<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Mother and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy.
An adoptive mother is a female who has become the childs parent through the legal process of adoption. A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a woman who is married to a childs father and they may form a family unit, but who generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child.
A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such appellations are less readily applied to (biological) fathers or adoptive parents. The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as "matrescence".The adjective "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father. The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering". Related terms of endearment are mom (mama, mommy), mum (mummy), mumsy, mamacita (ma, mam) and mammy. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure.

Types of motherhood
Biological mother
Biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate. In well-nourished girls, menarche (the first menstrual period)  usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13.Typically, a fetus develops from the viable zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the womans uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mothers breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infants immune system, and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age.Childlessness is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be voluntary childlessness, which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of forced pregnancy, such as pregnancy from rape. Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice forced marriage and child marriage.

Non-biological mother
Mother can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a childs father). The term "othermother" or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the childs primary mother.
Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization. Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common.
Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.

Surrogate mother
A surrogate mother is a woman who bears a child that came from another womans fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization.
Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both a genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term.

Lesbian and bisexual motherhood
The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships to become mothers has increased over the past few decades due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers is through adopting, foster parenting or in vitro fertilization.

Transgender motherhood
Transgender women may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo. For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on uterus transplants, which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through Caesarean section. Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so.

Social role
The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class.
 Historically, the role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers.

Regarding women in the workforce, mothers are said to often follow a "mommy track" rather than being entirely "career women". Mothers may be stay at home mothers or working mothers. In recent decades there has been an increase in stay at home fathers too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers. Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries. The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. Mothers rights within the workforce include maternity leave and parental leave.
The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their childrens contributions in conversation. The way mothers speak to their children ("motherese") is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood. This is, however, a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, womens basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio, typhus and malaria.
Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying a strong social stigma. Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see Legitimacy (family law) and single parent.
The total fertility rate (TFR), that is, the number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).In the United States, the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman. In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.

Health
A maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes".About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia.In 2006, the organization Save the Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth. This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth, compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday.
The most recent data suggests that Italy, Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan, Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous.Childbirth is an inherently dangerous and risky process, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is done to avert maternal death—has been estimated as being 1500 deaths per 100,000 births. Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births.

Religious
Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women.
Major world religions which have specific religious law or scriptural canon regarding mothers include: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Some examples of honoring motherhood include the Madonna or Blessed Virgin Mother Mary for Catholics, and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the Book of Proverbs.
Hindus Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers.

Mother-offspring violence
History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in murder, such as the conflict between Cleopatra III of Egypt and her son Ptolemy X.
In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of ones mother) and filicide (the killing of ones son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both, and young, indigent mothers with a history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide. Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger. Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons.In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day.

In art
Throughout history, mothers have been depicted in a variety of art works, including paintings, sculptures and written texts, that have helped define the cultural meaning of ‘mother’, as well as ideals and taboos of motherhood.
Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodes depicted mothers with children.Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France. In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenments preoccupation with strong family bonds and the relation between mothers and children.At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers.
American poet, essayist and feminist Adrienne Rich has noted “the disjuncture between motherhood as patriarchal institution and motherhood as complexly and variously lived experience”. The vast majority of works depicting motherhood in western art history have been created by artists who are men, with very few having been created by women or mothers themselves, and these often focus on the “institution of motherhood” rather than diverse lived experiences. At the same time, art concerning motherhood has been historically marginalized within the feminist art movement, though this is changing with an increasing number of feminist publications addressing this topic.The institution of motherhood in western art is often depicted through “the myth of the all-loving, all-forgiving and all-sacrificing mother” and related ideals. Examples include works featuring the Virgin Mary, an archetypal mother and a key historical basis for depictions of mothers in western art from the European Renaissance onwards. Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive.These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art is Mary Kelly’s Post-Partum Document. Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship. Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment.   While the ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the ‘good mother’ forms an important part of many works of art relating to the Holocaust, other women’s Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers’ trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Level and can you explain it in depth? [/INST]  </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Electrode and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or air). Electrodes are essential parts of batteries that can consist of a variety of materials depending on the type of battery.
The electrophore, invented by Johan Wilcke, was an early version of an electrode used to study static electricity.

Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells
Electrodes are an essential part of any battery. The first electrochemical battery made was devised by Alessandro Volta and was aptly named the Voltaic cell. This battery consisted of a stack of copper and zinc electrodes separated by brine-soaked paper disks. Due to fluctuation in the voltage provided by the voltaic cell it wasnt very practical. The first practical battery was invented in 1839 and named the Daniell cell after John Frederic Daniell. Still making use of the zinc–copper electrode combination. Since then many more batteries have been developed using various materials (see List of batteries). The basis of all these is still making use of two electrodes which can be divided in two categories: Anodes and Cathodes.

Anode
A term coined by William Whewell at Faradays request, derived from the Greek words ἄνο (ano), upwards and ὁδός (hodós), a way. The Anode is the electrode through which the conventional current enters from the electrical circuit of an electrochemical cell (battery) into the non-metallic cell. The electrons then flow to the other side of the battery. Note the difference in the flow of current and the flow of electrons, this is due to the discovery of the flow of current prior to the discovery of the electron. Benjamin Franklin surmised that the electrical flow moved from positive to negative. The electrons flow away from the anode and the conventional current towards it. From both can be concluded that the charge of the anode is negative. The electron entering the anode comes from the oxidation reaction that takes place next to it.

Cathode
The cathode is in many ways the opposite of the anode. The name (also coined by William Whewell) comes from the Greek words κάτω (kato), downwards and ὁδός (hodós), a way. It is the positive electrode, meaning the electrons flow from the electrical circuit through the cathode into the non-metallic part of the electrochemical cell. At the cathode, the reduction reaction takes place with the electrons arriving from the wire connected to the cathode and are absorbed by the oxidizing agent.

Primary cell
A primary cell is a battery designed to be used once and then discarded. This is due to the electrochemical reactions taking place at the electrodes in the cell not being reversible. An example of a primary cell is the discardable alkaline battery used in for example flashlights. Consisting of a zinc anode and a manganese oxide cathode in which ZnO is formed.
The half-reactions are:

Zn(s) + 2OH−(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e−

    {\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }
   [E0oxidation = -1.28 V]
2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH−(aq)

    {\displaystyle \qquad }
   [E0reduction = +0.15 V]Overall reaction:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) ⇌ ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s)

    {\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }
   [E0total = +1.43 V]The ZnO is prone to clumping and will give less efficient discharge if recharged again. It is possible to recharge these batteries but is due to safety concerns advised against by the manufacturer. Other primary cells include zinc-carbon, zinc-chloride, and lithium iron disulfide batteries.

Secondary cell
Contrary to the primary cell a secondary cell can be recharged. The first of which was the lead-acid battery invented in 1859 by French Gaston Planté. This type of battery is still the most widely used in among others automobiles. The cathode consists of lead dioxide (PbO2) and the anode of solid lead. Other commonly used rechargeable batteries are nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride battery, and Lithium-ion batteries. The last of which will be more explained more thoroughly in this article due to its importance.

Marcus theory of electron transfer
Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Nobel laureate Rudolph A. Marcus and explains the rate at which an electron can move from one chemical species to another, for this article this can be seen as jumping from the electrode to a species in the solvent or vice versa.
We can represent the problem as calculating the transfer rate for the transfer of an electron from donor to an acceptor

D + A → D+ + A−
The potential energy of the system is a function of the translational, rotational, and vibrational coordinates of the reacting species and the molecules of the surrounding medium, collectively called the reaction coordinates. The abscissa the figure to the right represents these. From the classical electron transfer theory, the expression of the reaction rate constant (probability of reaction) can be calculated, if a non-adiabatic process and parabolic potential energy are assumed, by finding the point of intersection (Qx). One important thing to note, and was noted by Marcus when he came up with the theory, the electron transfer must abide by the law of conservation of energy and the Frank-Condon principle.
Doing this and then rearranging this leads to the expression of the free energy activation (

        Δ

          G

            †

    {\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }}
  ) in terms of the overall free energy of the reaction (

        Δ

          G

            0

    {\displaystyle \Delta G^{0}}
  ).

In which the

        λ

    {\displaystyle \lambda }
   is the reorganisation energy.
Filling this result in the classically derived Arrhenius equation

leads to

With A being the pre-exponential factor which is usually experimentally determined, although a semi classical derivation provides more information as will be explained below.
This classically derived result qualitatively reproduced observations of a maximum electron transfer rate under the conditions

        Δ

          G

            †

        =
        λ

    {\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }=\lambda }
  . For a more extensive mathematical treatment one could read the paper by Newton. An interpretation of this result and what a closer look at the physical meaning of the

        λ

    {\displaystyle \lambda }
   one can read the paper by Marcus.the situation at hand can be more accurately described by using the displaced harmonic oscillator model, in this model quantum tunneling is allowed. This is needed in order to explain why even at near-zero Kelvin there still are electron transfers, in contradiction to the classical theory.
Without going into too much detail on how the derivation is done, it rests on using Fermis golden rule from time-dependent perturbation theory with the full Hamiltonian of the system. It is possible to look at the overlap in the wavefunctions of both the reactants and the products (the right and the left side of the chemical reaction) and therefore when their energies are the same and allow for electron transfer. As touched on before this must happen because only then conservation of energy is abided by. Skipping over a few mathematical steps the probability of electron transfer can be calculated (albeit quite difficult) using the following formula

With

        J

    {\displaystyle J}
   being the electronic coupling constant describing the interaction between the two states (reactants and products) and

        g
        (
        t
        )

    {\displaystyle g(t)}
   being the line shape function. Taking the classical limit of this expression, meaning

        ℏ
        ω
        ≪
        k
        T

    {\displaystyle \hbar \omega \ll kT}
  , and making some substitution an expression is obtained very similar to the classically derived formula, as expected.

The main difference is now the pre-exponential factor has now been described by more physical parameters instead of the experimental factor

        A

    {\displaystyle A}
  . One is once again revered to the sources as listed below for a more in-depth and rigorous mathematical derivation and interpretation.

Efficiency
The physical properties of electrodes are mainly determined by the material of the electrode and the topology of the electrode. The properties required depend on the application and therefore there are many kinds of electrodes in circulation. The defining property for a material to be used as an electrode is that it be conductive. Any conducting material such as metals, semiconductors, graphite or conductive polymers can therefore be used as an electrode. Often electrodes consist of a combination of materials, each with a specific task. Typical constituents are the active materials which serve as the particles which oxidate or reduct, conductive agents which improve the conductivity of the electrode and binders which are used to contain the active particles within the electrode. The efficiency of electrochemical cells is judged by a number of properties, important quantities are the self-discharge time, the discharge voltage and the cycle performance. The physical properties of the electrodes play an important role in determining these quantities. Important properties of the electrodes are: the electrical resistivity, the specific heat capacity (c_p), the electrode potential and the hardness. Of course, for technological applications, the cost of the material is also an important factor. The values of these properties at room temperature (T = 293 K) for some commonly used materials are listed in the table below.

Surface effects
The surface topology of the electrode plays an important factor in determining the efficiency of an electrode. The efficiency of the electrode can be reduced due to contact resistance. To create an efficient electrode it is therefore important to design it such that it minimizes the contact resistance.

Manufacturing
The production of electrodes for Li-Ion batteries is done in various steps as follows:
The various constituents of the electrode are mixed into a solvent. This mixture is designed such that it improves the performance of the electrodes. Common components of this mixture are:
The active electrode particles.
A binder used to contain the active electrode particles.
A conductive agent used to improve the conductivity of the electrode.The mixture created is known as an ‘electrode slurry’.
The electrode slurry above is coated onto a conductor which acts as the current collector in the electrochemical cell. Typical current collectors are copper for the cathode and aluminum for the anode.
After the slurry has been applied to the conductor it is dried and then pressed to the required thickness.

Structure of the electrode
For a given selection of constituents of the electrode, the final efficiency is determined by the internal structure of the electrode. The important factors in the internal structure in determining the performance of the electrode are:
Clustering of the active material and the conductive agent. In order for all the components of the slurry to perform their task, they should all be spread out evenly within the electrode.
An even distribution of the conductive agent over the active material. This makes sure that the conductivity of the electrode is optimal.
The adherence of the electrode to the current collectors. The adherence makes sure that the electrode does not dissolve into the electrolyte.
The density of the active material. A balance should be found between the amount of active material, the conductive agent and the binder. Since the active material is the important factor in the electrode, the slurry should be designed such that the density of the active material is as high as possible, without the conductive agent and the binder not functioning properly.These properties can be influenced in the production of the electrodes in a number of manners. The most important step in the manufacturing of the electrodes is creating the electrode slurry. As can be seen above, the important properties of the electrode all have to do with the even distribution of the components of the electrode. Therefore, it is very important that the electrode slurry be as homogeneous as possible. Multiple procedures have been developed to improve this mixing stage and current research is still being done.

Electrodes in lithium ion batteries
A modern application of electrodes is in Lithium-ion batteries (li-ion batteries). A Li-ion battery is a kind of flow battery which can be seen in the image on the right.

Furthermore, a Li-ion battery is an example of a secondary cell since it is rechargeable. It can both act as a galvanic or electrolytic cell. Li-ion batteries use lithium ions as the solute in the electrolyte which are dissolved in an organic solvent. Lithium electrodes were first studied by G.N. Lewis and F.G. Keyes in 1913. In the following century these electrodes were used to create and study the first Li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries are very popular due to their great performance. Applications include mobile phones and electric cars. Due to their popularity, much research is being done to reduce the cost and increase the safety of Li-ion batteries. An integral part of the Li-ion batteries are their anodes and cathodes, therefore much research is being done into increasing the efficiency, safety and reducing the costs of these electrodes specifically.

Cathodes
In Li-ion batteries the cathode consists of a intercalated lithium compound (a layered material consisting of layers of molecules composed of lithium and other elements). A common element which makes up part of the molecules in the compound is cobalt. Another frequently used element is manganese. The best choice of compound usually depends on the application of the battery. Advantages for cobalt-based compounds over manganese-based compounds are their high specific heat capacity, high volumetric heat capacity, low self-discharge rate, high discharge voltage and high cycle durability. There are however also drawbacks in using cobalt-based compounds such as their high cost and their low thermostability. Manganese has similar advantages and a lower cost, however there are some problems associated with using manganese. The main problem is that manganese tends to dissolve into the electrolyte over time. For this reason cobalt is still the most common element which is used in the lithium compounds. There is much research being done into finding new materials which can be used to create cheaper and longer lasting Li-ion batteries

Anodes
The anodes used in mass-produced Li-ion batteries are either carbon based (usually graphite) or made out of spinel lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12). Graphite anodes have been successfully implemented in many modern commercially available batteries due to its cheap price, longevity and high energy density. However, it presents issues of dendrite growth, with risks of shorting the battery and posing a safety issue. Li4Ti5O12 has the second largest market share of anodes, due to its stability and good rate capability, but with challenges such as low capacity. During the early 2000, Silicon anode research began picking up pace, becoming one of the 2020s most promising candidates for future Lithium ion battery anodes. Silicon has one of the highest gravimetric capacities when compared to graphite and  Li4Ti5O12 as well as a high volumetric one . Furthermore, Silicon has the advantage of operating under a reasonable open circuit voltage without parasitic lithium reactions. However, Silicon anodes have a major issue of volumetric expansion during lithiation of around 360%. This expansion may pulverize the anode, resulting in poor performance. To fix this problem scientists looked into varying the dimensionality of the Si. Many studies have been developed in Si nanowires, Si tubes as well as Si sheets. As a result, composite hierarchical Si anodes have become the major technology for future applications in Lithium Ion Batteries. In the early 2020s technology is reaching commercial levels with factories being built for mass production of anodes in the United States.  Furthermore, metallic Lithium is another possible candidate for the anode. It boasts a higher specific capacity than Silicon, however, does come with the drawback of working with the highly unstable metallic lithium. Similarly to graphite anodes, dendrite formation is another major limitation of metallic lithium, with the solid electrolyte interphase being a major design challenge. In the end, if stabilized, metallic lithium would be able to produce batteries that hold the most charge, while being the lightest.

Mechanical Properties
A common failure mechanism of batteries is mechanical shock, which breaks either the electrode or the system’s container, leading to poor conductivity and electrolyte leakage. However, the relevance of mechanical properties of electrodes goes beyond the resistance to collisions due to its environment. During standard operation, the incorporation of ions into electrodes leads to a change in volume. This is well exemplified by Si electrodes in Lithium-ion batteries expanding around 300% during lithiation. Such change may lead to the deformations in the lattice and, therefore stresses in the material. The origin of stresses may be due to geometric constraints in the electrode or inhomogeneous plating of the ion. This phenomenon is very concerning as it may lead to electrode fracture and performance loss. Thus, mechanical properties are crucial to enable the development of new electrodes for long lasting batteries. A possible strategy for measuring the mechanical behavior of electrodes during operation is by using nanoindentation. The method is able to analyze how the stresses evolve during the electrochemical reactions, being a valuable tool in evaluating possible pathways for coupling mechanical behavior and electrochemistry.
More than just affecting the electrode’s morphology, stresses are also able to impact electrochemical reactions. While the chemical driving forces are usually higher in magnitude than the mechanical energies, this is not true for Li-Ion Batteries. A study by Dr. Larché established a direct relation between the applied stress and the chemical potential of the electrode. Though it neglects multiple variables such as the variation of elastic constraints, it subtracts from the total chemical potential the elastic energy induced by the stress.

        μ
        =

          μ

            o

        +
        k
        ⋅
        T
        ⋅
        log

        (
        γ
        ⋅
        x
        )
        +
        Ω
        ⋅
        σ

    {\displaystyle \mu =\mu ^{o}+k\cdot T\cdot \log(\gamma \cdot x)+\Omega \cdot \sigma }

In this equation μ represents the chemical potential, with μ° being its reference value. T stands for the temperature and k the Boltzmann constant. The term γ inside the logarithm is the activity and x is the ratio of the ion to the total composition of the electrode. The novel term Ω is the partial molar volume of the ion in the host and σ corresponds to the mean stress felt by the system. The result of this equation is that diffusion, which is dependent on chemical potential, gets impacted by the added stress and, therefore changes the battery’s performance. Furthermore, mechanical stresses may also impact the electrode’s solid-electrolyte-interphase layer. The interface which regulates the ion and charge transfer and can be degraded by stress. Thus, more ions in the solution will be consumed to reform it, diminishing the overall efficiency of the system.

Other anodes and cathodes
In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity (diodes, electrolytic capacitors) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid.
In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite, to keep it from dissolving.

Welding electrodes
In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current system, the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder, the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode.

Alternating current electrodes
For electrical systems which use alternating current, the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electric current but are not designated anode or cathode because the direction of flow of the electrons changes periodically, usually many times per second.

Chemically modified electrodes
Chemically modified electrodes are electrodes that have their surfaces chemically modified to change the electrodes physical, chemical, electrochemical, optical, electrical, and transportive properties. These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation.

Uses
Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include:

Electrodes for fuel cells
Electrodes for medical purposes, such as EEG (for recording brain activity), ECG (recording heart beats), ECT (electrical brain stimulation), defibrillator (recording and delivering cardiac stimulation)
Electrodes for electrophysiology techniques in biomedical research
Electrodes for execution by the electric chair
Electrodes for electroplating
Electrodes for arc welding
Electrodes for cathodic protection
Electrodes for grounding
Electrodes for chemical analysis using electrochemical methods
Nanoelectrodes for high-precision measurements in nanoelectrochemistry
Inert electrodes for electrolysis (made of platinum)
Membrane electrode assembly
Electrodes for Taser electroshock weapon

See also
References
Further reading
Kebede, Mesfin A.; Ezema, Fabian I., eds. (2022) </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Chronic fatigue and can you explain it in depth? [/INST]  </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Hallucination and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] A hallucination is a perception in the absence of an external stimulus that has the qualities of a real perception. Hallucinations are vivid, substantial, and are perceived to be located in external objective space. Hallucination is a combination of 2 conscious states of brain wakefulness and REM sleep. They are distinguishable from several related phenomena, such as dreaming (REM sleep), which does not involve wakefulness; pseudohallucination, which does not mimic real perception, and is accurately perceived as unreal; illusion, which involves distorted or misinterpreted real perception; and mental imagery, which does not mimic real perception, and is under voluntary control. Hallucinations also differ from "delusional perceptions", in which a correctly sensed and interpreted stimulus (i.e., a real perception) is given some additional significance. Many hallucinations happen also during sleep paralyses.Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality—visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, proprioceptive, equilibrioceptive, nociceptive, thermoceptive and chronoceptive. Hallucinations are referred to as multimodal if multiple sensory modalities occur.A mild form of hallucination is known as a disturbance, and can occur in most of the senses above. These may be things like seeing movement in peripheral vision, or hearing faint noises or voices. Auditory hallucinations are very common in schizophrenia. They may be benevolent (telling the subject good things about themselves) or malicious, cursing the subject. 55% of auditory hallucinations are malicious in content, for example, people talking about the subject, not speaking to them directly. Like auditory hallucinations, the source of the visual counterpart can also be behind the subject. This can produce a feeling of being looked or stared at, usually with malicious intent. Frequently, auditory hallucinations and their visual counterpart are experienced by the subject together.Hypnagogic hallucinations and hypnopompic hallucinations are considered normal phenomena. Hypnagogic hallucinations can occur as one is falling asleep and hypnopompic hallucinations occur when one is waking up. Hallucinations can be associated with drug use (particularly deliriants), sleep deprivation, psychosis, neurological disorders, and delirium tremens.
The word "hallucination" itself was introduced into the English language by the 17th-century physician Sir Thomas Browne in 1646 from the derivation of the Latin word alucinari meaning to wander in the mind. For Browne, hallucination means a sort of vision that is "depraved and receive[s] its objects erroneously".

Classification
Hallucinations may be manifested in a variety of forms. Various forms of hallucinations affect different senses, sometimes occurring simultaneously, creating multiple sensory hallucinations for those experiencing them.

Auditory
Auditory hallucinations (also known as paracusia) are the perception of sound without outside stimulus. Auditory hallucinations can be divided into elementary and complex, along with verbal and nonverbal. These hallucinations are the most common type of hallucination, with auditory verbal hallucinations being more common than nonverbal. Elementary hallucinations are the perception of sounds such as hissing, whistling, an extended tone, and more. In many cases, tinnitus is an elementary auditory hallucination. However, some people who experience certain types of tinnitus, especially pulsatile tinnitus, are actually hearing the blood rushing through vessels near the ear. Because the auditory stimulus is present in this situation, it does not qualify it as a hallucination.
Complex hallucinations are those of voices, music, or other sounds that may or may not be clear, may or may not be familiar, and may be friendly, aggressive, or among other possibilities. A hallucination of a single individual person of one or more talking voices is particularly associated with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, and hold special significance in diagnosing these conditions.
In schizophrenia voices are normally perceived coming from outside the person but in dissociative disorders they are perceived as originating from within the person, commenting in their head instead of behind their back. Differential diagnosis between schizophrenia and dissociative disorders is challenging due to many overlapping symptoms, especially Schneiderian first rank symptoms such as hallucinations. However, many people who do not have a diagnosable mental illness may sometimes hear voices as well. One important example to consider when forming a differential diagnosis for a patient with paracusia is lateral temporal lobe epilepsy. Despite the tendency to associate hearing voices, or otherwise hallucinating, and psychosis with schizophrenia or other psychiatric illnesses, it is crucial to take into consideration that, even if a person does exhibit psychotic features, they do not necessarily have a psychiatric disorder on its own. Disorders such as Wilsons disease, various endocrine diseases, numerous metabolic disturbances, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, porphyria, sarcoidosis, and many others can present with psychosis.
Musical hallucinations are also relatively common in terms of complex auditory hallucinations and may be the result of a wide range of causes ranging from hearing-loss (such as in musical ear syndrome, the auditory version of Charles Bonnet syndrome), lateral temporal lobe epilepsy, arteriovenous malformation, stroke, lesion, abscess, or tumor.The Hearing Voices Movement is a support and advocacy group for people who hallucinate voices, but do not otherwise show signs of mental illness or impairment.
High caffeine consumption has been linked to an increase in likelihood of one experiencing auditory hallucinations. A study conducted by the La Trobe University School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of coffee a day (approximately 500 mg of caffeine) could trigger the phenomenon.

Visual
A visual hallucination is "the perception of an external visual stimulus where none exists". A separate but related phenomenon is a visual illusion, which is a distortion of a real external stimulus. Visual hallucinations are classified as simple or complex:

Simple visual hallucinations (SVH) are also referred to as non-formed visual hallucinations and elementary visual hallucinations. These terms refer to lights, colors, geometric shapes, and indiscrete objects. These can be further subdivided into phosphenes which are SVH without structure, and photopsias which are SVH with geometric structures.
Complex visual hallucinations (CVH) are also referred to as formed visual hallucinations. CVHs are clear, lifelike images or scenes such as people, animals, objects, places, etc.For example, one may report hallucinating a giraffe. A simple visual hallucination is an amorphous figure that may have a similar shape or color to a giraffe (looks like a giraffe), while a complex visual hallucination is a discrete, lifelike image that is, unmistakably, a giraffe.

Command
Command hallucinations are hallucinations in the form of commands; they appear to be from an external source, or can appear coming from the subjects head. The contents of the hallucinations can range from the innocuous to commands to cause harm to the self or others. Command hallucinations are often associated with schizophrenia. People experiencing command hallucinations may or may not comply with the hallucinated commands, depending on the circumstances. Compliance is more common for non-violent commands.Command hallucinations are sometimes used to defend a crime that has been committed, often homicides. In essence, it is a voice that one hears and it tells the listener what to do. Sometimes the commands are quite benign directives such as "Stand up" or "Shut the door." Whether it is a command for something simple or something that is a threat, it is still considered a "command hallucination." Some helpful questions that can assist one in determining if they may have this includes: "What are the voices telling you to do?", "When did your voices first start telling you to do things?", "Do you recognize the person who is telling you to harm yourself (or others)?", "Do you think you can resist doing what the voices are telling you to do?"

Olfactory
Phantosmia (olfactory hallucinations), smelling an odor that is not actually there, and parosmia (olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered, are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system), and in most cases, are not caused by anything serious and will usually go away on their own in time. It can result from a range of conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, dental problems, migraines, head injuries, seizures, strokes, or brain tumors. Environmental exposures can sometimes cause it as well, such as smoking, exposure to certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication, substance withdrawal, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul, spoiled, or rotten.

Tactile
Tactile hallucinations are the illusion of tactile sensory input, simulating various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. One subtype of tactile hallucination, formication, is the sensation of insects crawling underneath the skin and is frequently associated with prolonged cocaine use. However, formication may also be the result of normal hormonal changes such as menopause, or disorders such as peripheral neuropathy, high fevers, Lyme disease, skin cancer, and more.

Gustatory
This type of hallucination is the perception of taste without a stimulus. These hallucinations, which are typically strange or unpleasant, are relatively common among individuals who have certain types of focal epilepsy, especially temporal lobe epilepsy. The regions of the brain responsible for gustatory hallucination in this case are the insula and the superior bank of the sylvian fissure.

General somatic sensations
General somatic sensations of a hallucinatory nature are experienced when an individual feels that their body is being mutilated, i.e. twisted, torn, or disemboweled. Other reported cases are invasion by animals in the persons internal organs, such as snakes in the stomach or frogs in the rectum. The general feeling that ones flesh is decomposing is also classified under this type of this hallucination.

Multimodal
A hallucination involving sensory modalities is called multimodal, analogous to unimodal hallucinations which have only one sensory modality. The multiple sensory modalities can occur at the same time (simultaneously) or with a delay (serial), be related or unrelated to each other, and be consistent with reality (congruent) or not (incongruent). For example, a person talking in a hallucination would be congruent with reality, but a cat talking would not be.
Multimodal hallucinations are correlated to poorer mental health outcomes, and are often experienced as feeling more real.

Cause
Hallucinations can be caused by a number of factors.

Hypnagogic hallucination
These hallucinations occur just before falling asleep and affect a high proportion of the population: in one survey 37% of the respondents experienced them twice a week. The hallucinations can last from seconds to minutes; all the while, the subject usually remains aware of the true nature of the images. These may be associated with narcolepsy. Hypnagogic hallucinations are sometimes associated with brainstem abnormalities, but this is rare.

Peduncular hallucinosis
Peduncular means pertaining to the peduncle, which is a neural tract running to and from the pons on the brain stem. These hallucinations usually occur in the evenings, but not during drowsiness, as in the case of hypnagogic hallucination. The subject is usually fully conscious and then can interact with the hallucinatory characters for extended periods of time. As in the case of hypnagogic hallucinations, insight into the nature of the images remains intact. The false images can occur in any part of the visual field, and are rarely polymodal.

Delirium tremens
One of the more enigmatic forms of visual hallucination is the highly variable, possibly polymodal delirium tremens. Individuals with delirium tremens may be agitated and confused, especially in the later stages of this disease. Insight is gradually reduced with the progression of this disorder. Sleep is disturbed and occurs for a shorter period of time, with rapid eye movement sleep.

Parkinsons disease and Lewy body dementia
Parkinsons disease is linked with Lewy body dementia for their similar hallucinatory symptoms. The symptoms strike during the evening in any part of the visual field, and are rarely polymodal. The segue into hallucination may begin with illusions where sensory perception is greatly distorted, but no novel sensory information is present. These typically last for several minutes, during which time the subject may be either conscious and normal or drowsy/inaccessible. Insight into these hallucinations is usually preserved and REM sleep is usually reduced. Parkinsons disease is usually associated with a degraded substantia nigra pars compacta, but recent evidence suggests that PD affects a number of sites in the brain. Some places of noted degradation include the median raphe nuclei, the noradrenergic parts of the locus coeruleus, and the cholinergic neurons in the parabrachial area and pedunculopontine nuclei of the tegmentum.

Migraine coma
This type of hallucination is usually experienced during the recovery from a comatose state. The migraine coma can last for up to two days, and a state of depression is sometimes comorbid. The hallucinations occur during states of full consciousness, and insight into the hallucinatory nature of the images is preserved. It has been noted that ataxic lesions accompany the migraine coma.

Charles Bonnet syndrome
Charles Bonnet syndrome is the name given to visual hallucinations experienced by a partially or severely sight impaired person. The hallucinations can occur at any time and can distress people of any age, as they may not initially be aware that they are hallucinating. They may fear for their own mental health initially, which may delay them sharing with carers until they start to understand it themselves. The hallucinations can frighten and disconcert as to what is real and what is not. The hallucinations can sometimes be dispersed by eye movements, or by reasoned logic such as, "I can see fire but there is no smoke and there is no heat from it" or perhaps, "We have an infestation of rats but they have pink ribbons with a bell tied on their necks." Over elapsed months and years, the hallucinations may become more or less frequent with changes in ability to see. The length of time that the sight impaired person can have these hallucinations varies according to the underlying speed of eye deterioration. A differential diagnosis are ophthalmopathic hallucinations.

Focal epilepsy
Visual hallucinations due to focal seizures differ depending on the region of the brain where the seizure occurs. For example, visual hallucinations during occipital lobe seizures are typically visions of brightly colored, geometric shapes that may move across the visual field, multiply, or form concentric rings and generally persist from a few seconds to a few minutes. They are usually unilateral and localized to one part of the visual field on the contralateral side of the seizure focus, typically the temporal field. However, unilateral visions moving horizontally across the visual field begin on the contralateral side and move toward the ipsilateral side.Temporal lobe seizures, on the other hand, can produce complex visual hallucinations of people, scenes, animals, and more as well as distortions of visual perception. Complex hallucinations may appear to be real or unreal, may or may not be distorted with respect to size, and may seem disturbing or affable, among other variables. One rare but notable type of hallucination is heautoscopy, a hallucination of a mirror image of ones self. These "other selves" may be perfectly still or performing complex tasks, may be an image of a younger self or the present self, and tend to be briefly present. Complex hallucinations are a relatively uncommon finding in temporal lobe epilepsy patients. Rarely, they may occur during occipital focal seizures or in parietal lobe seizures.Distortions in visual perception during a temporal lobe seizure may include size distortion (micropsia or macropsia), distorted perception of movement (where moving objects may appear to be moving very slowly or to be perfectly still), a sense that surfaces such as ceilings and even entire horizons are moving farther away in a fashion similar to the dolly zoom effect, and other illusions. Even when consciousness is impaired, insight into the hallucination or illusion is typically preserved.

Drug-induced hallucination
Drug-induced hallucinations are caused by hallucinogens, dissociatives, and deliriants, including many drugs with anticholinergic actions and certain stimulants, which are known to cause visual and auditory hallucinations. Some psychedelics such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin can cause hallucinations that range in the spectrum of mild to intense.
Hallucinations, pseudohallucinations, or intensification of pareidolia, particularly auditory, are known side effects of opioids to different degrees—it may be associated with the absolute degree of agonism or antagonism of especially the kappa opioid receptor, sigma receptors, delta opioid receptor and the NMDA receptors or the overall receptor activation profile as synthetic opioids like those of the pentazocine, levorphanol, fentanyl, pethidine, methadone and some other families are more associated with this side effect than natural opioids like morphine and codeine and semi-synthetics like hydromorphone, amongst which there also appears to be a stronger correlation with the relative analgesic strength. Three opioids, Cyclazocine (a benzormorphan opioid/pentazocine relative) and two levorphanol-related morphinan opioids, Cyclorphan and Dextrorphan are classified as hallucinogens, and Dextromethorphan as a dissociative. These drugs also can induce sleep (relating to hypnagogic hallucinations) and especially the pethidines have atropine-like anticholinergic activity, which was possibly also a limiting factor in the use, the psychotomimetic side effects of potentiating morphine, oxycodone, and other opioids with scopolamine (respectively in the Twilight Sleep technique and the combination drug Skophedal, which was eukodal (oxycodone), scopolamine and ephedrine, called the "wonder drug of the 1930s" after its invention in Germany in 1928, but only rarely specially compounded today) (q.q.v.).

Sensory deprivation hallucination
Hallucinations can be caused by sensory deprivation when it occurs for prolonged periods of time, and almost always occurs in the modality being deprived (visual for blindfolded/darkness, auditory for muffled conditions, etc.)

Experimentally-induced hallucinations
Anomalous experiences, such as so-called benign hallucinations, may occur in a person in a state of good mental and physical health, even in the apparent absence of a transient trigger factor such as fatigue, intoxication or sensory deprivation.
The evidence for this statement has been accumulating for more than a century. Studies of benign hallucinatory experiences go back to 1886 and the early work of the Society for Psychical Research, which suggested approximately 10% of the population had experienced at least one hallucinatory episode in the course of their life. More recent studies have validated these findings; the precise incidence found varies with the nature of the episode and the criteria of "hallucination" adopted, but the basic finding is now well-supported.

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity
There is tentative evidence of a relationship with non-celiac gluten sensitivity, the so-called "gluten psychosis".

Pathophysiology
Dopaminergic and serotonergic hallucinations
It has been reported that in serotonergic hallucinations, the person maintains an awareness that they are hallucinating, unlike dopaminergic hallucinations.

Neuroanatomy
Hallucinations are associated with structural and functional abnormalities in primary and secondary sensory cortices. Reduced grey matter in regions of the superior temporal gyrus/middle temporal gyrus, including Brocas area, is associated with auditory hallucinations as a trait, while acute hallucinations are associated with increased activity in the same regions along with the hippocampus, parahippocampus, and the right hemispheric homologue of Brocas area in the inferior frontal gyrus. Grey and white matter abnormalities in visual regions are associated with visual hallucinations in diseases such as Alzheimers disease, further supporting the notion of dysfunction in sensory regions underlying hallucinations.
One proposed model of hallucinations posits that over-activity in sensory regions, which is normally attributed to internal sources via feedforward networks to the inferior frontal gyrus, is interpreted as originating externally due to abnormal connectivity or functionality of the feedforward network. This is supported by cognitive studies of those with hallucinations, who have demonstrated abnormal attribution of self generated stimuli.Disruptions in thalamocortical circuitry may underlie the observed top down and bottom up dysfunction. Thalamocortical circuits, composed of projections between thalamic and cortical neurons and adjacent interneurons, underlie certain electrophysical characteristics (gamma oscillations) that are underlie sensory processing. Cortical inputs to thalamic neurons enable attentional modulation of sensory neurons. Dysfunction in sensory afferents, and abnormal cortical input may result in pre-existing expectations modulating sensory experience, potentially resulting in the generation of hallucinations. Hallucinations are associated with less accurate sensory processing, and more intense stimuli with less interference are necessary for accurate processing and the appearance of gamma oscillations (called "gamma synchrony"). Hallucinations are also associated with the absence of reduction in P50 amplitude in response to the presentation of a second stimuli after an initial stimulus; this is thought to represent failure to gate sensory stimuli, and can be exacerbated by dopamine release agents.Abnormal assignment of salience to stimuli may be one mechanism of hallucinations. Dysfunctional dopamine signaling may lead to abnormal top down regulation of sensory processing, allowing expectations to distort sensory input.

Treatments
There are few treatments for many types of hallucinations. However, for those hallucinations caused by mental disease, a psychologist or psychiatrist should be consulted, and treatment will be based on the observations of those doctors. Antipsychotic and atypical antipsychotic medication may also be utilized to treat the illness if the symptoms are severe and cause significant distress. For other causes of hallucinations there is no factual evidence to support any one treatment is scientifically tested and proven. However, abstaining from hallucinogenic drugs, stimulant drugs, managing stress levels, living healthily, and getting plenty of sleep can help reduce the prevalence of hallucinations. In all cases of hallucinations, medical attention should be sought out and informed of ones specific symptoms. Meta-analyses show that cognitive behavioral therapy and metacognitive training can also reduce the severity of hallucinations.

Epidemiology
Prevalence of hallucinations varies depending on underlying medical conditions, which sensory modalities are affected, age and culture. As of 2022, auditory hallucinations are the most well studied and most common sensory modality of hallucinations, with an estimated lifetime prevalence of 9.6%. Children and adolescents have been found to experience similar rates (12.7% and 12.4% respectively) which occur mostly during late childhood and adolescence. This is compared with adults and those over 60 (with rates of 5.8% and 4.8% respectively). For those with schizophrenia, the lifetime prevalence of hallucinations is 80% and the estimated prevalence of visual hallucinations is 27%, compared to 79% for auditory hallucinations. A 2019 study suggested 16.2% of adults with hearing impairment experience hallucinations, with prevalence rising to 24% in the most hearing impaired group.A risk factor for multimodal hallucinations is prior experience of unimodal hallucinations. In 90% cases of psychosis, a visual hallucination occurs in combination with another sensory modality, most often being auditory or somatic. In schizophrenia, multimodal hallucinations are twice as common as unimodal ones.A 2015 review of 55 publications from 1962 to 2014 found 16–28.6% of those experiencing hallucinations report at least some religious content in them,: 415  along with 20-60% reporting some religious content in delusions.: 415  There is some evidence for delusions being a risk factor for religious hallucinations, with and 61.7% of people having experienced any delusion and 75.9% of those having experienced a religious delusion found to also experience hallucinations.: 421

See also
References
Further reading
Johnson FH (1978). The Anatomy of Hallucinations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Co. ISBN 0-88229-155-6.
Bentall RP, Slade PD (1988). Sensory Deception: A Scientific Analysis of Hallucination. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 0-7099-3961-2.
Aleman A, Larøi F (2008). Hallucinations: The Science of Idiosyncratic Perception </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Oculomotor nerve palsy and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] Oculomotor nerve palsy or oculomotor neuropathy is an eye condition resulting from damage to the third cranial nerve or a branch thereof. As the name suggests, the oculomotor nerve supplies the majority of the muscles controlling eye movements (four of the six extraocular muscles, excluding only the lateral rectus and superior oblique). Damage to this nerve will result in an inability to move the eye normally. The nerve also supplies the upper eyelid muscle (levator palpebrae superioris) and is accompanied by parasympathetic fibers innervating the muscles responsible for pupil constriction (sphincter pupillae). The limitations of eye movement resulting from the condition are generally so severe that patients are often unable to maintain normal eye alignment when gazing straight ahead, leading to strabismus and, as a consequence, double vision (diplopia).

Presentation
A complete oculomotor nerve palsy will result in a characteristic displacement outward (exotropia) and downward (hypotropia). The outward displacement occurs because the lateral rectus muscle (innervated by the sixth cranial nerve) maintains muscle tone in comparison to the paralyzed medial rectus. The downward displacement occurs because the superior oblique muscle (innervated by the fourth cranial or trochlear nerve) is unantagonized by the paralyzed superior rectus, inferior rectus and inferior oblique. The affected individual will also have a ptosis, or drooping of the eyelid, and mydriasis (pupil dilation).

Causes
Oculomotor palsy can arise as a result of a number of different conditions. Non traumatic pupil-sparing oculomotor nerve palsies are often referred to as a "medical third," with those affecting the pupil being known as a "surgical third."

Congenital oculomotor palsy
The origins of the vast majority of congenital oculomotor palsies are idiopathic. There is some evidence of a familial tendency to the condition, particularly to a partial palsy involving the superior division of the nerve with an autosomal recessive inheritance. The condition can also result from aplasia or hypoplasia of one or more of the muscles supplied by the oculomotor nerve. It can also occur as a consequence of severe birth trauma.

Acquired oculomotor palsy
Vascular disorders such as diabetes, heart disease, atherosclerosis and aneurysm, particularly of the posterior communicating artery
Space occupying lesions or tumours, both malignant and non-malignant
Inflammation and infection
Trauma
Demyelinating disease (multiple sclerosis)
Autoimmune disorders such as myasthenia gravis
Post-operatively as a complication of neurosurgery
Cavernous sinus thrombosis

Mechanism
As the pair of oculomotor nerves arises from different subnuclei in the midbrain, courses through different structures in the brain and branches into superior and inferior divisions after exiting the cavernous sinuses, any lesions along its path will produce different pathological features of the third nerve palsy. The parasympathetic aspect of the nerve (which constricts pupils and thicken the lens) is located on the nerve surface, supplied by pial blood vessels. The nerves core contains the main trunk of the oculomotor nerve, supplied by vasa vasorum. Thus pathologies affecting the nerves core without affecting the superficial part of the nerve (thus sparing the pupillary reflex) are known as "medical" oculomotor nerve palsy </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Respiratory disease and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the  trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleurae, pleural cavity, the nerves and muscles of respiration. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as COVID-19. Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause of the disease.
The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology. A physician who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

Obstructive lung disease
Asthma, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD including emphysema, and chronic bronchitis, is tobacco smoking, and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.

Restrictive lung diseases
Restrictive lung diseases are a category of respiratory disease characterized by a loss of lung compliance, causing incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness, such as in infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Restrictive lung diseases can be divided into two categories: those caused by intrinsic factors and those caused by extrinsic factors. Restrictive lung diseases yielding from intrinsic factors occur within the lungs themselves, such as tissue death due to inflammation or toxins. Conversely, restrictive lung diseases caused by extrinsic factors result from conditions originating from outside the lungs such as neuromuscular dysfunction and irregular chest wall movements.

Chronic respiratory disease
Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are long-term diseases of the airways and other structures of the lung. They are characterized by a high inflammatory cell recruitment (neutrophil) and/or destructive cycle of infection, (e.g. mediated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Some of the most common are asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. CRDs are not curable; however, various forms of treatment that help dilate major air passages and improve shortness of breath can help control symptoms and increase the quality of life.Telerehabilitation for chronic respiratory disease
The latest evidence suggests that primary pulmonary rehabilitation and maintenance rehabilitation delivered through telerehabilitation for people with chronic respiratory disease reaches outcomes similar to centre-based rehabilitation. While there are no safety issues identified, the findings are based on evidence limited by a small number of studies.

Respiratory tract infections
Infections can affect any part of the respiratory system. They are traditionally divided into upper respiratory tract infections and lower respiratory tract infections.

Upper respiratory tract infection
The upper airway is defined as all the structures connecting the glottis to the mouth and nose. The most common upper respiratory tract infection is the common cold. However, infections of specific organs of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis are also considered upper respiratory tract infections.
Epiglottitis is a bacterial infection of the larynx which causes life-threatening swelling of the epiglottis with a mortality rate of 7% in adults and 1% in children. Haemophilus influenzae is still the primary cause even with vaccinations. Symptoms include drooling, stridor, difficulty breathing and swallowing, and a hoarse voice.Croup (Laryngotracheobronchitis) is a viral infection of the vocal cords typically lasting five to six days. The main symptom is a barking cough and low-grade fever. On an X-ray, croup can be recognized by the "steeple sign", which is a narrowing of the trachea. It most commonly occurs in winter months in children between the ages of 3 months and 5 years. A severe form caused by bacteria is called bacterial tracheitis.Tonsillitis is swelling of the tonsils by a bacterial or viral infection. This inflammation can lead to airway obstruction. From tonsillitis can come a peritonsillar abscess which is the most common upper airway infection and occurs primarily in young adults. It causes one swelling of one of tonsils pushing the uvula to the unaffected side. Diagnosis is usually made based on the presentation and examination. Symptoms generally include fever, sore throat, trouble swallowing, and sounding like they have a “hot potato” in their mouth.

Lower respiratory tract infection
The most common lower respiratory tract infection is pneumonia, an infection of the lungs which is usually caused by bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae in Western countries. Worldwide, tuberculosis is an important cause of pneumonia. Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can cause pneumonia, for example severe acute respiratory syndrome, COVID-19 and pneumocystis pneumonia. Pneumonia may develop complications such as a lung abscess, a round cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may spread to the pleural cavity.Poor oral care may be a contributing factor to lower respiratory disease, as bacteria from gum disease may travel through airways and into the lungs.

Upper and lower respiratory tract infection
Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetic disorder causing the cilia to not move in a coordinated manner. This causes chronic respiratory infections, cough, and nasal congestion. This can lead to bronchiectasis, which can cause life-threatening breathing issues.

Tumors
Malignant tumors
Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly primary carcinomas of the lung, are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking tobacco.The major histological types of respiratory system cancer are:

Small cell lung cancer
Non-small cell lung cancer
Adenocarcinoma of the lung
Squamous cell carcinoma of the lung
Large cell lung carcinoma
Other lung cancers (carcinoid, Kaposi’s sarcoma, melanoma)
Lymphoma
Head and neck cancer
Pleural mesothelioma, almost always caused by exposure to asbestos dust.In addition, since many cancers spread via the bloodstream and the entire cardiac output passes through the lungs, it is common for cancer metastases to occur within the lung. Breast cancer may invade directly through local spread, and through lymph node metastases. After metastasis to the liver, colon cancer frequently metastasizes to the lung. Prostate cancer, germ cell cancer and renal cell carcinoma may also metastasize to the lung.
Treatment of respiratory system cancer depends on the type of cancer. Surgical removal of part of a lung (lobectomy, segmentectomy, or wedge resection) or of an entire lung pneumonectomy), along with chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are all used. The chance of surviving lung cancer depends on the cancer stage at the time the cancer is diagnosed, and to some extent on the histology, and is only about 14–17% overall. In the case of metastases to the lung, treatment can occasionally be curative but only in certain, rare circumstances.

Benign tumors
Benign tumors are relatively rare causes of respiratory disease. Examples of benign tumors are:

Pulmonary hamartoma
Congenital malformations such as pulmonary sequestration and congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation (CCAM).

Pleural cavity diseases
Pleural cavity diseases include pleural mesothelioma which are mentioned above.
A collection of fluid in the pleural cavity is known as a pleural effusion. This may be due to fluid shifting from the bloodstream into the pleural cavity due to conditions such as congestive heart failure and cirrhosis. It may also be due to inflammation of the pleura itself as can occur with infection, pulmonary embolus, tuberculosis, mesothelioma and other conditions.A pneumothorax is a hole in the pleura covering the lung allowing air in the lung to escape into the pleural cavity. The affected lung "collapses" like a deflated balloon. A tension pneumothorax is a particularly severe form of this condition where the air in the pleural cavity cannot escape, so the pneumothorax keeps getting bigger until it compresses the heart and blood vessels, leading to a life-threatening situation.

Pulmonary vascular disease
Pulmonary vascular diseases are conditions that affect the pulmonary circulation. Examples are:
Pulmonary embolism, a blood clot that forms in a vein, breaks free, travels through the heart and lodges in the lungs (thromboembolism). Large pulmonary emboli are fatal, causing sudden death. A number of other substances can also embolise (travel through the blood stream) to the lungs but they are much more rare: fat embolism (particularly after bony injury), amniotic fluid embolism (with complications of labour and delivery), air embolism (iatrogenic – caused by invasive medical procedures).
Pulmonary arterial hypertension, elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries. Most commonly it is idiopathic (i.e. of unknown cause) but it can be due to the effects of another disease, particularly COPD. This can lead to strain on the right side of the heart, a condition known as cor pulmonale.
Pulmonary edema, leakage of fluid from capillaries of the lung into the alveoli (or air spaces). It is usually due to congestive heart failure.
Pulmonary hemorrhage, inflammation and damage to capillaries in the lung resulting in blood leaking into the alveoli. This may cause blood to be coughed up. Pulmonary hemorrhage can be due to auto-immune disorders such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis and Goodpastures syndrome.

Neonatal diseases
Pulmonary diseases also impact newborns and the disorders are often unique from those that affect adults.
Infant respiratory distress syndrome most commonly occurs in less than six hours after birth in about 1% of all births in the United States.  The main risk factor is prematurity with the likelihood of it occurring going up to 71% in infants under 750g. Other risk factors include infant of a diabetic mother (IDM), method of delivery, fetal asphyxia, genetics, prolonged rupture of membranes (PROM), maternal toxemia, chorioamnionitis, and male sex. The widely accepted pathophysiology of respiratory distress syndrome is it caused by insufficient surfactant production and immature lung and vascular development. The lack of surfactant makes the lungs atelectatic causing a ventilation to perfusion mismatch, lowered compliance, and increased air resistance. This causes hypoxia and respiratory acidosis which can lead to pulmonary hypertension. It has a ground glass appearance on an x-ray. Symptoms can include tachypnea, nasal flaring, paradoxical chest movement, grunting, and subcostal retractions.Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia is a condition that occurs after birth usually from mechanical ventilation and oxygen use. It happens almost exclusively in pre-mature infants and is characterized by the alveoli, and lung vasculature becoming inflamed and damaged. Complications from BPD can follow a patient into adulthood. As a child they may experience learning disabilities, pulmonary hypertension, and hearing problems. As an adult, there is an increased likelihood for asthma and exercise intolerance.Meconium Aspiration Syndrome occurs in full term or post-term infants who aspirate meconium. Risk factors include a diabetic mother, fetal hypoxia, precipitous delivery, and maternal high blood pressure. Its diagnosis is based on meconium stained amniotic fluid at delivery and staining on the skin, nails, and umbilical cord. Aspiration can cause airway obstruction, air-trapping, pneumonia, lung inflammation, and inactivated surfactant. It presents as patchy atelectasis and hyperinflation on an x-ray with a pneumothorax of pneumomediastinum also possible.Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn (PPHN) is a syndrome that occurs from an abnormal transition to extra-uterine life. It is marked by an elevated pulmonary vascular resistance and vasoconstriction causing a right-to-left shunt of the blood through the foramen ovale or ductus arteriosus. There are three main causes of PPHN are parenchymal diseases such as meconium aspiration syndrome, idiopathic, and hypoplastic vasculature like in a diaphragmatic hernia. It will eventually resolve in most infants. This is the only syndrome that inhaled nitric oxide is approved for by the FDA.

Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn is caused by the retention of alveolar fluid in the lungs. It commonly occurs in infants who are delivered via caesarean section without the onset of labor because absorption of amniotic fluid in the lungs has not yet commenced. Other risk factors are male sex, macrosomia, multiple gestations, and maternal asthma. It usually presents with tachypnea and increased work of breathing. On an x-ray diffuse infiltrates, interlobar fissures, and sometimes pleural effusions can be seen. It is a diagnosis of exclusion because of its similarity to other diseases and frequently CPAP is used to help push the lung fluid into the pulmonary vasculature.Pulmonary interstitial emphysema is the condition of air escaping overdistended alveoli into the pulmonary interstitium. It is a rare disease that occurs most often in premature infants, even though it is possible to appear in adults. It often presents as a slow deterioration with the need for increased ventilatory support. Chest x-ray is the standard for diagnosis where it is seen as linear or cystic translucencies extending to the edges of the lungs.Bronchiolitis is the swelling and buildup of mucus in the bronchioles </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a responsible assistant committed to providing accurate and helpful responses. Avoid sharing harmful or biased content. Clarify any unclear or incorrect questions rather than providing false or misleading information. <</SYS>> What is Functional gastrointestinal disorder and can you explain it in depth? [/INST] Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID), also known as disorders of gut–brain interaction, include a number of separate idiopathic disorders which affect different parts of the gastrointestinal tract and involve visceral hypersensitivity and motility disturbances.

Classification
Terms such as functional colonic disease (or functional bowel disorder) refer in medicine to a group of bowel disorders which are characterised by chronic abdominal complaints without a structural or biochemical cause that could explain symptoms. Other functional disorders relate to other aspects of the process of digestion.The consensus review process of meetings and publications organised by the Rome Foundation, known as the Rome process, has helped to define the functional gastrointestinal disorders. Successively, the Rome I, Rome II, Rome III and Rome IV proposed consensual classification system and terminology, as recommended by the Rome Coordinating Committee. These now include classifications appropriate for adults, children and neonates/toddlers.The current Rome IV classification, published in 2016, is as follows:A. Esophageal disorders

A1. Functional chest pain
A2. Functional heartburn
A3. Reflux hypersensitivity
A4. Globus
A5. Functional dysphagiaB. Gastroduodenal disorders

B1. Functional dyspepsia
B1a. Postprandial distress syndrome (PDS)
B1b. Epigastric pain syndrome (EPS)
B2. Belching disorders
B2a. Excessive supragastric belching
B2b. Excessive gastric belching
B3. Nausea and vomiting disorders
B3a. Chronic nausea vomiting syndrome (CNVS)
B3b. Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS)
B3c. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)
B4. Rumination syndromeC. Bowel disorders

C1. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
IBS with predominant constipation (IBS-C)
IBS with predominant diarrhea (IBS-D)
IBS with mixed bowel habits (IBS-M)
IBS unclassified (IBS-U)
C2. Functional constipation
C3. Functional diarrhea
C4. Functional abdominal bloating/distension
C5. Unspecified functional bowel disorder
C6. Opioid-induced constipationD. Centrally mediated disorders of gastrointestinal pain

D1. Centrally mediated abdominal pain syndrome (CAPS)
D2. Narcotic bowel syndrome (NBS)/ Opioid-induced GI hyperalgesiaE. Gallbladder and sphincter of Oddi disorders

E1. Biliary pain
E1a. Functional gallbladder disorder
E1b. Functional biliary sphincter of Oddi disorder
E2. Functional pancreatic sphincter of Oddi disorderF. Anorectal disorders

F1. Fecal incontinence
F2. Functional anorectal pain
F2a. Levator ani syndrome
F2b. Unspecified functional anorectal pain
F2c. Proctalgia fugax
F3. Functional defecation disorders
F3a. Inadequate defecatory propulsion
F3b. Dyssynergic defecationG. Childhood functional GI disorders: Neonate/Toddler

G1. Infant regurgitation
G2. Rumination syndrome
G3. Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS)
G4. Infant colic
G5. Functional diarrhea
G6. Infant dyschezia
G7. Functional constipationH. Childhood functional GI disorders: Child/Adolescent

H1. Functional nausea and vomiting disorders
H1a. Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS)
H1b. Functional nausea and functional vomiting
H1b1. Functional nausea
H1b2. Functional vomiting
H1c. Rumination syndrome
H1d. Aerophagia
H2. Functional abdominal pain disorders
H2a. Functional dyspepsia
H2a1. Postprandial distress syndrome
H2a2 </s>