Tag Archives: Medieval
Knights and Medieval Chivalry: An Introduction
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Medieval Banking
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Medieval Diplomacy
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Medieval Europe – Part 1
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Toadbollock, Dustiberd and Lytillskyll: historian on what names can tell us about everyday medieval life
British Library MS Harley 4379, fol. 182v
Catherine Clarke, University of Southampton
Let me take you for a stroll down the high street of 12th-century Winchester – one of the great cities of medieval England – and introduce you to a few of the locals. Here's Alberic Coquus, the cook, and over there is Ainulf Parcheminus, the parchment-maker. They are chatting to Luuing Scalarius (he builds ladders). Godric Softebred, who has his shop just down the road, is a baker – but his neighbours giggle behind his back and give his wife pitying glances.
You can't miss Robert Crassus ("big, fat"), but I would hesitate to introduce you to Alfred Taddebelloc ("Toadbollock") and you probably won't want to stand too close to Radulf Scitliure ("shit-liver", evidently cursed with chronic diarrhoea or some other stomach complaint). And perhaps we should simply cross the street to avoid me having to mention Godwin Clawecuncte (use your imagination) at all.
We know these names – with the intriguing clues they give about the people who carried them – from the two 12th-century surveys of Winchester property collectively known as the Winton Domesday. So, what's in a medieval name? What can they tell historians about long-forgotten lives and individuals in the past? And why won't you find anyone with the surname Toadbollock today?
These names don't work in quite the same way as modern surnames. These (usually non-hereditary) medieval bynames add further detail to personal names, noting where someone was from, what job they did and even what they looked like or how they behaved.
Chronicle of everyday life in the 12th century: Winton Domesday.
Society of Antiquaries of London
Bynames often reflect physical attributes, such as those of Winchester's Alestan Hwit ("white"), who probably had a fair complexion, or Alimer Longus ("tall"). You wouldn't want to see Winchester's Peter Agnell ("little lamb") get into a fight with Godwin Bar ("boar").
Many medieval historians have their own favourite names they've discovered during their research: Professor Anthony Bale of Birkbeck, University of London, mentions Tom Dustiberd ("dusty beard") and the likely somewhat dishevelled Adam Charrecrowe ("scarecrow"), as well as Walter Boltuprith ("bolt-upright").
Other bynames indicate trades and occupations. Richard Farrier was keeper of the king's horses at Chester in the summer of 1283. Records show that he purchased cut grass for 20 horses, including that of the queen, and also for ten "great" horses arriving from Caernafon. He bought horseshoes, bridles, long ropes of hemp to make reins, as well as plenty of horse salve.
Other occupational bynames hint at less happy vocations. John Pynchware and his son worked as shoemakers in 15th-century Chester. But with a byname like that, how well did their shoes fit? Professor Matthew Davies of Birkbeck points to an apprentice tailor in London, 1486, named Rowland Lytillskyll. He doesn't seem to have made it in his chosen career.
Rebel, rebel
Bynames can also tell us about ethnic identities. Several people in 12th-century Winchester were called "Iudeius" – members of what would become the city's thriving medieval Jewish community. Godwin Francigena, with his English personal name and byname meaning "Frenchman", reminds us what a cosmopolitan, multicultural European city this was.
But sometimes bynames point to political and social tensions. Dr Adam Chapman, at the Institute for Historical Research, shares the example of the 14th-century Welshman known as Madog Drwgwrthgymro: literally "bad to Welshmen", but translated by the historian Robert Rees Davies more provocatively as "Saxon-lover" – a smear based on perceived disloyalty and ethnic betrayal.
Another Welshman, William Cragh, features in medieval records as an outlaw –- or freedom fighter, depending on your viewpoint – who rebelled against Norman rule and was hanged, but came back to life (that's another story. He cuts less of a romantic, heroic figure when we translate his Welsh byname – perhaps "Scabby William" had suffered some kind of disfiguring disease as a child. Still, he was more likely known by his fellow Welshmen by the patronymic "ap Rhys" ("son of Rhys").
Calling card
Somewhere in my own ancestry, someone probably worked as a clerk. Adam Chapman's forebears possibly worked in a shop ("ceap-man" meant merchant, from the Old English "ceapan" meaning to sell or buy). Some bynames just stick around: Delia Smith doesn't work in a forge, and Mary Beard doesn't have one. But others, unsurprisingly, don't outlast their original owners.
We see similar revisions when it comes to less appealing place names: just as William Cragh probably preferred being called William ap Rhys, the place where he was hanged in Swansea was renamed, in the late 19th century, from Gibbet Hill Road to the more estate agent-friendly North Hill Road.
So, why are medieval bynames so useful and engaging? For a start, some of them are hilarious – and they give us a humorous way into a seemingly remote and distant historical past. But, more than that, they offer a sense of connection with a real individual and a characteristic which defined them within their own, contemporary local community.
These medieval names also give us glimpses into something the big chronicles, charters and official history books often don't tell us much about: ordinary people and their ordinary, colourful lives.
Catherine Clarke, Professor of Medieval Literature and Culture, University of Southampton
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In medieval Britain, if you wanted to get ahead, you had to speak French
Medieval teaching scene.
gallica.bnf.fr / BnF
Huw Grange, University of Oxford
The study of modern languages in British secondary schools is in steep decline. The number of students taking French and German GCSE has more than halved in the last 16 years. But as the UK prepares to forge new relationships with the wider world, and with a question mark over the status of English as an official EU language, it may be that many more Britons will need to brush up on their language skills – not unlike their medieval ancestors.
In the Middle Ages, a variety of vernacular languages were spoken by inhabitants of the British Isles, from Cornish to English to Norn – an extinct North Germanic language. The literati of the time learned to speak and write Latin.
But another high prestige language was also used in medieval Britain. After the Norman Conquest, French became a major language of administration, education, literature and law in England (and, to some extent, elsewhere in Britain). To get ahead in life post-1066, it was pretty important to "parler français".
Historiated initial depicting Pentecost, when linguistic miracles were supposedly most prevalent.
French would have been the mother tongue for several generations of the Anglo Norman aristocracy. But many more Britons must have learned French as a second language. Medieval biographies of saints, such as the 12th-century recluse Wulfric of Haselbury, tell of miracle workers who transformed monoglot Englishmen into fluent francophones.
In reality, many probably acquired French at "song" school, where young boys were taught reading and singing before moving on to study Latin at "grammar" school.
Slipping standards
But, by the late 14th century, standards of French in Britain were slipping – at least in some quarters. Perhaps not such a problem at home, where English had already assumed some of the roles previously performed by French. But if British merchants wanted to export wool, or import bottles of Bordeaux, knowledge of French was still a must.
It's around this time that the "Manieres de langage" – or "Manners of Speaking" – began to appear. These model conversations, the earliest used to teach French to English speakers, were used by business teachers who taught all the necessary skills for performing basic clerical work.
Colourful language
As well as teaching learners how to ask for directions and find lodgings in France, the "Manieres" feature rather more colourful language than you'd find in today's textbooks.
Some of the dialogues are made up entirely of insults and chat-up lines. Learners could quickly progress from "Mademoiselle, do I know you?" to "You're quite sure you don't have another boyfriend?". And if things didn't quite go to plan, an expression such as: "Va te en a ta putaigne … quar vous estez bien cuillez ensemble" (That's it, run along to your whore! You're made for each other!) may have proved useful.
Astrologer and demon.
British Library, Royal 6 E VI/2, f. 396v
The "Manieres" also taught learners about life across the Channel. In one dialogue a Parisian chap mentions to an Englishman that he's been to Orléans. The Englishman is amazed: "But that's near the edge of the world!" he exclaims. "It's actually in the middle of France," replies the Parisian, "and there's a great law school there". Once again, the Englishman is taken aback. He's heard it's where the devil teaches his disciples black magic. The Parisian is exasperated until the Englishman offers to buy him a drink.
Lessons from the past
The French spoken in Britain was mocked from at least the 12th-century, even by the British themselves. In the "Canterbury Tales", for instance, Chaucer teases his Prioress for speaking the French of "Stratford-at-Bow" (rather than proper Parisian).
English swearing's European origins
Like many a language learner in Britain today, the Englishman in the "Manieres" lacks confidence in his linguistic abilities and worries about how he is ever going to speak like a native.
But the "Manieres" also suggest there was less separating the French of Britain from "proper Parisian" than we might think. When the Englishman lets slip he's never actually been to France, it's the Parisian's turn to be amazed. How could anyone learn such good French in England?
Catte Street, Oxford, where a business school was located in the 15th-century.
Photo © Marathon (cc-by-sa/2.0)
These language learning resources date from a time when the association between linguistic identity and nationality was looser than it often is today. French doesn't just belong to the French, according to the "Manieres" – learners can take pride in it too.
In Oxford, business school French proved so popular its success seemed to rattle the dons. In 1432 a University statute banned French teaching during lecturing hours to stop students skiving Latin.
It's hard to imagine needing to curb enthusiasm for learning a foreign language in Brexit Britain. But perhaps there are lessons in the "Manieres" that could help promote language learning in the 21st-century classroom.
Huw Grange, Junior Research Fellow in French, University of Oxford
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From jousting to football: the ideal man hasn't changed much since medieval times
Emma Levitt, University of Huddersfield
Anyone with a moderate interest in history will know that in the later years of his reign, Henry VIII seemed to have an identity crisis. His personality change from a generous and virtuous prince into a monster and tyrannical king is well documented, and has been debated by Tudor historians for decades.
It has long been thought that this change came about due to a particularly bad jousting accident on January 24 1536, when Henry was thrown from his horse, who in turn fell upon him, causing a two hour loss of consciousness. Although he recovered, the incident, which ended his jousting career, caused serious leg problems, which plagued him for the rest of his life.
Now this has been corroborated by the scientific community. According to neurobiologists at Yale University, the accident may well have caused an undetected brain injury that profoundly affected his personality and memory. The team retrospectively analysed the nature of Henry VIII's well documented personality change, proposing that
the Tudor king's jousting habit may have led him to suffer from "traumatic brain injuries" similar to those experienced by American football players. An analysis of his "symptoms" led them to conclude that "the picture was so consistent with the sequel of chronic concussion, intellectual honesty would dictate writing about traumatic brain injury in Henry".
This comparison between NFL players and Tudor jousters struck me as all too apt, because both pastimes represent the pinnacle of masculinity for their day.
Henry VIII: great with his lance.
Tournaments through the ages
Jousting tournaments originated in the 12th century. They were central to the world of medieval chivalry, used as training grounds for knights in the achievement of prowess, honour and renown. In the early tournaments, the mock battle (the mêlée) was not formalised, or even confined to the field at hand. Knights would be assigned to two opposing teams and would charge at each other on a given signal: a practice that was not at all dissimilar to medieval warfare.
By the 15th century the mêlée had grown completely out of fashion and had been replaced by the single combat that was now the high point of the tournament. The joust was fought between two individuals, the knights riding from opposite ends of the lists to encounter each other with lances. It was much easier to identify the victor in the jousts compared to the mass participators in the mêlée.
By the reign of Henry VIII, the joust had become a more formalised competition. Rules had been introduced, including score cheques and prizes. The tournament included three basic categories of martial encounter: the joust, the tourney and the foot combats, or fighting at the barriers. In the tourney teams of knights fought on horseback with swords, staves and clubs, rather than lances, but as in the jousts, the number of strokes delivered determined the number of scores. The foot combat involved two contestants fighting on foot with a variety of weapons, such as swords, pikes, clubs or poleaxes. Henry's men needed to be expert in all three contests if they were to succeed in the Tudor tournament.
Henry held more than 50 tournaments at his court, most in the first 20 years of his reign. He had been taught to engage in combat on both foot and horseback and he was trained in a variety of weapons, and put these skills to the test by frequently competing in tournaments – up until his 1536 accident. Henry would often take on the role of chief challenger, leading a team of four to six knights into the tiltyard ready to compete against the opposition, not unlike the role of the captain of the England football squad today.
'High' 16th-century jousting in Paulus Hector Mair's compendium.
Manly jousting
Like modern day sports events, Tudor tournaments attracted competitors, spectators and foreign guests from far. They were one of the few occasions for ordinary people to see their king and his courtiers, and in their best guise: the chivalric displays of tournaments emphasised the majesty of Henry VIII and his nobility and their superiority within Tudor society. It was an important arena in which men could demonstrate their individual prowess in front of a vast audience.
In the Tudor period the medieval knight was still considered the ultimate male pinup. One man who was able to fully embody this knightly ideal was Charles Brandon, considered the Wayne Rooney of the jousting world. Brandon was able to build for himself an entire career that was founded on his ability to achieve high scores in the tiltyard. Surviving score cheques from the Tudor court illustrate that few men could beat him. Skilled jousters were given the unique opportunity to prove that they were better than the king, and he rewarded their displays of chivalry and masculinity. Of course, this was a sticky game – it was in their interest not only to give the king a well fought match, but ultimately they still had to ensure that Henry won in the end.
Luckily, today's football players don't have that particular delicacy to deal with. No need to lose on purpose. But other aspects of this ideal of medieval masculinity transmit perfectly into the modern world. Henry Cavill, who recently played Brandon in the television series, The Tudors, has since starred as superhero legend Superman in Man of Steel. Superman, an icon of heterosexual masculinity, is quite literally the modern version of the erstwhile man of steel, flying on horseback down the tiltyard in his plate armour supported by his superhero body.
So whether a "silly boy with a horse and a stick" (as Jocelyn of A Knight's Tale so eloquently put it), a man kicking a ball or flying in his iconic cloak, the ideal male proves himself with props aplomb.
Emma Levitt, PhD Candidate, University of Huddersfield
Leave a comment | tags: article, football, ideal, jousting, man, Medieval, times | posted in article, Europe - General
Passeth the cranb'rry sauce! The medieval origins of Thanksgiving
Ken Albala, University of the Pacific
How and why did the dishes served at Thanksgiving dinner come to be so fixed?
Many assume that most of them were simply eaten by the Pilgrims during the first Thanksgiving. For this reason, they continue to be eaten today. And it's true that most of the ingredients are American in origin: the turkey, cranberries, pumpkin, sweet potatoes – even the green beans in the casserole and the pecans in the pie.
Yet we only have one firsthand account of the "first" Thanksgiving – a brief paragraph by Edward Winslow that doesn't mention any of these foods. And it's been shown, time and again, that the idea of a unique culinary tradition originating from a feast between the Pilgrims and their Native American neighbors is more advertising myth than historical truth.
But maybe there is something, nonetheless, that's very traditional about this meal.
In fact, there may be a very good reason these particular dishes – and even the way we eat the meal – came to be strongly associated with Thanksgiving. The first Americans simply mimicked or adapted the traditional fare, flavor combinations and rituals of Europe, using them to fashion the popular dishes we continue to enjoy today.
Alaye that fesande!
To start, think of when we eat the meal: always in the early afternoon, which is just as a proper dinner would have been served 400 years ago. Back then, supper was a smaller, evening meal. Of course, there are other early dinners that families traditionally observe (especially on Sunday). But Thanksgiving always has been, and continues to be, early. It didn't simply start sooner to accommodate a football game.
As for the ritual of carving at the table, it's not something we normally do. But it was positively fashionable when the colonists left Europe in the 17th century. There were even carving manuals replete with illustrations for serving their favorite roasts, which were almost always wild fowl. The only difference is that they would hold the entire bird up in the air to carve thin slices, which would fall gently on each diner's plate. (With today's huge, domestic turkeys, it's understandable that we leave them on the platter.)
There was even a whole language of dismemberment in medieval England: you would lyfte that swanne, alaye that fesande, wynge that partyche, dysplaye that crane, but breke that egryt.
An image from Jacques Vontet's 1647 guidebook L'Art de Trancher la viande et toute sorte de fruits (The art of carving).
Raspberry sauce and pompion-pye
As for the turkey itself, it was one of the few New World foods that had already gained immediate acceptance in Europe, precisely because of its similarity to peacocks and pheasants, which were among the era's most fashionable foods. In other words, the Englishmen who landed in Massachusetts didn't eat turkey because it was the only local food available. Rather, they'd been quite familiar with it back in England, where it was even common to remove the skin and feathers, cook it and serve it with the feathers replaced, as if it were still living – a standard medieval trick.
The side dishes also date back to Europe, with flavor profiles that are actually medieval in origin.
Take cranberry sauce. In medieval Europe, sour fruit sauce with wild fowl was a popular combination, one that balanced a cold and moist condiment with a hot, dry meat. In the mid-17th century, for example, the famous French chef La Varenne served turkey with raspberries.
But the real connection between Thanksgiving and the medieval feast is in the spices. Although today we use the blanket term "pumpkin spice" to characterize variations of cinnamon, nutmeg, clove and ginger (and they show up practically everywhere in cheap artificial form), these flavors were the backbone of medieval cuisine, appearing in a wide array of sweet and savory dishes, from chicken to pasta.
Back then, it simply wasn't a lavish meal without a riot of spices (which, because they needed to be imported from Asia, were wildly expensive). Today the only one of these spices that stays on the table year-round is pepper. But their pivotal role in Thanksgiving again is a reminder of the tradition's remote origins.
And many think of green bean casserole as a classic postwar dish – invented in the 1950s as a way to use up all the cans of cream of mushroom soup that had amassed in the pantry. But "French beans" (from America) were already well-known and loved in 17th-century Europe. English Poet Gervase Markham, in 1608's Farewel to Husbandry, remarks how tender they are when stewed. And Thomas Tryon, a British author of self-help books, writes in The Way to Health, Long Life and Happiness that French beans "far exceed and are much better than other pulses eaten green."
Candied yams were also a 16th-century staple. In Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, when Sir John Falstaff exclaims that it should rain kissing comfits and hail potatoes, he is actually talking about Virginia sweet potatoes, which had been brought back to Europe in the late 16th century. (These weren't just candied; they were also considered an aphrodisiac.)
Famed English chef Robert May in the mid-17th-century cookbook The Accomplisht Cook has a great recipe for (sweet) potato pie, which wouldn't seem too amiss on the Thanksgiving table today (though with cockscombs, testicles and bone marrow would be considered perhaps a bit overgarnished).
If you haven't tried Hannah Woolley's world-famous pompion-pye, you haven't lived.
Foods of England
As for that very American pumpkin pie? In the 17th century, it was already quite common. One of the earliest female cookbook authors, Hannah Woolley, has a recipe for "pompion-pye" with the same spices we use today. She also includes apples, which, incidentally, are also thoroughly English in a pie.
So despite the picture we have of English colonists adapting to strange new ingredients in their new home, most of the recipes – and those we still insist on having at the Thanksgiving table – were already regular favorites.
Remember that when you lift high your (very American) turkey leg, like Henry VIII.
Ken Albala, Professor of History, Director of Food Studies, University of the Pacific
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Article: United Kingdom – York Church
The link below is to an article that reports on what may be the discovery of a medieval church beneath King's Square in York, England.
http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com.au/2013/09/medieval-church-unearthed-at-kings.html
Leave a comment | tags: article, beneath, Church, discovery, England, King's Square, Medieval, United Kingdom, York | posted in article, England, King's Square, United Kingdom, York
Article: Medieval underwear
The link below is to an article on Medieval underwear, including photos.
http://boingboing.net/2012/07/25/medieval-underwear.html
Leave a comment | tags: article, clothes, Medieval, photos, underwear | posted in article, Fashion, Underwear