The birth of more than one offspring at a time is called a multiple birth. Multiple births are common in smaller mammals, such as domestic cats and dogs. Humans and other large mammals, however, ordinarily give birth to only one offspring at a time. In humans, about 1.5 percent of all births are multiple. The increasing use of drugs and other medical procedures beginning in the 1980s to combat infertilitythe inability to conceive a child by natural means after one yearhas contributed to the growing number of multiple births in humans.
A woman normally releases a single egg from an ovary about once a month. Once the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell, it is called a zygote. It is then implanted in the wall of the uterus where it develops until birth. (See also embryology; reproductive system.)
Occasionally two or more eggs are released. In this case, each egg can be fertilized by a different sperm cell. Two separate fertilized eggs produce fraternal (also called dizygotic, or two-egg) twins. Identical (monozygotic, or one-egg) twins result when a single zygote divides in two and develops as two separate embryos. Why this division of the zygote occurs is unknown. Other multiple births can result from the simultaneous occurrence of both events, so that among triplets, two may be identical and the third fraternal.
Although some fraternal twins look very similar, they are no more alike than siblings (brothers or sisters) born years apart. They may be the same or different sexes. Identical twins, on the other hand, are formed from the same genetic material and are always the same in sex, blood type, biochemical detail, and appearance. (See also genetics.) Their fingerprints are slightly different, however, and one twin is usually more dominant or outgoing in personality.
Just as with some siblings born at different times, fraternal twins sometimes look remarkably alike, so that appearance alone is no certain indication that twins are identical. Fraternal twins can often be recognized at birth if there are two separate placentas (also called afterbirths), because identical twins always share a single placenta. Since the two placentas of fraternal twins can fuse together, however, the presence of a single placenta is no guarantee that twins are identical. The only certain diagnosis is genetic analysis.
Studies of identical twins who were raised apart are providing data that seem to indicate that heredity may influence traits once assumed to be environmentally determined. Some twins have almost identical health problems, such as cyclic headaches, high blood pressure, and even infections. Intelligence quotients (IQ), brain-wave patterns, personalities, handwriting, and even hobbies can also be amazingly similar.
An estimated 125 million sets of twins currently exist worldwide. About one-third of these are identical; they occur randomly without regard to genetics, ethnicity, culture, or geographic location. The chances of giving birth to fraternal twins, however, appear to be influenced by genetic and possibly environmental factors. In the United States, women bear one set of fraternal twins in every 70 to 89 births, depending on race. In Nigeria one in every 22 births is a pair of twins. The rate in Japan is only one in every 150 births. However, in a small South Korean village with only 275 families, 38 pairs of twins were born in a single yearthe highest twin ratio ever recorded.
It has been found that a woman is more likely to bear fraternal twins if she herself is a fraternal twin. A woman with twins in her family also has a greater likelihood of bearing twins. For any woman the chances of bearing twins increase each year from age 20 to 39, particularly if she has already had a child.
Women who take fertility drugs are also more likely to have multiple births. Fertility drugs are hormones that are given to women who fail to release an egg every month and so cannot become pregnant. These drugs, which tend to overstimulate the ovaries, may cause more than one egg to be released at a time. Other infertility procedures, such as in vitro fertilization, where eggs are fertilized outside the human body and then inserted into the woman's uterus, also contribute to the rising number of multiple births.
Conjoined, formerly called Siamese, twins are identical twins who are physically joined at some part of the body. Conjoined twins result when the zygote does not completely separate. If the twins are joined by bones or ligaments, surgery can separate the two. The first successful separation of this sort was performed in 1952 on two girls who were joined at the sternum, or breastbone. Sometimes, however, conjoined twins share the same organs. In this case surgery can rarely save both of them, though it is sometimes attempted in order to save one. In general, the life expectancy is short for conjoined twins.
Multiple births are riskier because most such infants are born prematurely. The normal length of a single-embryo pregnancy is 40 weeks. Two or more fetuses stretch the uterus, however, causing labor to start early. The average length of a twin pregnancy is 36 weeks, a triplet pregnancy 33 weeks, and a quadruplet pregnancy 29 weeks. Babies born before 37 weeks are considered premature and can weigh less than 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms). Because premature babies are more susceptible to serious illness, including respiratory ailments, the mortality rate for twins is five times that of full-term single infants during the first two years of life.
Sometimes only one twin survivesusually the first-born. The second-born twin is often smaller and is frequently born in a breech position (feet or buttocks first), making delivery more difficult. In addition, because the uterus contracts after delivery of the first twin, the remaining twin may be deprived of oxygen.
Twins are probably conceived more often than they are born. Multiple embryos account for many spontaneous abortions, or miscarriages. Sometimes chimerism may occurwhen fraternal twin embryos fuse early in development, producing a single infant.
Survival rates of multiple-birth infants have improved in recent years for several reasons. More advanced instruments can better monitor the fetuses' progress in the womb. Specially designed stethoscopes can detect more than one fetal heartbeat. Physicians can also use ultrasound, sound waves similar to sonar, to produce a computerized image of the fetuses showing each one's position. Delivery by cesarean section (surgical incision of the abdomen) reduces the chances of complications in certain circumstances. Once the infants are delivered, neonatal specialists use medicines and instruments developed especially for tiny babies to help them breathe, to control internal bleeding, and to solve other medical problems common in premature births.
The largest number of children ever born to one woman was 69. The woman, a Russian peasant, was pregnant 27 times between 1725 and 1765 and gave birth to 16 sets of twins, seven sets of triplets, and four sets of quadruplets. Survival beyond infancy of four or more multiple-birth children became more common in the late 20th century because of the advances in medical technology. Numerous sets of quintuplets born throughout the world have survived.
Beginning in the late 20th century, multiple births were common among women undergoing fertility treatment. Sextuplets born in South Africa in 1974 made medical history because all six survived. In the United States, the first surviving sextuplets were born in 1993, the first surviving septuplets in 1997, and the first surviving octuplets in 1998 (one was delivered two weeks before the other seven, and one died a week after birth). There are documented reports of 9 and 10 infants being born at one time, yet in none of these cases have all the babies survived. By the early 21st century, fertility doctors in the United States and other countries were better able to control the fertility process and reduce the risk of women carrying high numbers of fetuses.