specific, measurable, and achievable.
Why are Learning Objectives Important?
Developing clear and effective learning objectives is crucial for several reasons. First and foremost, they help to guide course design and development, ensuring that all content and activities align with the intended learning outcomes. Additionally, learning objectives provide students with a sense of direction and purpose, helping them stay focused and motivated throughout the course. Finally, clear learning objectives make it easier for instructors to assess student progress and evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching methods.
Tips for Developing Effective Online Learning Objectives
1. Use Action Verbs
Start each learning objective with an action verb that clearly describes the desired outcome. Action verbs such as “analyze,” “evaluate,” “create,” and “apply” indicate the type of activity or task that students will need to demonstrate their understanding of the material.
2. Be Specific and Measurable
Avoid vague or ambiguous language when crafting learning objectives. Instead, be specific about what students should be able to do or know by the end of the course. Additionally, ensure that each learning objective is measurable so that students and instructors can easily assess whether the desired outcome has been achieved.
3. Align with Course Goals
Learning objectives should be directly aligned with the overall goals of the course. Consider how each objective contributes to the overarching learning outcomes and make sure that they are all relevant and essential to the subject matter being taught.
4. Keep it Concise
Learning objectives should be concise and to the point. Aim to convey each objective in a single sentence that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid using unnecessary jargon or technical language that may confuse students.
5. Consider Bloom’s Taxonomy
When developing learning objectives, consider incorporating Bloom’s taxonomy to ensure that a variety of cognitive skills are being addressed. Bloom’s taxonomy categorizes cognitive skills into six levels, ranging from simple recall to complex evaluation and creation. By incorporating a mix of these cognitive skills into your learning objectives, you can enhance the depth and complexity of student learning.
6. Provide Clear Instructions
In addition to stating the learning objectives, be sure to provide clear instructions on how students can achieve them. This may include details on specific assignments, readings, or activities that are designed to help students reach the desired outcomes.
By following these tips, instructors can develop clear and effective online learning objectives that will guide students through the learning process and set them up for success in achieving their educational goals.
1. What is the difference between learning objectives and learning outcomes?
Learning objectives are statements that define what students should be able to do or know by the end of a course, while learning outcomes are the actual results of the learning process. Learning objectives serve as a roadmap for achieving the desired learning outcomes.
2. How many learning objectives should I include in a course?
The number of learning objectives included in a course will vary depending on the complexity and length of the course. In general, aim to include 3-5 learning objectives per module or unit to ensure that students stay focused and motivated.
3. How often should learning objectives be revisited and revised?
Learning objectives should be revisited and revised regularly to ensure that they remain relevant and aligned with the course content and goals. Consider revisiting learning objectives at the start of each new module or unit to assess their effectiveness and make any necessary adjustments.
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https://webblogsflow.com.in/how-to-develop-effective-online-learning-objectives/
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By applying the Equivalence Principle, Einstein was able to obtain important results of the general theory of relativity even before he could solve the corresponding field equations.
You can read this demonstration in the 1907 article On the relativity Principle and the conclusions drawn from it". Actually, as outlined in our article 1907 Equivalence Principle first published mention, the equivalence of gravitation and acceleration is mentionned there for the first time by Einstein.
We will try to demonstrate that the gravitational redshift , i.e the fact that the light freqency changes when entering or leaving a gravitational field - which has been derived from the metric tensor in Newtonian limit in the previous article, could also be derived from this principle of Equivalence.
Consider light traveling from the bottom to the top of a rocket undergoing constant acceleration a. Let point A be at the bottom of the spacecraft, and point B at the top. The separation distance measured in the reference frame of the rocket is H.
When light first leaves point A, the velocity of the rocket is vA with respect to another reference frame (the Earth, for example), and let's call T the time for light to travel to point B, so:
- vA = velocity of the rocket when light is emitted at point A
- vB = vA + aT = velocity of the rocket when light reaches point B
The time T for light to reach B (from the Earth perspective) is:
we approximate T to H/c as we consider a << c ('small' acceleration)
Also the change in velocity of the rocket between emission and reception is:
This section of the article is only available for our subscribers. Please click here to subscribe to a subscription plan to view this part of the article.
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https://einsteinrelativelyeasy.com/index.php/general-relativity/40-gravitational-redshift-or-einstein-effect-part-ii
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In so many ancient societies, enslaved and freed peoples played surprisingly important roles in shaping government and law. Their experiences and demands really did influence how leaders created rules and managed power.
Enslaved people often worked under brutal conditions, but sometimes they used their skills, knowledge, or even resistance to spark change. Freed peoples could push for new rights or claim new social roles.
Both groups helped societies transform, leaving marks on how ancient governments functioned. Their influence wasn’t just through labor or rebellion—they also shaped ideas about justice and leadership.
- Enslaved and freed peoples helped shape early political systems.
- Their actions influenced the growth of legal rights.
- Their impact shaped how governments evolved over time.
The Role of Enslaved Peoples in Shaping Ancient Legal and Political Systems
Enslaved peoples influenced many parts of ancient governments and societies. Their labor built economies, their status affected laws, and their path to freedom changed social rules.
Understanding their role helps you see how laws and political systems had to adapt.
Influence on Laws and Governance
In ancient Athens and Babylon, enslaved people affected lawmaking both directly and indirectly. Lawmakers needed rules about how to treat enslaved peoples, regulate property rights, and handle things like rebellion or escape.
Solon of Athens, for example, created laws regulating slavery to balance power between citizens and non-citizens. Governments also used enslaved persons in political strategies.
In Sparta, Helot slaves were kept under strict control, which prompted harsh laws to prevent uprisings. These laws forced leaders to focus on security and order.
Enslaved people’s presence led to legal systems that mixed control with limited rights, sometimes allowing manumission or basic protections to avoid unrest.
Enslaved Labor and Economic Foundations
The labor of enslaved people was absolutely critical to ancient economies. They worked in agriculture, mining, and domestic households, providing much of the economic output that supported city-states and empires.
In Athens, enslaved labor freed citizens to participate in politics and military service, which indirectly promoted democracy. The wealth from enslaved work fueled government functions and public projects.
In Babylon, enslaved workers maintained infrastructure and produced goods, making them essential to trade and wealth. Slaves themselves were treated as movable property, which shaped how property and resources were understood.
Manumission and Social Mobility
Manumission—the freeing of enslaved people—affected social and political structures. Freed individuals sometimes gained limited rights and could work as craftsmen or small landowners.
In some ancient states, freed persons could become citizens over generations, which influenced laws on citizenship and political participation. Rome had a legal process for manumission that slowly shifted social classes.
The ability of enslaved people to become free created incentives for new legal rules around servitude and property. Manumission worked as a tool to maintain order by rewarding loyalty, while also shifting social hierarchies over time.
Freed Peoples and the Evolution of Individual Rights
When people gained freedom from slavery, their lives changed, but challenges remained. Emancipation opened doors to new rights, but full liberty and equality took time to develop.
Pathways to Emancipation
Emancipation was rarely fast or simple. In ancient Babylon under Cyrus the Great, slaves could be freed by royal decree as a gesture of mercy or political change. This set early examples of liberty as a state goal.
Throughout history, emancipation often came through wars, laws, or reforms. For example, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed many enslaved Americans during the Civil War, though some were freed only after battles ended.
Free blacks and freed African Americans often had to fight for their rights even after emancipation. Education and literacy became key tools for gaining knowledge and improving status.
Freedom meant more than just no longer being a slave—it meant learning to navigate new social and legal worlds.
Citizenship and Liberty After Slavery
After gaining freedom, rights as a citizen were hardly guaranteed. Governments sometimes limited freedoms through laws that controlled work, movement, and voting.
Freed peoples had to prove their place in society. Education helped many gain skills, read laws, and claim their rights.
Your experience also depended on location and government. Some societies offered more freedom quickly, while others enforced restrictions that kept former slaves from full equality.
You needed knowledge and the support of new laws to protect your liberty and grow your influence in government and society.
Societal Transformations Driven by Enslaved and Freed Populations
Enslaved and freed people shaped governments through their role in democratic ideas, cultural leadership, and political change. Their impact was clear in assemblies, legal ideas, and new institutions.
Impact on Democratic Movements
Enslaved and freed people influenced the growth of democracy by pushing for equal rights and participation. Crispus Attucks, often called the first casualty of the American Revolution, showed the importance of African Americans in early revolutionary events.
Their influence is visible in the Declaration of Independence, where ideas about liberty started to grow, even if not fully extended to all.
During Reconstruction, freed people gained political power and helped shape state constitutions. They voted, served in assemblies, and influenced laws.
Benjamin Banneker also contributed by challenging ideas of racial inferiority and supporting the U.S. Constitution’s ideals.
Religious and Cultural Leadership
Freed people created institutions that supported community and leadership, like the African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) Church. This church became a center for religious worship and a space for political meetings and education.
The Black Church helped spread ideas of freedom and justice and offered a safe place to organize. Religion empowered freed people to become leaders in their communities.
They challenged oppressive ideas and built new identities based on dignity. This leadership was crucial in creating social bonds that supported political action and cultural pride.
Contributions to Political Reforms
Freed populations played a vital role in pushing for political reforms during Reconstruction and beyond. Their participation in government helped reshape policies related to voting rights, education, and labor.
By entering assemblies and offices, freed people influenced the rewriting of state constitutions to include civil rights protections.
These reforms faced resistance but set important precedents for equality under the law. Freed peoples’ activism showed how political change could come from the bottom up, directly affecting how governments operated and who they served.
Key Contributions | Examples |
Voting and political roles | Freedmen voting, state representatives |
Legal reforms | Civil rights in Reconstruction laws |
Community leadership | Black Churches, education programs |
Enduring Legacies on Modern Governance
The influence of enslaved and freed peoples shapes many parts of government today. Their struggles affected laws, social movements, and the way history is remembered.
This legacy is seen in acts of resistance, legal changes, advocacy efforts, and cultural narratives that still impact governance structures.
Resistance, Revolts, and Legal Change
Enslaved peoples often resisted through revolts and legal challenges. Nat Turner’s 1831 rebellion in Southampton County shocked the southern states and led to harsher laws aimed at controlling enslaved populations.
Slave revolts exposed weaknesses in plantation security and forced governments to address stability and order. The Missouri Compromise and the debates around slavery’s expansion showed how resistance influenced policy.
The legal system, including habeas corpus issues during the Civil War, also shifted. The Emancipation Proclamation pushed for freedom, but the 13th Amendment still allowed forced labor for prisoners.
This loophole links modern incarceration practices to slavery’s legacy.
Abolition, Advocacy, and Social Progress
Abolitionists and freed peoples shaped major reforms. Activists like William Lloyd Garrison, who published The Liberator, and David Walker, who wrote against slavery, pushed for change.
The Underground Railroad, led by conductors such as Harriet Tubman, helped many escape bondage. This network influenced Northern states’ resistance to slavery and pressured governments to create stricter laws in the South.
The American Revolution inspired ideas of freedom but left slavery intact. The Civil War and the abolitionist movement eventually led to emancipation, yet social progress remains uneven because of ongoing racial and legal inequalities.
Narratives and Historical Memory
Pay attention to how the stories of enslaved and freed people shape America’s collective memory. Papers like Freedom’s Journal—one of the first Black-owned publications—preserved voices that would’ve otherwise been lost or ignored.
The “original sin” of slavery still colors how we see American history. Governments today are left to grapple with this legacy, whether through education, memorials, or policy reforms aimed at addressing systemic racism.
This memory continues to shape debates on civil rights and criminal justice. For many, mass incarceration looks like a modern extension of slavery, showing just how deep and tangled these consequences really are.
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By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- List the unifying characteristics of eukaryotes
- Describe what scientists know about the origins of eukaryotes based on the last common ancestor
- Explain the endosymbiotic theory
Organisms are classified into three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The first two lineages comprise all prokaryotic cells, and the third contains all eukaryotes. A very sparse fossil record prevents us from determining what the first members of each of these lineages looked like, so it is possible that all the events that led to the last common ancestor of extant eukaryotes will remain unknown. However, comparative biology of extant (living) organisms and the limited fossil record provide some insight into the evolution of Eukarya.
The earliest fossils found appear to be those of domain Bacteria, most likely cyanobacteria. They are about 3.5 to 3.8 billion years old and are recognizable because of their relatively complex structure and, for prokaryotes, relatively large cells. Most other prokaryotes have small cells, 1 or 2 µm in size, and would be difficult to pick out as fossils. Fossil stromatolites suggest that at least some prokaryotes lived in interactive communities, and evidence from the structure of living eukaryotic cells suggests that it was similar ancestral interactions that gave rise to the eukaryotes. Most living eukaryotes have cells measuring 10 µm or greater. Structures this size, which might be fossilized remains of early eukaryotes, appear in the geological record in deposits dating to about 2.1 billion years ago.
Characteristics of Eukaryotes
Data from these fossils, as well as from the study of living genomes, have led comparative biologists to conclude that living eukaryotes are all descendants of a single common ancestor. Mapping the characteristics found in all major groups of eukaryotes reveals that the following characteristics are present in at least some of the members of each major lineage, or during some part of their life cycle, and therefore must have been present in the last common ancestor.
- Cells with nuclei surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores: This is the single characteristic that is both necessary and sufficient to define an organism as a eukaryote. All extant eukaryotes have cells with nuclei.
- Mitochondria: Most extant eukaryotes have “typical” mitochondria, although some eukaryotes have very reduced mitochondrial “remnants” and a few lack detectable mitochondria.
- Cytoskeleton of microtubules and microfilaments: Eukaryotic cells possess the structural and motility components called actin microfilaments and microtubules. All extant eukaryotes have these cytoskeletal elements.
- Flagella and cilia: Organelles associated with cell motility. Some extant eukaryotes lack flagella and/or cilia, but their presence in related lineages suggests that they are descended from ancestors that possessed these organelles.
- Chromosomes organized by histones: Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a linear DNA molecule coiled around basic (alkaline) proteins called histones. The few eukaryotes with chromosomes lacking histones clearly evolved from ancestors that had them.
- Mitosis: A process of nuclear division in which replicated chromosomes are divided and separated using elements of the cytoskeleton. Mitosis is universally present in eukaryotes.
- Sexual reproduction: A meiotic process of nuclear division and genetic recombination unique to eukaryotes. During this process, diploid nuclei at one stage of the life cycle undergo meiosis to yield haploid nuclei, which subsequently fuse together (karyogamy) to create a diploid zygote nucleus.
- Cell walls: It might be reasonable to conclude that the last common ancestor could make cell walls during some stage of its life cycle, simply because cell walls were present in their prokaryote precursors. However, not enough is known about eukaryotes’ cell walls and their development to know how much homology exists between those of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. If the last common ancestor could make cell walls, it is clear that this ability must have been lost in many groups.
Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Eukaryotes
Before we discuss the origins of eukaryotes, it is first important to understand that all extant eukaryotes are likely the descendants of a chimera-like organism that was a composite of a host cell and the cell(s) of an alpha-proteobacterium that “took up residence” inside it. This major theme in the origin of eukaryotes is known as endosymbiosis, one cell engulfing another such that the engulfed cell survives and both cells benefit. Over many generations, a symbiotic relationship can result in two organisms that depend on each other so completely that neither could survive on its own. Endosymbiotic events likely contributed to the origin of the last common ancestor of today’s eukaryotes and to later diversification in certain lineages of eukaryotes (Figure 23.5). Similar endosymbiotic associations are not uncommon in living eukaryotes. Before explaining this further, it is necessary to consider metabolism in prokaryotes.
Many important metabolic processes arose in prokaryotes; however, some of these processes, such as nitrogen fixation, are never found in eukaryotes. The process of aerobic respiration is found in all major lineages of eukaryotes, and it is localized in the mitochondria. Aerobic respiration is also found in many lineages of prokaryotes, but it is not present in all of them, and a great deal of evidence suggests that such anaerobic prokaryotes never carried out aerobic respiration nor did their ancestors.
While today’s atmosphere is about 20 percent molecular oxygen (O2), geological evidence shows that it originally lacked O2. Without oxygen, aerobic respiration would not be expected, and living things would have relied on anaerobic respiration or the process of fermentation instead. At some point before about 3.8 billion years ago, some prokaryotes began using energy from sunlight to power anabolic processes that reduce carbon dioxide to form organic compounds. That is, they evolved the ability to photosynthesize. Hydrogen, derived from various sources, was “captured” using light-powered reactions to reduce fixed carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle. The group of Gram-negative bacteria that gave rise to cyanobacteria used water as the hydrogen source and released O2 as a “waste” product.
Eventually, the amount of photosynthetic oxygen built up in some environments to levels that posed a risk to living organisms, since it can damage many organic compounds. Various metabolic processes evolved that protected organisms from oxygen, one of which, aerobic respiration, also generated high levels of ATP. It became widely present among prokaryotes, including in a free-living group we now call alpha-proteobacteria. Organisms that did not acquire aerobic respiration had to remain in oxygen-free environments. Originally, oxygen-rich environments were likely localized around places where cyanobacteria were abundant and active, but by about 2 billion years ago, geological evidence shows that oxygen was building up to higher concentrations in the atmosphere. Oxygen levels similar to today’s levels only arose within the last 700 million years.
Recall that the first fossils that we believe to be eukaryotes date to about 2 billion years old, so they seemed to have evolved and diversified rapidly as oxygen levels were increasing. Also, recall that all extant eukaryotes descended from an ancestor with mitochondria. These organelles were first observed by light microscopists in the late 1800s, where they appeared to be somewhat worm-shaped structures that seemed to be moving around in the cell. Some early observers suggested that they might be bacteria living inside host cells, but these hypotheses remained unknown or rejected in most scientific communities.
As cell biology developed in the twentieth century, it became clear that mitochondria were the organelles responsible for producing ATP using aerobic respiration, in which oxygen was the final electron acceptor. In the 1960s, American biologist Lynn Margulis of Boston University developed the endosymbiotic theory, which states that eukaryotes may have been a product of one cell engulfing another, one living within another, and coevolving over time until the separate cells were no longer recognizable as such and shared genetic control of a mutualistic metabolic pathway to produce ATP. In 1967, Margulis introduced new data to support her work on the theory and substantiated her findings through microbiological evidence. Although Margulis’s work initially was met with resistance, this basic component of this once-revolutionary hypothesis is now widely accepted, with work progressing on uncovering the steps involved in this evolutionary process and the key players involved.
While the metabolic organelles and genes responsible for many energy-harvesting processes appear to have had their origins in bacteria, our nuclear genes and the molecular machinery responsible for replication and expression appear to be more closely related to those found in the Archaea. Much remains to be clarified about how this relationship occurred; this continues to be an exciting field of discovery in biology. For instance, it is not known whether the endosymbiotic event that led to mitochondria occurred before or after the host cell had a nucleus. Such organisms would be among the extinct precursors of the last common ancestor of eukaryotes.
One of the major features distinguishing prokaryotes from eukaryotes is the presence of mitochondria, or their reduced derivatives, in virtually all eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells may contain anywhere from one to several thousand mitochondria, depending on the cell’s level of energy consumption, in humans being most abundant in the liver and skeletal muscles. Each mitochondrion measures 1 to 10 or greater micrometers in length and exists in the cell as an organelle that can be ovoid to worm-shaped to intricately branched (Figure 23.2). However, although they may have originated as free-living aerobic organisms, mitochondria can no longer survive and reproduce outside the cell.
Mitochondria have several features that suggest their relationship to alpha-proteobacteria (Figure 23.5). Alpha-proteobacteria are a large group of bacteria that includes species symbiotic with plants, disease organisms that can infect humans via ticks, and many free-living species that use light for energy. Mitochondria have their own genomes, with a circular chromosome stabilized by attachments to the inner membrane. Mitochondria also have special ribosomes and transfer RNAs that resemble these same components in prokaryotes. An intriguing feature of mitochondria is that many of them exhibit minor differences from the universal genetic code. However, many of the genes for respiratory proteins are now relocated in the nucleus. When these genes are compared to those of other organisms, they appear to be of alpha-proteobacterial origin. In some eukaryotic groups, such genes are found in the mitochondria, whereas in other groups, they are found in the nucleus. This has been interpreted as evidence that over evolutionary time, genes have been transferred from the endosymbiont chromosome to those of the host genome. This apparent “loss” of genes by the endosymbiont is probably one explanation why mitochondria cannot live without a host.
Another line of evidence supporting the idea that mitochondria were derived by endosymbiosis comes from the structure of the mitochondrion itself. Most mitochondria are shaped like alpha-proteobacteria and are surrounded by two membranes; the inner membrane is bacterial in nature whereas the outer membrane is eukaryotic in nature. This is exactly what one would expect if one membrane-bound organism was engulfed into a vacuole by another membrane-bound organism. The outer mitochondrial membrane was derived by the enclosing vesicle, while the inner membrane was derived from the plasma membrane of the endosymbiont. The mitochondrial inner membrane is extensive and involves substantial infoldings called cristae that resemble the textured, outer surface of alpha-proteobacteria. The matrix and inner membrane are rich with the enzymes necessary for aerobic respiration.
The third line of evidence comes from the production of new mitochondria. Mitochondria divide independently by a process that resembles binary fission in prokaryotes. Mitochondria arise only from previous mitochondria; they are not formed from scratch (de novo) by the eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria may fuse together; and they may be moved around inside the cell by interactions with the cytoskeleton. They reproduce within their enclosing cell and are distributed with the cytoplasm when a cell divides or two cells fuse. Therefore, although these organelles are highly integrated into the eukaryotic cell, they still reproduce as if they were independent organisms within the cell. However, their reproduction is synchronized with the activity and division of the cell. These features all support the theory that mitochondria were once free-living prokaryotes.
Some living eukaryotes are anaerobic and cannot survive in the presence of too much oxygen. However, a few appear to lack organelles that could be recognized as mitochondria. In the 1970s and on into the early 1990s, many biologists suggested that some of these eukaryotes were descended from ancestors whose lineages had diverged from the lineage of mitochondrion-containing eukaryotes before endosymbiosis occurred. Later findings suggest that reduced organelles are found in most, if not all, anaerobic eukaryotes, and that virtually all eukaryotes appear to carry some genes in their nuclei that are of mitochondrial origin.
In addition to the aerobic generation of ATP, mitochondria have several other metabolic functions. One of these functions is to generate clusters of iron and sulfur that are important cofactors of many enzymes. Such functions are often associated with the reduced mitochondrion-derived organelles of anaerobic eukaryotes. The protist Monocercomonoides, an inhabitant of vertebrate digestive tracts, appears to be an exception; it has no mitochondria and its genome contains neither genes derived from mitochondria nor nuclear genes related to mitochondrial maintenance. However, it is related to other protists with reduced mitochondria and probably represents an end-point in mitochondrial reduction. Although most biologists accept that the last common ancestor of eukaryotes had mitochondria, it appears that the complex relationship between mitochondria and their host cell continues to evolve.
Some groups of eukaryotes are photosynthetic. Their cells contain, in addition to the standard eukaryotic organelles, another kind of organelle called a plastid. When such cells are carrying out photosynthesis, their plastids are rich in the pigment chlorophyll a and a range of other pigments, called accessory pigments, which are involved in harvesting energy from light. Photosynthetic plastids are called chloroplasts (Figure 23.3).
Like mitochondria, plastids appear to have an endosymbiotic origin. This hypothesis was also proposed and championed with the first direct evidence by Lynn Margulis. We now know that plastids are derived from cyanobacteria that lived inside the cells of an ancestral, aerobic, heterotrophic eukaryote. This is called primary endosymbiosis, and plastids of primary origin are surrounded by two membranes. However, the best evidence is that the acquisition of cyanobacterial endosymbionts has happened twice in the history of eukaryotes. In one case, the common ancestor of the major lineage/supergroup Archaeplastida took on a cyanobacterial endosymbiont; in the other, the ancestor of the small amoeboid rhizarian taxon, Paulinella, took on a different cyanobacterial endosymbiont. Almost all photosynthetic eukaryotes are descended from the first event, and only a couple of species are derived from the other, which in evolutionary terms, appears to be more recent.
Cyanobacteria are a group of Gram-negative bacteria with all the conventional structures of the group. However, unlike most prokaryotes, they have extensive, internal membrane-bound sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is a component of these membranes, as are many of the proteins of the light reactions of photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria also have the peptidoglycan wall and lipopolysaccharide layer associated with Gram-negative bacteria.
Chloroplasts of primary endosymbiotic origin have thylakoids, a circular DNA chromosome, and ribosomes similar to those of cyanobacteria. As in mitochondria, each chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes. The outer membrane is thought to be derived from the enclosing vacuole of the host, and the inner membrane is thought to be derived from the plasma membrane of the cyanobacterial endosymbiont. In the group of Archaeplastida called the glaucophytes and in the rhizarian Paulinella, a thin peptidoglycan layer is still present between the outer and inner plastid membranes. All other plastids lack this relict of the cyanobacterial wall.
There is also, as with the case of mitochondria, strong evidence that many of the genes of the endosymbiont were transferred to the nucleus. Plastids, like mitochondria, cannot live independently outside the host. In addition, like mitochondria, plastids are derived from the division of other plastids and never built from scratch. Researchers have suggested that the endosymbiotic event that led to Archaeplastida occurred 1 to 1.5 billion years ago, at least 5 hundred million years after the fossil record suggests that eukaryotes were present.
Not all plastids in eukaryotes are derived directly from primary endosymbiosis. Some of the major groups of algae became photosynthetic by secondary endosymbiosis, that is, by taking in either green algae or red algae (both from Archaeplastida) as endosymbionts (Figure 23.4). Numerous microscopic and genetic studies have supported this conclusion. Secondary plastids are surrounded by three or more membranes, and some secondary plastids even have clear remnants of the nucleus (nucleomorphs) of endosymbiotic algae. There are even cases where tertiary or higher-order endosymbiotic events are the best explanations for the features of some eukaryotic plastids.
What evidence is there that mitochondria were incorporated into the ancestral eukaryotic cell before chloroplasts?
Secondary Endosymbiosis in Chlorarachniophytes
Endosymbiosis involves one cell engulfing another to produce, over time, a coevolved relationship in which neither cell could survive alone. The chloroplasts of red and green algae, for instance, are derived from the engulfment of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium by an ancestral prokaryote.
This evidence suggests the possibility that an ancestral cell (already containing a photosynthetic endosymbiont) was engulfed by another eukaryote cell, resulting in a secondary endosymbiosis. Molecular and morphological evidence suggest that the chlorarachniophyte protists are derived from a secondary endosymbiotic event. Chlorarachniophytes are rare algae indigenous to tropical seas and sand. They are classified into the Rhizarian supergroup. Chlorarachniophytes are reticulose amoebae, extending thin cytoplasmic strands that interconnect them with other chlorarachniophytes in a cytoplasmic network. These protists are thought to have originated when a eukaryote engulfed a green alga, the latter of which had previously established an endosymbiotic relationship with a photosynthetic cyanobacterium (Figure 23.6).
Several lines of evidence support that chlorarachniophytes evolved from secondary endosymbiosis. The chloroplasts contained within the green algal endosymbionts still are capable of photosynthesis, making chlorarachniophytes photosynthetic. The green algal endosymbiont also exhibits a vestigial nucleus. In fact, it appears that chlorarachniophytes are the products of an evolutionarily recent secondary endosymbiotic event. The plastids of chlorarachniophytes are surrounded by four membranes: The first two correspond to the inner and outer membranes of the photosynthetic cyanobacterium, the third corresponds to plasma membrane of the green alga, and the fourth corresponds to the vacuole that surrounded the green alga when it was engulfed by the chlorarachniophyte ancestor. In other lineages that involved secondary endosymbiosis, only three membranes can be identified around plastids. This is currently interpreted as a sequential loss of a membrane during the course of evolution.
The process of secondary endosymbiosis is not unique to chlorarachniophytes. Secondary plastids are also found in the Excavates and the Chromalveolates. In the Excavates, secondary endosymbiosis of green algae led to euglenid protists, while in the Chromalveolates, secondary endosymbiosis of red algae led to the evolution of plastids in dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and stramenopiles.
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27 Mar What are mood disorders?
Guess what the main feature is for mood disorders?
Three main types of mood exist:
1. Normal: People who are considered to be “normal” feel in control of their moods, for the most part, and have a wide range of moods and affects. (Recall that an affect is the outward expression of a person’s internal mood/feeling/emotion.)
2. Elevated: People with elevated moods (mania) have seemingly hyperactive speech, ideas and behavior. They are sometimes described as “all over the map” with their thinking and talking – but not in a delusional way. (Recall that you learned what delusional means in the previous post. As a reminder, it means false beliefs, like thinking alien frogs are telling you to hiccup through the lunch line.) They also show decreased need for sleep, higher self-esteem and grand ideas that a normal person may
3. Depressed: In contrast to elevated moods, people who feel depressed have a loss of interest and energy. They may feel guilty or shameful, lose their appetite, have trouble concentrating and think about death.
What’s Going On?…
Mood disorders have different affects – elevated and depressed – associated with them. These are broken down into four main categories, called “episodes” (the period of time a person a person shows signs of the mood): Major Depressive Episode, Manic Episode, Mixed Episode, Hypomanic Episode.
Mood disorders are then differentiated by which episodes are present in the person.
Confused? First, read about the categories (episodes) of moods below. Then read about the disorders below that, and you will see that it is the episode that defines the disorder.
Major Depressive Episode: includes feeling sad, blue, down, discouraged, hopeless, depressed and even angry (sometimes accompanied by angry outbursts). Other symptoms include loss of appetite, social withdrawal and trouble sleeping.
Manic Episode: Characterized by a distinct period of abnormally elevated, upbeat or even irritable mood. This mood must last at least one week. Several other criteria must be met as well, including inflated levels of self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, ideas that seem all over the map, and poor judgment. (Mania may include psychotic symptoms.)
Mixed Episode: As the name implies this is when someone has symptoms of both a Manic Episode and a Major Depressive Episode lasting for at least one week.
Hypomanic Episode: Similar to Manic Episode but the symptoms last less than a week and do not cause marked disturbance in social life or work (whereas Manic and Mixed do), however they seem strange and abnormal to other people.
Now, here are the most commonly diagnosed and discussed mood disorders and the episodes that define each:
Major Depressive Disorder: Characterized (hey, you guessed it) by at least one Major Depressive Episode without a history of Manic, Mixed or Hypomanic Episodes.
Bipolar Disorders: People with both Manic and Depressive episodes fall into the category of Bipolar Disorders. There are two Bipolar Disorders: 1 and 2. Bipolar 1 involves Manic and Depressive Episodes, while Bipolar 2 involves Hypomanic and Depressive Episodes.
Teen Reality Check…
The teen years are practically defined by mood swings! Many teens feel up and down with their moods. Do you? This does not mean you have a mood disorder. It likely means you are a normal teen with lots of hormones swirling around your body. Remember, disorders are characterized by an inability to function in work, relationships or to take good care of yourself – over a period of time. Your “depressed” mood is normal after experiencing something sad such as losing a pet. However, still hiding in your room with the blinds drawn two months later is not normal. If you have any doubts about whether or not you might be suffering from a Mood Disorder, seek help from a trusted adult!
Do you know anyone with a Mood Disorder? How are you affected by it?
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What is haemophilia?
Haemophilia is a genetic bleeding disorder where the blood doesn’t clot properly. It is caused when blood does not have enough clotting factor. A clotting factor factor is a protein in blood that controls bleeding.
When a person has an injury which causes bleeding, over 20 proteins are involved in the chain reaction to make a clot which stops the bleeding. Two of the key proteins are clotting factor VIII (8) and clotting factor IX (9).
There are two types of haemophilia. Both have the same symptoms.
- Haemophilia A (also called classical haemophilia) is the most common form, and is caused by having low levels of factor VIII (8)
- Haemophilia B (sometimes called Christmas Disease) is caused by having low levels of factor IX (9).
There are different levels of severity in haemophilia: mild, moderate and severe. This is linked to the amount of clotting factor in the blood.
What causes haemophilia?
Everyone has the gene that makes clotting factor VIII (the factor 8 or F8 gene) and the gene that makes clotting factor IX (the factor 9 or F9 gene). These factors are needed for blood to clot.
Haemophilia is caused by a change (mutation or alteration) in the F8 or F9 gene. The gene does not work as well as it should. As a result, the body does not make enough factor VIII (8) or factor IX (9) for blood to clot properly.
Haemophilia is not contagious. It is hereditary and can be passed down from parent to child. Sometimes a person is the first in their family to have haemophilia. This is known as a spontaneous mutation.
How COMMON IS haemophilia?
Haemophilia is rare. It occurs in all races and all socio-economic groups.
In Australia there are more than 3,200 people diagnosed with haemophilia.
Approximately one in 6,000 males has haemophilia A.
Approximately one in 25,000-30,000 males has haemophilia B.
Most females who carry the gene alteration causing haemophilia do not have bleeding symptoms. However, around 20-30% of females with the gene alteration have reduced factor levels and bleeding problems. If their factor levels are low enough, they will have haemophilia, usually mild haemophilia. In some rare cases females can have moderate or severe haemophilia.
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We are reliant on electricity to perform most of our daily tasks. As electricity moves through the wires and cables that transmit the electrical current, some of the energy is lost as heat due to resistance in the materials. While some materials conduct electricity with less resistance, superconductors do so without any energy loss at all. One caveat is superconductors require very low temperatures, below what is called the critical temperature, to function and this quality makes them impractical for wider use.
The record critical temperature under normal pressure is currently about minus 140 degrees C, a long way off from room temperature. However, in a paper recently published in Physical Review Letters, scientists, including UConn Department of Physics researcher and assistant professor Pavel Volkov, and Zhaoyu Han and Steven A. Kivelson from Stanford University, detail a mechanism that may help scientists develop superconductors that can perform at higher temperatures.
Volkov explains that superconductivity was discovered in 1913, but the first theory of the phenomenon was published in 1957 by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer who later received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1972. They attributed superconductivity to electrons pairing up, allowing these pairs to move through the material without dissipation. In the theory of Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS), the electron pairs are held together via the vibrations and distortions of the material. Most metals consist of positively charged ions arranged in a lattice while negatively charged electrons can move through it, conducting electricity. As they move, they perturb the lattice because the ions are attracted to the electron.
“The deformations created by one electron are felt by the others, and like two bowling balls on a trampoline, electrons prefer to get closer to one another, eventually pairing up,” Volkov says. “This is one of the important preconditions for superconductivity to occur, and BCS have shown that this happens because of this interaction between electrons and the surrounding lattice.”
Scientists have been studying superconductivity and its theoretical consequences ever since, says Volkov, and the next question is how high can we make the critical temperature?
“What matters is the interaction between electrons and the lattice. If we make it stronger and stronger and stronger, can we [at least theoretically] get as high-temperature superconductivity as we wish? The answer is, unfortunately no, because when this interaction becomes too strong, the electrons have to carry with them very large deformations of the lattice, becoming very sluggish and ineffective at carrying current, which suppresses the critical temperature,” Volkov says.
One possible way out is to turn to other mechanisms of pairing electrons up. In this research, Volkov explains they have shown another way that electrons interact with the lattice that results in much faster electron pairs at extremely strong interaction strength, overcoming the difficulty.
“The conventional way to think about the interaction between the electron and lattice is through the deformations created by electrons,” Volkov says. “However, ions in a crystal are also quantum objects – they exist in multiple locations simultaneously. We considered the impact of a passing electron on this quantum uncertainty of the ion’s positions. This quantum effect does lead to electron pairing and because there is no real lattice distortion occurring, the electrons do not get as heavy.”
Volkov says it can help to imagine the ion position as “smeared” due to quantum fluctuations. When an electron passes by, suddenly, the ion should become more localized, which is felt by other electrons, creating the same “balls on a trampoline” effect.
“These electrons want to stick together, and the average positions of the ions remain the same, it’s just this uncertainty of the position that changes, so there is much less of a problem for the electrons to drag this perturbation around. The lattice is not deforming strongly, it’s just the change of this quantum mechanical wave functions of ions, therefore, the pairs of electrons do not become as heavy. What we hope for is that this will allow us to get a much higher transition temperature,” Volkov says.
Researchers showed that with this mechanism, the coupling can be optimized by nanoscale engineering of the lattice.
“We have not only made model prediction, but also found out that using some techniques that have recently become of prominence due to the discovery of the twisted bilayer of graphene and analogous materials, that if you create superlattices, you can actually make that coupling quite a bit stronger,” Volkov says.
They show that depending on the period of the superlattice, the interactions of electrons with the ions can become stronger.
“There’s a sweet spot where the interaction strength is maximized,” Volkov says. “This is not so for the conventional electron lattice interaction that would go down as you increase the period of the superlattice. The same holds for the repulsive Coulomb interaction between electrons that are bad for superconductivity, they will also go down as you increase the superlattice period. That’s good because we don’t want this repulsion to hinder us.”
They believe a promising material to make superlattices is strontium titanate, but no superlattices of this material have been made yet to test the theory. This material has a fascinating history of its own, when it comes to superconductivity, which was first observed in strontium titanate 1964 but a theoretical consensus on its origin has not yet been reached. Two groups have recently shown that the interaction mechanism explored in the present work appears to be a reasonable candidate to explain it, Volkov says.
“We have yet to prove that it causes superconductivity in strontium titanate, but there is experimental evidence that this interaction is there and is fairly strong,” Volkov says. “Our current work is partially motivated by strontium titanate because now we know that that material has that kind of coupling.”
However, critical temperature of strontium titanate is extremely low, about minus 273 degrees C. If a superlattice on the surface of strontium titanate is created, Volkov says, they predict the transition temperature can be tuned to a much higher value.
“While it’s still probably not going to be higher than the current high-temperature superconductor record holder right now, demonstrating the potential of this coupling mechanism in a concrete material may motivate the search for materials where this coupling can be even stronger, and maybe we can get a transition temperature that is even higher,” Volkov says. “According to our results, it should be easier to realize truly high-temperature superconductivity with this mechanism than with the conventional one. But for now, we’re in a stage of finding just one material where we would know that this works.”
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ALMA Dives into Black Hole’s Sphere of Influence
What happens inside a black hole stays inside a black hole, but what happens inside a black hole’s “sphere of influence” – the innermost region of a galaxy where a black hole’s gravity is the dominant force – is of intense interest to astronomers and can help determine the mass of a black hole as well as its impact on its galactic neighborhood.
New observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) provide an unprecedented close-up view of a swirling disk of cold interstellar gas rotating around a supermassive black hole. This disk lies at the center of NGC 3258, a massive elliptical galaxy about 100 million light-years from Earth. Based on these observations, a team led by astronomers from Texas A&M University and the University of California, Irvine, have determined that this black hole weighs a staggering 2.25 billion solar masses, the most massive black hole measured with ALMA to date.
Though supermassive black holes can have masses that are millions to billions of times that of the Sun, they account for just a small fraction of the mass of an entire galaxy. Isolating the influence of a black hole’s gravity from the stars, interstellar gas, and dark matter in the galactic center is challenging and requires highly sensitive observations on phenomenally small scales.
“Observing the orbital motion of material as close as possible to a black hole is vitally important when accurately determining the black hole’s mass.” said Benjamin Boizelle, a postdoctoral researcher at Texas A&M University and lead author on the study appearing in the Astrophysical Journal. “These new observations of NGC 3258 demonstrate ALMA’s amazing power to map the rotation of gaseous disks around supermassive black holes in stunning detail.”
Astronomers use a variety of methods to measure black hole masses. In giant elliptical galaxies, most measurements come from observations of the orbital motion of stars around the black hole, taken in visible or infrared light. Another technique, using naturally occurring water masers (radio-wavelength lasers) in gas clouds orbiting around black holes, provides higher precision, but these masers are very rare and are associated almost exclusively with spiral galaxies having smaller black holes.
During the past few years, ALMA has pioneered a new method to study black holes in giant elliptical galaxies. About 10 percent of elliptical galaxies contain regularly rotating disks of cold, dense gas at their centers. These disks contain carbon monoxide (CO) gas, which can be observed with millimeter-wavelength radio telescopes.
By using the Doppler shift of the emission from CO molecules, astronomers can measure the velocities of clouds, and ALMA makes it possible to resolve the very centers of galaxies where the orbital speeds are highest.
“Our team has been surveying nearby elliptical galaxies with ALMA for several years to find and study disks of molecular gas rotating around giant black holes,” said Aaron Barth of UC Irvine, a co-author on the study. “NGC 3258 is the best target we’ve found, because we’re able to trace the disk’s rotation closer to the black hole than in any other galaxy.”
Just as the Earth orbits around the Sun faster than Pluto does because it experiences a stronger gravitational force, the inner regions of the NGC 3258 disk orbit faster than the outer parts due to the black hole’s gravity. The ALMA data show that the disk’s rotation speed rises from 1 million kilometers per hour at its outer edge, about 500 light-years from the black hole, to well over 3 million kilometers per hour near the disk’s center at a distance of just 65 light-years from the black hole.
The researchers determined the black hole’s mass by modeling the disk’s rotation, accounting for the additional mass of the stars in the galaxy’s central region and other details such as the slightly warped shape of the gaseous disk. The clear detection of rapid rotation enabled the researchers to determine the black hole’s mass with a precision better than one percent, although they estimate an additional systematic 12 percent uncertainty in the measurement because the distance to NGC 3258 is not known very precisely. Even accounting for the uncertain distance, this is one of the most highly precise mass measurements for any black hole outside of the Milky Way galaxy.
“The next challenge is to find more examples of near-perfect rotating disks like this one so that we can apply this method to measure black hole masses in a larger sample of galaxies,” concluded Boizelle. “Additional ALMA observations that reach this level of precision will help us better understand the growth of both galaxies and black holes across the age of the universe.”
Reference: “A Precision Measurement of the Mass of the Black Hole in NGC 3258
from High-Resolution ALMA Observations of its Circumnuclear Disk,” B. Boizelle, et al., the Astrophysical Journal: apj.aas.org; Preprint: https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.06267
The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an international astronomy facility, is a partnership of the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere (ESO), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. ALMA is funded by ESO on behalf of its Member States, by NSF in cooperation with the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and by NINS in cooperation with the Academia Sinica (AS) in Taiwan and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI).
ALMA construction and operations are led by ESO on behalf of its Member States; by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), managed by Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI), on behalf of North America; and by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) on behalf of East Asia. The Joint ALMA Observatory (JAO) provides the unified leadership and management of the construction, commissioning and operation of ALMA.
The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.
Education and Public Outreach Coordinator -
News and Public Information Manager -
Education and Public Outreach Officer, NAOJ Chile -
ESO Outreach Astronomer
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Centripetal acceleration is a crucial concept in the field of physics, particularly when studying the motion of objects that travel along circular paths. Whether it’s the revolution of planets, the motion of a car around a curve, or the spinning of a ball on a string, centripetal accelerations plays a pivotal role in how objects behave in circular motion. This article explores the concept in-depth, offering a clear and detailed understanding of centripetal accelerations, its mathematical formulation, its relationship with other physical quantities, and its practical applications in various real-world scenarios.
Centripetal Acceleration in Different Contexts
Circular Motion of Planets: Centripetal acceleration is a key player in the motion of planets around the Sun. While the planets move in elliptical orbits (which can be approximated as circular in some cases), their motion requires an inward acceleration directed toward the center of the orbit. According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the gravitational force is proportional to the masses involved and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This force causes the planets to accelerate toward the Sun, keeping them in orbit.
Cars on Curved Roads: When a car drives around a curve, the tires exert an inward force (due to friction) that acts as the centripetal force, pulling the car toward the center of the curve. The car’s speed and the radius of the curve determine the required centripetal force. If the car moves too quickly or the curve is too sharp (small radius), the frictional force may not be sufficient, and the car may skid or slide outward.
Spinning Objects: Consider a ball tied to a string and spun in a circle. The tension in the string provides the centripetal force that keeps the ball moving in a circular path. The faster the ball spins or the smaller the radius of the circle, the greater the centripetal accelerations. If the tension in the string is not enough to provide the necessary centripetal force, the ball will fly off in a straight line, as predicted by Newton’s first law.
Amusement Park Rides: Amusement park rides such as roller coasters or Ferris wheels rely heavily on centripetal accelerations to maintain their circular motion. For example, during a loop on a roller coaster, the riders experience an upward force (in the form of the seat pushing against them) as they move along the curve. This force provides the necessary centripetal accelerations to keep the riders safely in their seats. The faster the roller coaster moves, the greater the centripetal force required.
The Importance of Centripetal Acceleration in Physics
Centripetal acceleration plays a foundational role in understanding various phenomena in both classical mechanics and astrophysics. By analyzing the centripetal accelerations of objects in circular motion, scientists can make predictions about the motion of satellites, planets, and even artificial objects like space stations. This concept also helps explain the physics behind the operation of everyday devices like centrifuges, which use rapid rotational motion to separate substances based on their densities.
Real-World Examples of Centripetal Acceleration
High-Speed Trains on Curved Tracks: Modern high-speed trains often travel along curves at high speeds. The engineers must calculate the centripetal acceleration to ensure that the train remains safely on the tracks. They design the curves and track banking (the tilt of the track) to provide the necessary centripetal force, minimizing the risk of the train derailing.
Sports: Spinning and Circular Motion: Athletes, such as gymnasts, ice skaters, and divers, often perform tricks that involve circular motion. For example, when a figure skater pulls in their arms while spinning, they reduce the radius of their rotation, which increases their speed due to the conservation of angular momentum. The centripetal accelerations increases as the skater spins faster and tighter, creating thrilling moments during performances.
Artificial Gravity in Space Stations: In space stations, scientists and engineers have proposed using rotational motion to create artificial gravity. By spinning a space station or a section of it, the centripetal accelerations provides a force that mimics the effect of gravity, pushing objects and people toward the outer walls of the station.
Tornadoes and Hurricanes: A tornado or hurricane can be thought of as a giant spinning system where the air is constantly accelerating toward the center of the storm. The winds near the center of the storm are moving at very high speeds, and the centripetal accelerations of the wind particles is responsible for the spiral pattern we observe in these storms.
Factors Affecting Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration is influenced by several factors, including:
Speed: A higher speed results in a greater centripetal acceleration. For example, the faster a car turns around a corner, the greater the centripetal accelerations required to maintain the circular path.
Radius: A smaller radius of the circular path results in higher centripetal acceleration. This is why tight turns require more force to navigate safely compared to wide turns.
Centripetal acceleration is a vital concept in physics that helps explain the motion of objects moving in circular paths. From the orbits of planets to the motion of cars around curves and the operation of amusement park rides, centripetal accelerations is present in many everyday phenomena. Understanding this concept not only sheds light on the dynamics of rotational motion but also provides insights into the forces at play in various systems. Whether you are studying the natural world or working with engineered systems, the concept of centripetal accelerations is fundamental to understanding the forces that keep objects in motion along curved paths.
By applying the principles of centripetal acceleration, scientists and engineers can design safer vehicles, more efficient amusement rides, and even simulate gravity in space. The study of circular motion continues to be a critical area of physics research, revealing the intricate relationship between force, motion, and acceleration.
What is Centripetal Acceleration?
Centripetal acceleration refers to the acceleration experienced by an object moving along a circular path. It is directed toward the center of the circle and is responsible for changing the direction of the object’s velocity as it moves along the curve. This acceleration is necessary for any object to maintain circular motion.
What’s the Difference Between Centripetal Force and Centripetal Acceleration?
Centripetal force and centripetal acceleration are related but not the same. Centripetal acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity changes direction as it moves in a circle, whereas centripetal force is the force that causes this acceleration. The force is usually provided by gravity, friction, tension, or other forces acting toward the center of the circle.
Why Does Centripetal Acceleration Exist?
Centripetal acceleration exists because of the continual change in direction of an object’s velocity as it moves in a circular path. An object in circular motion constantly changes its direction, meaning its velocity is changing even if its speed remains constant. This change in velocity requires acceleration, which is directed toward the center of the circle.
What Happens If Centripetal Acceleration Is Too High?
If centripetal acceleration becomes too high, it can cause the object to move outward due to a lack of sufficient force holding it in the circular path. For example, in a car turning too quickly, the frictional force may not be enough to keep the car from skidding. In extreme cases, if the necessary centripetal force is exceeded, the object may lose its circular motion and follow a straight-line trajectory instead.
How Does Centripetal Acceleration Affect the Speed of an Object?
While centripetal acceleration itself doesn’t directly affect the speed of an object (since it only changes the direction of motion), it is proportional to the square of the object’s speed. A higher speed leads to greater centripetal acceleration, meaning that faster-moving objects need more force to keep them on a circular path.
Is Centripetal Acceleration the Same as Gravitational Acceleration?
No, centripetal acceleration and gravitational acceleration are different, but they can be related in certain situations. Gravitational acceleration refers to the acceleration experienced by an object due to gravity, such as an object falling toward Earth. In orbital motion, the gravitational force provides the centripetal force necessary for an object to maintain its circular path.
To read more, click here
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https://colchestertimes.co.uk/centripetal-acceleration/
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2025-06-14T20:50:43Z
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17TH ANNUAL ENDANGERED SPECIES DAY: May 20th, 2022
The status endangered is given to species that are considered at high risk for extinction in the wild. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is a comprehensive assessment of the species that are at risk of extinction. Assessments for their conservation status are based on their population size, habitat, range, ecology, threats, and conservation actions. These assessments are vital for scientists, governments, and organizations to identify the species and habitats that are most at risk. As biodiversity levels continue to decrease, these assessments can guide conservation projects toward critical locations.
What are the threats to biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of living things on earth. Scientists can study biodiversity at different levels focusing on specific ecosystems or they can compile data on a whole continent. These assessments can help scientists understand the health and complexity of an ecosystem based on the number of species found in a habitat. Biodiversity is currently under threat from many different factors. The easiest way to remember the different threats that face biodiversity is with the acronym H.I.P.P.O.
Understanding the threats to biodiversity can help citizens participate in conservation in their everyday lives. Using the Lehigh Valley Zoo’s Conservation PACTS is a great way to get involved in helping endangered animals. Listed below are five easy ways to get involved in conservation and help protect biodiversity from the threats that it faces.
60% of Pennsylvania is covered by trees. This provides vital habitat for many of the species in the state. Even with large areas for native animals to live, there are over 20 species considered endangered in Pennsylvania. Do you know any of the endangered species here in Pennsylvania? Scroll down to find five species endangered in Pennsylvania. See the full list on the PA Game Commission Website.
Celebrate Endangered Species Day at home this year by taking a nature walk to learn about the native plants and animals that live right in your backyard. To help you identify the plants and animals in your backyard, consider downloading some of the apps below as identification tools for your walk.
Written by Dani DiMarco
Lehigh Valley Zoo | Schnecksville, PA
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2025-06-19T18:26:28Z
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A gathering of members who use parliamentary procedure to make decisions.
The assembly was a key part of colonial government, acting as the lower house where representatives of the people made decisions and passed laws. It was important because it gave colonists a voice in their governance, allowing them to express their needs and protect their rights. This representation was crucial to the development of democratic ideals, as it set a precedent for the idea that government should reflect the will of the people. Today, the legacy of assemblies is seen in modern democratic institutions like the U.S. House of Representatives, where elected officials still work to represent the interests of their constituents. For example, if a community today is concerned about environmental issues, their representative can propose legislation to address these concerns, much like colonial assemblies addressed local needs.
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The Moon has intrigued people for thousands of years, and in recent centuries, scientists have tried to figure out how and when it formed. One reason for sending astronauts to the Moon was to answer this question. The Moon also helps us understand more distant objects in space. But if we can’t determine the Moon’s exact age, how can we know the age of other things in space?
The Moon is believed to have formed from a collision between Earth and a Mars-sized planet. This event is thought to have happened around 4.35 billion years ago, based on dating rocks brought back from the Moon.
However, some evidence, like the age of certain minerals on the Moon’s surface, suggests the Moon might be about 4.51 billion years old. It means it came to be about 200 million years after the formation of our solar system.
Some scientists are skeptical about the idea of the Moon-forming so late. In the solar system’s early days, debris and planetary bodies collided to form planets. By 200 million years, most of this chaos had settled into larger bodies. Because of this, many scientists who simulate the solar system’s evolution find it unlikely that such a massive collision could have formed the Moon so late in the process.
In a new study, UC Santa Cruz Professor Francis Nimmo and his co-authors suggest a possible explanation for the Moon’s age discrepancy. They propose that around 4.35 billion years ago, the Moon underwent a “remelting” due to Earth’s tidal pull, causing significant geological activity and intense heating. This remelting could have “reset” the age of the lunar rocks, effectively hiding the Moon’s true age, much like a volcanic facelift.
Researchers suggest that a remelting event caused by the Moon’s changing orbit could explain why many lunar rocks, including those collected by the Apollo missions, are around 4.35 billion years old. Instead of these rocks forming during the Moon’s initial solidification, they might have been remelted later. Using modeling, the authors show that tidal heating from Earth’s pull could have been strong enough to trigger this remelting around 4.35 billion years ago, effectively “resetting” the apparent age of the lunar samples.
The research team compares the Moon’s hypothetical remelting event to the volcanic activity on Jupiter’s moon Io, the most volcanically active body in the solar system. Like Io, which experiences tidal forces causing volcanic eruptions, the early Moon may have undergone widespread volcanic activity due to similar tidal heating from Earth.
The researchers also suggest that this remelting could explain why fewer lunar impact basins are from early bombardments than expected, as they would have been erased during the heating event. Based on this idea, the team proposes that the Moon’s formation occurred between 4.43 and 4.53 billion years ago, at the higher end of previous age estimates.
Nimmo said the next research stage will involve more complex simulations that refine our understanding of how tidal heating might have reset the Moon’s geological clock. This and additional lunar samples from future missions should shed more light on the Moon’s true age.
The team is now looking forward to more detailed modeling to explore further the effects of tidal heating on the Moon’s geology.
“As more data becomes available—particularly from ongoing and future lunar missions—the understanding of the Moon’s past will continue to evolve,” Nimmo said. “We hope that our findings will spark further discussion and exploration, ultimately leading to a clearer picture of the Moon’s place in the broader history of our solar system.”
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This science project will teach students how forces pull or push against each other to create an earthquake. Any student in elementary school, from kindergarten to sixth grade, will enjoy learning how earthquakes happen with this project.
Investigating the Forces in Earthquakes
Earthquakes are devastating natural events, and they destroy property with strong seismic waves. In preventing buildings from collapsing, many engineers build a structural framework to withstand the intense seismic waves.
To create your 'buildings,' start by gathering the following materials:
- Two 16-cm diameter styrofoam plates
- Miniature marshmallows
- 6 or more 2-cm craft sticks
- 6 or more 1-cm craft sticks
- Four books (about the same width)
Instructions for Sturdy Framework
Start by building a sturdy framework for your building.
- Set aside a few miniature marshmallows.
- Turn over the styrofoam plates.
- Punch four holes on top of each plate with a pencil.
- Start building by using one or two marshmallows for the bottom of a 2-cm craft stick.
- Place it on top of the hole you made of the styrofoam plate.
- Let the marshmallow set gently on the plate and continue with the other three 2-cm craft sticks.
- Make sure to let each craft stick set as this is the foundation of the frame for the building.
- Repeat with additional craft sticks.
- Use as many craft sticks as you'd like and continue building.
Instructions for Unstable Framework
Use miniature marshmallows to build a similar framework as the stable framework above.
- Turn over the styrofoam plate face down.
- Begin building by using one or two miniature marshmallows for the 1-cm craft stick.
- Place it gently on top of the styrofoam plate as in the previous section.
- Continue to build with as many sticks and marshmallows as you'd like.
Simulating of Forces in Earthquakes
The world is put together in a dynamic myriad of pieces like a jigsaw puzzle. Parts of the puzzle are called continental plates that interweave around the globe. When extreme forces collide, slide or shear upon each other, earthquakes begin to emerge.
Once you've completed your sturdy and unsturdy framework, it's time to simulate earthquake forces. This simulation will look at three types of forces in earthquakes: compression, tension and shear forces.
- Collect four books with similar widths, and place them on a sturdy surface.
- Face two books side by side and lay another set of books on top.
- Place one of the building constructions in between the books (start with the building with 2-cm sticks).
- Move the books side by side as using shear forces.
- Next, collide the books gently simulating compression forces.
- Finally, pull apart the books to see what happens to the building creation as showing tension forces.
- Repeat for the building with 1-cm craft sticks.
- For each type of force, record your observations. How does each type of force affect each building differently?
Were you able to observe which type of building framework was able to withstand different forces? In simulating the effects of compression, shear, and tension, you might have noticed that the 1-cm thick building framework did not hold in place well for any simulation. You may have also noticed that the structure tended to fall a different way based on the type of force that was being exerted. With compression, the structure tended to fall to one side. With tension, the building probably fell over into the middle or was torn apart. With shear stress, the structure probably twisted or ripped apart before it fell.
Now that you've learned about the how forces in an earthquake affect various buildings, take the lab a step further.
- Can you design a structure that withstands all of these simulated forces? Build three more structures using the same materials and test them out.
- Research real earthquakes and see how architects design buildings to survive the seismic waves an earthquake produces.
- Can you design a simulation that is larger or more accurately represents the force to scale?
Building Framework Safe Enough for Earthquakes
Of course, depending on the amount of force you were exerting, you might see variations in your results. However, an unstable framework does not offer safety during an earthquake. In fact, engineers design seismic-safe buildings, housing, and highways to withstand the intense, surface seismic waves. Remember too, however destructive earthquakes may be, they are also part of what constitutes various landforms around the world.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://www.lovetoknow.com/parenting/kids/earthquake-science-project
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2025-06-17T12:00:23Z
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Learning and Physical Activity
Every day we hear how we, and our children, need to be more physically active. The Canadian Physical Activity Guide (CPAC) suggests that children need to accumulate at least 60 minutes of activity each day. They should also participate in vigorous activity and strengthening activities at least three days per week each. (http://www.csep.ca/CMFiles/Guidelines/CSEP-InfoSheets-child-ENG.pdf0).
This can help children with improved health, better scholastic achievement, better fitness, feel happier, maintain a healthy weight, improve self-confidence, and learn new skills.
The trick is how to actually incorporate learning and physical activity. Here are a few suggestions:
1. Memorization (ie, memorizing times tables or spelling words):
a. jump rope
b. bounce a ball between you
c. draw a table grid in sidewalk chalk and jump around
2. Social Studies and English
a. create a skit playing the roles of the major players
b. make puppets and act it out
c. create a full-sized ‘board game’ to learn and test facts
d. body spelling – one child per letter
e. language lights – consonants, vowels, verbs, nouns – with a cut out of a stop light – red is stop, yellow is jog on the spot, and green is do an activity that is assigned to each type of activity (touching toes, jumping jacks, hopping)
a. take walks and experience the science of nature
Other Ideas Include:
· preparing dinner (fractions, measures, etc.)
· housekeeping (measuring, proportion, area, perimeter)
· laundry (colours, classification, statistics, probability, fractions, percentage)
· use walks to learn different things such as colours, vocabulary words in any language
· scavenger hunts with problems written on the hints that need to be correct to win
· prepare different multiple choice questions and have children shoot bean bags/balls at the correct answer
· walking tour of Canada
· different ‘walk around’ games that incorporate different types of movement to learn different types of facts https://education.alberta.ca/media/318482/dpa8.pdf – Appendix 8/9
· memory – put facts/matching words, equations and answers, etc. on 8.5 * 11 sheets of paper and have them jump, hop, etc. around to match them up.
· use a similar idea for trivia by putting the cards in a pile at the other end of the room/drive
· T/F Simon Says – if the fact is true – do some type of activity
The ideas are limited only by yours and your children’s imaginations. Don’t get overwhelmed with the amount of time you need to spend. Several 10-15 minute sessions are just as good as a long one. Do whatever you both enjoy. Participate with them and you will benefit as well. You will get exercise, have fun, and spend a great time bonding with each other.
Tutoring… With A Twist tutors not only support learners in every subject area; we also support them with a predetermined life-skill. By helping learners develop the tools they need to succeed in the classroom, we also help them develop the tools to succeed in life.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://tutoringwithatwist.ca/ns/learning-physical-activity/
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2025-06-24T06:57:25Z
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Health is an individual’s state of physical, mental and social well-being. It is important for every person, irrespective of age, gender, nationality or other factors.
Health is a complex concept with a variety of dimensions which include physical, mental (psychological), social, emotional and spiritual aspects. Physical, psychological and mental conditions determine an individual’s quality of life.
Right to health
The right to health is a fundamental human right, but should not be understood as the right to be healthy. The State cannot guarantee that all of its citizens will be perfectly healthy, as health is influenced by various factors outside the control of the State. Therefore, it is more accurate to describe health as the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.
The State has obligations to respect, protect and fulfil people’s right to health. For example, the State must ensure that every person can:
- choose and contact a doctor
- get proper medical care
- receive information about their health
- file a complaint if their health rights have been violated, and so on.
Right to health & Human rights
The right to health is closely related to various human rights: the right to a private and family life, non-discrimination and equality, liberty and security of a person, access to safe and potable water and adequate sanitation, healthy occupational and environmental conditions, and access to health-related education and information.
About this Guide
The aim of this Guide is to explain the meaning of the concept of “health” and what the right to health is, how it is protected by the State and how it can be exercised by different social groups. This Guide also explains what rights patients have, such as the patient’s informed consent, privacy, the right to choose medical treatment, etc.
You will find out how different actions can interfere with and violate your human right to health and to whom you should complain in such situations. With this knowledge, you will feel more confident when making decisions concerning your health and will be able to identify possible violations of your rights.
Assess your knowledge
If you wish to use the Guide for learning purposes, the Guide offers you a possibility to assess your knowledge in human rights before or after studying, by completing tests about different themes included in the Guide.
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https://www.zmogausteisiugidas.lt/en/themes/health
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2025-06-18T19:03:36Z
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04 Oct Writing Skills for Young Children
Writing Starts Early!
Learning to write is part of early literacy, and the process begins with the first intentional movements of a baby’s hand. Over time, babies learn how to reach for things, touch things, and pick up things. As children grow, they try to understand the world. Their understanding of writing leads them from touching their finger to something, to scribbling, to scribbling that looks more like writing, to forming letters and numbers. As they progress, they also learn that every letter has a sound, and that sounds can be written down with letters.
Along with Read, Sing, Talk, and Play, Write is part of Every Child Ready to Read, a research-based approach to early literacy skills that we use to develop programs and activities at PGTPL. Sometimes caregivers aren’t sure how to incorporate writing skills into their young child’s every day life. Encouraging a child’s scribbles helps lead them to readiness for both reading and writing. They’ll build finger strength, learn how to hold a pencil, build the hand-eye coordination to move a pencil where they want, learn how to form the lines and curves of letters, and finally write letters.
Want to Know More?
If you’d like to read more about this, try How Do I Write…? on the Reading Rockets website. Although written with preschool teachers in mind, there’s a good description of scribbling in babies and toddlers.
Practical Ideas to Try
- A dab of food like pudding or yogurt may lead to your child spreading it around on their high chair tray. Yes, this helps develop writing skills! So does picking up bits of food like cheerios or peas.
- Ask your child to tell you about what they’re writing when they scribble. Even if your baby just jabbers, respond in a back-and-forth conversation so they can start to get the idea that talking bounces between people.
- Squeeze play dough to build fine motor skills.
- Shaving cream in a sealed plastic bag is a great way to practice emerging. A few drops of food coloring makes it even more fun. Taping the plastic bag down makes it easier for your child. This is also an excellent and fun activity for older children at other stages of writing.
- Start writing and naming letters. For example, show a capital M by tracing up, down, up down and connecting the words and sound: “That’s M. Mmmmm. Mmm for Maria, that’s you!”
- Make sure your child has access to writing materials like blank paper and thick crayons.
- Fingerpainting and painting with big craft brushes reinforce creativity and pre-writing skills.
Books You Might Enjoy
Andrew Draws by David McPhail
Andrew’s scribbles with a crayon he found become better and better until he is making drawings so realistic that they come right off the page.
Little Plane learns to write by practicing his skywriting. Engage your child by tracing the letters as Little Plane writes them!
A young boy wants to write a story, just like his big sister. But there’s a problem, he tells her. Though he knows his letters, he doesn’t know many words.
From Peas to Pencils
Help your young child by giving them fun opportunities to develop their pre-writing skills. So much of what they do in their everyday life builds these skills—from peas to pencils. Give them the opportunity to create with paper and crayons and watch them learn!
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Juneteenth is a celebration marking an end to slavery in the United States. Though Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, very few people were immediately freed. It proclaimed that “all persons held as slaves” within the rebellious states “are, and henceforward shall be free.” But the nation was in the midst of Civil War and, of course, “rebellious states” were in no mood to pay heed to Lincoln’s order. So, although the Proclamation marked an important shift in federal policy, millions of African Americans had to wait until the Confederacy was defeated before they could begin lives as freedmen. Hundreds of thousands of blacks did take advantage of the new opportunity to take up arms fighting to end slavery as members of the United States Colored Troops (USCT) and to flee enslavement as “self-emancipators” but their efforts were not sufficient to end the “horrible institution” before the war’s end.
Once Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, Congress pressed to ratify the 13th Amendment, which legislated that no one could be held in involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. With this, African Americans could begin to experience some degree of human rights. They were certainly not equal with regards to opportunity or law, but they were no longer regarded as property. But it took news of this new beginning a long while to travel. Indeed, troops continued fight until June, a full two months after the war was over. Slave holders were loathe to respect the change in law. And enslaved people, often isolated and illiterate, had limited access to information. A full two and a half years after the Emancipation Proclamation and two long months after Richmond fell, the last enslaved African Americans in Texas were pronounced free people. That momentous date, June 19, 1865, has been proclaimed Juneteenth and celebrated annually ever since.
Big Bethel Emancipation Day program, 1906. Courtesy of Auburn Avenue Research Library.
Given the state’s large black population, the scope of their celebrations, and the range of their national migrations, it’s not surprising that this Texas-specific event gained national preeminence. Still, it is important to note that African Americans celebrated their freedom on many dates across the nation. For more than 150 years, for example, South Carolinians and Georgians, have held Emancipation Day programs on January 1, in honor of the Emancipation Proclamation. Big Bethel AME Church in Atlanta hosted a major event featuring oratorical contests, plays, music, and a shared meal. In many local communities, parades celebrated the service of Union troops, especially members of the USCT, and picnics showed African Americans claiming public spaces that they usually were forbidden to use.
Juneteenth and Emancipation Day festivities commemorated the struggles of people who had been enslaved. It was a way for their communities, and later their descendants, to honor their sacrifices and affirm their general hopes for a better future. It was also, however, a way for them to assert their humanity and rights to full citizenship. In times when it was illegal in many places for African Americans to even congregate in large numbers, these celebrations were an act of defiance. In Southern towns where Confederate defeat was deeply resented by white locals, parades by uniformed members of the USCT spoke to blacks’ joy about—and participation in—Union victory.
As the Civil War became more distant, Juneteenth and Emancipation Day programs focused on highlighting black achievement, showcasing rhetorical skill, fine arts accomplishments, and the progress of institutions like churches and schools. In 1957, when Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. addressed Atlantans at the NAACP Emancipation Day rally, he chose the subject “Facing the Challenge of a New Age.” His speech, broadcast live on the popular radio station WERD, was a rallying call for Civil Rights activism.
Unfortunately, as Southern African Americans migrated out of the region, many of their traditions were lost. Juneteenth and Emancipation Day seemed less urgent to the shifting community and the events grew smaller. But they never ceased entirely and Black Studies cultural programs in the 1970s intentionally pressed to recover these customs. Now, we no longer have all of the nuanced regional diversity that emerged in 1865, but we’ve recovered a rich, powerful, exciting, and fun-filled practice of celebrating the end of human enslavement in the United States.
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Buffalo, New York – Think Greenland’s ice sheet is small today?
It was smaller – as small as it has ever been in recent history – from 3-5,000 years ago, according to scientists who studied the ice sheet’s history using a new technique they developed for interpreting the Arctic fossil record.
“What’s really interesting about this is that on land, the atmosphere was warmest between 9,000 and 5,000 years ago, maybe as late as 4,000 years ago. The oceans, on the other hand, were warmest between 5-3,000 years ago,” said Jason Briner, Ph.D., University at Buffalo associate professor of geology, who led the study. “What it tells us is that the ice sheets might really respond to ocean temperatures,” he said. “It’s a clue to what might happen in the future as the Earth continues to warm.”
The findings appeared online on November 22 in the journal Geology. Briner’s team included Darrell Kaufman, an organic geochemist from Northern Arizona University; Ole Bennike, a clam taxonomist from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland; and Matthew Kosnik, a statistician from Australia’s Macquarie University.
The study is important not only for illuminating the history of Greenland’s ice sheet, but for providing geologists with an important new tool: A method of using Arctic fossils to deduce when glaciers were smaller than they are today.
Scientists have many techniques for figuring out when ice sheets were larger, but few for the opposite scenario.
“Traditional approaches have a difficult time identifying when ice sheets were smaller,” Briner said. “The outcome of our work is that we now have a tool that allows us to see how the ice sheet responded to past times that were as warm or warmer than present – times analogous to today and the near future.”
The technique the scientists developed involves dating fossils in piles of debris found at the edge of glaciers.
To elaborate: Growing ice sheets are like bulldozers, pushing rocks, boulders and other detritus into heaps of rubble called moraines. Because glaciers only do this plowing when they’re getting bigger, logic dictates that rocks or fossils found in a moraine must have been scooped up at a time when the associated glacier was older and smaller. So if a moraine contains fossils from 3,000 years ago, that means the glacier was growing – and smaller than it is today – 3,000 years ago.
This is exactly what the scientists saw in Greenland: They looked at 250 ancient clams from moraines in three western regions, and discovered that most of the fossils were between 3-5,000 years old. The finding suggests that this was the period when the ice sheet’s western extent was at its smallest in recent history, Briner said.
“Because we see the most shells dating to the 5-3000-year period, we think that this is when the most land was ice-free, when large layers of mud and fossils were allowed to accumulate before the glacier came and bulldozed them up,” he said.
Because radiocarbon dating is expensive, Briner and his colleagues found another way to trace the age of their fossils. Their solution was to look at the structure of amino acids – the building blocks of proteins – in the fossils of ancient clams. Amino acids come in two orientations that are mirror images of each other, known as D and L, and living organisms generally keep their amino acids in an L configuration.
When organisms die, however, the amino acids begin to flip. In dead clams, for example, D forms of aspartic acid start turning to L’s. Because this shift takes place slowly over time, the ratio of D’s to L’s in a fossil is a give-away of its age.
Knowing this, Briner’s research team matched D and L ratios in 20 Arctic clamshells to their radiocarbon-dated ages to generate a scale showing which ratios corresponded with which ages. The researchers then looked at the D and L ratios of aspartic acid in the 250 Greenland clamshells to come up with the fossils’ ages.
Amino acid dating is not new, but applying it to the study of glaciers could help scientists better understand the history of ice – and climate change – on Earth.
The study was funded by the National Geographic Society and U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF).
Check the following link to read/download the Full Study – “Amino Acid Ratios in Reworked Marine Bivalve Shells Constrain Greenland Ice Sheet History during the Holocene”:
Source: University of Buffalo.
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If given unknown compound, identify what functional groups and the reactions and properties
related to that. Use any hints in question about compound. First draw displayed formula if just
given structural formula.
• Pay most attention to the ‘weird’ stuff question says.
• If unsure, just use logic and go with it and persevere.
• Draw out into displayed formula first to avoid mistakes.
• If question says ‘less volatile’, they are comparing, so I need to compare.
• Always give reactants and conditions needed for reaction, even if question doesn’t ask for it.
• When asks for balanced equations in organic chemistry, do structural formula.
• If question gives in molecular, do molecular in answer.
• Exam usually gives structural, convert to displayed to make less mistakes. But make sure balanced
if an equation.
• Remember to state name of reaction mechanism.
• For suggest questions, just think of what examiner wants you to write, what proves knowledge.
• If questions presents two steps between reactant and product, means need to go round to get to
product, need an extra step.
• ‘Write the different isomers’-referring to E/Z if has double bond and explain what E/Z is in relation
• If two functional group on compound, will react twice if excess of reactant.
• Remember H3C.
• Acid catalysts are not part of chemical equation
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In this section, we will learn how we can create lists in an HTML document.
Lists in HTML
Using HTML elements, we can create lists of ordered or unordered types! To do this, we use the <ol> element (which stands for ordered list) and the <ul> element (which stands for unordered list)
Alright, let’s jump into the details and see how we can use these two elements and create ordered and unordered lists in HTML documents.
Types of Lists in HTML
As mentioned before, using HTML elements, we can create two types of lists in an HTML document:
- Ordered Lists
- Unordered Lists
Ordered List in HTML: <ol> Element
The HTML <ol> element stands for ordered list and it is used to create an ordered type of lists.
Note: those types of lists that are ordered in some fashion (like using numbers to represent each item in the list) these are called ordered list.
- Item one
- Item two
- Item three
HTML <ol> Element Syntax:
<ol> <li> item</li> <li> item</li </ol>
The <ol> element has opening and closing tags, and within the body of this element, we put the list items using the <li> element.
So each <li> element in the body of the <ol> element represents one item of the ordered list.
Example: ordered lists in HTML
HTML <li> Tag:
As mentioned before, the <li> element stands for List Item and is used within the body of those HTML elements that we use to create lists like <ol> and <ul> elements.
The element has an opening and closing tags and so anything we put within its body represents one item on the target list.
HTML Unordered List: <ul> Element
The <ul> element stands for Unordered List and we use it to create an unordered list of items.
Note: unordered lists of items are those that use bullet points to represent each item on the list.
HTML <ul> Element Syntax:
<ul> <li> item</li> <li> item</li> </ul>
Note: each <li> element we put inside the <ul> element represents one item on the final list.
Example: bullet points in HTML
HTML List Styles
For the ordered list, by default, we can see each item is associated with one number. Also, in an unordered list, we can see that each item is presented with a bullet point.
But these are the default style of items in ordered and unordered lists and it is possible to use other styles for the items as well!
For example, we can use alphabet characters to represent the items on an ordered list or use square or stars for each item of an unordered list, etc.
All these are possible using the CSS list-style-type property. In the linked section, we’ve mentioned the type of values that you can use for this property, but in short, we can set the value `square` if we want each item of an unordered list to be associated with a square. Or we can assign the value `lower-alpha` if we want to assign an alpha character to each item of an ordered list.
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While many books in the S-Collection are read for pleasure, they can also be used to teach concepts across the K-12 curriculum in a fun and engaging way. In this regard, the S-Collection works together with the Education and Social Science Library’s Curriculum Collection which includes textbooks, curriculum guides, and lesson plans for grades K-12 and beyond. The books below, all part of the Curriculum Collection which is located next to the S-Collection, utilize various trade books from the S-Collection in lesson plans, educational activities, and curricular units.
To find similar resources in the catalog, try doing an advanced search using subject terms for the curriculum area you are interested in (English, social studies, science, etc.) on the first line and “study and teaching” on the second line. Books that start with the prefix CURR. will be most helpful.
Neal-Schuman Guide to Recommended Children’s Books and Media for Use with Every Elementary Subject by Kathryn Matthew and Joy Lowe.
Each chapter of this book references a different curriculum subject (mathematics; social studies; science; language arts; health; sports, recreation, and dance; art; and music) and then breaks those subjects down even further in order to recommend picture books that are subject-specific. Books each have a short summary and citation, and at the end of each subsection there are “Explorations” or ideas for how to incorporate the books into lessons.
[CURR. 011.62 NEASCH 2010]
Picture Books Plus: 100 Extension Activities in Art, Drama, Music, Math, and Science
by Sue McCleaf Nespeca and Joan B. Reeve.
This book lists various picture books for each subject area and then suggests an extension activity for incorporating the book into a lesson. Materials, procedures, and additional extension ideas are listed for each book.
[CURR. 808.899282 AMLIBA 2003]
Curriculum Connections: Picture Books in Grade 3 and Up
by Carol Otis Hurst and Lynne Otis Palmer, et al.
Starts with a chart that lists the trade books it includes alphabetically by author, possible themes and curriculum ties, and each book’s strongest curriculum areas (language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, art, and music). The books that follow are each given three pages that include a short summary, illustration information, connections (a novel with the same subject material, themes, curriculum connections), various ideas for lessons in
different subjects, and related novels and picture books.
[CURR. 372.132 LINW 1999]
Language Arts and Writing
Using Picture Books to Teach Language Arts Standards in Grades 3-5
by Brenda S. Copeland and Patricia A. Messner.
Broken down into four parts (Sequencing the Plot Favorites, Comprehension Favorites, Story Elements Favorites, and Biography Favorites), this book gives picture book suggestions for third, fourth, and fifth grade. It lists the national language arts standards the book meets, skills it helps teach, and gives a lesson plan for the book, including reproducible graphic organizers.
[CURR. 372.6 LIBUN 2006]
Caldecott Connections to Language Arts by Shan Glandon.
Using eleven Caldecott Medal winners including Lon Po Po, Snowflake Bentley, Owl Moon, The Polar Express, and
Tuesday, this book provides between three to thirteen activity plans for each book. Activity plans include reproducible graphic organizers.
[CURR. 372.6043 LIBUN 2000]
Developing Better Readers and Writers Using Caldecott Books
by Kathryn I. Matthew.
The books in this volume are divided by genre and matched with recommended grade levels, standards for English Language Arts, and Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning (both of which are provided at the front of the book). A lesson for reading and a lesson for writing are then provided for each book, some of which are adjusted for both older and younger students. Brief biographical information about the author is also included with each book entry.
[CURR. 372.6 NEASCH 2006]
Using Literature to Enhance Writing Instruction: A Guide for K-5 Teachers
by Rebecca Olness.
Each of the first three chapters in this book discuss various aspects of writing and the reading-writing connection, as well as giving suggestions of books to use in writing activities, prompts, and assignments. Chapters four through nine each cover one trait of the Six-Trait Analytical Writing Model in depth and offer ideas and strategies to develop that trait including sample lesson plans and an annotated children’s literature bibliography. Chapter 10 includes final thoughts on reading aloud and writing.
[CURR. 372.623 INTRA 2004b]
Teaching Mathematics through Reading: Methods and Materials for Grades 6-8
by Faith Wallace and Jill Shivertaker.
The first two chapters of this book list the information and fiction trade books that are used throughout the lessons. Short summaries are provided. The rest of the book is devoted to various mathematics lesson plans using the trade books. Numbers and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, and Data Analysis and Probability are all covered.
[CURR. 510 LINW 2009]
Exploring Math with Books Kids Love by Kathryn Kaczmarski.
Each chapter in this book covers a different kind of mathematics (number relations, systems, and theory; computation and estimation; algebra, patterns, and functions; statistics; geometry; measurement) and then provides between two and eight lesson plans based on popular trade books. An appendix includes the NCTM standards for school mathematics.
[CURR. 511 FULCR 1998]
Math Through Children’s Literature: Making the NCTM Standards Come Alive
by Kathryn L. Braddon, Nancy J. Hall, and Dale Taylor.
Broken down by NCTM standard and then further divided by grade level (K-3 and 4-6), this book provides various activities for each trade book. A section at the end of each chapter lists related book and references for different mathematics subgenres within the larger genre.
[CURR. 511 TEAIP 1993]
Caldecott Connections to Science by Shan Glandon.
Various Caldecott Medal winners through the year 2000 are utilized to provide activity plans that teach science concepts. Between three and thirteen activity plans are provided for each book.
[CURR. 372.35043 LIBUN 2000]
Picture-Perfect Science Lessons: Using Children’s Books to Guide Inquiry, 3-6(expanded 2nd edition) by Karen Ansberry and Emily Morgan.
Published by the National Science Teachers Association, this book starts out by talking about why it’s important to read picture books in science class, why it’s important to read aloud, and a little bit about how to teach science through inquiry. The National Science Education Standards are then listed before detailed lesson plans for various trade books are provided.
[CURR. 500 NSTA 2010d]
Science Through Children’s Literature: An Integrated Approach, 2nd ed.,
by Carol M. Butzow and John W. Butzow.
This book is written around the concept of the “integrated unit” and chapters 1 and 2 show the reader how to teach with this strategy. The following chapters are divided by topic (seeds, fish, air pollution, nutrition, etc.). Each topic is given one trade book and includes a summary, science and content related concepts, content related words, activities, and related books and references. The book is divided into four parts: Using Children’s Literature as a Springboard to Science, Life Science, Earth and Space Science, and Physical Science.
[CURR. 500 TEAIP 2000]
Caldecott Connections to Social Studies by Shan Glandon.
Twelve Caldecott Medal winners are used to teach various social studies concepts to elementary-aged students. Between three and seven activity plans are offered for each book, divided into four sections: engage, elaborate, explore, and connect.
[CURR. 808.8 LIBUN 2000]
Reading the World with Picture Books by Nancy Polette.
This book is divided into eight parts. The first part introduces the seven continents and the last seven parts each cover one of the continents. The parts are then further broken down by country and for each country several picture books about, from, or related to that country are provided with short summaries. An activity that meets various national standards in Language Arts and Social Studies is then provided and applicable standards are identified.
[CURR. 372.4 LIBUN 2010]
Discovering World Geography with Books Kids Love
by Nancy A. Chicola and Eleanor B. English.
Divided into twelve realms (European, Russian, North American, Middle American, South American, North African/Southwest Asian, Subsaharan Africa, South Asian, East Asian, Southeast Asian, Australia, and Pacific), each realm is explored through sections on location, topography, climate, flora and fauna, and unique features. Several books about or from the realm are then given with detailed questions and activities for each book. Reproducible graphic organizers and blackline masters are provided for several of the books.
[CURR. 910 FULCR 1999]
Other Trade Book-Related Sources in the Curriculum Collection
Picture This! Using Picture Story Books for Character Education in the Classroom
by Claire Gatrell Stephens.
The lessons in this book cover the topics of citizenship and patriotism, courage, friendship, honesty, perseverance and patience, respect for self and others, responsibility and commitment, self-control, and sharing. One to three popular children’s books are suggested for each topic and various classroom activities are provided. There is also a section for each book that suggests ways to integrate the book into the music, science, social studies, language arts, and mathematics curriculum.
[CURR. 370.114 LIBUN 2004]
Teaching Problem Solving Through Children’s Literature
by James W. Forgan.
From the back cover of the book: “…teachers will find 40 ready-to-use lesson plans that focus on children’s literature characters faced with problem-solving situations, empowering students to independently solve problems in their own lives.”
[CURR. 153.43 TEAIP 2003]
Teaching Thinking Skills with Picture Books, K-3
by Nancy Polette.
This book is broken down into various types of thinking skills, such as analogy, brainstorming, comparing, flexibility, originality, predicting, and sequencing. Each skill is introduced with a definition and oral practice exercise, followed by booktalks for one or more picture books and thinking skills activities. Reproducible worksheets are included for most skills.
[CURR. 370.152 TEAIP 2007]
Learning about Winter with Children’s Literature
by Margaret A. Bryant, et al.
Part of a series on the seasons, this book caters to classrooms with all different skill levels represented. Lesson plans use symbols for emerging learners, typical learners, and advanced learners. The books are divided by month, with an author featured for each month. The Winter book features Frank Asch, Ezra Jack Keats, and Rita Gellman. Various curricular skills are addressed through children’s literature, poetry, and music.
[CURR. 808.899282 ZEPHR 2006A]
Learning about Fall with Children’s Literature
by Margaret A. Bryant, et al.
Part of a series on the seasons, the Fall book features Eric Carle, Bill Martin, Jr., and Ludwig Bemelmans.
[CURR. 808.899282 ZEPHR 2006]
Learning about Spring with Children’s Literature
by Margaret A. Bryant, et al.
The Spring book features Mercer Mayer, Leo Leoni, and Robert McClosky. Curricular skills are addressed through children’s literature, poetry, and music.
[CURR. 808.899282 ZEPHR 2006B]
Investigating Natural Disasters through Children’s Literature
by Anthony D. Fredericks.
Covering seven kinds of natural disasters (volcanoes, earthquakes, floods and tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, avalanches and landslides, and storms), this resource provides a summary of the book being used, science education standards related to the current unit, critical thinking questions, and several activities using the featured book or concepts taken from it.
[CURR. 904.5 TEAIP 2001]
Information Investigation: Exploring Nonfiction with Books Kids Love
by Laura Turner Pullis.
This book contains twelve units covering various topics in math, language arts, reading, social studies, and the arts. Each unit begins with a short summary of the book being used, themes that will be addressed, and skills that the unit will focus on. The units are then broken down into sections called Investigations, Parent Letter (to get parents involved and let them know what their child will be studying over the next few weeks), Unit Appendix, and Supporting Library.
[CURR. 028.5344 FULC 1998]
Get Up and Move with Nonfiction: Grades 4-8
by Nancy Polette.
Provides “more than 140 fun pre-reading and writing activities to stimulate interest in a variety of subject areas.” Using games and activities that appeal to kids, this book covers topics in science, mathematics, geography, and U.S. history by providing one or two activities and then suggesting a nonfiction title that complements and extends the activities.
[CURR. 028.55 TEAIP 2008]
Graphic Novels in Your Media Center: a Definitive Guide
by Allyson A.W. Lyga with Barry Lyga.
This volume provides a good overview of graphic novels and their usefulness in a school library. It then recommends a handful of good graphic novels for each school level (elementary, middle, and high school). Finally, seventeen lesson plans are provided using graphic novels for elementary through high school.
[CURR. 025.56 LIBUN 2004]
Teaching Science Fact with Science Fiction
by Gary Raham.
Science fiction is full of facts and scientific discoveries, and this book provides plenty of suggestions for finding and adapting science fiction literature to the classroom. Included are detailed ideas and resources for teaching concepts in the physical, earth, space, and life sciences as well as history and mathematics.
[CURR. 500 TEAIP 2004]
Integrating Art and Language Arts Through Children’s Literature
by Debi Englebaugh.
The first part of this book is devoted to teaching popular art techniques and how to implement them and adapt them to a variety of children’s books. The second part provides lessons for over 140 different children’s books covering a range of topics from the technique the illustrator used to the book’s theme or a single subject in the book. Every lesson is a link to language arts because of the literature used, and many lessons provide a specific language arts lesson to go along with the art lesson.
[CURR. 808.899282 TEAIP 2003]
Technology through Children’s Literature: Grades K-5
by Holly M. Doe.
This book is divided into sections on story elements, vocabulary, book reports, making use of the Internet, electronic books, comprehension strategies, and technology across the curriculum. Each section includes various activities that address skills for the category at hand and suggests children’s books to go along with the activities. Extensions and adaptations and additional resources are included for most activities.
[CURR. 808.899282 TEAIP 2003A]
Teaching Literacy Skills to Adolescents Using Coretta Scott King Award Winners
by Carianne Bernadowski.
Twelve Coretta Scott King award winning books are highlighted in this book. For each book, the following information is provided: bibliographic information, annotation, grade level, discussion starters, writing prompts, pre-reading activities, literacy strategies for during reading, post-reading activities, additional information about the author, and additional resources.
[CURR. 372.64 LIBUN 2009]
Curriculum Connections for Tree House Travelers for Grades K-4
by Jane Berner, et al.
Fans of the Magic Treehouse books will appreciate the lessons that incorporate them in this teacher resource for elementary students. The book covers dinosaurs, medieval times, ancient Egypt, and pirates using one Magic Treehouse book for each. Dozens of activities are provided for each topic.
[CURR 372.19 LINW 2008]
Graduate School of Library and Information Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Explore the concept of Manifest Destiny in this comprehensive course on American history. Delve into the ideological, cultural, and political motivations that drove the United States' westward expansion in the 19th century. Discover key events, influential figures, and the impact of this belief on indigenous populations and U.S. territory. Engage with primary sources and discussions to understand how Manifest Destiny shaped America's identity and its consequences for future generations.
You can also join this program via the mobile app. Go to the app
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://www.theurbanlawschool.com/challenge-page/b1c7c1d9-b67e-45b7-956b-c1af16d0a60d
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2025-06-24T04:49:51Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709776891.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20250624025904-20250624055904-00495.warc.gz
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It is a type of data structure wherein a single value one or more similar types of values are stored. Let’s understand it with the help of an example – suppose you have 20 numbers so for this you will need to define those 20 numbers instead of doing it you can put them in an array of length 20 as they are of a similar type (i.e.- numbers). There are different types of the array and each array is accessed by an array index.
- Numeric array – In this the values are accessed in a linear fashion having an array index as a numeric index. The numeric index starts with zero and can store numbers, strings, and any object.
- Associative array – this array is similar to a numeric array only in terms of functionality but the index terms used are different.it has a string as an array index which stores array values in association with key values rather than sticking to the linear index order.
For example – suppose you want to store the salaries of the employees in such a case the associative array is used where we can use the names of the employees as keys and the respective salary will be its value.
- Do not print the associative array in double-quotes as it would not return any value.
- Multidimensional array- Multiple indices are used to access this array which contains one or more arrays and values.
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<urn:uuid:b19228a3-e73c-41e8-aeeb-998bd321a75a>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
https://www.mygreatlearning.com/php/tutorials/php-arrays
|
2025-06-18T21:24:05Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481496.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20250618195736-20250618225736-00548.warc.gz
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The term “hepatitis” refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver and can be due to different possible causes, including toxic substances, such as alcohol or certain drugs and autoimmune diseases.
However, hepatitis viruses are the most common cause of hepatitis around the world. If left untreated, the condition can be self-limiting or can develop scarring of the liver (cirrhosis) or progress to fibrosis or liver cancer.
Viral hepatitis is one of the biggest global health threats of our time and the main viral infections of the liver that are classified as hepatitis include hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Some of the symptoms are similar, but they have different treatments:
Hepatitis A, sometimes called Hep A is a viral liver disease that can cause mild to severe illness and is caused by a small, non-enveloped hepatotropic virus named Hepatovirus A (HAV). The virus spreads by the fecal–oral route and is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated food and water or through direct contact with an infectious person. Most people who are infected recover completely with no permanent liver damage. However, although rare, hepatitis A can cause death in some people.
There are no specific medicines to cure infection with hepatitis A but recovery from symptoms following infection may take several weeks or months and normally gets better on its own.
Vaccines against hepatitis A are available, being effective in around 95% of cases and lasting for at least fifteen years after vaccination and possibly a person’s entire life. Vaccination against hepatitis A is recommended if you are travelling to countries where there are poor levels of sanitation and hygiene.
Hepatitis B or Hep B is an infection of the liver caused by a virus that spreads through blood and body fluids. Hepatitis B infections is caused by an enveloped DNA virus named hepatitis B virus (HBV).
In general, the virus is most commonly transmitted from mother to child during birth and delivery, as well as through contact with blood or other body fluids, such as blood, vaginal secretions, or semen, containing the hepatitis B virus.
Hepatitis B virus can can cause both acute and chronic infections. Most people recover in 6 months. However, in a long-term infection could lead to liver damage and be very serious, leading to cirrhosis and liver cancer.
Currently there is no cure for hepatitis B infection but medications can help keep the virus under control and stop it damaging your liver. Fortunately, the hepatitis B vaccine is a safe and effective vaccine that is recommended for all infants at birth, giving protection against the hepatitis B virus.
Hepatitis C or Hep C is the most common type of viral hepatitis and is caused by an enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus named hepatitis C virus (HCV).
Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact, being one of the most common bloodborne viral infections in the United States.
About 15 to 25 percent of people with the virus clear it without treatment. However, chronic hepatitis C is long-term and can lead to permanent liver scarring (cirrhosis) or liver cancer.
Currently there is currently no hepatitis C vaccine. However, hepatitis C infection can be treated with medicines that stop the virus multiplying inside the body. In addition, new treatments are available that can cure over 95 per cent of people who take them for eight to 12 weeks with few side effects.
Hepatitis D (hepatitis delta) is a is a serious liver disease contracted through direct contact with infected blood that is caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV), a small spherical enveloped virusoid.
Hepatitis D virus requires hepatitis B virus for its replication because it requires an envelope protein which is synthesised by the hepatitis B virus to enable it to infect liver cells. Therefore, it only affects people who are already infected with hepatitis B.
Patients who already have chronic hepatitis B infection can acquire hepatitis D virus infection at the same time as they acquire the hepatitis B infection, or at a later time. There is currently no cure or vaccine for hepatitis D, but it can be prevented using hepatitis B vaccines before being already infected with hepatitis B virus. In combination, infection of both, hepatitis B virus and hepatitis D virus, is very difficult to treat.
Hepatitis E is inflammation of the liver caused by infection with a positive-sense, single-stranded, non-enveloped, RNA virus name hepatitis E virus (HEV).
Hepatitis E virus is similar to hepatitis A virus in terms of disease, and mainly occurs in Asia where it is transmitted by contaminated water. Most people with hepatitis E get better within a few months. Usually it doesn’t lead to long-term illness or liver damage and rarely develops into a very severe disease that is fatal in about 2%. However, infection with hepatitis E virus can be very dangerous for anyone with weak immune systems, including elderly people and pregnant women.
In addition, a new Hepatitis G virus (HGV) was recently discovered and is under investigation, being its role in causing disease in humans is unclear.
Images: Pixabay and Freepik.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://bescienced.com/what-are-the-main-types-of-viral-hepatitis-treatment-and-vaccines/
|
2025-06-17T00:29:08Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481437.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20250617001152-20250617031152-00110.warc.gz
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en
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In this activity, you'll be using your knowledge of articulatory phonetics to transcribe spoken language. To do so, you'll be using the phonetic alphabet - a system designed by linguists to represent speech sounds on the page.
We've seen that each different speech sound can be represented by a phoneme. Let's transcribe a word together first. Take the word sing. How many different sounds does this word have? Say it out loud, thinking very carefully about the way that the vocal articulators move to create different sounds.
You'll have noticed three distinct sounds:
The three phonemes combine to create:
Note how we only need brackets around the whole string of phonemes, not each individual one.
Now it's your turn!
Remember: think about sounds not spelling. Say the word out loud and reflect on what the vocal articulators are doing during the process of speech production.
Transcribe the following:
Now transcribe the following words
Compare you results with a partner. Are there any differences that you can account for in terms of your accent? Look especially at numbers 7, 8 and 9 here.
Which words are transcribed here?
For each of the following transcriptions, there is at least one mistake in each of them. Can you find them, and provide a correct transcription?
|
<urn:uuid:600bf77c-0be2-41ea-b816-3149fae9ff48>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
http://englicious.org/book/export/html/7012
|
2025-06-13T23:11:29Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481282.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20250613213349-20250614003349-00237.warc.gz
|
en
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Learning how to solve a math problem in different ways has many benefits.
1. It helps students understand the underlying principles of a math topic.
2. It leads students to think about which approach is the fastest or most efficient way to solve a math problem.
3. It also leads students to understand that math questions can be posed in a variety of ways just like math problems can be solved in a variety of ways.
Let us begin with the third benefit. Some students can solve a math problem when it is presented in one way. When the same idea is presented in a different way, they are completely lost. Not only would this be a nightmare on the day of state assessments, this misunderstanding undermines the entire point of a math lesson.
This chart shows the different ways that multiplication can be presented. Many students just know of multiplication as being represented as "groups". Each example shows multiplication in a different context. It is important for students to understand the different ways that a math topic can be presented. It is also just as important for students to know that a math problem can be solve in a number of ways.
I can remember walking past a student that had not memorized his multiplication facts. He drew tiny circles on the corner of his paper to find the answer to a math problem. This leads to point two on our list. Using multiple approaches to solve a math problem helps students determine which one is the most efficient as well as fastest. There is a place for drawing tiny circles to determine the answer to a problem. Using this method is not the most efficient because it takes so much time. Showing how to solve the same math problem in multiple ways helps the student determine the best approach to solve a math problem.
Use the four box or two box approach. The math problem is written in the center of the page. The larger box can be divided into two or four parts. Each part can show a different way to solve the math problem.
To Access Math Task Cards That Teach And Review A Variety Of Math Concepts Click Here and Scroll Down
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<urn:uuid:21cb7e34-d5f6-42a0-bb07-506201191ea3>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
http://www.simplycenters.com/2014/11/solve-math-problem-in-different-ways.html
|
2025-06-17T05:20:55Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481437.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20250617032033-20250617062033-00049.warc.gz
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en
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Electric charge is the difference in unit expressed in number of electrons as compared to protons. The electron carries a negative charge while the proton carries a positive charge. If there are more electrons than protons, the atom has a negative charge. On the other hand, if there are more protons than electrons, the atom has a positive charge. SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). Our online charge converter Tool will convert a charge in 15+ units in just one click.
|
<urn:uuid:29fb596b-8488-4d6a-8c50-cfa07081fd86>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
https://tools.iplocation.net/charge-converter
|
2025-06-20T21:57:17Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481627.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20250620213755-20250621003755-00424.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.897861
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A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses available within a network. A single subnet mask limits the number of valid IPs for a specific network. Multiple subnet masks can organize a single network into smaller networks (called subnetworks or subnets). Systems within the same subnet can communicate directly with each other, while systems on different subnets must communicate through a router.
A subnet mask hides (or masks) the network part of a system’s IP address and leaves only the host part as the machine identifier. It uses the same format as an IPv4 address — four sections of one to three numbers, separated by dots. Each section of the subnet mask can contain a number from 0 to 255, just like an IP address. For example, a typical subnet mask for a Class C IP address is:
In the example above, the first three sections are full (255 out of 255), meaning the IP addresses of devices within the subnet mask must be identical in the first three sections. The last section of each computer’s IP address can be anything from 0 to 255. If the subnet mask is defined as 255.255.255.0, the IP addresses 10.0.1.99 and 10.0.1.100 are in the same subnet, but 10.0.2.100 is not.
A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 allows for close to 256 unique hosts within the network (since not all 256 IP addresses can be used).
If your computer is connected to a network, you can view the network’s subnet mask number in the Network control panel (Windows) or System Preference (macOS). Most home networks use the default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. However, an office network may be configured with a different subnet mask such as 255.255.255.192, which limits the number of IP addresses to 64.
Large networks with several thousand machines may use a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. This is the default subnet mask used by Class B networks and provides up to 65,536 IP addresses (256 x 256). The largest Class A networks use a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0, allowing for up to 16,777,216 IP addresses (256 x 256 x 256).
Updated February 14, 2019 by Per C.
|
<urn:uuid:e364313f-9434-4b65-bc27-7d2e5bd0feb7>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
https://livinghopegroup.com/glossary/subnet-mask/
|
2025-06-15T18:01:38Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481366.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20250615170437-20250615200437-00682.warc.gz
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en
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Introduction to Solar Energy through the Mystery Box Game
To kick off your lesson on solar energy, you’ll want to capture the students’ curiosity right from the start. A great way to do this is by incorporating a playful element known as the mystery box game. This game is not just for fun; it’s a strategic tool to pique interest and build anticipation for the topic of solar energy. Before the students even know what the day’s lesson will entail, present them with a selection of boxes, each containing an item related to solar energy. The catch is that they can’t see inside the box; they can only shake it and feel it from the outside. This initial engagement sets a tone of intrigue and excitement, laying the foundation for a deeper exploration of solar energy.
Engaging Students with the Basics of Solar Energy
With their interest piqued, it’s time to delve into what solar energy is and why it’s important. Begin by connecting to their existing knowledge about the Sun, highlighting its role as the central star of our solar system and our primary source of light and warmth. This connection helps students understand the Sun’s significance beyond just a bright object in the sky.
Next, introduce the concept of solar energy as the light and heat emanating from the Sun, and explain how this energy can be harnessed and transformed into electricity or used for heating. Use simple analogies, like comparing solar panels to plants, absorbing sunlight to grow and thrive. This helps demystify the process of converting solar energy into usable forms.
Emphasize the benefits of solar energy, particularly its renewable nature and its minimal impact on the environment compared to fossil fuels. Discussing the advantages of solar energy in combating climate change and reducing pollution makes the topic relevant and urgent, fostering a sense of responsibility among the students to care for their planet.
Unveiling the Mystery Box Game
Once the groundwork on solar energy has been laid, circle back to the mystery boxes. This is the moment to reveal the purpose behind the game. Each group of students gets a box and, based on their earlier guesses, discusses how the hidden item could be connected to solar energy. This discussion bridges their initial curiosity with the new knowledge about solar energy, deepening their understanding and engagement with the topic.
Solar Energy Project: Crafting a Simple Solar Oven
Now that the students are equipped with basic knowledge about solar energy and its importance, they’re ready for a hands-on project that puts theory into practice. Designing an off-grid solar oven solidifies their understanding and demonstrates the practical applications of solar energy in an interactive and tangible way.
Building the Solar Oven
Start by explaining the project and its objectives. The goal is to build a device that captures solar energy and converts it into thermal energy, enough to cook a simple food item. This practical application of solar energy illustrates the principles they’ve just learned and shows the potential of solar power in everyday life.
Materials and Preparation
Before the class, gather all the necessary materials for the solar oven project. Each group of students will need a pizza box, aluminum foil, clear plastic wrap, black construction paper, tape, and a stick or straw. The choice of materials is deliberate; they are readily available and safe for students to handle, ensuring an inclusive and engaging activity for all.
Walk the students through each step of constructing the solar oven:
Cutting a flap in the pizza box to create a window will allow sunlight to enter the box.Lining the flap and the interior bottom of the box with aluminum foil to reflect sunlight into the box enhances the oven’s ability to capture and retain solar energy.
Sealing the window with clear plastic wrap creates a greenhouse effect, trapping the sun’s heat inside the box.
Placing black construction paper inside the box to absorb heat increases the oven’s temperature. Ensuring all components are securely taped and that the box is as airtight as possible to maximize the oven’s efficiency.
Conducting the Experiment
Choose a sunny day for the outdoor experiment. Each group places a small food item, like a marshmallow or chocolate, inside their oven and positions it in direct sunlight. This hands-on experiment reinforces the concept of solar energy conversion and engages students in scientific observation and inquiry as they predict, observe, and record the results.
Conclusion and Reflection on the Solar Energy Project
After the experiment, it’s crucial to debrief and discuss the outcomes. Encourage students to share their observations and thoughts on why the solar oven was or wasn’t effective in cooking the food. This discussion should reinforce the concepts of solar energy absorption, conversion, and the greenhouse effect.
Link the project back to real-world applications of solar energy, such as solar panels in homes and businesses. This connection helps students understand the relevance of what they’ve learned and encourages them to think about how they can use solar energy in their communities and homes.
Finally, revisit the mystery box game and discuss the items in the boxes, revealing their significance and connection to solar energy. This moment of revelation ties the entire lesson together, showing students the practical implications of the concepts they’ve learned. Encourage them to reflect on how they can use items in the boxes in everyday life to harness solar energy, further emphasizing the lesson’s real-world applicability and inspiring them to think creatively about sustainable energy solutions.
|
<urn:uuid:1e6c879d-74ea-4146-a895-50fa0480273c>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
|
https://www.texascleanenergyproject.com/news-and-blog/introduction-to-solar-energy-through-the-mystery-box-game/
|
2025-06-24T18:42:10Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709779871.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20250624182959-20250624212959-00230.warc.gz
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en
| 0.909846
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8.26. Programming Exercises¶
Modify the depth first search function to produce a topological sort.
Modify the depth first search to produce strongly connected components.
method for theGraph
class.Using breadth first search write an algorithm that can determine the shortest path from each vertex to every other vertex. This is called the all pairs shortest path problem.
Using breadth first search revise the maze program from the recursion chapter to find the shortest path out of a maze.
Write a program to solve the following problem: You have two jugs, a 4-gallon and a 3-gallon. Neither of the jugs has markings on them. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get exactly two gallons of water in the 4 gallon jug?
Generalize the problem above so that the parameters to your solution include the sizes of each jug and the final amount of water to be left in the larger jug.
Write a program that solves the following problem: Three missionaries and three cannibals come to a river and find a boat that holds two people. Everyone must get across the river to continue on the journey. However, if the cannibals ever outnumber the missionaries on either bank, the missionaries will be eaten. Find a series of crossings that will get everyone safely to the other side of the river.
|
<urn:uuid:68e1de0e-7d82-4b50-9f33-c0511b054f91>
|
CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://runestone.academy/ns/books/published/pythonds/Graphs/Exercises.html
|
2025-06-15T00:17:09Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-26/segments/1749709481330.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20250614222335-20250615012335-00614.warc.gz
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What Are Contagious Viruses? Unraveling Transmission Pathways, Identification And Management
Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that are not visible to the naked eye and can infect people, sometimes fatally. Viruses can only divide and replicate within the host body as they need viable biological machinery to function.
Viruses contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat and sometimes a lipid envelope. They have diversity in shapes and sizes, how they infect, and their incubation period inside the host cell. One of the biggest examples of contagious viruses include the deadly COVID-19 virus; others are rhinovirus, influenza virus, hepatitis B, C, etc.
Contagious viruses can transmit from one source to another through various means of contamination. They can be transmitted through direct contact, respiratory droplets, or contaminated surfaces. Contagious viruses' capacity to spread quickly and effectively presents severe threats to public health, especially in locations with high population densities or during epidemics. Understanding the mechanisms underlying viral transmission and implementing the necessary preventive measures are critical to limiting the spread of these infectious organisms and protecting the health of the populace.
Read along to learn about contagious viruses and infectious diseases and the diagnosis, testing, and management of contagious viruses.
Table Of Contents
1. What Are Contagious Viruses?
2. What Is Meant By Contagious Disease?
3. How Can You Identify Contagious Virus?
4. How Can You Manage Contagious Diseases?
5. Expert’s Advice
6. The Final Say
What Are Contagious Viruses?
Contagious viruses are tiny microorganisms that can quickly spread from one person to another, leading to the infection's rapid transmission. There are various modes of transmission, such as:
Airborne Transmission: A few contagious viruses spread through the air droplets released by infected people, while others can then breathe in these droplets and get the infection.
Direct Contact: Direct physical contact with an infected person, such as hugging, kissing, shaking hands, or Using their belongings, such as handkerchiefs, towels, and bedsheets, might also spread the infection.
Indirect Contact: Infection spreads through touching contaminated surfaces like doorknobs, mobiles, toilet seats, etc.
Body Fluids: Body fluids like semen, saliva, sputum, etc., can be responsible for the spread of infection.
These contagious viruses are a matter of concern as they can be quickly disseminated among the general public. Places like schools, marketplaces, public transport, etc., can become pools of infection. How these contagious viruses infect and propagate in our bodies is explained below:
Examples of contagious viruses:
Rhinoviruses (Common Cold)
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
Varicella-Zoster Virus (Chickenpox)
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
What Is Meant By Contagious Disease?
Contagious diseases are also known as infectious diseases, which can be transmitted from one host to another through direct contact, body fluids, air droplets, etc. These diseases can be transmitted through bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
These infections are contagious and can affect anyone. It is more common for the elderly, young children, pregnant women, nursing moms, and people with weakened immune systems to contract an infection from another source. Most of these diseases may go away on their own or need treatment with medicines. But if not treated quickly, some infections can cause serious problems and even be deadly.
Severe, life-threatening complications include dehydration, pneumonia, blood infection, brain inflammation, haemorrhage, etc. Here's a quick overview of common contagious virus diseases, including the cause, how they spread, and typical symptoms:
How Can You Identify Contagious Virus?
On the onset of any primary symptom, the medical practitioner may ask for some investigation to identify the cause and eventually decide the treatment of the contagious disease. The standard tests or clinical examinations are as follows:
Swabbing nose or throat to get the mucus sample
Collecting blood, urine samples, stool samples, sputum, and other tissues.
Get imaging, such as an X-ray, CT scan, or MRI of the infected part.
Based on the results of the above-mentioned investigations, medical personnel would provide a suitable treatment for the particular disease.
How Can You Manage Contagious Diseases?
Managing contagious diseases involves medical treatment, public health interventions, and preventive measures.
Medical treatments can include antiviral or antibacterial medications and supportive care like hydration and rest. For mild fever, home remedies are recommended.
Public health strategies such as quarantine, isolation of infected individuals, contact tracing, and vaccination campaigns are essential to control the spread.
Individuals can contribute by practising good hygiene, wearing masks, and maintaining physical distance from others, especially during outbreaks.
As a health expert, I want to make the general mass aware of these contagious viruses because of their higher transmission rate. Along with the proper personal precautions, a well-balanced diet including antioxidants and essential fatty acids should be included in daily routine to avoid infection where the contamination cannot be avoided.
Staying hydrated is crucial, so drink plenty of water, herbal teas, and clear broths. A daily dietary routine should include immune-boosting functional foods like ginger, garlic, and citrus fruits. These strategies would not only help avoid infection but also help recover faster after the infection. Frequent meals and eating fewer portions should be encouraged while fighting the disease.
The Final Say
In conclusion, contagious viruses are a matter of concern as they can spread quickly from person to person, leading to outbreaks and affecting the general public. These viruses and certain bacteria can be responsible for spreading contagious diseases like COVID-19, influenza, norovirus, etc. These viruses have a specific transmission mode and propagate in the host body at different times.
By containing the transmission mode, these virus outbreaks and contagious diseases can be included in a particular area, and mass spread can be stopped. To avoid infection, one should take proper precautions like masks, hand hygiene and sanitisers.
1. What are the examples of infectious diseases?
Here are some examples of infectious diseases spread by contagious viruses:
2. How long is a virus contagious for?
The contagious period varies by virus. For example, flu viruses are typically contagious 1 day before symptoms appear and up to 7 days after, while COVID-19 can be contagious for several days to weeks, depending on the individual and the stage of the illness.
3. How can I prevent viral infections?
Preventive measures include:
Regular hand washing with soap and water
Using alcohol-based hand sanitisers
Avoiding close contact with sick individuals
Wearing masks in crowded or high-risk areas
Keeping vaccinations up to date
Practicing good respiratory hygiene (e.g., covering mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing)
Cleaning and disinfecting frequently touched surfaces
4. Are there treatments for viral infections?
Treatment depends on the virus and may include:
Antiviral medications: Specific drugs that can help treat certain viral infections.
Symptom relief: Over-the-counter medications to relieve symptoms like fever and pain.
Supportive care: Rest, hydration, and nutrition to support the body’s immune response
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://toneop.com/blog/what-are-contagious-viruses
|
2025-06-14T18:09:12Z
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Helping You in Understanding Your Rights
What are my civil rights?
"Civil rights" refer to the rights of individuals to receive equal treatment (and to be free from unfair treatment or discrimination) in a variety of settings, based on certain legally protected characteristics. In the United States, civil rights are primarily derived from the Constitution, particularly the Bill of Rights, as well as federal and state laws.
Here's an overview of key civil rights:
Equal Protection: The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees that all individuals receive "equal protection of the laws." This means that the government cannot discriminate against someone based on protected characteristics such as race, national origin, gender, and religion.
Freedom of Speech, Press, and Assembly: The First Amendment protects the rights of individuals to speak freely, publish opinions, and gather together peacefully. However, these rights are not absolute and can be limited in certain circumstances.
Freedom of Religion: The First Amendment also ensures the right to practice one's religion (or no religion at all) without government interference or coercion.
Right to Vote: Various amendments (such as the 15th, 19th, 24th, and 26th) protect the right to vote and prohibit discrimination in voting based on race, gender, and age (for those 18 and older).
Rights of the Accused: The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments provide several rights to those accused of crimes, including protection against unreasonable searches and seizures, the right to a fair trial, the right to remain silent, protection against double jeopardy and cruel and unusual punishment, and other legal protections.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: This pivotal federal law prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin in various contexts, including employment, education, and public accommodations.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: This law aims to eliminate racial discrimination in voting, particularly in areas with a history of discriminatory practices.
Fair Housing Act: Prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental, or financing of housing based on race, color, religion, gender, national origin, familial status, or disability.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): Prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, transportation, public accommodations, communications, and government activities.
Right to Privacy: While not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the right to privacy has been recognized by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right, protecting individuals from government intrusion into certain personal and intimate areas of their lives.
Rights Related to Reproduction and Marriage: Over the years, the courts have recognized rights related to personal decisions about marriage, family, and reproduction, including the right to marry a person of the same sex and the right to access birth control and abortion.
Education Rights: Laws like Title IX prohibit discrimination based on gender in federally funded education programs and activities.
These are broad overviews, and the application and nuances of these rights can vary based on specifics of individual cases and jurisdictions. If you feel that your civil rights have been violated or if you have questions about your rights in specific situations, it is advisable to consult with an attorney or legal expert specializing in civil rights law.
Is excessive force a violation of my civil rights?
- Severity of the Crime: The nature of the offense or crime the individual was suspected of committing.
- Immediate Threat: Whether the individual posed an immediate threat to the safety of the officers or others.
- Active Resistance: Whether the individual was actively resisting arrest or attempting to flee.
- Feasibility of Warnings: Whether officers provided warnings or instructions and the person's compliance or lack thereof.
- Proportionality: Whether the force used was proportional to the threat or resistance encountered.
How is it determined that excessive force was used?
Determining whether excessive force was used by law enforcement typically involves a careful review of all the facts and circumstances surrounding the incident. This assessment is generally guided by the "reasonableness" standard. Here's how the determination is usually made:
Objective Reasonableness Standard: The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Graham v. Connor (1989), established that the appropriateness of use of force by law enforcement officers must be judged on an "objective reasonableness" standard. This means the evaluation is based on what a reasonable officer would have done in the same situation, given the facts and circumstances known to the officer at the time, without the benefit of hindsight.
Totality of Circumstances: Courts will assess the entirety of the situation, including:
- The severity of the crime at issue.
- Whether the suspect posed an immediate threat to the safety of officers or others.
- Whether the suspect was actively resisting arrest or trying to flee.
Nature and Degree of Force: The specific type and amount of force used will be scrutinized against the backdrop of the situation. For example, using a firearm against an unarmed, non-resisting individual may be deemed excessive, while using it against an armed, aggressive suspect may not be.
Comparative Analysis: Comparisons might be drawn with how other officers in similar situations have acted or with departmental policies or training.
Injuries Inflicted: The severity and nature of any injuries sustained by the individual can provide evidence of the degree of force used. Severe or fatal injuries might be evidence of excessive force, but lack of injury doesn't necessarily mean force was reasonable.
Officer Testimony and Perspective: Officers involved will typically provide their account of events, explaining their perceptions, assessments of threat, and reasons for employing force.
Witness Testimony: Bystanders, other officers, and the individual against whom the force was used (if possible) can provide crucial perspectives on the incident.
Video and Audio Evidence: In today's age of technology, many incidents might be captured on video (body cameras, dashcams, security cameras, or cell phones). This footage can offer invaluable, albeit sometimes incomplete, insights into the event.
Departmental Policies and Training: Reviewing the standards and training provided to officers can help determine whether the force used was in line with accepted practices.
Expert Testimony: Often, experts in law enforcement tactics, use of force, and related areas may be called upon in legal proceedings to offer opinions on whether the force used was excessive.
It's essential to understand that the determination of excessive force isn't always clear-cut. It often requires weighing multiple factors and can vary based on jurisdiction, specific facts of the case, and the opinions of those reviewing the incident. When allegations of excessive force arise, it's often beneficial for all parties involved to seek legal counsel to navigate the complexities of such determinations.
What is the time limit for filing a civil rights complaint?
The time limit for filing a civil rights complaint, often referred to as the statute of limitations, can vary based on several factors, including the nature of the violation, the jurisdiction, and the specific law or provision under which you are filing. Here's a general overview:
Federal Civil Rights Laws:
- Under Section 1983, which allows individuals to sue for civil rights violations committed by state or local officials, the statute of limitations is not federally defined. Instead, it borrows the personal injury statute of limitations from the state in which the violation occurred. This can range from one to six years, depending on the state.
- For employment discrimination cases under federal laws like Title VII, the ADA, or the ADEA, a complainant generally must first file a charge with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) within 180 days from the day the discrimination took place. This can be extended to 300 days if a state or local agency enforces a law that prohibits employment discrimination on the same basis.
State Civil Rights Laws:
- Each state may have its civil rights laws with specific statutes of limitations. The time limits can vary widely, so it's essential to check the laws in the relevant state.
Other Federal Laws:
- For housing discrimination under the Fair Housing Act, you have one year to file a complaint with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and two years to file a lawsuit in federal court.
- For voting rights complaints under the Voting Rights Act, there is no specific statute of limitations, but general federal or state statutes may apply.
- Some civil rights complaints, especially those related to employment or housing, might first require an administrative complaint to be filed with a specific agency (like the EEOC for employment issues). The time limits for these complaints are often shorter than for filing a lawsuit.
- In certain situations, the statute of limitations can be tolled, or paused, such as when the victim is a minor or mentally incompetent. However, the rules for tolling also vary by jurisdiction and the nature of the claim.
Given the complexity and variability in statutes of limitations, if you believe your civil rights have been violated, it's crucial to consult with a legal professional as soon as possible. They can provide guidance specific to your situation and ensure you don't miss any critical deadlines.
Why should I hire your firm to represent me?
- Expertise and Experience: Our attorneys have combined decades of experience in handling cases like yours. This depth of knowledge means we're well-equipped to navigate the complexities of the legal system on your behalf.
- Personalized Attention: We prioritize building a strong attorney-client relationship. This means you're not just a case number to us. We take the time to understand your unique circumstances, needs, and goals.
- Proven Track Record: Our history of successful case outcomes speaks volumes about our capability and dedication. While past success doesn't guarantee future outcomes, it does highlight our commitment to achieving the best possible results for our clients.
- Transparent Communication: We believe in keeping our clients informed at every step. You'll always know where your case stands, and we're here to answer any questions you may have.
- Resourceful Approach: Our firm has access to a network of expert witnesses, investigators, and other resources that can be invaluable in building a strong case.
- Contingency Fee Structure: For personal injury cases and several other types of legal matters, we work on a contingency fee basis. This means you don't pay unless we win your case.
- Ethical Standards: We uphold the highest ethical standards. Our reputation is built on trust, integrity, and a commitment to justice.
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What Does Electromagnetic Compatibility Mean?
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of different electronic devices and components to work correctly even in the presence of other devices that emit electromagnetic waves. This means that each piece of equipment emitting EM waves or disturbances must have it limited to a certain level and that each individual device must have adequate immunity to EM disturbances in the environment it is meant to function in.
Techopedia Explains Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electromagnetic compatibility is also an entire branch of electrical engineering, a field of study concerned with the unintentional generation, propagation and reception of electromagnetic waves that cause unwanted effects on electronic equipment such as electromagnetic interference (EMI) or even physical damage. A good example of electronic devices not being electromagnetically compatible are speakers and cellular phones. When a phone is set next to a speaker, it does not react because the EM wave emissions are minimal, but when there is an incoming call or message the EM waves emitted are stronger and these are caught in the speaker’s coils, generating electricity that makes the speaker produce static sound.
Electromagnetic interference can cause damaging effects to various technologies, which is why electromagnetic compatibility aims to control this interference in order to mitigate risk of equipment damage.
Disciplines related to the promotion of electromagnetic compatibility and control of electromagnetic interference include:
- Threat characterization – Finding relevant EM emission threats
- Setting of standards for emission and vulnerability levels – Standardizing what level of emissions are acceptable
- Designing for standard compliance – Designing a standard for designers and manufacturers to comply to
- Testing for standard compliance – Testing the designs for compliance and adherence to standards
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Learning About Digital Footprint Sorting Activities
Description of Cricut Lesson & Activity
The objective of this lesson is to introduce and dive deeper into the concept of “digital footprint” while exploring digital citizenship and internet safety. These sorting games will help students understand the impact of their online activities and how to manage their digital footprint responsibly.
The activity is created as a Print and Cut for the Cricut and the lesson will be ready to use immediately.
- 1.2 Digital Citizen
1.2.a Digital Footprint
- ISTE standard 1.2.a: Students manage their digital identity and understand the lasting impact of their online behaviors on
themselves and others and make safe, legal and ethical decisions in the digital world.
- 9 pieces of 8.5x11 cardstock
- Blue or green cutting mat
- Optional: Lamination
In Cricut Design Space go the project. https://design.cricut.com/landing/project-detail/669a8ed6424aa79ae984c653 The file is ready to print and then cut on the Cricut machine. For longer use, laminate the pieces. The game is ready to play on a table. If you’d like to use it on a whiteboard, add a small piece of magnet to the back of each piece.
Playing the Game:
- There are headings for each game. The first sort, “Influences of the Digital Footprint” has titles “Influences Digital Footprint” and “Does NOT Influence Digital Footprint.” The point of this section is to introduce to students exactly what types of activities make up a digital footprint. The second sort “Positive and Negative Influences” dives deeper into specific activities that can influence a digital footprint.
- If playing as a group, mix up all the examples for one sort and distribute them among the students. (The pieces are color and shape coded to make sorting the two various games easy.)
- Ask each student to read their example aloud and decide which heading it belongs under. Discuss why each example was placed in the particular area.
- Students can have individual practice to reinforce the skills. Ask the students to sort each example under the correct
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Scientists have donned their Sherlock Holmes caps to solve a mystery that's been running for decades – the origins of a huge, layered expanse of CO2 ice and water ice at the south pole of Mars, and its link to the CO2 in the Martian atmosphere.
One leading hypothesis is that these layers were packed on top of each other as the axis of Mars tilts towards and away from the Sun, and simulation models published in a new study back up that idea.
The ice cap in question is around a kilometre (two-thirds of a mile) deep, and is thought to hold as much CO2 as there is in the entirety of the Martian atmosphere today, and a combination of factors have produced this unusual layered pattern.
"Usually, when you run a model, you don't expect the results to match so closely to what you observe," says Peter Buhler, a planetary scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
"But the thickness of the layers, as determined by the model, matches beautifully with radar measurements from orbiting satellites."
What makes the ice cap at the south pole so strange is that it shouldn't really be there – water ice is more thermally stable and darker than CO2 ice, so scientists would expect CO2 ice to destabilise when trapped under water ice.
Three factors have stopped that from happening, according to the new model: the changing tilt of Mars as it orbits the Sun, the differences in the way that these two types of ice reflect sunlight, and the change in atmospheric pressure that happens when CO2 ice turns into a gas.
The 'wobbles' of Mars on its rotational access would change the amount of sunlight reaching the south pole – forming CO2 ice during some periods and subliming it (transitioning it from a solid to a gas) during other periods.
During the periods of ice formation, water ice would've been trapped alongside the CO2. As sublimation happened, this more stable ice would have remained behind, forming the layers now present at the south pole of Mars.
As time has gone on, the changing climate of the Red Planet has meant that not all the CO2 ice was sublimed each time, stacking up successive layers of CO2 ice and water ice. The models show this process changing the atmospheric pressure – from between one-quarter to two times the level that it is today – just as Leighton and Murray predicted in the 1960s.
This has been going on for some 510,000 years, the scientists suggest – since the last period of extreme solar sunlight, when all the CO2 would have been sublimed into the Martian atmosphere.
Being more confident in the story behind the ice cap at the south pole of Mars means researchers can potentially understand more about the long-term history of the planet – peering back billions of years.
"Our determination of the history of Mars's large pressure swings is fundamental to understanding the evolution of Mars's climate, including the history of liquid water stability and habitability near Mars's surface," says Buhler.
The research has been published in Nature Astronomy.
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Earth faces unprecedented changes: climate change exacerbates extreme weather events, deforestation depletes green cover, and groundwater depletion threatens water security. Land degradation compromises soil fertility, while ocean acidification harms marine life. Plastic pollution and urban expansion further degrade ecosystems. Ozone depletion increases UV radiation exposure, while species extinction diminishes biodiversity and disrupts ecosystems. Water scarcity becomes a looming crisis, adding to the challenges of a rapidly changing planet.
Climate Change: The Escalating Crisis
- Greenhouse gases: Describe their role in raising global temperatures.
- Global warming: Discuss the impacts on ice caps, weather patterns, and ecosystems.
- Sea level rise: Explain the threats to coastal communities, shorelines, and biodiversity.
Climate Change: The Escalating Crisis
Greenhouse Gases: The Culprits of Rising Temperatures
Our planet is shrouded in a delicate layer of gases that act like a blanket, keeping the Earth warm and habitable. However, the balance of these gases has been disrupted by human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. These activities release vast quantities of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere, trapping heat and causing a rise in global temperatures.
Global Warming: Unleashing a Cascade of Impacts
As the Earth’s temperature rises, we witness a cascade of devastating impacts. The polar ice caps are melting at an alarming rate, threatening coastal communities with rising sea levels and disrupting global weather patterns. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods, are becoming more frequent and intense, wreaking havoc on ecosystems and human civilization.
Sea Level Rise: An Imminent Threat to Coastlines
Rising sea levels pose an impending threat to coastal communities worldwide. As the oceans expand due to thermal expansion and melted ice, shorelines are eroded, ecosystems are destroyed, and biodiversity is lost. Low-lying islands and coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to inundation and displacement. The devastation caused by sea level rise is a grim reminder of the urgent need to address climate change.
Deforestation: The Devastating Loss of Green Cover
As we tread through the 21st century, the world faces a multitude of pressing environmental challenges. Among them, deforestation stands as a formidable threat, leaving an indelible mark on our planet and its inhabitants.
Habitat Loss: The Displacement of Wildlife
Deforestation’s most immediate impact falls upon wildlife. Vast tracts of forest serve as intricate habitats, providing shelter, food, and breeding grounds for an astonishing array of species. When these forests are cleared for development or agriculture, wildlife is forced to disperse or perish. This habitat loss disrupts entire ecosystems, leading to a decline in biodiversity and a diminished ability to support life.
Biodiversity Loss: The Extinction of Species
The loss of forest habitats has far-reaching consequences for biodiversity. Forests are reservoirs of genetic diversity, housing an estimated 80% of the world’s terrestrial species. When these forests are destroyed, it triggers a domino effect. Species become extinct, food webs are disrupted, and the resilience of ecosystems is compromised. The disappearance of even a single species can have unforeseen ripple effects throughout the delicate balance of nature.
Soil Erosion: The Loss of Fertile Earth
Deforestation accelerates soil erosion, a process that strips away the fertile topsoil that sustains life. Tree roots play a vital role in anchoring soil and preventing it from being washed away by rain and wind. Without this protective layer, soil is easily eroded, robbing the land of its productivity and increasing the risk of severe flooding. The loss of fertile soil poses a grave threat to agriculture and food security, making it increasingly difficult to feed the growing global population.
Deforestation is a pressing global issue that requires urgent attention. The destruction of forests not only disrupts the lives of wildlife but also undermines the health of our planet. It is a challenge that demands collective action, from governments to individuals. By raising awareness, promoting sustainable land management practices, and protecting forests for future generations, we can safeguard the biodiversity, ecosystem services, and resilience upon which life depends.
Groundwater Depletion: The Invisible Crisis
Groundwater, the hidden reservoir beneath our feet, is facing a dire threat. Over-extraction has led to falling water tables, leaving a trail of consequences that jeopardize our water security and infrastructure.
Aquifer Depletion: A Hidden Crisis
Aquifers, the water-bearing layers of rock or sediment, are being over-pumped to meet the demands of growing populations, agriculture, and industry. As water is extracted faster than it can be replenished, these aquifers dwindle, leaving behind dry wells and falling water tables.
Water Shortages: A Looming Threat
The depletion of groundwater has catastrophic effects on water availability. Homes, communities, and businesses face water shortages, threatening human health and economic growth. Agriculture, the lifeblood of many regions, is crippled as crops wither without adequate irrigation.
Land Subsidence: A Silent Hazard
Aquifer depletion triggers a silent hazard: land subsidence. As water is removed, the soil above compacts, sinking the land. This subsidence damages infrastructure, disrupts drainage systems, and increases the risk of coastal flooding.
Mitigation and Solutions
Addressing groundwater depletion requires a multifaceted approach:
- Sustainable water management: Regulating water extraction and promoting conservation measures.
- Aquifer recharge: Implementing projects to replenish aquifers through rainwater harvesting and other techniques.
- Water-efficient technologies: Encouraging the use of water-saving technologies in agriculture and industry.
- Water reuse: Exploring wastewater treatment and desalination to augment water supplies.
Groundwater depletion is an invisible crisis that poses a grave threat to our future. By recognizing the urgency of this issue and implementing sustainable solutions, we can safeguard this precious resource for generations to come.
Land Degradation: The Silent Deterioration of Earth’s Surface
The Soil Beneath Our Feet
Soil, the lifeblood of our planet, faces a silent and insidious threat: degradation. Human activities, such as deforestation, overgrazing, and improper farming practices, are stripping our soils of their vitality, leaving them barren and unproductive. This silent deterioration threatens the very foundation of our ecosystems and our food security.
Soil Degradation: A Loss of Fertility
Soil degradation, the loss of soil fertility, is a growing problem worldwide. Overgrazing, when livestock graze on land without giving it time to recover, compacts the soil, destroying its structure and making it less able to absorb water and nutrients. Deforestation, the clearing of forests for agriculture or urban development, removes the protective layer of vegetation that holds soil in place, making it susceptible to erosion by wind and water. Erosion carries away the fertile topsoil, leaving behind depleted soil with reduced organic matter and nutrients.
Desertification: The Spread of Aridity
Desertification, the transformation of productive land into arid and desert-like conditions, is another devastating consequence of land degradation. When soil is degraded, it loses its ability to retain water, creating a cycle of dryness that leads to the loss of vegetation and further soil degradation. This process, often caused by unsustainable agricultural practices and climate change, is exacerbating the spread of deserts worldwide.
Loss of Agricultural Productivity: A Threat to Food Security
Land degradation has dire consequences for agricultural productivity. Degraded soils are less fertile, producing lower crop yields. This threatens food security for billions of people worldwide, particularly those living in developing countries where agriculture is the backbone of their economies and livelihoods. Moreover, soil degradation can disrupt water cycles, making it difficult to irrigate crops and further reducing agricultural productivity.
Ocean Acidification: The Corrosive Threat to Marine Life
Marine Ecosystems: An Undersea Battleground
The vast oceans that cover our planet are home to an astounding array of marine life, from the tiniest plankton to the majestic whales. However, these thriving ecosystems are facing a formidable threat: ocean acidification.
As the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs increasing levels of carbon dioxide from human activities, a portion of this carbon dioxide dissolves into the oceans. This triggers a series of chemical reactions that cause the pH of seawater to drop, making it more acidic.
Coral Reefs: Victims of a Silent Killer
The impacts of ocean acidification are devastating for marine life, especially coral reefs. These vibrant underwater structures are built by tiny organisms called coral polyps. As seawater becomes more acidic, it dissolves the calcium carbonate that these polyps need to build their skeletons, leaving them vulnerable and prone to disease.
Coral Bleaching: One of the most visible signs of ocean acidification is coral bleaching. When corals lose their symbiotic algae, they lose their color and their primary source of nutrients. Bleached corals are more susceptible to stress, disease, and eventually death.
Shellfish Struggles: Shellfish, such as oysters, clams, and mussels, depend on calcium carbonate to build their protective shells. As seawater becomes more acidic, it makes it more difficult for these creatures to form strong shells, leaving them vulnerable to predators and environmental stresses.
Protecting Our Seas: A Race Against Time
Ocean acidification is a serious threat to the health of our oceans and the livelihoods of millions of people who rely on them. By reducing our carbon footprint and transitioning to renewable energy sources, we can help mitigate the effects of this corrosive threat.
Protecting our marine ecosystems is not just about preserving the beauty of coral reefs or the survival of shellfish; it is about ensuring the health and resilience of the entire planet. The choices we make today will determine the fate of our oceans and the countless species that call them home.
Ozone Depletion: The Silent Menace of UV Radiation
- Ultraviolet radiation: Describe the increase in exposure to harmful UV rays from the sun.
- Skin cancer: Highlight the elevated risk of skin cancer, including melanoma.
- Cataracts: Explain the damage to the eye’s lens, leading to impaired vision and blindness.
Ozone Depletion: The Silent Menace Lurking in our Skies
In the tapestry of environmental crises, one often overlooked menace looms over us like an invisible phantom – ozone depletion. This insidious process robs our planet of its protective shield against the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, leaving us exposed to a barrage of invisible daggers that can wreak havoc on our health.
Ultraviolet Radiation: The Sun’s Hidden Threat
At the heart of this crisis lies the thinning of the ozone layer, a protective blanket of gases in the Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. This radiation falls into three main categories, each with its own sinister consequences:
- UVA: Penetrating deep into the skin, UVA rays can cause premature aging, wrinkles, and the dreaded skin cancer known as melanoma.
- UVB: Responsible for most sunburns, UVB rays can also damage the skin’s DNA, increasing the risk of skin cancer.
- UVC: The most harmful of the trio, UVC rays are thankfully absorbed by the ozone layer, preventing them from reaching Earth’s surface.
Skin Cancer: A Deadly Epidemic
As ozone depletion exposes us to more UV radiation, the incidence of skin cancer has skyrocketed worldwide. Melanoma, the deadliest form of skin cancer, is particularly insidious. It often goes unnoticed in its early stages, making it difficult to detect and treat successfully.
Cataracts: Clouding the Vision
The eyes are not spared from the wrath of UV radiation. Prolonged exposure can lead to cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens that results in impaired vision and can even lead to blindness. The burden of cataracts falls disproportionately on those who spend long hours outdoors without adequate eye protection.
A Call to Action
Ozone depletion is not an abstract threat; it is a silent menace that poses real and serious risks to our health. By understanding the dangers and taking steps to protect ourselves from harmful UV radiation, we can mitigate the consequences of this environmental crisis. Sunscreen, protective clothing, and hats should become essential accessories whenever we venture outdoors, especially during peak UV hours. Additionally, supporting efforts to reduce emissions that contribute to ozone depletion is crucial in safeguarding our planet’s ozone layer for future generations.
Plastic Pollution: The Perilous Invasion of Our Planet
In the vast expanse of our oceans, a silent yet insidious threat lurks. Plastic pollution, an unwelcome invader, has infiltrated our marine ecosystems, wreaking havoc on marine life and polluting our planet.
Oceans as Plastic Dumping Grounds
Humans produce an overwhelming amount of plastic waste, much of which finds its way into our waterways. This plastic doesn’t simply vanish; it accumulates in our oceans, forming vast floating garbage patches and polluting shorelines around the world. From tiny microplastics to discarded fishing nets, plastic debris is now a ubiquitous sight in our marine environments.
Marine Life at Risk
The accumulation of plastic in oceans poses grave risks to marine life. _Sea turtles, whales, dolphins, and numerous other species_mistake plastic for food, leading to ingestion, starvation, and death. Plastic ingestion can also block digestive tracts, cause internal injuries, and leach toxic chemicals into their bodies.
Beyond ingestion, plastic pollution also poses a physical threat to marine wildlife. Discarded fishing nets, plastic straps, and other debris can entangle animals, causing injuries, suffocation, and death. Birds, seals, and sea turtles are particularly vulnerable to entanglement, often with fatal consequences.
Human Health Concerns
The threat of plastic pollution extends beyond marine life. Microplastics, tiny fragments of plastic less than 5 mm in size, are now found in our oceans, food chain, and even drinking water. Studies have linked microplastic ingestion to a range of potential health risks, including inflammation, reduced fertility, and developmental disorders.
A Call to Action
Plastic pollution is a pressing issue that requires urgent action. Reducing our plastic consumption, improving waste management, and supporting initiatives that remove plastic from oceans are crucial steps towards mitigating this crisis. By taking collective responsibility, we can protect our oceans, marine life, and our own health from the perilous invasion of plastic pollution.
Species Extinction: The Irreversible Loss of Biodiversity
In the tapestry of life on Earth, each species plays a unique and intricate role. Namun, today, this delicate balance is threatened by a growing specter: species extinction. As the human footprint expands and natural habitats dwindle, the irreversible loss of biodiversity poses a grave threat to the planet’s ecological health and our own well-being.
Biodiversity Loss: The Silent Thief
Biodiversity, the variety of life forms on Earth, is vital for maintaining the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Every species, from the tiniest microorganisms to the majestic whales, contributes to the intricate web of life. When species disappear, it is not just their loss that we mourn, but also the countless interactions and ecosystem services they provide.
Ecosystem Collapse: The Domino Effect of Loss
The loss of species has a ripple effect that reverberates throughout ecosystems. When key species such as predators or pollinators are gone, food webs become disrupted and populations decline. This can lead to a cascading ecosystem collapse, where entire ecosystems lose their balance and essential functions, endangering the survival of countless other species.
Ecological Disruption: A Cascade of Consequences
Beyond disrupting food webs, species extinction can also alter fundamental ecosystem functions. For instance, the loss of plant species can disrupt nutrient cycling, affecting soil fertility and water quality. Similarly, the disappearance of pollinators can lead to reproductive declines in plant populations, further exacerbating biodiversity loss.
The consequences of species extinction are far-reaching. It threatens the stability of ecosystems, undermines our food security, and diminishes the beauty of our planet. It is a silent crisis that demands immediate action to protect the irreplaceable treasures of biodiversity.
Urbanization: The Transformation of Natural Landscapes
Our planet is undergoing a rapid urbanization process, with an increasing number of people migrating from rural to urban areas. While this transformation offers many benefits, it also poses significant challenges to our natural landscapes.
Shrinking Wildlife Habitats and Fragmentation
As urban areas expand, they encroach upon natural habitats, fragmenting them into smaller and isolated patches. This loss of contiguous habitat has a detrimental impact on wildlife, as it reduces their ability to find food, shelter, and mates. Habitat fragmentation also disrupts ecological processes, such as seed dispersal and pollination.
Air Pollution: A Growing Threat
Urbanization brings with it a surge in emissions from vehicles, industries, and buildings. These emissions contribute to air pollution, which can cause respiratory problems, including asthma and bronchitis. Air pollution can also damage plants and impair visibility.
Traffic Congestion: A Growing Frustration
Overcrowded roads and traffic delays are common features of urban life. This congestion leads to increased air pollution, as well as noise levels and stress. Traffic congestion can also hinder access to essential services and reduce the livability of urban areas.
Addressing the Challenges of Urbanization
The challenges posed by urbanization require a comprehensive approach that balances the need for development with the preservation of our natural landscapes. This includes:
- Promoting sustainable urban planning: Designing cities that prioritize green spaces, public transportation, and energy efficiency.
- Reducing air pollution: Implementing measures such as emissions controls, public transportation promotion, and the adoption of renewable energy sources.
- Mitigating traffic congestion: Investing in public transportation infrastructure, promoting carpooling, and encouraging walking and biking.
By addressing these challenges, we can create livable and sustainable urban areas that coexist harmoniously with our natural landscapes.
Water Scarcity: The Looming Crisis
The Silent Threat
Water is the lifeblood of our planet, yet it’s becoming increasingly scarce. Droughts, water stress, and water conflicts are intensifying, posing a dire threat to humanity and the environment.
The Dreaded Drought
Imagine a parched landscape where rivers run dry and crops wither. Droughts are prolonged periods of low rainfall, leaving communities desperate for water. In California, for example, the recent drought caused severe water shortages, forcing rationing and emergency measures.
Water Stress: A Balancing Act
Water stress occurs when demand exceeds supply. As populations grow and economies expand, the demand for water increases. In regions like the Middle East and North Africa, water stress is a chronic issue, leading to increased competition and conflicts.
Water Conflicts: A Bitter Struggle
When water resources are scarce, tensions can escalate. Water conflicts arise when different groups or nations compete for access to water. The Nile River, for instance, is a lifeline for several countries, and water rights disputes have fueled tensions in the region.
Addressing the Crisis
Solving the looming water crisis requires urgent action. Conservation measures, such as reducing water consumption and using water-efficient technologies, are crucial. Investments in infrastructure, like dams and water treatment plants, can help manage and distribute water more effectively.
The Power of Cooperation
Collaboration and a shared understanding of the value of water are essential. By working together, communities and nations can develop sustainable water management practices, resolve conflicts, and ensure a future where water scarcity does not threaten our well-being.
Water scarcity is a pressing issue that requires immediate attention. By recognizing the severity of the crisis and implementing innovative solutions, we can safeguard this precious resource for generations to come.
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EdPlace's Year 4 Home Learning Maths Lesson: Area
Looking for short lessons to keep your child engaged and learning? Our experienced team of teachers have created English, maths and science lessons for the home, so your child can learn no matter where they are. And, as all activities are self-marked, you really can encourage your child to be an independent learner. Get them started on the lesson below and then jump into our teacher-created activities to practice what they've learnt. We've recommended five to ensure they feel secure in their knowledge - 5-a-day helps keeps the learning loss at bay (or so we think!).
Are they keen to start practising straight away? Head to the bottom of the page to find the activities.
Now...onto the lesson!
Can your child confidently find the area of different shapes?
Area is a key concept for children to learn by the end of Key Stage 2. It is often taught alongside perimeter and it is very easy to get the two concepts muddled!
At EdPlace we’re surrounded by a team of experts who communicate these concepts with children on a day-to-day basis, and we’re ready to share their teaching gems with you. Follow the step-by-step approach below to make working with area as easy as pie! Every good lesson has a purpose or an objective. We’re confident by the end of this that your child will be able to:
1) Understand what area is
2) Apply this understanding to find areas of shapes drawn on squared paper
3) Explain how to use their mental maths facts to speed up the process and find areas of more complex shapes quickly and accurately.
Step 1 - Key terminology
Before we start finding areas of shapes it’s important to check that your child understands what the key terminology means.
The area of a 2D shape is defined by the amount of surface which is covered by the shape. When finding the area of a shape drawn on squared paper, this is very simple. You just count the squares covered by the shape!
Step 2 - Understand area
In year 3, your child will have been taught to measure the perimeter of shapes. This is the distance around the edge of a shape and children are often taught to count the number of square edges a shape has to find its perimeter.
For example, this shape shown on 1 cm squared paper has a perimeter of 10 cm. This is because the outside of the shape is 10 square edges long.
In year 4, the concept of area is introduced and this can sometimes cause confusion for children when they muddle the concepts of area and perimeter since both are commonly explained using shapes drawn on squared paper. In the next section, we will explore how to ensure this concept becomes easy peasy!
Step 3 - Calculating area
In year 4, children will be shown shapes drawn on squared backgrounds and they will be told what each square represents. This is commonly 1cm² or 1m² but it is good practice to read the question fully to check this.Area is sometimes just counted as squares but is also often represented using a small number 2 just after the measure of unit. This shows that the unit is a squared unit. E.g. The diagram below shows a square with sides all 1cm. The area of this square would be 1cm² or one centimetre squared.
If we look again at the shape from step 2, we can see that the area of the shape would be 6cm². This is because the shape covers 6 of the 1cm² squares.
This is all very nice and easy when we are calculating or counting the area of squares and rectangles. However, in year 4, your child will begin to work with slightly more complicated shapes. This could include shapes which are a more complex shape like this one:
1 square = 1cm²
These can be a little trickier and it can help to divide the shape into more than one piece to ensure the squares are counted accurately.
4 + 12 = 16cm²
By splitting the shape up and then adding the two totals together we can find the area.
Another type of shape your child might encounter is like this, with half squares:
1 square = 1cm²
4 halves – 2 wholes
2 + 12 = 14cm²
We can add the half squares together to make whole ones, as shown above.
Step 4 - Putting it into practise...
Why not apply the above to the following area questions together?
a) Find the area of the following shape drawn on 1cm squared paper.
b) Find the area of the following shape drawn on paper where 1 square represents 1m².
c) What is the area of the following shape in cm²?
d) Order these shapes from smallest to largest area. Each square is 1cm².
Step 5 - Give it a go...
Now that you’ve covered this lesson together, why not put this to the test and assign your child the following area activities in this order? All activities are created by teachers and automatically marked. Plus, with an EdPlace subscription, we can automatically progress your child at a level that's right for them. Sending you progress reports along the way so you can track and measure progress, together - brilliant!
a) The square has an area of 16cm².
b) The shape has an area of 12m².
c) The shape has an area of 10cm².
d) The correct order is C (4½cm²), A (8cm²), B (9cm²) then D (10cm²).
Keep going! Looking for more activities, different subjects or year groups?
Click the button below to view the EdPlace English, maths, science and 11+ activity library
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In modern society, proper waste management has become a pressing issue. With the growing population and increasing consumption, the amount of waste produced has dramatically increased over the years. Improper disposal of waste not only poses a threat to the environment but also affects public health and economic sustainability. Therefore, it is crucial for governments to take measures in encouraging responsible behavior when it comes to rubbish collection. In this article, we will discuss how the government guides and influences rubbish collection practices.
Government Policies and Regulations
One of the primary ways the government guides rubbish collection is through policies and regulations. These policies are aimed at promoting responsible behavior among citizens, businesses, and other organizations in managing their waste. For instance, many countries have implemented recycling laws that require citizens to sort their waste into separate bins for recycling purposes. This promotes responsible behavior by encouraging individuals to properly dispose of their waste in an environmentally-friendly manner.
Moreover, governments also introduce fines and penalties for those who do not comply with these policies and regulations. This serves as a deterrent for irresponsible behavior and encourages citizens to follow proper waste management practices. In some countries, governments have also introduced financial incentives such as tax breaks or subsidies for businesses that adopt sustainable waste management practices.
Education and Awareness
Education plays a vital role in promoting responsible behavior towards rubbish collection. Governments often collaborate with schools and educational institutions to provide students with information on proper waste management and its impact on the environment. By educating future generations, the government aims to create a more conscious and responsible society that understands the importance of proper rubbish collection.
Besides education, governments also use media campaigns to raise awareness about responsible waste management practices among citizens. These campaigns typically highlight the consequences of improper disposal of waste and provide solutions on how individuals can contribute to a cleaner environment.
Infrastructure and Facilities
The government also plays a crucial role in providing necessary infrastructure and facilities for efficient rubbish collection. This includes the installation of waste bins in public areas, recycling centers, and waste treatment plants. By providing these facilities, the government makes it easier for citizens to dispose of their waste responsibly. Additionally, governments also invest in modern waste management technologies that help manage waste effectively while minimizing the impact on the environment.
Pros and Cons
Like any other policy or regulation, there are both pros and cons to the government's efforts in guiding responsible rubbish collection. The pros include reduced pollution and environmental degradation, improved public health, and economic benefits through recycling and proper disposal of waste. On the other hand, some may argue that these policies can be too restrictive and result in increased costs for businesses and individuals.
Tips and Takeaways
To encourage responsible behavior towards rubbish collection, here are some tips and takeaways:
1. Follow your local government's guidelines on waste management.
2. Always sort your waste properly into separate bins for recycling.
3. Reduce your consumption of single-use materials to minimize waste production.
4. Educate yourself and others about the importance of proper rubbish collection.
5. Take advantage of recycling programs or drop-off centers provided by the government.
6. Support businesses that practice sustainable waste management.
Proper rubbish collection is essential for creating a cleaner and healthier environment for future generations. The government plays a crucial role in guiding citizens towards responsible behavior through policies, education, infrastructure, and facilities. However, it is also our individual responsibility to ensure we dispose of our waste properly for a more sustainable future. Let us work together with the government to create a cleaner world for all!
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2025-06-19T22:50:50Z
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This section begins teaching basic addition. Using numeral recognition, grouping, counting, estimation, and memory retention skills that children learned from previous lessons, they will add small numbers with ease. Children will begin by adding small groups of objects and slowly progress to adding numerals. By the end of the unit, children will be able to add small numbers mentally. This unit will take several months to complete. Be sure to supplement the activities you do in this section with a few from Objective 4: Counting 1 – 100.
Once your child has mastered this section, he/she will be more than ready to excel in elementary school.
If your child has difficulty completing any of the activities in Objective 4: Counting 1 – 100, then do not start this Objective. Review material from previous lessons for a couple of more weeks.
If your child has trouble completing these activities, do not be concerned. Simply, spend more time playing the activities that practice counting from 1 to 100.
3. Counting 1 – 100 Activities
- MA1: Number Hopscotch – Combines a child’s favorite game with learning. By playing, children build fundamental skills necessary for addition, such as remembering a number and then counting by one to get to their answer.
- MA2: Number Bingo: Mathematician – Gives your child additional practice recognizing numerals while entertaining her with a child’s favorite game: Bingo.
- MA3: Beanbag Addition – Teaches basic addition by connecting counting with combining sets of objects. Using their numeral recognition skills, children will be able to add abstract numerals.
- MA4: Number Line Addition – Teaches your child how to add with abstract numerals using a number line as a guide. This prepares your child for adding without visual aides.
- MA5: Around the World – Practices mental addition of small numbers.
Leave a Reply
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https://sightwords.com/counting/basic-addition/
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2025-06-12T15:07:34Z
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Large-scale currents are the conveyor belts of the ocean, transporting water and nutrients and controlling Earth’s climate. Surface currents are relatively easy to measure and track. But those in the deep ocean are mostly a mystery. Now, a new study published in Nature Geoscience unveiled the biggest data set to date on the speed and direction of currents that flow near the seafloor, and it’s nothing like what the scientists anticipated.
Previously, seafloor currents were believed to be steady and, in the region off the coast of Mozambique that the authors studied, to flow from south to north. However, the results revealed that deep-sea currents are far more dynamic than previously known. The findings suggest that current simulations used to track the flow of sediment and pollutants in the deep sea and reconstruct ancient ocean conditions need an update.
“These conveyor belts of currents that operate the whole way around our planet are going to be far more complicated than the textbook models suggest,” said Mike Clare, a National Oceanography Centre sedimentologist and senior author of the study. “They really do warrant very careful investigation.”
Measuring Complex Currents
Scientists can measure deep-sea currents using sensors called acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) secured to the seafloor. But deploying and managing these moorings are challenging and expensive, so many studies have used them sparingly for short time periods.
Fortuitously, an Italian oil and gas company called Eni deployed an unprecedented array of 34 ADCPs for industrial purposes over roughly 2,500 square kilometers (965 square miles) in the Mozambique Channel, just off the coast. The company shared the data, giving scientists a unique and detailed view of the seafloor. The instruments measured the speed and direction of currents every 10 minutes for 4 years. “The thing that’s unique about the study is the long time series that they have of near-bottom currents,” said Jacob Wenegrat, a physical oceanographer at the University of Maryland who wasn’t involved in the study.
When Lewis Bailey, a geoscientist now at the University of Calgary, started analyzing the mountain of data from the ADCPs, the results looked so different from the expected trend of consistent northward currents that he wondered whether he’d made a mistake. “The first thing I thought was, ‘This can’t be right,’” he said.
But after crunching all the numbers, the researchers discovered that seafloor currents often sped up, slowed down, and even reversed direction. “We were very surprised to see how variable all the currents were even between moorings that were fairly close together,” Bailey said.
“All the geologists who were involved in this project were absolutely gobsmacked by the variability,” Clare said.
The researchers looked into what might have caused the variations. “It was almost like detective work,” Bailey said. The currents varied among seasons and throughout tidal cycles. The ADCPs and patterns in scoured seabed revealed that currents on open seafloor slopes generally flow northward on average. But within submarine canyons, which are oriented roughly east–west, the current often reverses direction, flowing up or down their length.
The scientists speculate that the tides and seafloor topography are largely responsible for the character of the currents.
Well-studied surface currents are often variable in their speed and direction, but Wenegrat said there’s been a recent increase in interest among physical oceanographers to study the waters near the seafloor. “A lot of the things that are happening in the surface ocean are also happening down there,” he said. “It’s exciting to see a nice record of all of the temporal and spatial variability,” Wenegrat said about the new study.
Clare noted that the limited studies of deep-sea currents have sometimes contradicted each other, but the differences are likely based on when and where the measurements were taken. “I think these different camps that have been disagreeing with each other are all right,” he said.
Where Do Sediments Settle Out?
Scientists rely on simulations of ocean currents and limited seafloor core samples to study the transport and deposition of sediments and pollutants such as microplastics and how these might affect deep-sea ecosystems. They also use similar methods to reconstruct ancient ocean conditions.
The new study’s authors suggested these simulations might be oversimplified.
Given the variability in currents among sites in the study, a single core sample might be too limited to characterize the sediments in a region, Clare said. “It’s made me realize that we need to think very carefully about the placement of instruments, and not to go in with a priori assumptions that this is just a continuous, unidirectional current.”
The researchers acknowledged that the study took place in only one zone of the world’s oceans, and more data in other areas will be invaluable to building better simulations.
—Andrew Chapman (@andrew7chapman), Science Writer
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In today's fast-paced world, it's not uncommon for children to struggle with autism. For parents and educators, it's important to understand how to support and guide children with Attention Autism. This article aims to shed light on this condition and provide strategies and tips that can empower parents and educators to effectively navigate this journey.
Understanding Attention Autism
Attention Autism is a specialised approach developed by Gina Davies, a specialist speech and language therapist. It is designed to support individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in developing their attention, communication, and social interaction skills. The program focuses on capturing and maintaining the individual's attention through engaging and meaningful activities.
Challenges like: disorganisation, lack of time management, and emotional regulation can impact their daily routines and relationships with others. It's important for caregivers and educators to provide support and create a structured environment to help children navigate these difficulties.
"The Attention Autism approach aims to provide children with a learning experience that they want to communicate about. "
What is Attention Autism?
Attention Autism is a specialised approach aimed at supporting individuals on the autism spectrum in developing crucial attention, communication, and social interaction skills.
Key components include:
- Structured activities: Activities are carefully designed to be visually engaging, hands-on, and highly motivating for individuals with ASD. These activities are often designed to target specific communication and social interaction goals.
- Use of visual supports: Visual supports, such as visual schedules, cue cards, and visual aids, are incorporated into the program to help individuals understand and follow instructions more easily.
- Natural reinforcement: The program emphasizes the use of natural reinforcement, such as praise, gestures, and tangible rewards, to encourage and motivate participation in activities.
- Gradual progression: Activities are introduced in a structured and gradual manner, starting with simple tasks and gradually increasing in complexity as the individual progresses.
- Emphasis on communication and social interaction: Attention Autism aims to promote communication and social interaction skills by creating opportunities for individuals to engage with others and practice their communication skills in a supportive environment.
The Science Behind Attention Autism
The science behind Attention Autism lies in its evidence-based strategies rooted in developmental psychology, neuroscience, and behavioural principles.
- Evidence-Based Strategies: Attention Autism uses proven methods from developmental psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral science.
- Neuroplasticity: The program recognizes that individuals with autism can improve attention, communication, and social skills because the brain can adapt and change.
- Targeted Interventions: Structured activities are designed to activate specific parts of the brain responsible for attention, language, and social understanding.
- Visual Supports and Reinforcement: Visual aids and natural rewards are used to encourage desired behaviors, following the principles of operant conditioning.
- Gradual Progression: Tasks gradually become more challenging, following theories of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to ensure success while pushing boundaries.
- Comprehensive Approach: By combining insights from multiple fields, Attention Autism offers a complete and effective way to support individuals with autism in their development.
Identifying Attention Autism in Children
Identifying challenges in attention, communication, and social interaction in children involves recognizing key signs and behaviors that may indicate underlying issues. Look for:
- Difficulty Sustaining Attention: Children may struggle to focus on tasks or activities for an appropriate duration.
- Limited Communication Skills: Communication deficits may manifest as delayed language development, difficulty expressing needs, or challenges understanding social cues.
- Social Interaction Difficulties: Children may exhibit trouble engaging with peers, difficulty taking turns, or a lack of interest in social activities.
- Repetitive Behaviors: Repetitive movements or insistence on sameness in routines could indicate Attention Autism.
- Sensory Sensitivities: Heightened sensitivity or aversion to sensory stimuli, such as loud noises or certain textures, might be observed.
- Difficulty with Transitions: Children may struggle with transitions between activities or changes in routine.
- Limited Play Skills: Play may be limited, repetitive, or lack imaginative elements.
- Atypical Responses to Emotions: Difficulty expressing or understanding emotions, or atypical emotional responses, may be present.
- Hyperfocus or Restricted Interests: Children may exhibit intense focus on specific topics or activities to the exclusion of others.
- Delayed Milestones: Developmental delays in motor skills, cognitive abilities, or adaptive behaviors could also be present.
Identifying these signs early can facilitate timely intervention and support for children with Attention Autism.
The Role of Early intervention
Early detection of Attention Autism is paramount in providing individuals with timely support and intervention. Recognising the signs and symptoms early allows for the implementation of tailored strategies to address specific challenges in communication, social interaction, and behaviour. Moreover, early intervention programs can prevent the development of secondary issues and facilitate better long-term outcomes.
Early detection also empowers families with knowledge and access to support services, enabling them to play an active role in their child's development and well-being.
Strategies for Parents
Parents play a vital role in supporting their child with Attention Autism. By implementing the following strategies, parents can create a supportive home environment that nurtures their child's potential.
Understanding the unique needs of a child with Attention Autism is crucial for parents. It's important to remember that every child is different, and what works for one may not work for another. Taking the time to observe and learn about your child's preferences, triggers, and communication style can help tailor your approach to better support their development.
Creating a Supportive Home Environment
Creating a structured and predictable home environment can significantly benefit children with Attention Autism. Establishing clear routines and providing visual cues, such as visual schedules and task lists, can help them navigate daily activities effectively. Additionally, creating a calm and quiet workspace can help minimise distractions during study or homework time.
Introducing sensory-friendly elements to your home environment can also make a big difference for a child with Attention Autism. This can include providing sensory tools like fidget toys or noise-canceling headphones, creating designated sensory spaces where the child can relax and self-regulate, and being mindful of sensory triggers that may cause distress.
Communication Techniques for Parents
Effective communication is essential when raising a child with Attention Autism. Parents should focus on clear and concise instructions, using visual aids and gestures to reinforce their message. Using positive reinforcement and praise can motivate and encourage desired behaviors, supporting the child's progress.
It's also important for parents to practice active listening and be patient when communicating with their child. Allowing the child time to process information and express themselves can help build trust and strengthen the parent-child bond. Encouraging open communication and creating a safe space for the child to share their thoughts and feelings can foster a supportive and nurturing relationship.
Tips for Educators
Educators play an integral role in providing a nurturing learning environment for students with Attention Autism. By adopting inclusive strategies, educators can help students with Attention Autism thrive academically and socially.
Understanding the unique needs of students with Attention Autism is crucial for educators to create a supportive and enriching educational experience. Building strong relationships based on trust and empathy can foster a sense of security and belonging, which is essential for the overall well-being of these students.
Classroom Adjustments for Attention Autism
Teachers can make various adjustments to the classroom environment to support students with Attention Autism. This may include reducing clutter and distractions, providing preferential seating, and implementing visual supports, such as visual schedules and reminders.
In addition to physical adjustments, creating a predictable routine and structure within the classroom can help students with Attention Autism feel more secure and organized. Clear expectations and consistent schedules can reduce anxiety and enhance their learning experience.
Teaching Strategies for Attention Autism
Utilising effective teaching strategies can enhance learning outcomes for students with Attention Autism. Consider these suggestions:
- Establish a Structured Routine:
- Create a predictable daily schedule with clear routines and transitions.
- Utilize visual schedules and timers to help your child understand and prepare for upcoming activities.
- Consistency in routines can provide a sense of security and reduce anxiety.
- Utilize Visual Supports:
- Incorporate visual aids such as picture schedules, cue cards, and visual reminders to enhance communication and understanding.
- Use visual prompts during daily tasks and activities to reinforce instructions and expectations.
- Visual supports can help your child navigate their environment and promote independence.
- Provide Positive Reinforcement:
- Use praise, rewards, and encouragement to reinforce desired behaviors and motivate your child.
- Focus on celebrating small achievements and progress, fostering confidence and self-esteem.
- Positive reinforcement encourages engagement and participation in activities while building a supportive and nurturing relationship.
Coping Mechanisms for Children with Attention Autism
Children with Attention Autism can benefit from utilising coping mechanisms to manage their challenges and enhance their overall well-being.
Self-Care Techniques for Children
Self-care techniques for children, including those with Attention Autism, are crucial for nurturing their independence and well-being.
Teaching personal hygiene habits like handwashing and teeth brushing instills a sense of responsibility and fosters good health practices. Moreover, guiding children in recognising and managing their emotions through relaxation exercises and self-calming strategies promotes emotional regulation and reduces stress. Encouraging independence in daily tasks such as dressing and tidying up cultivates confidence and self-esteem. Social skills training helps children navigate social interactions with greater ease and effectiveness.
By incorporating these self-care techniques into their daily lives, children with Attention Autism can develop valuable life skills, enhance their resilience, and thrive in various aspects of their lives.
Social Interaction Tips for Children
Social interactions can sometimes be challenging for children with Autism. Educators and parents can support them by fostering social skills development through structured social activities, role-playing scenarios, and encouraging empathy and understanding among peers.
Moreover, creating social stories or visual schedules can help children with Autism navigate social situations by providing them with clear expectations and guidelines for different interactions. Pairing these tools with positive reinforcement and praise for social successes can further boost a child's confidence and motivation to engage with others.
By implementing effective strategies, creating supportive environments, and promoting positive coping mechanisms, we can empower children with Attention Autism to thrive and reach their full potential. With compassion and patience, we can make a positive difference
Parents also ask:
What is AA training?
Attention Autism (AA) training is an approach developed by Gina Davies, a specialist speech and language therapist. It aims to develop and enhance attention, communication, and social interaction skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The training focuses on engaging individuals with captivating activities to promote attention and participation. It typically involves structured sessions where the therapist demonstrates attention-grabbing activities, such as using visually stimulating props, to encourage communication and interaction. The training emphasises a positive and proactive approach to supporting individuals with ASD in their development.
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The types of social classes are low, middle and high. This general classification is influenced by factors such as the level of income, the type of economic activity from which that income comes, the level of educational background, access to goods and services, etc.
Social classes are categories based on the productive role of subjects within the economic dynamics. This includes not only their participation as income generators (or not) but also their role as consumers of goods.
A person whose income is minimal will not have access to the same products, services and goods as a wealthy person. These differences have an impact on society and determine to a large extent membership in a social stratum.
In the past, social categories were rigid strata. Until the Middle Ages, membership of a social class in the West was largely determined by heredity. However, the end of the feudal model and then the Industrial Revolution generated new economic dynamics and social classes, as proposed by Karl Marx and Max Webber in their respective theories.
Although there are currently three large, well-defined strata, they are not static as in the past, but it is possible to change from one social class to another. This is called social mobility.
Lower class | Middle class | Upper class | |
Population type |
Groups people in situations of economic and social vulnerability. |
It groups formal workers, professionals and small and medium-sized entrepreneurs. |
It groups people with greater economic power. |
Employment status |
Unemployed, temporary workers or low-paid occupations. |
Permanent jobs with access to employment benefits (credit, paid vacation, maternity and parental leave, etc.). | Not dependent on a job to meet their needs. |
Income level | Temporary income equal to or less than minimum wage. | Income above the minimum wage. | Multiple incomes and well above the population average. |
Access to basic services (education, health, recreation). | Little or none. | They use both public and private services. | They use services of a private nature. |
Access to property acquisition | Little or none. | Have the possibility of owning some type of property (car, house, own business). | They have multiple properties. |
These are people who find themselves in a situation of vulnerability due to the absence of stable income or lack of access to basic services (water, electricity, internet, education, health). These factors make it very difficult to get out of this situation. For those in the lower stratum, access to education is key to achieving social mobility and improving their quality of life.
Examples of the lower class would be people who are unemployed, with temporary jobs or with incomes below the minimum wage in their country.
This is made up of the working class. Although they do not have financial freedom since they depend on their income to live, they have a higher standard of living than the lower class and access to the possibility of owning property (car or house). This is usually because their educational background allows them to have access to well-paying jobs or higher benefits (paid vacations, access to mortgage loans, health insurance, etc.).
Examples of members of the middle class are skilled workers or technicians, university professionals, small and medium-sized merchants.
This is the class with the highest economic status. They have multiple sources of income and do not depend on their work to cover their needs. They have access to health services and education of excellent quality, which allows them to perpetuate their quality of life. Due to their privileged position, they tend to influence or participate in the political-economic decisions of the societies in which they live.
Examples of upper class people are owners of large companies or families with inherited wealth. In some cases, people from other strata manage to move into this social class due to extraordinary circumstances, such as owners of fast-growing companies, access to managerial positions, sudden wealth, etc.
Social classes according to Marx
For Karl Marx, creator of Marxist theory, capitalism is the economic model generated by the Industrial Revolution. This system, according to Marx, determines the existence of three social classes according to their relationship with the means of production:
The bourgeoisieThe bourgeoisie: is the ruling class and is made up of the owners of the means of production. They obtain economic benefit through the surplus value or profit added to the products and services they sell.
The proletariatare those who work in these means of production. The proletariat exchanges its labor power for a salary that is generally not proportional to the effort made. This allows them to cover their basic needs, but prevents them from becoming owners of the means of production.
The lumpen or subproletariatare those marginalized by the capitalist system since they are neither owners of means of production nor proletarians. This category includes the destitute, the unemployed or people who, due to their circumstances, cannot make any kind of contribution to society.
Webber’s stratification theory
Max Webber stated in his work Economy and Society (1920) his theory of stratification, defined according to the way in which power is distributed in a community or group. According to Webber, power can be economic, political or social.
Based on this, he proposed three strata according to their sphere of influence:
Classesis the hierarchy based on the economic power of a society. This determines the capacity of its individuals to have access to goods and services. Classes, in turn, have two categories: property owners, such as business owners, for example, and non-property owners, which would be workers who do not own property, such as a house or their own business.
Estates: is the hierarchy based on social power, expressed in the formation of status groups based on prestige, reputation, honor, etc. According to Webber, each of these status groups has its own lifestyle and social practices. For example, a group of company executives who meet in certain types of places, wear certain brands and practice a certain sport.
Matches: in this stratum enter the people and institutions with influence in the political power. Their objective is to exercise power in the community to which they belong and to this end they exert influence over it. An example is the political parties or organizations.
See also Difference between capitalism and socialism.
- Duek, Celia; Inda, Graciela (2006). Webber’s social stratification theory: a critical analysis. Austral Journal of Social Sciences. Chile.
- Ríos Szalay, Jorge (1998). Las teorías de las clases sociales de Marx y de Webber: introducción para estudiosos de la administración. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
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Norms are rules of behaviour that are recognised and respected by the community. They may take the form of laws or social norms. They can be created and enforced by justice system actors as well as authority figures in schools, workplaces, or religious and other communities. Norms may also be generated bottom-up, as a function of what people do in practice.
Setting pro-social norms and communicating about them can influence people’s behaviour and prevent legal problems from arising. Compliance with norms results from (formal or informal) monitoring and enforcement. In some cases, norms are internalised, meaning that they influence human behaviour even in the absence of external sanctions. Once established, norms can help to facilitate decision-making and avoid the tensions and stress of personal responsibility.
The complexity of legal language and the inaccessibility of most courts and legal texts mean that legal norms in particular are not always well understood. This may result in unintentional violations of the law – particularly when legal norms are not compatible with local practice and social norms.
Decision-makers may also be reluctant to apply norms in a fair and consistent way because they stand to benefit personally from making decisions on a more subjective basis. This may result in unfair dispute resolution outcomes for the individuals under their authority.
In tight-knit communities, people tend to observe social norms instead of the law because the former have lower transaction costs and are typically as effective as promoting cooperative behavior.
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Welcome to a guide to music theory divided in several parts. You will learn about notes, tones, pitches, intervals, chords, scales and several other subjects that will develop your knowledge from a theoretical standpoint.
Notes, tones and pitches
The words note, tone and pitches can be confusing. Not least notes and tones, tend to be intermixed as synonyms but there are distinctions. It can be reasonable to treat them as synonyms in some cases, but in precise music vocabulary they can be separated.
A tone can be seen as a sound made by an instrument whereas a note is a description of a tone. A music sheet, for instance, notes are used to give information about the duration of a tone (quarter notes etc.).
We normally don’t say “the tones in a chord”, we say the “notes in a chord”. But we could say: “I like the tones coming from your piano when you playing that chord”.
A pitch, finally, refers to a frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz). The “Middle C”, for instance, which is the fourth C key on a full-size piano keyboard, have a pitch with a frequency of 261.6 Hz.
To plunge deeper into the subject, a recommended lesson is Pitches and octave designations.
Intervals are distances between two notes. The units for intervals are semi-steps and whole steps. There is one semi-step between C and C# and there is one whole step between C and D.
Intervals of two notes have different sound qualities. The sound character of notes with only one semi-step in between is dissonant (they lack harmony) because they almost collide. Play C and C# together on a guitar or a piano and you will hear a quite unpleasant sound.
Notes with five scale steps between can sound rather firm (this interval constitutes the 5th chord, or the power chord). Thirds, on the other hand, are very often used in acoustic fingerpicking songs and in classical music played on a classical guitar. They have a very pleasing sound.
Some interval categories exist in different forms. There are, for instance, minor third and major third. These have the same intervals considering scale steps, but differ considering semi-steps.
Besides the usual intervals, there are compound intervals, meaning an interval added to an octave.
Chords are among the most fundamental for musicians and often the first thing a beginner learns about. Chords are especially essential when it comes to guitar, but chords are also fundamental on other instruments, such as the piano. Chords, however, are not relevant for percussion instrument and only of minor importance for instruments like bass guitar or harmonica.
So that is a chord? Chords contains a set of tones, it can be three, four, five or even more. The most common chords contain three notes and are called triads. The most important triads are the major and minor chords.
We will not discuss chords any further, since there exist a dedicated article about chord theory on this site pointed to that subject.
Next to chords, scales are probably the most important concept for many instruments, including guitar and piano. Similar to chords, scales are groups of notes, but the difference is that you never play all the notes in a scale simultaneously. A scale is like a palette of notes that a musician can put together in melodies, solos, licks and phrases.
Scales can guide you to relevant notes to use in a certain key to create a melody, or which notes to stick to then jamming over a backing track.
When soling with scales over chords it's important to know which the guide tones are.
Types of scales
As with chords, there are different categories of scales. And there is also a hierarchy considering the importance. The most fundamental scales are the major and minor scales. These include in both cases seven notes and are called heptatonic scales (a theoretic term that isn’t necessary to learn).
As with chords, scales have root notes. In the C major scale C is the root note, in the A minor scale A is the root note. You get it by now.
Major and minor, and the key relationship
One reason to why these scales are the most important is that the major and minor scales are identical with keys in music. So, what is a key, you may ask? Perhaps you have stumbled upon titles of classic music – Franz Shubert’s Sonata in C minor or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Violin Concert No. 3 in G major? The titles explain that the actual pieces are composed in these particular keys; a common routine in classical music, not equivalent in pop or jazz.
If you are interested there are statistics of which keys that have been used in most music compositions. As told by the source, keys with no (C major) and few accidentals (such as F, D and G major) are most common.
When someone refers to D major, the same thing could be referred to the key of D.
D major scale: D E F# G A B C#
The key of key: D E F# G A B C#
Sometimes it's good to be pronounced when explaining things that might be new knowledge.
But it's vital to know some underlying distinctions. When it's referred to D major it's referring to exactly these notes: D E F# G A B C#. But it's not sure that a musical piece in D major is exclusively limited to these notes. Music doesn’t follow strict formulas.
The second main purpose by learn major and minor scales is that you thereafter know which notes are included when someone says: this tune goes in the key of …
Another way to organize scales is by degrees. Degrees explains the relationship of the notes in a scale. They have names and also Roman numerals.
Tonic (I): The first note of a scale.
Super tonic (II): The second scale degree.
Mediant (III): The third scale degree.
Subdominant (IV): The fourth scale degree.
Dominant (V): The fifth scale degree.
Submediant (VI): The sixth scale degree.
Subtonic (VII): The seventh scale degree.
If it's referred to the dominant chord, it's the chord with a root note that also is the fifth scale step. In the key of C major, G is the dominant. When a scale is harmonized into four-note chords, the dominant will be a seventh chord, which also is known as the dominant chord. In the key of C major, G7 is the dominant four-note chord.
Stability and resolution
In the major scale, the degrees are written as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7. This makes it clear the major scale is the most fundamental of scales. What is interesting is that some of the notes in the scale can be said to be stable and some unstable.
The 7th is the most unstable. This is the subtonic, also called the leading tone, which is telling since it often leads back to the tonic, the 1st. Being an unstable tone means that it sounds as if the music wants to go on much more than stop. You can experiment by playing around in the C major and notice how the B note is less stable when for example the A tone and how B "wants" to resolve to C.
The second unstable tone in the major scale is the 4th. It wants to go up to the 5th or down to the 3rd. You can
experiment in C major and this time hear how the F tone is unstable and how natural it is to continue to G or A.
This is not only true for notes but also for chords. And this is why the V chord is unstable and wants to resolve back to the I chord. The V chord can be even more unstable when it become a 7th dominant (V7). For example, in C major, G7 is the 7th dominant chord - notice how it includes both the B and F notes. A typical progression is F - G7 - C, in which C is the "home" chord that G7 resolves to.
See also Chord theory
For more in-depth reading, see: The Chord Theory ebook
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Social Justice: A Path Towards Equality and Fairness
In a world where disparities and inequalities persist, the concept of social justice has emerged as a beacon of hope. It encompasses the belief that every individual deserves equal rights, opportunities, and treatment within society. Rooted in fairness, compassion, and empathy, social justice aims to address systemic injustices and create a more equitable world for all.
At its core, social justice seeks to challenge and dismantle the barriers that prevent individuals from accessing basic human rights such as education, healthcare, housing, and employment. It recognizes that these barriers disproportionately affect marginalized communities based on factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, disability, or sexual orientation.
One of the fundamental principles of social justice is equality. It advocates for equal treatment under the law and equal access to resources and opportunities regardless of one’s background or circumstances. It recognizes that true equality goes beyond mere legal frameworks; it requires addressing deep-rooted biases and prejudices that perpetuate discrimination.
Another key aspect of social justice is inclusivity. It calls for embracing diversity in all its forms and ensuring that everyone’s voices are heard and valued. Inclusive societies celebrate differences rather than stigmatize them. They recognize the strength that comes from diverse perspectives and experiences.
Social justice also demands accountability from those in positions of power. It challenges oppressive systems that perpetuate inequality by holding institutions accountable for their actions or lack thereof. This includes advocating for policy changes that promote fairness and actively working towards dismantling discriminatory practices.
Education plays a vital role in promoting social justice. By raising awareness about systemic injustices and encouraging critical thinking, education empowers individuals to become agents of change. It fosters empathy by helping people understand the lived experiences of others who may face different challenges due to societal inequalities.
The fight for social justice is not limited to individual efforts; it requires collective action. Grassroots movements, advocacy organizations, community initiatives – all play a crucial role in driving social change. By coming together, individuals can amplify their voices and create a force for positive transformation.
However, achieving social justice is an ongoing process that requires commitment and perseverance. It requires us to confront uncomfortable truths about the world we live in and challenge our own biases. It demands that we actively listen to marginalized voices, learn from their experiences, and work towards dismantling the systems that perpetuate inequality.
Social justice is not an abstract concept; it is a tangible goal that can be achieved through concrete actions. It requires policy changes, institutional reforms, and a collective mindset shift towards inclusivity and fairness.
In conclusion, social justice represents a vision of a world where everyone has equal opportunities and access to basic human rights. It calls upon us to recognize our shared humanity and work towards dismantling the barriers that prevent equality and fairness. By embracing the principles of social justice, we can create a society where every individual is valued, respected, and given the chance to thrive.
Empowering Social Justice: 6 Essential Tips for Engaged Citizens
- Speak up for those who do not have a voice.
- Listen to understand, not to respond or judge.
- Take action by volunteering for local organisations that promote social justice.
- Educate yourself on the issues and become an advocate for change in your community and beyond.
- Support organisations that are working towards creating a more equitable society, such as charities and non-profits dedicated to social justice causes.
- Make sure you vote in local, state and federal elections so that your voice is heard when it comes to decisions about social justice issues which affect us all!
Speak up for those who do not have a voice.
Speak Up for Those Who Do Not Have a Voice: A Powerful Act of Social Justice
In a world where many voices go unheard, speaking up for those who do not have a voice is an essential act of social justice. It is an act of empathy, compassion, and solidarity that can bring about meaningful change and create a more equitable society.
There are countless individuals and communities who face systemic oppression, discrimination, and marginalization. They may lack the resources, platforms, or opportunities to make their voices heard. By lending our own voices to amplify theirs, we become advocates for social justice.
Speaking up for those who do not have a voice means acknowledging the injustices they face and actively working towards addressing them. It requires us to step outside our comfort zones and challenge the status quo. It means using our privilege and influence to advocate for change on their behalf.
One way to speak up is by raising awareness about the issues faced by marginalized groups. This can be done through conversations with friends, family, colleagues, or even on social media platforms. By sharing stories and information about these issues, we can educate others and encourage them to take action.
Another powerful way to speak up is by supporting organizations or initiatives that champion the rights of marginalized communities. This can include donating time or resources, volunteering, or participating in advocacy campaigns. By standing alongside these organizations, we contribute to building a collective voice that demands justice.
It’s important to remember that speaking up does not mean speaking over or for others; it means amplifying their voices and creating space for them to be heard. It means listening attentively to their experiences and perspectives without judgment or assumptions. By doing so, we validate their lived experiences while challenging the systems that silence them.
Speaking up for those who do not have a voice also involves being an ally in moments of injustice. It means intervening when witnessing acts of discrimination or prejudice. It means using our privilege to create safe spaces and opportunities for marginalized individuals to express themselves.
However, speaking up is not always easy. It requires courage, resilience, and a willingness to confront uncomfortable truths. It may involve facing criticism or backlash from those who benefit from the status quo. But in the face of adversity, our commitment to social justice should remain unwavering.
In conclusion, speaking up for those who do not have a voice is a powerful act of social justice. It is about using our own voices and platforms to amplify the voices of marginalized individuals and communities. By doing so, we contribute to creating a society where everyone’s voice is valued and respected. Together, we can make a difference and build a more equitable world for all.
Listen to understand, not to respond or judge.
Listen to Understand, Not to Respond or Judge: A Key Tip for Social Justice
In the pursuit of social justice, one essential tip stands out: listen to understand, not to respond or judge. This simple yet powerful approach can foster empathy, bridge divides, and create meaningful connections between individuals and communities.
In our fast-paced world, it is easy to fall into the trap of formulating responses or passing judgments before truly understanding someone’s perspective. However, genuine understanding requires active listening – a process that goes beyond simply hearing words. It involves paying attention to not only what is being said but also the emotions and experiences underlying those words.
When we listen with the intention to understand, we open ourselves up to different viewpoints and lived experiences. We suspend our preconceived notions and biases, allowing space for new insights and perspectives. By doing so, we create an environment where individuals feel heard and valued.
Listening with empathy is particularly crucial in the context of social justice. Marginalized communities often face systemic barriers that go unnoticed or unacknowledged by others. By actively listening without judgment, we can gain a deeper understanding of these challenges and work towards dismantling the structures that perpetuate inequality.
It is important to remember that listening to understand does not mean agreeing with everything we hear. It means recognizing the validity of someone’s experiences and acknowledging their right to be heard. It means engaging in respectful dialogue that encourages learning from one another.
Practicing this tip requires patience and self-awareness. It may involve setting aside our own biases or assumptions while focusing on the speaker’s perspective. It may require asking open-ended questions and seeking clarification when needed. Most importantly, it entails creating a safe space where individuals can express themselves without fear of judgment or dismissal.
By embracing this tip in our everyday lives, we contribute towards building a more inclusive society rooted in social justice. We pave the way for dialogue, understanding, and collaboration, which are essential for effecting positive change.
So, let us make a conscious effort to listen with an open heart and mind. Let us strive to understand the experiences of others, especially those who have been marginalized or silenced. By doing so, we can actively contribute to the pursuit of social justice and create a world where everyone’s voice is heard and valued.
Take action by volunteering for local organisations that promote social justice.
Take Action: Volunteer for Local Organizations Promoting Social Justice
In the pursuit of social justice, one of the most impactful ways to make a difference is by volunteering for local organizations that are dedicated to promoting equality, fairness, and inclusivity. By lending your time and skills, you can actively contribute towards creating a more just society.
Volunteering provides an opportunity to directly engage with the issues that matter to you and work towards positive change within your community. There are numerous organizations that focus on various aspects of social justice, such as advocating for human rights, supporting marginalized groups, or addressing systemic inequalities.
By volunteering, you become an active participant in the fight against injustice. You can support initiatives that provide essential services to underserved communities or help raise awareness about pressing social issues. Whether it’s assisting with fundraising efforts, organizing events, or offering your professional expertise, your contribution can have a meaningful impact.
One of the benefits of volunteering for local organizations is the chance to connect with like-minded individuals who share your passion for social justice. These organizations often serve as hubs for individuals who are committed to making a difference. By joining forces with others who share your values and goals, you can amplify your impact and create lasting change.
Moreover, volunteering allows you to gain firsthand knowledge about the challenges faced by marginalized communities and understand their unique perspectives. This experience fosters empathy and helps break down stereotypes or biases that may exist. It also provides an opportunity to learn from those directly affected by social injustices and develop a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding these issues.
When considering volunteer opportunities related to social justice, take the time to research local organizations in your area. Look for those whose missions align with your values and interests. Reach out to them to inquire about volunteer opportunities available or attend events they may organize.
Remember that volunteering doesn’t have to be a long-term commitment; even dedicating a few hours per week or month can make a difference. Your contribution, no matter how small, can help support vital programs and initiatives that promote social justice.
Volunteering for local organizations promoting social justice is an active step towards creating a more equitable society. It allows you to use your skills and passion to positively impact the lives of others. By taking action and getting involved, you become a catalyst for change, helping to build a better future for all.
So, why wait? Embrace the opportunity to volunteer and be part of the movement towards social justice. Together, we can create a world where everyone’s rights are protected, where fairness prevails, and where every individual has an equal chance to thrive.
Educate yourself on the issues and become an advocate for change in your community and beyond.
Educate Yourself: Empowering Change Through Knowledge and Advocacy
In the pursuit of social justice, one of the most powerful tools at our disposal is education. By taking the time to educate ourselves on the issues that affect our communities and the world at large, we can become informed advocates for change.
Social justice issues encompass a wide range of topics, from racial inequality and gender discrimination to economic disparities and environmental degradation. Each issue carries its own complexities and nuances, requiring a deep understanding to effectively address them.
By educating ourselves on these issues, we gain insight into the root causes of injustice and the impact it has on individuals and communities. We learn about historical contexts, systemic structures, and the experiences of marginalized groups. This knowledge helps us recognize patterns of oppression and identify areas where change is needed.
There are various ways to educate ourselves on social justice issues. We can read books, articles, and research papers written by experts in the field. We can attend workshops, seminars, or webinars that provide in-depth discussions on specific topics. Engaging with diverse perspectives through documentaries or podcasts can also broaden our understanding.
Furthermore, it is essential to seek out voices from affected communities themselves. Listening to their stories and experiences allows us to gain a more comprehensive understanding of their struggles and needs. It helps us avoid making assumptions or perpetuating stereotypes.
Once we have educated ourselves on social justice issues, we can become advocates for change in our communities and beyond. Advocacy involves raising awareness about these issues among family members, friends, colleagues, or even through social media platforms. By sharing what we have learned with others, we can spark meaningful conversations that challenge biases and promote understanding.
Advocacy also extends beyond conversations; it involves taking action. This could mean volunteering with local organizations working towards social justice goals or supporting initiatives that promote equality and fairness. It could involve participating in peaceful protests or engaging with policymakers to influence legislation.
Becoming an advocate for social justice requires a commitment to ongoing learning and growth. It means staying informed about current events and evolving issues. It means being open to reevaluating our own beliefs and challenging the status quo.
In conclusion, educating ourselves on social justice issues is a crucial step towards becoming effective advocates for change. By gaining knowledge and understanding, we empower ourselves to challenge injustice and work towards creating a more equitable society. Let us embrace the opportunity to educate ourselves, amplify marginalized voices, and be catalysts for positive transformation in our communities and beyond.
Support organisations that are working towards creating a more equitable society, such as charities and non-profits dedicated to social justice causes.
Supporting Organizations: A Step Towards a More Equitable Society
In the pursuit of social justice, supporting organizations dedicated to creating a more equitable society is a crucial step. Charities and non-profits working tirelessly towards social justice causes play a vital role in addressing systemic inequalities and uplifting marginalized communities.
These organizations are at the forefront of advocating for change, actively working to dismantle oppressive systems and promote fairness. They focus on various issues such as poverty alleviation, racial justice, gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, access to education and healthcare, and environmental sustainability.
By supporting these organizations, you contribute to their efforts in several meaningful ways. Financial contributions help fund their programs and initiatives that directly benefit individuals in need. These funds enable them to provide essential services, resources, and support to those who may have been marginalized or overlooked by society.
Moreover, your support helps amplify their voices. Charities and non-profits often engage in advocacy work, lobbying for policy changes that address systemic injustices. By backing these organizations, you help strengthen their advocacy efforts by providing them with the resources needed to raise awareness about critical issues and push for legislative reforms.
In addition to financial support, you can also contribute your time and skills as a volunteer. Many social justice organizations rely on dedicated volunteers who offer their expertise in various areas such as fundraising, event planning, community outreach, or administrative support. Volunteering not only allows you to make a direct impact but also provides an opportunity for personal growth and learning.
Supporting these organizations goes beyond monetary donations or volunteering; it involves spreading awareness about their work within your own networks. By sharing information about these charities and non-profits through social media platforms or conversations with friends and family, you help increase visibility for their causes and attract more support.
It’s important to research and choose reputable organizations aligning with your values before offering your support. Look for transparency in how they utilize funds and the impact they have made in their respective areas of focus. Many organizations provide detailed reports and updates on their websites, allowing you to make informed decisions about where to direct your support.
Remember, even small contributions can make a significant difference. Whether it’s a regular donation, a one-time gift, or volunteering your time, every act of support helps these organizations continue their vital work towards creating a more equitable society.
In conclusion, supporting charities and non-profits dedicated to social justice causes is an impactful way to contribute towards building a fairer world. By providing financial support, volunteering your time, and spreading awareness, you become part of the collective effort towards dismantling systemic inequalities and uplifting marginalized communities. Together, we can create lasting change and foster a society that values equality and justice for all.
Make sure you vote in local, state and federal elections so that your voice is heard when it comes to decisions about social justice issues which affect us all!
The Power of Your Vote: Making a Difference in Social Justice
In a democratic society, voting is not merely a right; it is a powerful tool for change. When it comes to social justice issues that affect us all, exercising your right to vote in local, state, and federal elections can make a significant impact. It provides an opportunity for your voice to be heard and for decisions to be made that align with your values and beliefs.
Elections play a crucial role in shaping the policies and laws that govern our communities. They determine who holds positions of power and influence, from local council members to national representatives. By actively participating in these elections, you have the chance to elect leaders who are committed to promoting social justice and addressing systemic inequalities.
When you cast your vote, you contribute to the collective voice of the people. Your vote represents not only your own interests but also those of marginalized communities who may face disproportionate challenges due to societal inequalities. By supporting candidates who prioritize social justice issues such as equal access to education, healthcare, affordable housing, and criminal justice reform, you help create a more equitable society.
Furthermore, voting is not just about electing candidates; it is also about influencing policy decisions. Elected officials are accountable to their constituents, and they rely on public opinion when making important choices on various social justice matters. By actively participating in elections, you ensure that your concerns regarding social justice are part of the conversation and taken into consideration by policymakers.
It’s important to recognize that social justice issues go beyond party lines or political affiliations. They are universal concerns that impact individuals from all walks of life. Regardless of your political leanings, voting allows you to support candidates who align with your values on key issues related to equality and fairness.
To make an informed decision when voting for social justice causes, take the time to research candidates’ stances on relevant topics. Look at their track records, speeches, and policy proposals to gauge their commitment to addressing social inequalities. Engage with local community organizations or attend candidate forums to gain a deeper understanding of their positions.
Remember, your vote matters. It is a powerful tool that can shape the trajectory of social justice efforts in your community and beyond. By actively participating in local, state, and federal elections, you contribute to the collective effort towards building a more equitable and inclusive society.
So, when election day comes around, make sure you exercise your right to vote. Your voice matters, and it has the potential to create meaningful change on social justice issues that affect us all. Together, through our votes, we can pave the way for a fairer and more just future for everyone.
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The Black Death, commonly referred to as the Plague, was a particularly vicious and deadly disease which ravaged the world for centuries. Originating in East Asia, the bacterium Yersinia Pestis was carried along the silk roads and on trade ships to Europe by the early 1340s. As the disease rampaged across Europe and millions died, this pandemic was the catalyst for major socio-economic and political change in the late Medieval era.
The plague was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. At its worst in 1347-1351, the disease wiped out up to 60% of Europe’s population. About 80% of those who contracted the virus died and it was very contagious. Possibly 50 million people died in this period alone, and it took some parts of Europe 200 years to recover to pre-plague population levels.
The immediate effect was devastating. Entire families, estates and even whole towns were wiped out in their thousands. Wars were put on hold, as disease could decimate armies before the enemy had the opportunity.
Fear was widespread. Medieval society had very little concept of science and such a pestilence could only be understood as the wrath of God. Fear created anger and an explosion of violence to find a scapegoat for the plague. Jewish communities were targeted, as were lepers, foreigners, beggars and others marginalised in society. Fear of God’s fury also renewed religious fervour and fanaticism, with groups such as Flagellants becoming increasingly popular, driven by those desperate to atone for their sins.
On top of being a staggering loss of human life, the toll taken on the population had long lasting repercussions. Medieval society and its economy was built on agricultural labour and the mutual obligations between the different strata of society. As 90% of the population lived in the countryside, and there were little to no opportunities of social elevation, it was a system which maintained itself.
Such a high death toll obviously had a massive impact on the labour force available to cultivate the land. Due to the nature of supply and demand, this naturally had an effect on the value of the workers that remained. Landowners were forced to raise wages or give other incentives to persuade their workers to stay, lest they go elsewhere in search of better paid work. This saw not only greater movement of peasants as they moved around to find more lucrative work, but a general rise in wages too, contributing greatly to the erosion of serfdom.
With social change came political change. Social and economic improvements in the lower classes, due to a reduction in competition for land and work, gave them bargaining power in the political sphere. In England, this ignited underlying tensions between the peasant and landowning classes, culminating in the Peasants Revolt in 1381, a response to unpopular taxes.
The growing agency of the peasantry saw them leading rebellions against the government for the first time, whereas most rebellions previously had only been conducted by dissenting nobles. This set the trend for a number of popular revolts throughout the next few centuries, including Jack Cade’s Rebellion in 1450, The Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 and Kett’s Rebellion of 1549, to name but a few. Newfound agency and political consciousness had led to the desire for accountability, fair treatment and greater rights.
Most of these rebellions achieved little, but they are important because of what they tried to do. They are also important because they emerged from the change brought about by the Black Death. The greater socio-economic changes brought about by a horrific loss of life changed Europe forever.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://www.wessexscene.co.uk/politics/2020/10/21/past-pandemics-the-black-death-and-medieval-politics/
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2025-06-23T12:05:19Z
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Ocean acidification threatens to disrupt the delicate balance of marine ecosystems, with far-reaching consequences for the incredible diversity of life that thrives beneath the waves. As human activities pump ever-increasing amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the oceans act as a vast sink, absorbing around 30% of this greenhouse gas. While this helps to mitigate climate change, it comes at a steep cost: when CO2 dissolves in seawater, it triggers a series of chemical reactions that make the ocean more acidic. This subtle but significant shift in pH levels can have devastating impacts on marine organisms, particularly those that build their skeletons or shells from calcium carbonate. From microscopic plankton to majestic coral reefs, ocean acidification jeopardizes the very foundation of the marine food web and the countless species that depend on it. In this article, we’ll explore the science behind this pressing environmental issue and examine how it affects various forms of marine life, underscoring the urgent need for action to protect our planet’s magnificent ocean biodiversity.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) plays a crucial role in ocean acidification. As human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, release increasing amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, the oceans act as a natural sink, absorbing about 30% of this excess CO2. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it undergoes a series of chemical reactions that ultimately increase the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the water, lowering its pH and making it more acidic.
This process, known as ocean acidification, alters the delicate balance of carbonate chemistry in the oceans. As the pH decreases, the availability of carbonate ions (CO32-) also declines. These ions are essential building blocks for many marine organisms, such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton species, which use them to construct their protective shells and skeletons. The reduced availability of carbonate ions makes it more difficult and energy-intensive for these organisms to build and maintain their structures, leading to potential impacts on their growth, survival, and overall health.
Furthermore, the increased acidity can affect the physiological processes of marine life, such as respiration, reproduction, and metabolism. As atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise, the oceans are expected to become increasingly acidic, posing significant challenges for sensitive marine ecosystems and the diverse life they support.
The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a substance, ranging from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline), with 7 being neutral. The ocean’s average pH is currently around 8.1, making it slightly alkaline. However, since the Industrial Revolution, the ocean has absorbed about 30% of the excess carbon dioxide released by human activities, causing its pH to drop by 0.1 units. This change may seem small, but it represents a 30% increase in acidity.
Scientists predict that if carbon dioxide emissions continue at the current rate, the ocean’s pH could drop by an additional 0.3 to 0.4 units by the end of the century. Such a significant increase in acidity would have severe consequences for many marine organisms, particularly those with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton species. As ocean acidity rises, these organisms face greater difficulty in building and maintaining their protective structures, leading to potential population declines and ecosystem disruptions.
To monitor changes in ocean acidity, scientists use a variety of tools, including pH meters, autonomous sensors, and satellite imagery. By tracking pH levels over time and across different regions, researchers can better understand the progression of ocean acidification and its impacts on marine life.
Coral reefs, the vibrant underwater ecosystems teeming with biodiversity, face significant challenges in increasingly acidic oceans. As atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, more CO2 dissolves into the ocean, lowering the pH and making it more acidic. This process, known as ocean acidification, hinders the ability of coral polyps to build their calcium carbonate skeletons, which form the foundation of coral reefs. In acidic conditions, coral growth rates slow down, and their skeletons become more fragile and susceptible to erosion. Over time, this can lead to the degradation and collapse of entire reef structures.
The implications of coral reef loss extend far beyond the corals themselves. Reefs provide critical habitats for countless marine species, including fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. They also offer vital ecosystem services, such as coastal protection, tourism, and fisheries. As coral reefs deteriorate, the intricate web of life they support unravels, leading to a cascade of ecological consequences. The decline of reef-dependent species can disrupt food webs, alter community dynamics, and reduce biodiversity. Moreover, the loss of coral reefs diminishes their ability to protect coastlines from storms, erosion, and sea-level rise, leaving coastal communities vulnerable.
Ocean acidification poses a significant threat to shellfish and crustaceans, as these creatures rely on calcium carbonate to build and maintain their protective shells and exoskeletons. As seawater becomes more acidic, the availability of carbonate ions decreases, making it harder for these organisms to form and grow their shells. Oysters, clams, mussels, and crabs are particularly vulnerable to this change in ocean chemistry.
Studies have shown that increased acidity can lead to thinner, weaker shells in shellfish, making them more susceptible to predation and physical damage. In some cases, larvae and juvenile shellfish may struggle to build their shells at all, leading to high mortality rates. This not only affects the individual species but also has ripple effects throughout the marine ecosystem.
The impact of ocean acidification on shellfish and crustaceans extends beyond the immediate marine environment. Many coastal communities rely on these species for food and economic support through fisheries and aquaculture. As shell formation becomes more difficult and populations decline, the livelihoods of these communities are put at risk.
Researchers and conservationists are working to better understand the effects of ocean acidification on shellfish and crustaceans, while also exploring potential solutions, such as selective breeding for more resilient species and restoring marine habitats that can help buffer against acidity.
Planktonic organisms, such as pteropods and other small drifting species, form the base of complex marine food webs. These delicate creatures are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of ocean acidification. As the ocean absorbs excess carbon dioxide, the resulting decrease in pH and carbonate ions makes it harder for calcifying plankton to build and maintain their protective shells. Pteropods, commonly known as sea butterflies, are especially sensitive. Their thin, fragile shells easily dissolve in increasingly acidic waters, leaving them exposed and vulnerable. Losing these key species can have cascading effects throughout the food web, as they are a vital food source for many fish, whales, and seabirds. Furthermore, planktonic organisms play crucial roles in nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and even producing the oxygen we breathe. Ocean acidification’s threat to these tiny but mighty creatures underscores the urgent need to address carbon emissions and protect the intricate balance of marine ecosystems. By safeguarding the foundation of the food web, we can help ensure the resilience and survival of countless species that depend on them.
Ocean acidification poses a significant threat to marine biodiversity, with the potential to cause extinctions and reduce species richness in heavily impacted ecosystems. As the ocean absorbs increasing amounts of carbon dioxide, the resulting acidification disrupts the delicate balance that marine life has evolved to thrive in. Calcifying organisms, such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton, face particular challenges in building and maintaining their protective shells and skeletons in more acidic waters. This can lead to reduced growth, survival, and reproduction rates, ultimately putting entire species at risk of extinction.
The loss of these foundational species can have cascading effects throughout marine ecosystems. Coral reefs, for example, are biodiversity hotspots that provide habitat, food, and shelter for countless other species. As ocean acidification weakens and kills off coral populations, the diverse communities they support also suffer. Similarly, the decline of calcifying plankton at the base of marine food webs can ripple up to impact larger species, including commercially important fish and marine mammals. The potential for localized extinctions and reduced species richness in heavily acidified regions is a serious concern for marine biodiversity and the resilience of ocean ecosystems in the face of climate change.
Ocean acidification poses significant economic risks to fisheries, coastal communities, and industries that depend on healthy marine life. As ocean acidity increases, it can impair the growth and survival of commercially important species like oysters, clams, and certain fish. Struggling populations may lead to reduced catches and income losses for fishers. Coastal communities reliant on fishing and aquaculture could face job losses and economic instability.
Industries such as tourism and recreation may also suffer as coral reefs, a major draw for visitors, face widespread damage from acidification. Coral reefs provide vital habitat for fish and support local economies through activities like snorkeling and diving. Their degradation could mean fewer tourists and lost revenue for businesses.
The ripple effects extend further – many coastal communities process and sell marine products, from fresh seafood to shells for jewelry. Declines in harvests and quality could hurt these sectors too. Research also suggests that acidification may alter the taste and texture of some seafood, potentially reducing consumer demand and market value.
Ultimately, ocean acidification threatens to undermine the economic foundations of numerous communities worldwide. Protecting marine life from this threat is crucial not just for ecological reasons, but for the livelihoods and prosperity of millions who depend on the ocean’s bounty. Decisive action is needed to safeguard these valuable economic and social resources.
Solving the complex issue of ocean acidification requires a multi-faceted approach that addresses the root cause: excessive carbon dioxide emissions. The most critical step is to reduce global CO2 emissions by transitioning to clean, renewable energy sources and improving energy efficiency across all sectors. Governments, businesses, and individuals must work together to implement policies and practices that prioritize reducing CO2 emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
In addition to emission reductions, we must also protect and restore marine ecosystems that naturally absorb and store carbon, such as mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes. These “blue carbon” ecosystems not only help regulate the ocean’s pH but also provide critical habitats for marine life and protect coastlines from erosion and storms. Supporting conservation efforts and promoting the sustainable management of these ecosystems is essential.
Research and monitoring of ocean acidification and its impacts on marine life must continue to inform our understanding and guide our actions. Scientists are exploring innovative solutions, such as developing more resilient coral species through selective breeding or genetic modification, and investigating the potential of marine geoengineering techniques to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and oceans.
Education and public awareness are also crucial in driving change. By engaging communities, schools, and organizations in marine conservation efforts and promoting sustainable practices, we can foster a sense of stewardship for our oceans. Supporting initiatives that combat marine pollution, reduce plastic waste, and protect vulnerable species can contribute to the overall health and resilience of marine ecosystems in the face of acidification.
While the challenges posed by ocean acidification are significant, there is still hope for the future of our oceans. By taking decisive action now to reduce emissions, protect marine ecosystems, and promote sustainable practices, we can mitigate the worst impacts of acidification and ensure a thriving, diverse ocean for generations to come. The path forward requires global cooperation, innovation, and a shared commitment to preserving the invaluable resources and beauty of our oceans.
Ava Singh is an environmental writer and marine sustainability advocate with a deep commitment to protecting the world's oceans and coastal communities. With a background in environmental policy and a passion for storytelling, Ava brings complex topics to life through clear, engaging content that educates and empowers readers. At the Marine Biodiversity & Sustainability Learning Center, Ava focuses on sharing impactful stories about community engagement, policy innovations, and conservation strategies. Her writing bridges the gap between science and the public, encouraging people to take part in preserving marine biodiversity. When she’s not writing, Ava collaborates with local initiatives to promote eco-conscious living and sustainable development, ensuring her work makes a difference both on the page and in the real world.
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http://www.marinebiodiversity.ca/ocean-acidification-a-hidden-threat-endangering-marine-life/
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2025-06-24T13:52:43Z
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This map is part of a series of 14 animated maps showing the history of Decolonization after 1945.
French North Africa consisted of three separate territories: the protectorates of Morocco in the west, Tunisia in the east, and between the two, Algeria, which France had divided into several departments, as part of its mainland. However, the European residents, who were mostly French, represented a minority of Algeria’s population.
Following World War II, the Istiqlal Party in Morocco and Neo Destour in Tunisia called for independence. In the beginning, France refused all suggestions of emancipation and preferred to use force to counter these nationalist movements.
But, instead of quelling these rebellions, these moves only encouraged greater resentment. To avoid having to deal with a bloody conflict in both countries, and the possibility that the unrest would spread to Algeria, the government decided to change its policy.
In Carthage, France’s Prime Minister Pierre Mendès-France signed documents recognizing Tunisia’s autonomy on 31 July 1954. Two years later, independence was granted to both Tunisia and Morocco.
In Algeria, on 8 May 1945, during demonstrations at Sétif and Guelma to celebrate the Allies’ victory over Nazism, the partisans of independence raised Algerian flags. France countered all demands for change with ferocious repression.
A few timid legislative reforms were introduced in 1947, including the establishment of an Algerian Assembly and French citizenship for the Muslim population. However, despite the introduction of equality, the Algerian opposition was still denied freedom of expression.
On 1 November 1954, FLN (the National Liberation Front) launched a wave of violence that marked the beginning of the Algerian War.
In 1956, the French government sent additional troops, including conscripted soldiers, but, despite military superiority in the field, was unable to negotiate a truce. Meanwhile, a growing number of Muslims joined the ranks of the FLN, partly by conviction, partly because they were afraid of reprisals.
In mainland France, public opinion was divided, and calls for negotiations grew louder. On the international level, and with United Nations condemnation, France was increasingly isolated.
On 13 May 1958, Algeria’s French nationals launched protests and called on General de Gaulle to return to power as a way of resolving the crisis. After a period of hesitation, he finally confirmed the Algerians’ right to self-determination.
Despite desperate attempts by Algeria’s French population, with support from some factions within the army, to change this decision, independence was formally accepted as part of the Evian Agreements. These were signed in March 1962 and came into force on 3 July 1962.
Fearing reprisals by the FLN after the scorched earth policy launched by the OAS, an organization of secret far-right nationalists, nearly 500,000 French residents fled Algeria during the summer of 1962, leaving all their possessions.
Meanwhile, the Harkis, Muslims enlisted in the French army, were abandoned and many were hunted down and killed after independence.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://the-map-as-history.com/Decolonization-after-1945/decolonization-of-north-africa-by-france
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2025-06-12T12:49:55Z
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In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the integration of Virtual Reality (VR) has emerged as a transformative tool, reshaping the way students engage with learning content. Introduction: A Virtual Leap in Learning Virtual Reality, once confined to the realms of gaming and entertainment, has now permeated the educational sphere, offering an immersive and interactive learning experience. The incorporation of VR technology in classrooms is transforming traditional teaching methods, creating a dynamic and engaging environment for students. The Immersive Classroom Experience One of the primary advantages of Virtual Reality in education is its ability to create immersive classroom experiences. Imagine history coming to life as students virtually explore ancient civilizations, or biology lessons taking a leap as students dive into the intricacies of the human anatomy. The immersive nature of VR captivates students, making learning a multisensory adventure. Breaking Geographical Barriers Virtual Reality has the power to break down geographical barriers, providing students with virtual field trips to historical landmarks, scientific laboratories, and cultural institutions. Students can explore the wonders of the world without leaving the classroom, broadening their perspectives and enriching their understanding of various subjects. Hands-On Learning in a Virtual Realm The concept of hands-on learning takes a leap forward with Virtual Reality. Whether it’s dissecting a virtual frog in biology class or experimenting with chemical reactions in a simulated laboratory, VR Lab in Schools allows students to engage in practical activities without the constraints of physical resources. This not only enhances the learning experience but also fosters a sense of curiosity and experimentation. Adapting to Diverse Learning Styles One of the strengths of Virtual Reality lies in its adaptability to diverse learning styles. Visual learners can benefit from the vivid and lifelike simulations, while kinesthetic learners can actively participate in virtual experiments. This personalized approach to learning ensures that students can absorb information in a way that resonates with their individual preferences and strengths. Enhancing Collaboration and Communication Virtual Reality creates a collaborative space where students can interact with each other and their virtual surroundings. Collaborative projects, virtual group discussions, and shared learning experiences foster a sense of community in the virtual realm. This enhances communication skills and prepares students for the collaborative nature of the modern workplace. Overcoming Challenges with Virtual Learning While the benefits of Virtual Reality in education are undeniable, it is essential to address potential challenges. Issues such as access to VR devices, the learning curve for educators, and the need for consistent technological advancements must be acknowledged. However, as technology evolves, these challenges can be mitigated, ensuring a more inclusive and accessible virtual learning environment. Looking Ahead: The Future of Virtual Learning As Virtual Reality continues to make inroads into education, the future looks promising. The ongoing development of VR applications, content, and devices will further enhance the educational experience. The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Augmented Reality (AR) with VR holds the potential to create even more sophisticated and interactive learning environments. The integration of Virtual Reality in education marks a significant paradigm shift in the way we approach learning. While STEMROBO’s contributions to education are notable, the broader implications of VR in diverse educational contexts showcase its potential to revolutionize learning experiences globally. As we navigate this exciting frontier of virtual learning, the possibilities for innovative and immersive education are limitless.
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CC-MAIN-2025-26
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https://staging.stemrobo.com/tag/vr-applications/
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2025-06-17T16:52:45Z
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teaching through trade books
By Christine Anne Royce
Eclipses will be the talk of the science world this fall and into the spring of 2024. Although the core idea of eclipses is addressed at the middle school level, younger students can still engage in the excitement around this topic through developmentally appropriate activities focusing on patterns found within the sky and the Earth, Moon, and Sun system.
When the Sun Goes Dark
By Andrew Fraknoi and Dennis Schatz
Illustrated by Eric Freeberg
This narrative story helps bring the excitement of eclipses to the reader as they become part of the story about how multiple generations of a family explore this natural occurrence. The book includes investigations that are utilized in the lesson.
Purpose: Students describe what causes shadows and the relationship of shadows to the position of the Sun.
Begin a discussion with the students by asking them if they have ever noticed patterns in the sky, such as changes in the position of the Sun or the appearance of the Moon at different times. Allow them to describe their own experiences and record them on chart paper with the heading of “Patterns We See in the Sky.” As this might be the first time students have discussed patterns about the Sun and Moon, guide students in a brainstorming session about when and where they see these objects. Share Catch the Sun! A Story About One Eclipse with the students. Point out at the beginning that this book is fictional and ask them to explain what that means. For young children, it is important to explicitly discuss fiction and nonfiction so as not to create misconceptions. Discuss the following points:
p. 2 (Introduction) Ask the students to think about “can the Moon really dream?” Connect this to the idea that this story is fictional, but the book can still be a good way to think about how the Sun and the Moon move through the sky.
p. 5 Think about the Sun during the daytime, can you describe what it looks like outside? What do you think would happen if the Moon could cover the Sun after catching it?
p. 13 Why do you think the elephant says the Sun is being chased by the Moon? When do you see each? When do they appear in the sky?
p. 15 The young boy said that when the Moon covers the Sun, it is an eclipse. Have any of you witnessed an eclipse?
p. 19 This is a perfect spot to point out the safety note in the story and remind students in real life that they should NEVER look directly at the Sun.
p. 21 The lion points out that it (the eclipse) would happen after “dawn’s early light?” When do you think that is? Nighttime, morning, afternoon.
p. 29 Describe where the Moon was in relation to the Sun and the Earth.
To help students understand that a light source can be blocked out by an object, students will be asked to explore the idea of how shadows form first, which is part of the standard at this level. Using a full class discussion and investigation, gather students in a circle or at their desks and bring out a strong flashlight. Use the flashlight to demonstrate how shadows are created by positioning the light source (Sun) and objects (students’ hands or small objects) at different angles. Ask the students to start to predict where a shadow will fall and explain why they think that. Using big objects and small objects, have the students make observations and explain answers to questions such as:
What happens when an object “gets in the way of” or blocks the light beam? Is there a difference when the object is small or large?
When the object is in front of the light, what do you notice about the shadow it creates?
Ask the students to think about what each object might represent if they were in the sky (flashlight = Sun; object = Moon). Ask them to think about when they see shadows on the ground made by the Sun and an object such as themselves or a tree. Have them share their answers. Once they have shared their thinking, take the students outside on a Sunny day and ask them to stand in a particular spot and mark where their shadow falls on the ground. Have them mark the length of their shadow with chalk. Point out where the Sun is in the sky (repeat the safety warning that they should never look directly at the Sun). Repeat this later in the day and have students discuss how the position of the Sun affects the length and direction of shadows during different times of the day. Prompt the students to think about what would happen to the shadow if they were standing near a tree or house and that object was between them and the Sun. Ask the students to explain why objects being in a line is needed for a shadow to occur.
Without diving into the topic of specific types of eclipses or the idea of an eclipse being either total or partial, transition the discussion to eclipses by explaining that they occur when the Sun, Moon, and Earth align in specific ways and help the students consider how a flashlight, object, and shadow also are aligned. Share with the students the short video 2017 Solar Eclipse (see Online Resources) beginning at 0:08 seconds with the sound off. This is recorded in a playback speed that shows the entire eclipse in about one minute. Play it back several times and ask the students questions including “What is happening to the amount of Sunlight the Earth gets at the beginning of the video and toward the end of the video?” “Why do you think it became dark during the day?”
After students have had a chance to view the video several times, ask them to refer to the story where the elephant says that the “Moon is chasing the Sun” and ask them why the animals in the story might think that the Moon was chasing and catching the Sun and that the Moon “caught the Sun.” Be explicit in helping students understand that it is not a chase, and then reread the page where it says, “and strangely enough, the Sun did NOT run, as the Moon moved to the front and COVERED the Sun!” Replay the video one more time and ask the students to explain why the statement that the Moon COVERED the Sun is accurate from what they see.
Questions to continue to help students explain their understanding include:
Again, the general concept of shadows and how different objects in alignment with a light source will create shadows is the focus of this lesson.
Returning to the idea of shadows, divide students into small groups and provide them with paper cutouts that represent the Moon and a flashlight. Ask the students to model the following statements and be able to explain what is happening.
After groups have had a chance to develop their models, ask them to share their thinking with the entire class.
Initially, students are describing their understanding of patterns of objects in the sky and then connect this understanding to how shadows form. Students describe and explain what creates a shadow and what happens if objects are not lined up. Throughout the lesson, the teacher is assisting students in understanding that for a shadow to occur an object must move in front of a light source and that is why when the Moon covers (moves in front of) the Sun, an eclipse occurs.
Purpose: Students will investigate models of what happens when the Earth, Moon, and Sun align and describe how the location of these objects in the sky influences phases of the Moon, which affects when eclipses occur.
Teacher’s Note: The core idea of eclipses is one that is addressed fully at the middle school level. However, it can be introduced at this level as it relates to understanding how the regular movement of objects creates patterns.
Safety note: While not directly observing the Sun in these activities, it would be important to point out that students should never look directly at the Sun.
Read When the Sun Goes Dark to the students and stop at the following pages to discuss the questions.
pp. 4–5 The authors describe how the Sun looked like it had a bite taken out of it until it only looked like a ring. The sky got dark like nighttime in the day. Does anyone know what this event might be like? Have you ever witnessed a solar eclipse? Allow students to share their prior knowledge and experiences.
pp. 6–9 What are the objects that the ball, lamp, and person represent? Where are these objects located in reality? How do these three objects interact as a system? Terms such as new Moon, full Moon, phases, and others are mentioned. Allow the students to discuss these terms.
pp. 10–15 The grandfather was having the children test how they see an object based on where a source of light is positioned. He called this a point of view. Ask the students to discuss point of view and what the term means.
pp. 16–21 Point out in the story that eclipses happen when the Moon, Earth, and Sun are all lined up. Ask the students to consider why things being in alignment are important. Prompt them with a question such as, When we are all standing in a very straight line, can you see what is happening at the end of the hallway? What do you do if you were to hear a noise at the end of the hallway when you are in a straight line? (Most students step out of line or tip their heads out of line to see.)
pp. 22–33 As this section relates to additional information about the study of eclipses and how people view them, students can share their own experiences if they have witnessed an eclipse.
pp. 34–25 Point out the pictures of the phases of the Moon on this page spread and ask them why knowing the phases of the Moon is also important for understanding eclipses.
In the explore stage, students will participate in a series of tasks that will help them construct their understanding of why the position of celestial objects is important and influences when an eclipse occurs. These tasks should be done in the order presented. Several tasks will have the students replicate the activities the students do in the story. The easiest thing to do, which will allow students to make notes, is to pair the students up. While one student engages in the activity, the other student can record their observations on their Observation Chart (see Supplemental Resources) and then the students can switch places.
Task 1: Place a lamp on a table as described in the story and have the students hold a tennis ball in front of their head with an outstretched arm which in this position represents a new Moon. Ask the students to try and move the tennis ball around their heads keeping their arm outstretched. Have the students stop at points and observe how much of the tennis ball is lit up by the lamp. Ask them to stop at what would be 90, 180, 270 degrees if the lamp is at 0 degrees.
Task 2: Ask the students to line up the tennis ball so that it is directly between their head and the lamp so that the lamp light (bulb) is blocked out. Questions to help student thinking focus on what is the Moon phase when the Moon is directly between the Earth (your head) and the Sun (the lamp) so that it blocks out the light? If the Moon’s path around the Earth is called an orbit, how many times in a single orbit is the Moon in the right position to block out the light of the Sun?
Task 3: Have the students stand in a very straight line facing forward. They need to keep their bodies and head in line and look straight ahead. Tell them that their head is the Earth and that the head of the person in front of them represents the Moon. This sets up the same type of alignment that was described in task two. Then have someone at the end of a dark hallway shine a light and ask the students to describe what happens and what they can see. It is likely most students will step out of line to try and see the light better. Point this out to them and ask them to consider what happens when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are not in alignment during a new Moon. Identify individual students to take a half step, full step, or several steps out of the line and make observations. Have them describe what they are observing at this point (this will help illustrate that based on how much alignment or overlap there is, partial eclipses can also occur).
Task 4: Place a lamp on a table directly in line with a picture in the classroom (it could be any picture). Then place marks on the floor at four or five different locations around the lamp/table set up. Ask the students to stand on each x and sketch their point of view of the picture and lamp that they see.
Task 5: Divide students into small groups of three or four and provide each group with a globe, a small ball representing the Moon, and a lamp representing the Sun. Ask the students to set up their own model of how the Earth, Moon, Sun system moves and where the different celestial bodies are during a new Moon, full Moon, eclipse, and so on. Ask the students to make observations of the shadows and to record their observations on their observation chart by sketching the alignments they create and the shadows that result.
Return to the questions that were posed in the engage section along with the additional ones listed and ask students to explain and use the models created to describe their understanding about the Earth, Moon, system, and eclipses.
In the story, the grandparents had just returned from viewing a solar eclipse. Based on what you learned, is this a trip that they could do every single month? Why or why not?
What are the positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun when a full Moon occurs? New Moon? What position is the Moon in when a solar eclipse occurs?
When the Earth revolves around the Sun, our point of view from the Earth is changed. Describe what happened to your point of view in the task with the lamp and picture? What is a visible result of the Earth’s movement around the Sun?
When does a total eclipse happen? Describe how standing in a straight line is similar to the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth.
Using the Eclipse 2017 interactive simulation (see Online Resources), explain to the students that in 2017 there was a solar eclipse that had a path across the United States. Model for the students how to adjust the time on the bottom and also select different locations and the impact that has on how much of the Sun was eclipsed. Ask the students to interact with this site using the first three locations that are provided and make observations on their sheet. Then ask the students to type in their location and compare the amount of coverage during the eclipse in their location to the three different locations provided. Have them describe their comparison of the amount of coverage on their Eclipse sheet. Allow them to continue to interact with this simulation and locate a place that did not experience the eclipse (no coverage). Now ask them to visit the Eclipse 2024 interactive map and compare the three locations given and the one that they selected using this new map. This map is not as robust but will give information on whether or not the eclipse will be a partial one, full one, or not visible from a location and provides a simulation as well.
While eclipses as a core idea are not addressed until middle school, students can begin to explore this topic as it relates to the movement of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. Students discuss their initial understanding of how these three celestial bodies interact and expand on that through participation in tasks where they are asked to sketch and describe their observations. Finally, students are expanding their understanding of how location impacts the amount of a solar eclipse that might be observed through an interactive simulation and comparison.
Christine Anne Royce ([email protected]) is a professor at Shippensburg University in Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, and past president of NSTA.
NSTA Press Book
The Explore-Before-Explain Guidebook for Science Education: Creating High Quality Lessons for the Classroom and Professional LearningPREORDER NOW! TO SHIP 7/1/2025 This guidebook uses an Explore-before-Explain instructional sequence to help you facilitate the design of active meaning-making lessons in science....
Learn and Lead: How to Support Teachers Making the Shift to 3D Teaching and Learning, January 21, 2026As science education evolves, the shift toward three-dimensional (3D) teaching and learning, integrating disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and science and engineering practices, represents a transformative opportunity for educators and ...
Learn and Lead: What is 3D Learning? Practical Guidance for Leaders, October 29, 2025Three-dimensional (3D) learning is at the heart of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) and science education reform, but what does it really look like in classrooms, and how can leaders support its implementation system wide?...
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For remote sensing scientists who track the movement of smoke plumes, May 2023 has been a wild, memorable month due to extreme fire activity in northwestern Canada.
Early spring always brings elevated fire risk to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the northeastern edge of British Columbia—naturally dry areas that lie in the rain shadow of the Canadian Rockies. There is a period each year, after snow melts but before spring growth begins, that dry forest undergrowth is exposed.
But in May 2023, this naturally fire-prone dry period coincided with unusually hot and windy weather, turning what normally would have been small, short-lived fires into huge wildland blazes that raged for several weeks. The fires, ignited by lightning or human activity, charred more than 1 million hectares (400 square miles) as of May 24, and lofted smoke high into the atmosphere and across North America.
The animation above highlights the volume of smoke and its dynamic, swirling movements between May 5-22, 2023. It shows black carbon particles—commonly called soot—moving across North American skies during that period. The black carbon data come from NASA’s GEOS forward processing (GEOS-FP) model, which assimilates data from satellite, aircraft, and ground-based observing systems. In addition to making use of satellite observations of aerosols and fires, GEOS-FP also incorporates meteorological data like air temperature, moisture, and winds to project the plume’s behavior.
Over the course of the fire outbreak, large rivers of smoke traced meanders in the jet stream, swirled into two separate extratropical cyclones, and darkened skies across large swaths of North America for weeks. Scientists even used satellites to track smoke injected high into the atmosphere by Canadian wildfires early in the month as it circled the entire globe.
“None of this is unprecedented,” said Michael Fromm, a meteorologist at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who has observed the dynamics of smoke plumes with colleagues from NOAA, NASA, and several other science institutions for decades. “We have seen smoke from this region behave like this in the past,” he said. “But the amount of smoke is unusual for this time of year.”
On several occasions, the unusually hot and intense fires generated strong updrafts that fueled pyrocumulonimbus clouds (pyroCb)—also called flammagenitus. These towering clouds lift smoke from the surface and channel large volumes of it into the lower stratosphere where stronger, higher-level winds disperse it widely, explained David Peterson, also with the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
“Multiple pyroCbs in Alberta injected large amounts of smoke higher than the cruising altitudes of jet aircraft on May 4 and 5,” Peterson said. A second cluster occurred May 18-21, when pyroCbs were observed over fires in British Columbia and Alberta on four consecutive days. Around both periods, the area covered by smoke expands significantly in the GOES animation. “In total, we have observed at least 10 large pyroCb events in Canada in May,” he added.
“This is rare to see with smoke plumes,” said Fromm, noting this is only the fourth time he can remember it happening in decades of observing smoke. It is much more common to see with dust in parts of Asia and the Middle East, he added. In an earlier study, Fromm and colleagues documented how dust may alter the lifespan of certain types of storm clouds and change precipitation patterns. “There’s reason to think that infusions of smoke into extratropical storms could do something similar, but I'm not aware of any peer-reviewed publications that detail a case like that. I suspect this event in Canada will be an event we study and publish on for years,” he said.
Much of the smoke has stayed high enough to avoid creating severe air quality problems at the surface, but its presence has not gone unnoticed. Air quality alert systems managed by the National Weather Service and Environmental Protection Agency—as well as multiple state agencies—have issued alerts to several U.S. states. And skies have been hazier and sunsets redder than usual in many areas, according to news reports.
“This event is a good reminder of how interconnected we are,” said Jessica McCarty, chief of the biospheric sciences branch at NASA’s Ames Research Center and the author of a 2021 study about boreal and Arctic fire emissions. “What happens with wildland fires at high latitudes in boreal forests doesn’t just stay there,” she said. “The air quality and climate impacts affect all of us living in the temperate zone as well.”
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Upper Rio Grande People: Archaic Period (5500-500 AD)
There was a shift in environmental conditions that caused prehistoric people to adapt to hunting small game and diversify their sustenance to include wild plant species, such as piñon nuts, wild grasses, and sagebrush leaves. Although not formally recognized as a discrete culture, the Upper Rio Grande People were migratory hunters and gatherers who had no pottery and appear to have raised no crops. They hunted rabbit, deer, antelope and buffalo with points that were crudely carved from black and gray volcanic stone. Dwellings were temporary camps and shelters made of rock. While dating has not been defined, evidence indicates these people were moving up and down the Rio Grande for sometime before year zero and left extensive artifacts, indicating larger groups and longer occupancy. However, there is still no evidence to indicate permanent settlements.
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“Read this chapter for tomorrow, and be prepared to discuss it.”
Students hear sentences like this one over and over in school, but what does it mean to be prepared to discuss a text? Often it means to be ready to answer the teacher’s questions, but how do teachers come up with these questions? Additionally, as students enter the higher grades, they should be generating their own questions to contribute to the discussion, but how can they formulate such questions?
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills offers an answer. First published by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom in 1953 and later revised by some of his former students, Bloom’s Taxonomy organizes learning into a progression of cognitive levels: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The idea is that students need to start at the lower levels of cognition with a new concept, then progress into higher levels. Teachers can use the action words associated with each level in planning class activities, and they can use the question stems associated with each level in planning discussion, test, and essay questions.
Let’s look at Bloom’s Taxonomy and those question stems through the lens of teaching Shakespeare’s Macbeth, one of my favorite texts. Here’s how I might move through the levels:
1. Remembering: I need to check that students recall their reading. I might ask questions such as what sort of event Macbeth and Banquo are returning from when they meet the witches, or what predictions the witches make.
2. Understanding: I want to make sure students comprehend the text. I might highlight some key passages and ask students to paraphrase what the characters are saying — not an easy feat for modern readers dealing with Elizabethan English.
3. Applying: This level is where the more in-depth discussion questions start. I might ask students to find examples of Lady Macbeth attempting to manipulate her husband in Act I, or I might identify a theme of the play and ask students to find evidence for it.
4. Analyzing: This level has even more potential for discussion. I could ask students to predict the action in the next act based on what has already happened in the play, to make inferences about King Duncan’s character based on the textual evidence, to identify a key theme. (Note that in Applying, I would give students the theme, whereas in Analyzing, I’m asking them to find the theme themselves.)
5. Evaluating: This level also has great potential for discussion, because this is the level of drawing comparisons and setting forth arguments. I might ask students how much responsibility Lady Macbeth bears for the action, what role the witches actually play, or to compare and contrast Macbeth and another character.
6. Creating: This level isn’t used as much in discussion, but it has wonderful potential for demonstrating learning. I could ask students to research and present a report on some aspect of eleventh-century Scotland or Shakespeare’s London, or I could place students in groups, assign each group a key scene from the play, and have them rewrite it for a different setting, rehearse it, and perform it for classmates.
How can students use Bloom’s to improve their reading skills? They can ask themselves the same sorts of questions that a teacher would, using the question stems to write them. Readers not sure if they’re fully comprehending the text can start with Remembering and Understanding questions; readers more confident in the text can concentrate on Applying, Analyzing, and Evaluating question stems. Like any new skill, writing the questions takes practice at first, but it gets easier and easier.
A student who makes a habit of asking herself these questions the night before class won’t just become a stronger reader, she also will become more confident in class discussions because she already will have considered the sorts of questions that might come up. A student who takes the process a step further, bringing her own questions to ask the class, might find herself acting as a sort of class leader — and more importantly, she’ll be ready down the road as discussions in high school and college are increasingly driven by student inquiry.
By Elizabeth Walters, Private Tutor
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The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. It extends from about 10 to 50 kilometers (6 to 30 miles) above the Earth's surface. The stratosphere is characterized by its relatively stable and dry air, and it contains the ozone layer, which plays a crucial role in protecting life on Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
Key Features of the Stratosphere:
Ozone Layer: The stratosphere contains a higher concentration of ozone (O3) than the other layers of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs and scatters the majority of the sun's harmful UV radiation, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface and protecting living organisms from its damaging effects.
Jet Streams: The stratosphere is home to fast-flowing air currents known as jet streams, which can have a significant impact on weather patterns and aviation routes.
Importance of the Stratosphere:
The stratosphere plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of the Earth's atmosphere and supporting life on our planet. Its most notable contribution is the protection provided by the ozone layer, which shields us from the harmful effects of UV radiation. The stratosphere also influences global climate patterns and the behavior of weathersystems, making it an essential component of Earth's atmospheric dynamics.
To understand the stratosphere more deeply, consider the following study points:
Describe the composition and characteristics of the stratosphere.
Explain the role of the ozone layer in the stratosphere and its significance for life on Earth.
The Living Environment: Students understand that cells are the basic unit of life, that all life as we know it has evolved through genetic transfer and natural selection to create a great diversity of organisms, and that these organisms create interdependent webs through which matter and energy flow. Students understand similarities and differences between humans and other organisms and the interconnections of these interdependent webs.
Cells: Students describe how living things are made up of one or more cells and the ways cells help organisms meet their basic needs.
Give examples of organisms that consist of a single cell and organisms that are made of a collection of cells.
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Bees play an essential role in Jamaican agriculture, acting as critical pollinators for a wide range of crops and wild plants. These small yet mighty insects contribute significantly to food security, biodiversity, and the health of the island’s ecosystems. In Jamaica, where agriculture is both a cultural and economic backbone, bees are silent workers that help maintain a thriving farming industry.
One of the primary contributions of bees to agriculture is pollination. This natural process enables plants to produce fruits, seeds, and vegetables. In Jamaica, key crops such as mangoes, ackee, coffee, coconut, and various herbs depend on bee pollination. Without it, yields would be significantly reduced, leading to lower food production and economic loss for local farmers.
Bee pollination ensures the quality, size, and uniformity of fruits. For instance, mango trees that are well-pollinated by bees produce larger and more flavorful fruits. In the Blue Mountains, where Jamaica’s world-famous coffee is grown, bee activity supports the development of coffee cherries, influencing both quantity and quality.
Beyond crop production, bees are vital for maintaining Jamaica’s biodiversity. They pollinate not only agricultural crops but also native wildflowers, trees, and shrubs, supporting the life cycles of many other organisms. This biodiversity is crucial for natural pest control, soil health, and climate resilience.
Jamaica’s diverse ecosystems—from coastal plains to mountainous forests—benefit from native bee species like the stingless bee (Melipona). These bees are adapted to local conditions and are particularly efficient at pollinating indigenous plants. Protecting these native pollinators is key to preserving Jamaica’s rich natural heritage.
Economic Value and Livelihoods
Beekeeping, or apiculture, is an important source of income for many Jamaican farmers. Honey production, beeswax, royal jelly, and propolis are all marketable products. Jamaican honey, especially when derived from wildflowers or logwood blossoms, is known for its rich flavor and medicinal qualities.
Programs by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, along with NGOs, have supported small-scale beekeepers by offering training, equipment, and start-up hives. These initiatives empower rural communities, especially women and youth, to diversify their income through sustainable practices.
Challenges Facing Bees in Jamaica
Despite their importance, bees in Jamaica face several threats. Pesticide use, habitat loss, deforestation, and climate change have all contributed to declining bee populations. Imported pests and diseases, such as the Varroa mite, also threaten hive health.
Monoculture farming, which reduces plant diversity, limits the nectar and pollen sources available to bees. Additionally, wild habitat destruction from urban expansion and illegal logging puts native bees at risk.
Addressing these challenges requires public awareness, sustainable farming techniques, and stronger environmental protection policies. The introduction of bee-friendly crops, reduced chemical use, and conservation of wildflower-rich habitats can help support pollinator populations.
Sustainable Solutions and the Way Forward
Several efforts are underway in Jamaica to protect bees and promote sustainable agriculture. Organic farming practices are gaining popularity, which reduce harmful chemical exposure and provide a healthier environment for bees.
Community education campaigns and school garden programs are teaching young Jamaicans the value of bees and biodiversity. Urban beekeeping is also on the rise, with hives placed in backyards, schools, and hotel gardens, contributing to local honey production and awareness.
Moreover, the use of native stingless bees in agroforestry and herb farming offers promise. These bees are gentle and can be kept in densely populated areas, making them ideal for integrated farming systems.
Bees are indispensable to Jamaican agriculture, playing a crucial role in pollination, biodiversity conservation, and economic development. Protecting these pollinators ensures the sustainability of food systems, supports rural livelihoods, and maintains the beauty and balance of Jamaica’s natural environment.
Promoting bee-friendly practices and raising awareness about their importance is not just an agricultural priority—it’s a national necessity.
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Understanding Bipartisanship in Congress
Bipartisanship refers to the cooperation and agreement between two political parties, usually the majority and minority parties, in a legislative body such as Congress. It involves working together on legislation or other issues, often resulting in compromise and the passage of laws that have support from both sides of the aisle.
Bipartisanship is seen as a way to overcome partisan divisions and gridlock, and to find common ground on important issues. It can involve negotiations between leaders of the two parties, as well as input from rank-and-file members of both parties.
Some examples of bipartisanship include:
The Budget Control Act of 2011, which was passed with support from both Democrats and Republicans and helped to reduce the national debt.
The Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, which was passed with votes from both parties in 2010.
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was a stimulus package passed in response to the Great Recession and received support from both Democrats and Republicans.
Bipartisanship is not always easy to achieve, and it can be challenging to find common ground between the two parties on contentious issues. However, when it does occur, it can lead to important legislation and progress on important issues.
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Mastering Formulas and Mathematical Functions in Excel
Unleash the power of Excel by learning to create formulas and use built-in functions for your calculations
Microsoft Excel is a powerful tool for managing and analyzing data. One of its core features is the ability to create formulas and use built-in mathematical functions. In this article, we'll provide a step-by-step guide on how to create formulas and use some of the most common mathematical functions in Excel.
Creating basic formulas: To create a formula in Excel, start by typing an equal sign (=) in the cell where you want the result to appear. Then, type the desired formula using cell references, operators, and values. For example, to add the values in cells A1 and B1, type "=A1+B1" and press Enter.
Using built-in functions: Excel has a wide range of built-in functions that you can use in your formulas. To insert a function, type an equal sign (=), followed by the function name and its arguments within parentheses. For example, to calculate the average of the values in cells A1 to A5, type "=AVERAGE(A1:A5)" and press Enter.
Common mathematical functions: Here are some frequently used mathematical functions in Excel:
- SUM: Calculates the sum of a range of cells
- AVERAGE: Calculates the average of a range of cells
- MIN: Finds the smallest value in a range of cells
- MAX: Finds the largest value in a range of cells
- COUNT: Counts the number of cells in a range that contain numeric data
Using cell references in formulas: When creating formulas, you can use cell references to make your calculations dynamic. By doing so, any changes to the referenced cells will automatically update the formula's result. There are two types of cell references: relative and absolute. Relative references adjust when a formula is copied, while absolute references remain fixed.
Error messages in formulas: Sometimes, you may encounter errors in your formulas. Excel displays error messages such as #DIV/0!, #VALUE!, or #REF! to indicate different types of issues. To fix these errors, double-check your formulas for any incorrect cell references, function arguments, or mathematical operations.
Creating formulas and using mathematical functions in Excel is essential for efficient data analysis and management. Start by typing an equal sign, followed by cell references, operators, and values or built-in functions. Make sure to use the correct cell references and double-check your formulas to avoid errors.
Where to buy?
If you're looking to get started with Excel, visit our online store, SOFTFLIX. We offer Excel 2019 as a standalone program, or you can opt for one of our Office packages, which include:
- Office 2021 Home and Student (for home and academic use)
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- Office 2021 Home and Student for Mac (for Mac users in home and academic settings)
- Office 2021 Home and Business for Mac (for small businesses using Mac)
Choose the version that best fits your needs and start mastering formulas and mathematical functions in Excel today!
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Early intervention is a term that refers to the provision of services and supports to young children who are experiencing developmental delays. It’s the same thing, but it’s for infants and toddlers who are eligible and who are falling behind on their developmental milestones. The early intervention school singapore aim to make education simpler for such children.
Children as young as birth up to those who are 3 years old can receive services in their homes or out in the community if early intervention is provided. Depending on which abilities are lagging behind, children and the families they live with may work with a variety of specialists.
What exactly does “early intervention” mean?
Early intervention refers to the process of identifying children and young people who are at risk of having negative outcomes and then providing them with effective early support at an earlier age.
Early intervention that is both effective and efficient works to either prevent problems from occurring or to confront them head-on when they do occur, in order to stop the problems from getting worse. It also helps to foster a whole set of personal strengths and skills that prepare a child for adult life and prepares the child for adulthood.
Early intervention can take many different forms, including home visiting programmes to assist parents who are vulnerable, school-based programmes to improve children’s social and emotional skills, and mentoring programmes for young people who are at risk of becoming involved in criminal activity. All of these early intervention strategies are intended to reduce the likelihood of a young person becoming involved in criminal activity. Even though there are some people who believe that early intervention may be most effective when it is provided during a child’s first few years of life, the evidence suggests that effective interventions can improve a child’s life chances at any point during childhood and adolescence.
Sets of skills are prioritised in early intervention programmes:
- Abilities of the body (reaching, crawling, walking, drawing, building)
- Cognitive skills (thinking, learning, solving problems)
- Abilities in communication (talking, listening, understanding others)
- Self-help or adaptive skills (eating, dressing)
- Competence in social or psychological matters (playing, interacting with others)
Early intervention is provided by all states; however, the manner in which it is provided varies from state to state. Children could be referred for an early intervention evaluation by a medical professional or an employee working in a daycare centre. In the event that a family has concerns, they may be able to make their own referrals in some states.
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- Jaguars: Anatomy and Bite Force
- Habitat and Range
- Behavior and Ecology
- Conservation Efforts and Threats
- Cultural Significance and Mythology
Jaguars possess distinctive physical attributes, including a big blocky head that contributes significantly to their predatory prowess. Their jaws are formidable, showcasing a bite force that averages 1,500 pounds per square inch. This substantial strength surpasses that of a tiger, establishing jaguars as the true "chomp-ions" of the big cat family. Their powerful jaws allow them to crush the shells of armored reptiles, such as turtles, and penetrate the skulls of mammalian prey. This anatomical feature speaks volumes about their evolutionary adaptation as apex predators.
The geographical range of jaguars largely spans Central and South America. Primarily, they occupy diverse ecosystems, including rainforests, wetlands, grasslands, and scrublands. The Amazon Rainforest serves as a critical habitat for this species, offering abundant resources to support their dietary needs. The thick jungle environment is essential for hunting and breeding. Jaguars are solitary by nature, and their territorial behavior necessitates vast areas to roam. Their territories can range from 20 to 200 square miles, depending on prey availability and habitat conditions.
Jaguars exhibit complex behavioral patterns that enhance their survival. They are primarily crepuscular, active during dawn and dusk, which aligns with the activity patterns of their prey. This hunting strategy increases their chances of a successful catch. Additionally, jaguars possess remarkable swimming abilities, often hunting in water, making them unique among big cats. They typically stalk their prey silently before launching stealthy ambushes. Their diet ranges widely, including deer, capybaras, and even caimans, showcasing their adaptability as hunters.
Despite their prowess, jaguars face significant threats. Habitat loss due to deforestation and urban development has fragmented their natural ranges. Agriculture, especially cattle ranching, poses additional pressures on their populations. As humans encroach on their habitats, conflicts often arise, leading to retaliatory killings. Jaguars are also hunted for their beautiful pelts, contributing to their declining numbers. Conservation organizations work diligently to establish protected areas and corridors to facilitate their movement and ensure genetic diversity within populations.
Culturally, jaguars hold significant importance, particularly in various indigenous mythologies throughout the Americas. They are often revered as symbols of power, strength, and stealth. In many cultures, including those of the Maya and Aztec civilizations, these big cats are sacred figures associated with the underworld and the afterlife. The representation of jaguars in art and folklore speaks to their enduring legacy in human culture, influencing contemporary views on wildlife conservation.
As awareness grows regarding the threats faced by jaguars, various efforts have been initiated to protect them. These include habitat restoration projects, wildlife corridors linking fragmented habitats, and legal protections against poaching and habitat destruction. Collaborative conservation initiatives involving local communities are essential in promoting coexistence between jaguars and human populations.
Educational programs play a vital role in fostering understanding and appreciation for jaguars. Zoos and wildlife centers around the world participate in breeding programs to help bolster jaguar populations. Public education campaigns target the importance of preserving wild habitats and emphasize the ecological significance of jaguars within their environments.
Historically, jaguars were once distributed widely across the Americas. However, as development expanded, their populations dwindled. Today, they are classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). For effective conservation strategies, comprehensive studies on jaguar behavior, ecology, and genetics are critical. Understanding their hunting patterns and social structures can guide efforts to create sustainable habitats, ensuring that these magnificent creatures thrive in their natural environments.
Community-based conservation efforts offer one of the most effective means of ensuring the survival of jaguars. By involving local stakeholders, such as ranchers and farmers, initiatives can promote practices that mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. Educating communities about the ecological role of jaguars also encourages positive attitudes towards protecting these animals. Alternatives such as creating wildlife-friendly farming practices can lead to coexistence that benefits both humans and jaguars.
Innovative technologies have been employed in monitoring jaguar populations. Camera traps, GPS collars, and tracking systems provide invaluable data. This information helps conservationists make informed decisions about habitat management and population dynamics. Continuous research and monitoring will be essential for adapting strategies in response to changing environmental conditions.
In sum, jaguars represent not only a vital part of their ecosystems but also a compelling symbol of biodiversity. Their remarkable adaptations and behaviors showcase nature’s ingenuity. While they continue to face numerous challenges, concerted conservation efforts can pave the way for their enduring presence in the wild. It is through education, community involvement, and persistent research that we may preserve the jaguar’s legacy for future generations. Understanding their ecological significance and cultural importance can drive sustained efforts to protect these incredible animals and their habitats.
Jaguars have a big blocky head for a reason. With a bite force of 1,500 pounds per square inch, they’ve got the strongest jaws of any big cat. That is almost double the amount of of a tiger! Jaguars really are the reigning chomp-ions of the feline world.
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By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Describe nucleic acids' structure and define the two types of nucleic acids
- Explain DNA's structure and role
- Explain RNA's structure and roles
Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell's genetic blueprint and carry instructions for its functioning.
DNA and RNA
The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed in a membranous envelope.
The cell's entire genetic content is its genome, and the study of genomes is genomics. In eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotes, DNA forms a complex with histone proteins to form chromatin, the substance of eukaryotic chromosomes. A chromosome may contain tens of thousands of genes. Many genes contain the information to make protein products. Other genes code for RNA products. DNA controls all of the cellular activities by turning the genes “on” or “off.”
The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus but instead use an intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. This intermediary is the messenger RNA (mRNA). Other types of RNA—like rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA—are involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
DNA and RNA are comprised of monomers that scientists call nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Three components comprise each nucleotide: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 3.31). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to one or more phosphate groups.
The nitrogenous bases, important components of nucleotides, are organic molecules and are so named because they contain carbon and nitrogen. They are bases because they contain an amino group that has the potential of binding an extra hydrogen, and thus decreasing the hydrogen ion concentration in its environment, making it more basic. Each nucleotide in DNA contains one of four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
Scientists classify adenine and guanine as purines. The purine's primary structure is two carbon-nitrogen rings. Scientists classify cytosine, thymine, and uracil as pyrimidines which have a single carbon-nitrogen ring as their primary structure (Figure 3.31). Each of these basic carbon-nitrogen rings has different functional groups attached to it. In molecular biology shorthand, we know the nitrogenous bases by their symbols A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C; whereas, RNA contains A, U, G, and C.
The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and in RNA, the sugar is ribose (Figure 3.31). The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group on the ribose's second carbon and hydrogen on the deoxyribose's second carbon. The carbon atoms of the sugar molecule are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, and 5′ (1′ is read as “one prime”). The phosphate residue attaches to the hydroxyl group of the 5′ carbon of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of the 3′ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a 5′–3′ phosphodiester linkage. A simple dehydration reaction like the other linkages connecting monomers in macromolecules does not form the phosphodiester linkage. Its formation involves removing two phosphate groups. A polynucleotide may have thousands of such phosphodiester linkages.
DNA Double-Helix Structure
DNA has a double-helix structure (Figure 3.32). The sugar and phosphate lie on the outside of the helix, forming the DNA's backbone. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like a pair of staircase steps. Hydrogen bonds bind the pairs to each other. Every base pair in the double helix is separated from the next base pair by 0.34 nm. The helix's two strands run in opposite directions, meaning that the 5′ carbon end of one strand will face the 3′ carbon end of its matching strand. (Scientists call this an antiparallel orientation and is important to DNA replication and in many nucleic acid interactions.)
Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. For example, a certain purine can only pair with a certain pyrimidine. This means A can pair with T, and G can pair with C, as Figure 3.33 shows. This is the base complementary rule. In other words, the DNA strands are complementary to each other. If the sequence of one strand is AATTGGCC, the complementary strand would have the sequence TTAACCGG. During DNA replication, each strand copies itself, resulting in a daughter DNA double helix containing one parental DNA strand and a newly synthesized strand.
A mutation occurs, and adenine replaces cytosine. What impact do you think this will have on the DNA structure?
Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is mainly involved in the process of protein synthesis under the direction of DNA. RNA is usually single-stranded and is comprised of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester bonds. A ribonucleotide in the RNA chain contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, and C), and the phosphate group.
There are four major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and microRNA (miRNA). The first, mRNA, carries the message from DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities in a cell. If a cell requires synthesizing a certain protein, the gene for this product turns “on” and the messenger RNA synthesizes in the nucleus. The RNA base sequence is complementary to the DNA's coding sequence from which it has been copied. However, in RNA, the base T is absent and U is present instead. If the DNA strand has a sequence AATTGCGC, the sequence of the complementary RNA is UUAACGCG. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA interacts with ribosomes and other cellular machinery (Figure 3.34).
The mRNA is read in sets of three bases known as codons. Each codon codes for a single amino acid. In this way, the mRNA is read and the protein product is made. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a major constituent of ribosomes on which the mRNA binds. The rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and the Ribosomes. The ribosome's rRNA also has an enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and catalyzes peptide bond formation between two aligned amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is one of the smallest of the four types of RNA, usually 70–90 nucleotides long. It carries the correct amino acid to the protein synthesis site. It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to insert itself in the polypeptide chain. MicroRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules and their role involves regulating gene expression by interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages. Table 3.2 summarizes DNA and RNA features.
DNA | RNA | |
Function | Carries genetic information | Involved in protein synthesis |
Location | Remains in the nucleus | Leaves the nucleus |
Structure | Double helix | Usually single-stranded |
Sugar | Deoxyribose | Ribose |
Pyrimidines | Cytosine, thymine | Cytosine, uracil |
Purines | Adenine, guanine | Adenine, guanine |
Even though the RNA is single stranded, most RNA types show extensive intramolecular base pairing between complementary sequences, creating a predictable three-dimensional structure essential for their function.
As you have learned, information flow in an organism takes place from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA dictates the structure of mRNA in a process scientists call transcription, and RNA dictates the protein's structure in a process scientists call translation. This is the Central Dogma of Life, which holds true for all organisms; however, exceptions to the rule occur in connection with viral infections.
To learn more about DNA, explore the Howard Hughes Medical Institute BioInteractive animations on the topic of DNA.
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Volcanoes have always been a fascinating and powerful force of nature, but their eruptions can have a significant impact on human settlements. When lava flows from a volcano, it can engulf homes, roads, and anything else in its path, leaving behind a trail of destruction. In addition to the physical damage, volcanic eruptions can also have long-lasting effects on the environment, economy, and even the health of the people who live in affected areas. Understanding the impact of volcanic lava flow on human settlements is crucial for developing strategies to minimize damage and keep communities safe.
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Types of Volcanoes
Stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes, are the most recognized type of volcano. They are characterized by their steep cones and alternating layers of lava, ash, and other volcanic materials. These volcanoes are typically found at subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another. The eruption style of stratovolcanoes can range from explosive to effusive, depending on the viscosity of the magma.
Shield volcanoes have a low, broad shape resembling a warrior’s shield, hence their name. They are built by the accumulation of thin, runny lava flows that spread out in all directions from a central vent. Shield volcanoes are known for their gentle eruptions, often resulting in extensive lava flows that can cover large distances. One well-known example of a shield volcano is Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Cinder cone volcanoes
Cinder cone volcanoes are small and steep-sided. They are formed by explosive eruptions that eject particles of lava, ash, and fragments of rocks into the air. These particles fall back down around the vent, building up the cone’s characteristic shape. Cinder cone volcanoes usually have a short duration of activity and can be found in volcanic fields or near other types of volcanoes.
Composite volcanoes, also known as stratovolcanoes, are a combination of stratified layers of lava and fragmented volcanic material. They are characterized by their steep slopes and symmetrical shape. Composite volcanoes often have explosive eruptions, releasing pyroclastic flows that can travel long distances. Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount St. Helens in the United States and Mount Fuji in Japan.
Underwater and Subglacial volcanoes
Underwater and subglacial volcanoes are located beneath the ocean or ice caps. These volcanoes can have unique eruption patterns and can be challenging to study due to their submerged or covered nature. Underwater volcanoes, also known as submarine volcanoes, can create new islands or contribute to the growth of existing land masses. Subglacial volcanoes, on the other hand, can produce explosive steam-driven eruptions due to the interactions between lava and ice.
Geographic Distribution of Volcanoes
Volcanoes in the ‘Ring of Fire’
The ‘Ring of Fire’ is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. It is associated with a nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, volcanic belts, and plate movements. Volcanoes in the ‘Ring of Fire’ account for around 75% of the world’s active volcanoes. This region stretches from the west coast of the Americas, through Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Philippines, and down to New Zealand and Antarctica.
Volcanoes in Rift Zones
Rift zones are areas where the earth’s tectonic plates are moving apart, creating a gap or rift. Along these rift zones, volcanic activity can occur as magma rises to the surface through fractures in the earth’s crust. The most famous example of a volcanic rift zone is the East African Rift System, where active volcanoes like Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Nyiragongo are located.
Volcanoes in Hot Spots
Hot spots are areas of intense volcanic activity that are not directly associated with plate boundaries or rift zones. They are believed to be caused by upwellings of hot mantle material known as mantle plumes. As tectonic plates move over these stationary hot spots, volcanoes can form. The Hawaiian Islands, including the active shield volcano Mauna Loa, are a prime example of volcanoes formed by a hot spot.
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Causes of Eruptions
Movement of tectonic plates
One of the primary causes of volcanic eruptions is the movement of tectonic plates. When two plates collide, one can be forced beneath the other, creating a subduction zone. In these areas, the subducting plate releasing water and other volatiles can cause the overlying mantle to partially melt, leading to volcanic activity. This is commonly seen in stratovolcanoes along subduction zones.
Rising magma from hot spots
Hot spots are another cause of volcanic eruptions. As mentioned earlier, hot spots are regions where magma rises from deep within the mantle, creating a localized source of volcanic activity. The pressure from this rising magma can eventually lead to eruptions, often resulting in the formation of shield volcanoes like those in Hawaii.
Pressure built from trapped gases
Volcanic eruptions can also be caused by pressure built up from trapped gases within the magma. As magma rises towards the surface, the decreasing pressure allows dissolved gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, to expand and form bubbles. If the magma becomes highly gas-rich, the pressure from these expanding bubbles can lead to explosive eruptions, releasing volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows.
Types of Lava and Their Flow Patterns
Aa lava flow
Aa lava is characterized by its rough and fragmented surface texture. It often forms when highly viscous, slow-moving lava is released during eruptions. The lava solidifies quickly, creating a crust that is broken into sharp fragments as the still-molten interior continues to move forward. Aa lava flow is typically rough and jagged, making it difficult to traverse.
Pahoehoe lava flow
Pahoehoe lava is a smooth and ropy lava flow. It forms when low-viscosity, fast-moving lava spreads out in a thin layer, creating a smooth, undulating surface. Pahoehoe lava flows can resemble twisted ropes or braids and are often accompanied by lava tubes, which are natural conduits for the flowing lava. These lava flows can travel long distances and are less hazardous than aa lava flows.
Blocky lava flow
Blocky lava flows are composed of angular blocks of solidified lava. They are often associated with intermediate-viscosity lavas that do not flow as easily as pahoehoe lava. The flow is characterized by the clumping and stacking of large chunks of lava, resulting in a rough, blocky surface. Blocky lava flows are typically slower-moving and can create barriers or obstructions in their path.
Pillow lava flow
Pillow lava forms underwater or beneath glacial ice when lava rapidly cools upon contact with the surrounding medium. The result is a rounded, pillow-like shape. Each “pillow” is formed by a new eruption, creating a series of interconnected formations. Pillow lava can be found in underwater volcanoes and subglacial volcanic eruptions. These flows are distinctive and often have smooth exteriors.
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Impact of Lava Flow on the Environment
Changes in landforms and landscapes
The lava flow from volcanic eruptions can dramatically alter the surrounding landforms and landscapes. As the lava moves across the terrain, it can bury existing features, such as valleys, forests, and even entire communities. Over time, the accumulated lava can create new landforms, such as lava plateaus and volcanic cones, reshaping the landscape.
Impact on flora and fauna
Lava flows can devastate ecosystems by completely destroying habitats and displacing or killing plant and animal species. The intense heat and toxicity of the lava make it nearly impossible for most organisms to survive. However, after the eruption, lava-impacted areas can become fertile ground for new vegetation, attracting pioneering plant species and eventually supporting a diverse ecosystem.
Alteration of waterways and aquatic ecosystems
Lava flows can also impact waterways and aquatic ecosystems. As the lava flows into rivers and streams, it can block or divert the water flow, causing flooding or drought downstream. The high temperatures of the lava can also raise the water temperature, affecting aquatic organisms and causing fish kills. Rehabilitation efforts are often necessary to restore water flow and mitigate the effects on aquatic ecosystems.
Direct Impact of Lava Flow on Human Settlements
Destruction of properties
Direct exposure to lava flows can result in the destruction of properties, including houses, buildings, infrastructure, and agricultural lands. The intense heat of the flowing lava can consume everything in its path, leaving a trail of devastation. Communities situated near active volcanoes need to be aware of the potential dangers and take appropriate precautions to protect their properties.
Displacement of communities
The threat of lava flows can lead to the displacement of entire communities. When faced with an imminent eruption, residents living in high-risk areas may be forced to evacuate their homes to safer locations. This displacement can have long-lasting effects on the affected communities, including the loss of homes and belongings, disruption to livelihoods, and strained social and economic networks.
Casualties due to direct exposure to lava
Direct exposure to lava flows can result in casualties. The extreme heat of the lava can cause severe burns and even death to anyone in its path. People who are unable to evacuate in time or venture too close to active lava flows put themselves at great risk. It is essential for individuals to heed evacuation orders and stay well away from areas affected by volcanic activity to ensure their safety.
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Indirect Impact of Lava Flow on Human Settlements
Development of Lahars and their effects
Lahars, also known as volcanic mudflows, are a secondary hazard associated with volcanic eruptions. They occur when volcanic material mixes with water, either from rainfall or melting ice and snow, forming a fast-flowing slurry that can travel downstream, sometimes at great speed. Lahars can engulf buildings, infrastructure, and communities situated along river valleys, causing significant destruction and loss of life.
Emission of hazardous gases and their effects
Volcanic eruptions release a variety of gases, including sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, which can pose serious health hazards to human settlements. These gases can cause respiratory problems, irritate mucous membranes, and contribute to the formation of acid rain. Communities located downwind of an erupting volcano need to be prepared for such emissions and take necessary measures to protect their health.
Destruction of communication and transport networks
Lava flows can destroy communication and transport networks, cutting off affected communities from vital services and resources. Roads, bridges, and utility infrastructure can be damaged or rendered unusable, isolating communities in remote areas. The loss of these networks can hinder emergency response efforts and make it challenging for affected communities to receive assistance and supplies.
Economic Consequences of Lava Flows
Loss of livelihoods
Lava flows can have severe economic consequences for the communities affected. The destruction of agricultural lands, fisheries, and other natural resources can lead to a loss of livelihoods for the local population. Displaced individuals may struggle to find employment opportunities, further exacerbating the economic impact. Recovery and rebuilding efforts can also be costly and may take years to fully restore economic stability.
Cost of rebuilding
Rebuilding after a volcanic eruption can be a significant financial burden. The cost of repairing or reconstructing infrastructure, homes, and businesses can be immense. The need to allocate funds towards recovery efforts can strain government budgets and divert resources away from other essential services and programs. The economic impact of rebuilding can be felt for a long time after the eruption has ended.
Impact on tourism industries
Volcanoes and volcanic landscapes often attract tourists from around the world. When a volcanic eruption occurs, tourism in the affected areas can suffer. Travel warnings and restricted access to volcanic sites can deter visitors and result in a decline in revenue for businesses that rely on tourism. The recovery of the tourism industry after an eruption can take time as visitor confidence needs to be rebuilt.
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Benefits of Volcanic Activities
Forming fertile soils
Volcanic eruptions can have beneficial effects on soil fertility. The volcanic ash and other materials deposited during an eruption can enrich the soil with essential nutrients and minerals. This nutrient-rich soil supports agriculture, allowing farmers to grow crops more easily and sustainably. Volcanic soils are highly valued by farmers and are often associated with high yields and diverse crop production.
Volcanic activity can create valuable mineral deposits. As magma rises through the earth’s crust, it can interact with existing mineral-rich rocks, leading to the formation of ore deposits. Volcanic-hosted mineral deposits can include gold, silver, copper, and other economically important metals. These resources can provide valuable mining opportunities and contribute to local and national economies.
Tourism and geothermal energy
Volcanoes and volcanic landscapes are often major attractions for tourists. Volcanic areas can offer unique geological features, hot springs, geysers, and stunning vistas, attracting visitors who are interested in nature and adventure tourism. Additionally, volcanic activity can generate geothermal energy, harnessing the heat beneath the earth’s surface to produce electricity and heat for homes and businesses. This renewable energy source can contribute to sustainable development and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
Mitigating the Risks Presented by Volcanic Lava Flows
Improved prediction and early warning systems
Advancements in volcano monitoring and prediction technologies have significantly improved our ability to forecast volcanic eruptions. Seismic monitoring, gas measurements, ground deformation data, and satellite imagery can provide valuable information about changes occurring within a volcano. Early warning systems can alert communities in advance of an eruption, giving them time to evacuate and mitigate potential risks.
Community evacuation planning
Developing robust evacuation plans is crucial for communities located in high-risk volcanic areas. Local authorities and emergency management agencies should work together to create evacuation routes, designated safe zones, and educate residents on the necessary actions to take in the event of an eruption. Regular drills and public awareness campaigns can help ensure preparedness and reduce the loss of life.
Building codes and construction techniques
Implementing building codes and construction techniques that are resilient to volcanic hazards can enhance community resilience. Structural designs should consider the potential impacts of volcanic ash, debris flows, and ground shaking during an eruption. Reinforced structures, protective barriers, and the use of volcanic-resistant materials can help minimize damage and increase the chances of buildings surviving volcanic events.
Implementing land use policies
Governments and local authorities play a crucial role in implementing land use policies that restrict or regulate human settlements in high-risk volcanic areas. Zoning regulations can prohibit or limit construction in hazardous zones, preventing the development of new settlements in areas prone to lava flows. Strict enforcement of these policies can help safeguard human lives and minimize the impact of volcanic eruptions on settlements.
In conclusion, volcanic lava flows have significant impacts on the environment, human settlements, and economies. Understanding different types of volcanoes, their geographic distribution, and the causes of eruptions are crucial for predicting volcanic activity and implementing measures to mitigate risks. While volcanic eruptions can cause destruction and displacement, they can also provide benefits such as fertile soils and economic opportunities. By improving prediction systems, developing evacuation plans, and implementing appropriate building codes, societies can better prepare for volcanic events and minimize the adverse consequences.
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A Voltage Source is a device that generates an exact output voltage which, in theory, does not change regardless of the load current.
We have seen throughout this Basic Electronics Tutorials website that there are two types of elements within an electrical or electronics circuit: passive elements and active elements. An active element is one that is capable of continuously supplying energy to a circuit, such as a battery, a generator, an operational amplifier, etc. A passive element on the other hand are physical elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc, which cannot generate electrical energy by themselves but only consume it.
The types of active circuit elements that are most important to us are those that supply electrical energy to the circuits or network connected to them. These are called “electrical sources” with the two types of electrical sources being the voltage source and the current source. The current source is usually less common in circuits than the voltage source, but both are used and can be regarded as complements of each other.
An electrical supply or simply, “a source”, is a device that supplies electrical power to a circuit in the form of a voltage source or a current source. Both types of electrical sources can be classed as a direct (DC) or alternating (AC) source in which a constant voltage is called a DC voltage and one that varies sinusoidally with time is called an AC voltage. So for example, batteries are DC sources and the 230V wall socket or mains outlet in your home is an AC source.
We said earlier that electrical sources supply energy, but one of the interesting characteristic of an electrical source, is that they are also capable of converting non-electrical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. For example, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy, while an electrical machine such as a DC generator or an AC alternator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Renewable technologies can convert energy from the sun, the wind, and waves into electrical or thermal energy. But as well as converting energy from one source to another, electrical sources can both deliver or absorb energy allowing it to flow in both directions.
Another important characteristic of an electrical source and one which defines its operation, is its I-V characteristics. The I-V characteristic of an electrical source can give us a very nice pictorial description of the source, either as a voltage source and a current source as shown.
Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as being either independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a voltage or current elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.
When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”, that is the source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy without loss thereby having characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or practical sources there is always a resistance either connected in parallel for a current source, or series for a voltage source associated with the source affecting its output.
The Voltage Source
A voltage source, such as a battery or generator, provides a potential difference (voltage) between two points within an electrical circuit allowing current to flowing around it. Remember that voltage can exist without current. A battery is the most common voltage source for a circuit with the voltage that appears across the positive and negative terminals of the source being called the terminal voltage.
Ideal Voltage Source
An ideal voltage source is defined as a two terminal active element that is capable of supplying and maintaining the same voltage, (v) across its terminals regardless of the current, (i) flowing through it. In other words, an ideal voltage source will supply a constant voltage at all times regardless of the value of the current being supplied producing an I-V characteristic represented by a straight line.
Then an ideal voltage source is known as an Independent Voltage Source as its voltage does not depend on either the value of the current flowing through the source or its direction but is determined solely by the value of the source alone. So for example, an automobile battery has a 12V terminal voltage that remains constant as long as the current through it does not become to high, delivering power to the car in one direction and absorbing power in the other direction as it charges.
On the other hand, a Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source, provides a voltage supply whose magnitude depends on either the voltage across or current flowing through some other circuit element. A dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape and are used as equivalent electrical sources for many electronic devices, such as transistors and operational amplifiers.
Connecting Voltage Sources Together
Ideal voltage sources can be connected together in both parallel or series the same as for any circuit element. Series voltages add together while parallel voltages have the same value. Note that unequal ideal voltage sources cannot be connected directly together in parallel.
Voltage Source in Parallel
While not best practice for circuit analysis, ideal voltage sources can be connected in parallel provided they are of the same voltage value. Here in this example, two 10 volt voltage source are combined to produce 10 volts between terminals A and B. Ideally, there would be just one single voltage source of 10 volts given between terminals A and B.
What is not allowed or is not best practice, is connecting together ideal voltage sources that have different voltage values as shown, or are short-circuited by an external closed loop or branch.
Badly Connected Voltage Sources
However, when dealing with circuit analysis, voltage sources of different values can be used providing there are other circuit elements in between them to comply with Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, KVL.
Unlike parallel-connected voltage sources, ideal voltage sources of different values can be connected together in series to form a single voltage source whose output will be the algebraic addition or subtraction of the voltages used. Their connection can be as: series-aiding or series-opposing voltages as shown.
Voltage Source in Series
Series aiding voltage sources are series connected sources with their polarities connected so that the plus terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the next allowing current to flow in the same direction. In the example above, the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the first circuit can be added, for a VS of 10 + 5 = 15V. So the voltage across terminals A and B is 15 volts.
Series opposing voltage sources are series connected sources which have their polarities connected so that the plus terminal or the negative terminals are connected together as shown in the second circuit above. The net result is that the voltages are subtracted from each other. Then the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the second circuit are subtracted with the smaller voltage subtracted from the larger voltage. Resulting in a VS of 10 – 5 = 5V.
The polarity across terminals A and B is determined by the larger polarity of the voltage sources, in this example terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative resulting in +5 volts. If the series-opposing voltages are equal, the net voltage across A and B will be zero as one voltage balances out the other. Also, any currents (I) will also be zero, as, without any voltage source, current can not flow.
Voltage Source Example No1
Two series aiding ideal voltage sources of 6 volts and 9 volts respectively are connected together to supply a load resistance of 100 Ohms. Calculate: the source voltage, VS, the load current through the resistor, IR and the total power, P dissipated by the resistor. Draw the circuit.
Thus, VS = 15V, IR = 150mA or 0.15A, and PR = 2.25W.
Practical Voltage Source
We have seen that an ideal voltage source can provide a voltage supply that is independent of the current flowing through it, that is, it maintains the same voltage value always. This idea may work well for circuit analysis techniques, but in the real world voltage sources behave a little differently as for a practical voltage source, its terminal voltage will actually decrease with an increase in load current.
As the terminal voltage of an ideal voltage source does not vary with increases in the load current, this implies that an ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance, RS = 0. In other words, it is a resistorless voltage source. In reality all voltage sources have a very small internal resistance which reduces their terminal voltage as they supply higher load currents.
For non-ideal or practical voltage sources such as batteries, their internal resistance (RS) produces the same effect as a resistance connected in series with an ideal voltage source as these two series-connected elements carry the same current as shown.
Ideal and Practical Voltage Source
You may have noticed that a practical voltage source closely resembles that of a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as Thevenin’s theorem states that “any linear network containing resistances and sources of emf and current may be replaced by a single voltage source, VS in series with a single resistance, RS“. Note that if the series source resistance is low, the voltage source is ideal. When the source resistance is infinite, the voltage source is open-circuited.
In the case of all real or practical voltage sources, this internal resistance, RS no matter how small has an effect on the I-V characteristic of the source as the terminal voltage falls off with an increase in load current. This is because the same load current flows through RS.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, a voltage drop is produce across the same resistance. The value of this voltage drop is given as i*RS. Then VOUT will equal the ideal voltage source, VS minus the i*RS voltage drop across the resistor. Remember that in the case of an ideal source voltage, RS is equal to zero as there is no internal resistance, therefore the terminal voltage is same as VS.
Then the voltage sum around the loop given by Kirchoff’s voltage law, KVL is: VOUT = VS – i*RS. This equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the actual output voltage. It will give a straight line with a slope –RS which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same point as VS when the current i = 0 as shown.
Practical Voltage Source Characteristics
Therefore, all ideal voltage sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or real practical voltage sources will not but instead will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an amount equal to i*RS where RS is the internal source resistance (or impedance). The I-V characteristics of a real battery provides a very close approximation of an ideal voltage source since the source resistance RS is usually quite small.
The decrease in the angle of the slope of the I-V characteristics as the current increases is known as regulation. Voltage regulation is an important measure of the quality of a practical voltage source as it measures the variation in terminal voltage between no load, that is when IL = 0, (an open-circuit) and full load, that is when IL is at maximum, (a short-circuit).
Voltage Source Example No2
A battery supply consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an internal resistor. The voltage and current measured at the terminals of the battery were found to be VOUT1 = 130V at 10A, and VOUT2 = 100V at 25A. Calculate the voltage rating of the ideal voltage source and the value of its internal resistance. Draw the I-V characteristics.
Firstly lets define in simple “simultaneous equation form“, the two voltage and current outputs of the battery supply given as: VOUT1 and VOUT2.
As with have the voltages and currents in a simultaneous equation form, to find VS we will first multiply VOUT1 by five, (5) and VOUT2 by two, (2) as shown to make the value of the two currents, (i) the same for both equations.
Having made the co-efficients for RS the same by multiplying through with the previous constants, we now multiply the second equation VOUT2 by minus one, (-1) to allow for the subtraction of the two equations so that we can solve for VS as shown.
Knowing that the ideal voltage source, VS is equal to 150 volts, we can use this value for equation VOUT1 (or VOUT2 if so wished) and solve to find the series resistance, RS.
Then for our simple example, the battery’s internal voltage source is calculated as: VS = 150 volts, and its internal resistance as: RS = 2Ω. The I-V characteristics of the battery are given as:
Battery I-V Characteristics
Dependent Voltage Source
Unlike an ideal voltage source which produces a constant voltage across its terminals regardless of what is connected to it, a controlled or dependent voltage source changes its terminal voltage depending upon the voltage across, or the current through, some other element connected to the circuit, and as such it is sometimes difficult to specify the value of a dependent voltage source unless you know the actual value of the voltage or current on which it depends.
Dependent voltage sources behave similar to the electrical sources we have looked at so far, both practical and ideal (independent) the difference this time is that a dependent voltage source can be controlled by an input current or voltage. A voltage source that depends on a voltage input is generally referred to as a Voltage Controlled Voltage Source or VCVS. A voltage source that depends on a current input is referred too as a Current Controlled Voltage Source or CCVS.
Ideal dependent sources are commonly used in analyzing the input/output characteristics or the gain of circuit elements such as operational amplifiers, transistors, and integrated circuits. Generally, an ideal voltage-dependent source, either voltage or current controlled is designated by a diamond-shaped symbol as shown.
Dependent Voltage Source Symbols
An ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source, VCVS, maintains an output voltage equal to some multiplying constant (basically an amplification factor) times the controlling voltage present elsewhere in the circuit. As the multiplying constant is, well, a constant, the controlling voltage, VIN will determine the magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT. In other words, the output voltage “depends” on the value of input voltage making it a dependent voltage source and in many ways, an ideal transformer can be thought of as a VCVS device with the amplification factor being its turns ratio.
Then the VCVS output voltage is determined by the following equation: VOUT = μVIN. Note that the multiplying constant μ is dimensionless as it is purely a scaling factor because μ = VOUT/VIN, so its units will be volts/volts.
An ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source, CCVS, maintains an output voltage equal to some multiplying constant (rho) times a controlling current input generated elsewhere within the connected circuit. Then the output voltage “depends” on the value of the input current, again making it a dependent voltage source.
As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT times the magnification constant ρ (rho), this allows us to model a current-controlled voltage source as a trans-resistance amplifier as the multiplying constant, ρ gives us the following equation: VOUT = ρIIN. This multiplying constant ρ (rho) has the units of Ohm’s because ρ = VOUT/IIN, and its units will therefore be volts/amperes.
Voltage Source Summary
We have seen here that a Voltage Source can be either an ideal independent voltage source, or a controlled dependent voltage source. Independent voltage sources supply a constant voltage that does not depend on any other quantity within the circuit. Ideal independent sources can be batteries, DC generators or time-varying AC voltage supplies from alternators.
Independent voltage sources can be modeled as either an ideal voltage source, (RS = 0) where the output is constant for all load currents, or a non-ideal or practical, such as a battery with a resistance connected in series with the circuit to represent the internal resistance of the source. Ideal voltage sources can be connected together in parallel only if they are of the same voltage value. Series-aiding or series-opposing connections will affect the output value.
Also for solving circuit analysis and complex theorems, voltage sources become short-circuited sources making their voltage equal to zero to help solve the network. Note also that voltage sources are capable of both delivering or absorbing power.
Ideal dependent voltage sources represented by a diamond-shaped symbol, are dependent on, and are proportional too an external controlling voltage or current. The multiplying constant, μ for a VCVS has no units, while the multiplying constant ρ for a CCVS has units of Ohm’s. A dependent voltage source is of great interest to model electronic devices or active devices such as operational amplifiers and transistors that have gain.
In the next tutorial about electrical sources, we will look at the compliment of the voltage source, that is the current source and see that current sources can also be classed as dependent or independent electrical sources.
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Research announced this week by a team of U.S. and Japanese geoscientists may help explain why part of the seafloor near the southwest coast of Japan is particularly good at generating devastating tsunamis, such as the 1944 Tonankai event, which killed at least 1,200 people. The findings will help scientists assess the risk of giant tsunamis in other regions of the world.
Geoscientists from The University of Texas at Austin and colleagues used a commercial ship to collect three-dimensional seismic data that reveals the structure of Earth’s crust below a region of the Pacific seafloor known as the Nankai Trough. The resulting images are akin to ultrasounds of the human body.
The results, published this week in the journal Science, address a long standing mystery as to why earthquakes below some parts of the seafloor trigger large tsunamis while earthquakes in other regions do not.
The 3D seismic images allowed the researchers to reconstruct how layers of rock and sediment have cracked and shifted over time. They found two things that contribute to big tsunamis. First, they confirmed the existence of a major fault that runs from a region known to unleash earthquakes about 10 kilometers (6 miles) deep right up to the seafloor. When an earthquake happens, the fault allows it to reach up and move the seafloor up or down, carrying a column of water with it and setting up a series of tsunami waves that spread outward.
Second, and most surprising, the team discovered that the recent fault activity, probably including the slip that caused the 1944 event, has shifted to landward branches of the fault, becoming shallower and steeper than it was in the past.
“That leads to more direct displacement of the seafloor and a larger vertical component of seafloor displacement that is more effective in generating tsunamis,” said Nathan Bangs, senior research scientist at the Institute for Geophysics at The University of Texas at Austin who was co-principal investigator on the research project and co-author on the Science article.
The Nankai Trough is in a subduction zone, an area where two tectonic plates are colliding, pushing one plate down below the other. The grinding of one plate over the other in subduction zones leads to some of the world’s largest earthquakes.
In 2002, a team of researchers led by Jin-Oh Park at Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) had identified the fault, known as a megathrust or megasplay fault, using less detailed two-dimensional geophysical methods. Based on its location, they suggested a possible link to the 1944 event, but they were unable to determine where faulting has been recently active.
“What we can now say is that slip has very recently propagated up to or near to the seafloor, and slip along these thrusts most likely caused the large tsunami during the 1944 Tonankai 8.1 magnitude event,” said Bangs.
The images produced in this project will be used by scientists in the Nankai Trough Seismogenic Zone Experiment (NanTroSEIZE), an international effort designed to, for the first time, “drill, sample and instrument the earthquake-causing, or seismogenic portion of Earth’s crust, where violent, large-scale earthquakes have occurred repeatedly throughout history.”
“The ultimate goal is to understand what’s happening at different margins,” said Bangs. “The 2004 Indonesian tsunami was a big surprise. It’s still not clear why that earthquake created such a large tsunami. By understanding places like Nankai, we’ll have more information and a better approach to looking at other places to determine whether they have potential. And we’ll be less surprised in the future.”
Bangs’ co-principal investigator was Gregory Moore at JAMSTEC in Yokohama and the University of Hawaii, Honolulu. The other co-authors are Emily Pangborn at the Institute for Geophysics at The University of Texas at Austin, Asahiko Taira and Shin'ichi Kuramoto at JAMSTEC and Harold Tobin at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Funding for the project was provided by the National Science Foundation, Ocean Drilling Program and Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology.
- University of Texas at Austin
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The inability to perceive or smell odor is a symptom known as anosmia.
Anosmia is one of the most common neurological symptoms in patients with COVID-19, which could be due to widespread downregulation of olfactory receptors.
Depending on the underlying causes of a patient’s anosmia, doctors may turn to antibiotics, antihistamines, and other medications to help manage their symptoms.
When we hear the phrase, “loss of sense of smell,” our mind might (reasonably) jump to COVID-19. That neurological symptom is fairly common among patients who contract the virus responsible for our latest pandemic.
But your patients may not know that there’s a word for this symptom. Anosmia, or the inability to perceive odor, is also associated with influenza, allergies, and other conditions. Doctors can help patients manage anosmia with medication and surgeries, as needed.
Loss of senses
Anosmia is defined as the inability to smell, perceive, or discern odors.
In addition to affecting patients with COVID-19, anosmia can show up in patients who have colds, flus, allergies, polyps, and other conditions. While temporary anosmia can affect people of all ages, individuals above the age of 50 are more likely to experience long-lasting anosmia.
According to an article published by StatPearls, anosmia can be temporary, or stick around for the duration of a patient’s life. A symptom that can be acquired or congenital, anosmia has a variety of causes.
For example, when a patient suffers a disturbance in the sensory nerves related to the olfactory bulb—or anywhere in the transference of a smell to the brain—anosmia can arise. Patients can also lose their sense of smell as a result of a physical blockage along the physiological route an odor takes to reach the brain.
Anosmia can create highly undesirable circumstances for patients, far beyond the loss of the more pleasurable aspects of perceiving scent.
The authors of the StatPearls article elaborated, writing, “Anosmia amongst patients can have safety implications as those without the ability to smell might miss important warning odors such as smoke from a fire or natural gas leaks.”
Thus, addressing anosmia in patients is a health and safety concern that requires further exploration of potential root causes.
How COVID-19 can cause anosmia
In terms of COVID-19-related anosmia, emerging evidence paints a clearer picture of the neurological processes behind it.
A 2022 study published by Cell concluded that human patients and hamsters with COVID-19 who have anosmia tend to experience a non-cell-autonomous, sweeping downregulation of olfactory receptors (ORs) and genes that signal to ORs.
This follows neuronal nuclear architectural reorganization, paving the way for certain genomic compartments containing OR genes to fall away. Thus, patients infected with COVID-19 whose olfactory functions have been compromised may lose their sense of smell.
Anosmia prevalence and diagnostics
Anosmia is a relatively common symptom for patients with COVID-19. But what percentage of the general population experiences a loss of smell at some point?
As noted by StatPearls, 3% of patients over the age of 40 struggle with anosmia. That percentage rises to 14%–22% of individuals over the age of 60. As patients age, the likelihood of losing the ability to perceive smell increases.
Doctors who think a patient may have anosmia can determine so by running a few smell tests using chocolate and coffee. If the patient struggles to identify a scent, the next step might be to send them for chemosensory and butanol threshold tests to determine how severe the anosmia is (or, how “much” of their sense of smell is gone).
If you believe your patient lost their sense of smell for a specific reason, test them for applicable underlying conditions such as head trauma, neoplasm, or sinus disease. MRIs and CTs may be utilized in this stage.
Allergists and ENTs play important roles in determining the cause of anosmia and may know how to direct the patient in terms of appropriate labs and tests to complete.
Anosmia is not a condition in and of itself. It’s a symptom, and treating it requires you to address the patient’s underlying condition.
According to an article published by the Cleveland Clinic, antibiotics for conditions like sinusitis usually do the trick. Patients who lose their sense of smell due to a specific medication, however, may switch to a different one.
In addition to medication-based treatments, patients who have polyps may need surgery to regain their sense of smell.
Because anosmia is most commonly caused by inflammatory and obstructive diseases, antihistamines, intranasal glucocorticoids, and systemic glucocorticoids are effective treatment options for patients with these conditions.
Establishing the root cause of your patient’s anosmia increases the chances of finding effective treatment and management methods—which hopefully bring your patient back to their senses.
What this means for you
Emerging evidence shows that the neurological symptom anosmia, the incapacity to smell or discern odor, may surface in patients with COVID-19 because the virus causes widespread and persistent downregulation of OR and OR signaling genes. Physicians can initially test for smell with chocolates and coffees and then move on to other tests which may include chemosensory testing and butanol threshold tests. You can treat anosmia by addressing the illness from which it stems with medications and surgeries.
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