Lagopoulos-Pissourios-The Classification of Urban Uses
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Chapter 3 Four Ways of Knowing
The Classification of Urban Uses
Ioannis A. Pissourios 1, * ID
and Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos 2,3
1 School of Architecture, Neapolis University Pafos, 2 Danais Avenue, 8042 Paphos, Cyprus
2 School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki University Campus,
54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; phaidon@arch.auth.gr
3 Academy of Athens, Panepistimiou 28, 10679 Athens, Greece
* Correspondence: pissourios@gmail.com; Tel.: +357-950-7694
Received: 25 July 2017; Accepted: 14 August 2017; Published: 16 August 2017
Abstract: The classification of uses is one of the central issues of urban planning, since it is only by
referring to groups of uses that we can achieve the simplification and, ultimately, the understanding
of urban space. However, contemporary planning theory has shown very little interest in a theoretical
approach to this issue. The present paper addresses the issue by integrating it into the development
of an analytical theory of urban uses which it calls urbanology. Specifically, the paper starts with
the description of the basic concepts and processes of classification, which are then employed to
produce a general theoretical classification of urban uses. Since the classification of uses is not only
a question of theoretical importance, but directly related to applied planning, the paper concludes
with the elaboration of a second, alternative classification which satisfies the needs of contemporary
planning practice.
Keywords: urban use; land use; use class order; classification; taxonomy; typology
The fact that urban and regional planning are applied fields does not imply that they are exempt
from any recourse to theory. What is known as planning theory revolves around planning methodology,
which is concerned with the applied domain, but there are also other kinds of theory, not of a technical
nature but analytical and scientific. The scientific background to planning, which might be called
urbanology and regionology, has not yet been formulated, but it is clear that it should be founded on
the concept of urban use. This leads to two necessary steps: the definition of this concept, and the
classification of urban uses, the necessary background for any analysis of or intervention on space.
A well-formed classification should reveal actual spatial organisation and allow coherent
proposals, both of which are only partially achieved with empirical, intuitive classifications. Given that
our starting point is the experience from Greek planning, we shall use an example from Greece. In the
first legislation on specific urban uses in 1980, 28 use types are numbered consecutively [1]. In this
one-level, non-hierarchical classification, manufacturing and industry are presented as a single use
type; "shops" (that is, retail trade) are given the number 2 and wholesale trade the number 17, without
their grouping under the category of trade; petrol stations are put on the same level as manufacturing
and industry and "administration", etc. Then, while enumerating the uses allowed in one of the
11 kinds of spatial zones given, reference is made to "shops corresponding to the everyday needs
of their immediate area of influence", which appear independently from number 2 and without the
mention of other groups of retail trade. A recent law of 2014 on urban uses [2] enumerates many
more uses and seems to be based on the Greek equivalent of the international classification NACE
Rev2 (see below Section 4). However, in defining the uses in one kind of zone, the law lists "offices"
as number 1.7; the definition of another kind of zone groups "offices" under this number together
with banks, insurance and social services; in a third zone, this group of uses appears as number 1.8.
Urban Sci. 2017, 1, 26; doi:10.3390/urbansci1030026 www.mdpi.com/journal/urbansci
Urban Sci. 2017, 1, 26 2 of 26
Obviously, the uses were not given a specific code number from the beginning, something that would
indicate the need for a complete and systematic tree-structure of uses (see below Sections 3 and 4).
Flaws of this kind are not a particularity of the Greek planning system, but are structural in all
empirical classifications.
Empirical classifications are not, of course, nonsensical. They are based on practical know-how,
the fruit of experience and trial-and-error, and have guided professional planning practice for decades.
Many of them are good pieces of professional craftsmanship. The purpose of this paper, however, is to
go beyond craftsmanship, to a scientific approach that would give us a metalanguage on existing and
possible craftsmanship. While the economists have such a systematic guide, there is no similar guide
for planners.
The classification of urban uses must start with a theory of urban uses, on the basis of which
their systematic classification will be possible, providing the foundation for planning operations.
J. Brian McLoughlin was clearly aware of the importance of such an approach when he wrote of the
need for a typology of land uses which "should deal with activities only—a 'pure line' classification".
He gives a few ad hoc examples of typology taken from professional practice and proposes the
Standard Industrial Classification as a guide for land-use typology [3] (pp. 129–133), see also: [4]
(p. 323). This paper attempts to provide concrete general lines for such a classification, on the basis of
classification theory.
According to Kenneth Bailey [5] (p. 1), "classification is a very central process in all facets of our
lives. It is so ubiquitous that not only do we generally fail to analyse it, we often even fail to recognize
its very existence". Indeed, the need for a 'filtering' of the fragmentary and complex empirical world,
in order to bring out the essential and discard the inessential, means that the process of classification
is our basic mechanism for understanding the world. Often the mechanism operates unconsciously
and imperceptibly, with the result that it is difficult to distinguish the criteria that were applied in the
process of classification. This lack of clarity appears to be the rule in the classifications of urban uses,
since in most cases the process which was followed and the criteria which were applied remain implicit
and empirical, something which makes it difficult to evaluate and improve the resulting classifications.
We note that the concept of urban use coincides with that of regional use, since there is no break in
continuity between urban and regional analysis and planning [6] (p. 20). In the present paper we will
refer to urban uses for the sake of simplicity, but we do not wish to imply that the term should be
limited to urban analysis; it can equally well be applied to a regional approach.
The classification of uses is one of the central issues in urban planning, since it is only by
referring to groups of uses that we can achieve the reduction of the complexity and, ultimately, the
understanding of urban space. Different classifications lead to different analyses and interpretations
of urban space and, in the end, to different conclusions concerning it, conclusions which have a
direct impact on the types of intervention proposed. It is odd that an issue as central as that of the
classification of uses has been of so little interest to contemporary planning theory, although it was a
favourite topic in the field of human geography from as early as the 1930s up to the mid-1970s [7–12].
There is a valuable bibliography in Greek on the classification of urban uses, which we will be
referring to below, but the systematic theoretical development of the issue is due to the work of
Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos [6,13,14], who in addition contributed to the construction of the appropriate
scientific terminology and conceptual infrastructure necessary to validate a classification of urban uses;
the article that follows represents a further step in this direction.
The concepts which permit the description of the process of classification of uses are as necessary
as the concepts which permit their scientific study. The following two sections of our paper will
therefore be devoted to a review of the theoretical framework of classification, while the last section
will use this theoretical framework to focus on the issue of the general theoretical classification of
urban uses. We will also discuss alternative classifications within the context of the above.
2. The Concept of Classification and Basic Related Concepts
Classification is defined as the investigation of the characteristics of certain objects in order to
determine if and in what manner these objects may be grouped into a limited number of classes,
on the basis of the similarities of the characteristics studied [5] (p. 1), [12] (pp. 326–327), [15] (p. 1).
Classification is a complex process which serves a number of purposes, the most important of which
is the reduction of the complexity of a system [5] (p. 12), [12] (p. 326). Without this process we
would be unable to communicate with our environment, since the empirical world is a source of
infinite information, which must necessarily be filtered in order to make apparent its basic structure.
Classification is precisely this process of selection and foregrounding, through the grouping of objects
on the basis of the formulation of significant common qualities, while at the same time their other
qualities are excluded. In every case, classification is a process of generalisation and simultaneous
simplification. At the same time, classification involves the imposition of an organisation on the objects
concerned [5] (p. 13), [12] (p. 326). Objects which were disordered are ordered, finding their place in
particular categories.
The term classification is used to describe both the process and its final result. The use of the
term implies that the number of categories produced, the characteristics that distinguish one category
from another and the inclusion of specific objects in each category are all objects of study. According
to Bailey [5] (p. v), there are two basic approaches to classification: taxonomy and typology. The term
taxonomy is often used instead of the term classification, but implies a greater emphasis on the
hierarchical organisation of its objects [5] (p. 6), [16] (p. 26). In this paper we also prefer the use
of the term classification, instead of taxonomy, as the former term is more prevalent in the field of
urban planning.
Basic to the concept of typology is its conceptual character [5] (p. 4). In contrast to taxonomy,
where the objects to be classified are empirically given, typology is concerned with the classification
of theoretical, usually conceptual objects. The categories produced by a typology are types, which
constitute new objects or concepts. For example, Table 1 below presents a typology based on two
variables (intelligence and motivation), which leads to the creation of four types. This typology is
created independently of the existence or not of empirical data and is in itself theoretically interesting.
Table 1. A hypothetical fourfold typology [5] (p. 5).
Motivated Unmotivated
Intelligent Success Underachiever
Unintelligent Overachiever Failure
Classification has one characteristic which differentiates it completely from all other methods
of creating groups; these methods will be briefly mentioned below, since they are not used in the
present paper. Each classification is created in order to serve a specific purpose, in other words is
created according to a plan. For this reason, its final product is a structural model, since all the groups
created have direct or indirect logical relationships to each other, in other words the groups are ordered
according to a total structure external to them. Also, the groups created are homogenous, that is, they
have an internal structure. In contrast, clustering or grouping is a process of creating groups which
takes place with no specific purpose and where the groups produced, if logically related to each other,
are so only by chance, in other words the external structure mentioned above is missing. Of course,
we should mention that classification often relies on clustering techniques as its first steps. Indeed,
"taxonomic schemes have to begin somewhere, and their beginnings are not unlike clustering" [17]
(p. 344). According to David Harvey [12] (p. 328), clustering in its first stage is an intuitive process,
which is then systematised through the analysis of the groups and the discovery of the common
characteristics shared by the objects in each group. Such an intuitive grouping of objects is the only
available option when we attempt to classify certain objects, of which there is no previous analytical
knowledge available. A third process of group creation is indexing, in which there is neither a total
structure of the groups produced, nor homogeneity within each separate group [17] (pp. 334–335).
3. The Process of Classification
The process of classification, though it is fundamental for the social sciences, is rarely the object of
theoretical analysis. It is usually considered an empirical process, difficult to describe or carry out in
a systematic manner, and hence to be judged by its results. The latter is undoubtedly true, however,
it does not justify the systematic omission of the logical process followed by various scientists in
the production of their classifications, a fact which renders exceedingly difficult their evaluation by
later users. Of course, a process of classification need not spell out common criteria which are used
in all cases, however, it is a rule-governed scientific process, and the present section focuses on the
presentation of these rules, in order to apply them to the case of urban uses.
One such necessary rule is that in a general classification, the groups or categories created must
be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. This means that, if we wish to classify N individuals, then:
(a) there must be an appropriate group for each individual (exhaustivity) and (b) no individual can be a
member of more than one group (exclusivity) [5] (p. 3). In other words, there must be one and only
one group for each of the N individuals. Indeed, exhaustivity and mutual exclusivity serve the basic
effective purpose of any classification, which is to achieve: (a) the greatest possible homogeneity of
the objects within the groups (within-group homogeneity) and at the same time (b) the greatest possible
differentiation between groups (between-group heterogeneity) [5] (p. 1), [11] (p. 327), [14] (p. 3). It should
be noted that in the social sciences we rarely find cases of intentionally constructed overlapping
classifications, that is, classifications where some groups have some, though not all, objects in common.
It is clear that both the similarities between the objects of a particular group and the differentiation
between groups are the result of the study of certain characteristics which the objects to be classified
possess or lack. Of course, any actual object has unlimited qualities and characteristics (due to the
different perspectives from which it may be studied), only some of which are used to relate it to other
objects in order to create groups. As a result, a set of objects can be organised into categories in more
than one way. In a general sense, every scientific field tends to create a generalised visual classification
(which of course does not necessarily remain unchanged over time), at least in the context of one
of the theories in the field; but in any case, all the theories within a field are subject to the original
epistemological perspective which defined it as a specific field of knowledge, as a result of which a kind
of general intellectual climate is imposed within the field. That is the theoretical view of classification.
There is also an empirical, or rather empiricist, view, according to which each organisational proposal is
evaluated positively or negatively according to how well it corresponds to the needs of each particular
case [5] (p. 2), [8] (p. 300), [12] (pp. 326–327). In this view, for every classification we must specify
the goals which it is meant to serve and translate these goals successfully into specific classification
criteria [10] (p. 588). This is an idiosyncratic approach which deliberately limits itself to a specific case,
rejecting the possibility of generalisation. In the case of urban uses, classification takes the form of
taxonomy, since it concerns empirical objects. Thus, the general theoretical classification of urban uses
is clearly grounded in empirical facts, but transforms these within the framework of theory.
Even after the choice of specific classification criteria, doubts often appear concerning the group in
which a particular object should be classified. In some cases, the objects have characteristics or qualities
which make them appropriate for more than one group. At this point the researcher needs to choose
whether to create monothetic or polythetic groups. A group is monothetic if a series of qualities (or more
usually only one quality) is both necessary and sufficient for an object to be included in that group [18]
(p. 20). For the formation of a monothetic group it is not necessary to know the objects to be classified,
since the groups are created on the basis of the qualities which the objects which are to participate as
members of each particular group must have [11] (pp. 328, 337). In contrast, polythetic groups are
those in which the objects which constitute them share a series of common qualities, but no one of these
is either necessary or sufficient for an object to become a member of the group in question [18] (p. 21).
In the case of polythetic groups, prior knowledge of the set of objects to be classified is necessary in
order to make possible the study of their characteristics and the choice of the appropriate classification
criteria. Because of the impossibility of defining the qualities which are necessary and sufficient for the
inclusion of an object in a polythetic group, the objects which constitute each group must be listed [12]
(pp. 328, 337). As we understand from the above, a typology is based exclusively on the construction
of monothetic groups. On the other hand, taxonomies and clustering techniques can include both
monothetic and polythetic groups, although in practice they are usually based on the latter.
The process of classification itself may be achieved in two ways: (a) top-down or deductive
classification and (b) bottom-up or inductive classification. These two basic approaches are directly
related to the two types of groups discussed above, monothetic and polythetic groups, respectively.
A deductive classification is the result of consecutive logical subdivisions of the population of objects
to be classified. At each step, one or more criteria are used to differentiate the groups, resulting in the
end in a tree structure of monothetic groups. The deductive method may be used in taxonomies, but it
is only in typologies that it constitutes the exclusive method of creating groups. The criteria usually
chosen are antithetical or complementary in nature (f. ex., public vs. private means of transport, or
land vs. air vs. sea transport). Deductive classification is particularly dependent on the criteria used
and the order in which they are applied. A mistaken criterion or a wrong order of application in the
early stages is enough to distort the whole classification. Generally, deductive classifications should
be tried only when there is a very good knowledge of the objects to be classified, or, better, a theory
which specifies the criteria and the order in which they are to be applied [12] (pp. 336–337).
Inductive classification, on the other hand, uses clustering techniques in order to organise into
groups an existing and finite population of objects. Like deductive classification, inductive classification
can arrive, through consecutive consolidation of groups, at a tree structure of monothetic or polythetic
groups. The groups which result from an inductive classification are usually polythetic [18] (pp. 22–23).
Deductive and inductive classification are methods or approaches to the process of classification, not
different kinds of classifications (in the sense of the final product). In general, once a classification is
complete, it is difficult for a third person to recognize the approach by which it was created, unless it
is explicitly stated. Usually, classifications in the social sciences are the result of a mixture of the two
approaches: one part, obviously the higher one, results from a deductive classification, while the rest
from an inductive approach.
The majority of the classifications (as final products) encountered in the social sciences are
vertically hierarchical classifications presented in the form of tree diagrams, which is why they are
called tree-structured classifications or simply trees. The lowest level of such classifications consists of
the elementary objects to be classified, the set of which is called first order classes; the category which
includes a set of first order classes is called a second order class, and so on [19] (p. 68). The highest-order
class is called the parent or root of the classification and is identical to the theoretical concept which
defines the fitness field under study, while each first-order class is called a leaf [15] (pp. 69–74). A class
together with the lower-order classes into which it is divided constitutes a branch of the tree.
It is important to note that tree-structure classifications can be divided (decomposed) into partial
classifications and thus adapted to the particular needs of a study, whether theoretical or applied.
Such a division or decomposition may be either vertical or horizontal. The vertical decomposition
of a tree is easily achieved through the isolation of all the levels of one or more of its branches.
A horizontal decomposition, on the other hand, may be achieved only if the tree is organised into levels
of consecutively greater specialisation, in other words if it is transformed into a ranked tree. The term
levels of specialisation is used for those horizontal levels of a classification, the classes of which show a
similar degree of specialisation in relation to the parent of the classification. If, in the construction of a
ranked tree, there is no category on a particular level of specialisation of some branch, then on that
level is placed the class of the immediately higher level of the same branch. The choice of one or more
levels of specialisation for a particular study leads to the horizontal decomposition of the tree.
4. The Classification of Urban Uses
The theory of classification presented in the previous section allows us to identify both the basic
and unavoidable limitations which accompany any classification and the specific qualities which are
desirable in the classification of urban uses in particular.
As noted in the previous section, a classification can be constructed either top-down, on the basis
of successive logical subdivisions of the population of objects which are to be classified, or bottom-up,
on the basis of successive groupings. However, the classification (i.e., taxonomy) of urban uses is
not usually either purely deductive or purely inductive, but is the result of a combination of these
two approaches. A first guide to an exhaustive inventory of the unitary types of urban uses, which
however is based on economic and not functional criteria, is the NACE Rev2: Statistical Classification
of Economic Activities in the European Union [20]. A classification of this type relies on a bottom-up
approach to classification. On the other hand, urban planning practice during the past decades has
been associated with the economic theory of economic sectors and branches, resulting in a relative
stabilisation of the features of the wider functional groups; this allows for a top-down approach to
classification through their first subdivisions. As we see, both the higher level and especially the lowest
level of the classification are fairly precisely determined, a fact which leads us to focus our interest
in the present paper on the middle section of the classification, parts of which it may be possible
to determine deductively, by subdivision of functional sets, while others may be found inductively,
through the consolidation of unitary types.
As we saw, a basic limitation which applies to the majority of classifications found in the social
sciences is their hierarchical organisation. In graphic representations of hierarchical tree classifications,
there is a clear connection of the unitary elements of the lowest and most analytical level, i.e., the
leaves of the tree, to the wider categories of its higher levels. In the classification of urban uses, the
leaves are the unitary types of urban uses, the smallest units of urban planning, which cannot be further
subdivided. These unitary types are organised into successively wider sets of uses, until the repeated
consolidation of these sets ends in the construction of the urban categories which are the widest possible
sets of uses. Even more general sets of uses may be constructed if we look beyond the urban planning
perspective on uses, for example on the basis of the perspective of economics, which organises a large
set of uses into the groups of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy.
Clearly, the decision to focus on the middle section of classes which mediate between the
unitary types and the urban categories is to some degree a matter of choice, although limited by
the prescriptions of theory and the needs of practice. But it is nonetheless a theoretical construction,
with claims to general validity. Specifically, we propose the creation of three intermediate classes: those
of subcategories, groups and sub-groups. For example, the subdivision of the category of retail trade leads
to the creation of the subcategories of general retail trade and trade in services. The subcategory of
general retail trade in turn is divided into the groups of daily, occasional and infrequent trade, and
daily retail trade into the sub-group of retail trade in food and beverages, and the sub-group of other
daily retail trade.
Apart from the necessary characteristic of hierarchical organisation, it is desirable that the
classification of urban uses be organised into the above levels of specialisation, to allow its users to
choose between a more analytical and a more general approach to urban space. In such a classification,
all the elements which are found on a particular level are equally general or equally specific in relation
to the leaves and the root of the tree, respectively. In the case of urban uses, this means that each defined
level of specialisation must contain sets of uses (categories, subcategories, groups and sub-groups)
that are all equally general or equally specific.
However, we should note that the subdivision of an urban category does not necessarily lead to
the creation of groups of the immediately lower order (that is, sub-categories). Instead, the subdivision
may lead directly to the creation of groups or sub-groups. This is because the use groups on each
level of specialisation need to be mutually comparable as to their degree of generality or specialisation.
The choice of the appropriate level of specialisation on which each set of uses is located depends on
the empirical perception and estimate of the researcher, unless theoretical criteria have been found that
would allow the theoretical substantiation of these choices.
In addition, two basic requirements of any classification of urban uses, as indeed of any
classification, are the exhaustivity and the mutual exclusivity of the uses to be classified. The first
requirement demands a complete inventory of the unitary types of urban uses, as we mentioned above.
The second requirement specifies that no unitary type may belong to more than one set of uses, that is,
each unitary type of urban use must be a member of one and only one set of uses. This requirement is
simple, technically speaking, however, because of the multidimensionality of urban uses, it leads to a
series of critical classificatory decisions. In particular, it leads to the choice of the nature of the use as
the most basic criterion in the original determination of the unitary types of urban uses, a criterion
which is also fundamental during their organisation into categories, as we will see below. For example,
the original separation of hotels and motels into different unitary types leads to the classification of the
former in the category of recreation and of the latter in the provision of accommodations.
As we saw in the previous section, in the case of both monothetic and polythetic sets, specific
criteria are used for the determination of the sets of uses. These criteria must be explicitly stated and
accompany the classification, since in the case of monothetic sets they are a part of the definition of the
sets, while in the case of polythetic sets, reference to them is necessary in order to determine the nature
of the groups with exactitude rather than empirically and approximately. Thus, a basic requirement of
each proposed classification is that it should present and document the criteria which were used to
define its classes. There is no classification of urban uses which has not been preceded by a—probably
invisible and unconscious—process of selection of certain criteria for the formation of the classes, even
when the process is empirical or gradual. This is why it is necessary to bring to light these criteria and
state them explicitly, so that it becomes possible to evaluate and critique them. Indeed, as will become
evident immediately below, in a classification of urban uses it is possible not only to present these
criteria that lead to the formation of either monothetic or polythetic groups, but to assess them in order
of their importance.
Specifically, the most important classification criterion is the nature of the use. The determination
of the groups in the highest-order level is based entirely on the application of this criterion and leads
to the total organisation of the uses. Ultimately, there are as many urban categories as there are distinct
socio-economic practices that can be identified in a contemporary society. The differences in the nature
of urban uses may be obvious (as for example in the distinction between manufacturing and trade) or
they may be small and difficult to discern (as for example in the case of the trade in services, which as
evident from its name balances between retail trade and services).
As we know, an urban use is rarely simple and uniform. Usually it consists of a set of partial
uses, of which one is its primary function and the others secondary or auxiliary functions. The latter,
though secondary, may compose a significant part of the whole, so that it is the sum of the primary
and secondary functions that determines the character of the use. One such example are hotels, the
primary function of which is the provision of accommodations, but which may also include recreation,
trade and services, in other words a variety of functions which constitute an intrinsic element of their
character. It is clear, then, that the classification of an urban use cannot be based exclusively on its
primary function, since the application of the criterion of the nature of the use expands to include all
of the partial functions which compose the use as a whole.
The second most important classification criterion is the functional relations between uses.
The study of the functional relations requires knowledge of the flow of users between uses, allowing
us to determine the functional circuits and the dependency relations between uses. These relations
are central to urban planning, since they are the force behind the creation of spatial patterns, the
recognition of which is the fundamental goal of any urban planning analysis. However, the study
of functional relations is limited by the lack of data concerning the flow of users. As an alternative,
though a purely empirical and approximate one, we may use the nature of the product or the service
which is produced, provided or offered by an urban use to organise the uses into groups, on the
basis of the hypothesis that because of the similarity of their products or services, these uses maintain
strong functional relations with specific other urban uses. For example, the uses involved in the
manufacture of electrical and electronic appliances could be grouped into a single set of uses, since
they participate in the same productive and inevitably also functional circuit, making use of the same
sources of primary materials and basic services, as well as common middlemen and final recipients of
their products.
The third most important criterion for the classification of urban uses is that of the frequency of
use. The frequency with which users approach an urban use in order to employ its services is directly
related to its location, something which makes this criterion especially valuable. In general, the uses
which are most frequently approached by the inhabitants of a settlement are located next to housing
areas, while uses which are more rarely employed are located mainly in the centre of the settlement or
along major arteries. For example, the specialisation of retail trade into daily, occasional and infrequent
is based on the application of the criterion of frequency of use. Linked to the frequency of use is the
radius of the catch area of an urban use, which can be used instead of the former.
A fourth criterion is the size of the use, which can be measured either based on the number of
employees of the use, or on the basis of the surface area it occupies. This criterion is low on the
scale of importance, since changes in the size of a use do not necessarily lead to functional and
classificatory differentiation.
As we have seen, these four criteria are used to classify uses into urban categories, sub-categories,
groups and sub-groups. The organisation of uses into sets larger than the urban categories, that
is, into super-categories, is useful and in many cases necessary, but lies outside the relevance of
urban planning, since the criteria used are not urban-planning criteria. Some common classifications
at this level are: (a) the economic organisation of the urban categories into the three sectors of the
economy, which is not an exhaustive classification, since it leaves out the uses of housing, infrastructure
nodes, green spaces and sports installations; (b) the sociological organisation of urban categories into
productive activities, public utilities and housing [3] (p. 174); and (c) their socio-planning organisation
into housing, recreation, work and transport [21]. The fact that these classifications are based on criteria
from outside the relevance of urban planning does not mean that they are of no value to planning.
Indeed, it is customary planning practice to use mixed socio-economic criteria to consolidate the urban
categories into groups more easily manageable for statistical analysis and cartographic representation.
At the end of this paper we will attempt such a super-classification.
In order to proceed to a systematic classification of urban uses, we chose a specific strategy.
NACE Rev2 offers the most detailed classification, but has an economic orientation; nevertheless, it is
extremely useful given the close connection between economic activities and urban uses. A purely
functional classification was elaborated by Lagopoulos, first formulated in [6], followed by later
revisions, partly due to the development of urban uses over the last decades, though it is much less
extensive than NACE Rev2. This functional approach has been tested for many decades in both
planning proposals and the classroom. It was further developed in a recent study [22], using the
criteria discussed above and proposing the classification of urban uses into the 21 urban categories
which we present below. This study was not, of course, based only on theory, but was also informed
by concrete national and international data on use classifications.
Greece has a considerable tradition in this field, which we consider worth mentioning: (a) the
classification used by the Athens Center of Ekistics in its series of studies of the Metropolitan Area of
Athens under the title The Human Community [23], carried out under the supervision of Constantinos
Doxiadis; (b) the classification used by Agni Markopoulou and her partners for the study Urban
Standards [24,25]; (c) the classification used by the Laboratory of Urban Research for the series of
volumes Research on Urban Standards [26]; (d) the classification used by the Ministry of Regional
Planning, the Settlement and the Environment for Operation Urban Reconstruction [27]; (e) the
classification of urban and land uses of the Presidential Decree Categories and Content of Land Uses
published in the Greek Government Gazette [28]; and (f) the classification used in the construction of
the National Cadastre [29].
There is also a large international bibliography on use typologies. Of special interest to us were
the use typologies found in planning systems that include planning standards, such as in Italy, in
Germany and in Hong Kong, as the use of standards presupposes a classification of urban uses [30–32].
Even systems that are not obviously use typologies are directly related to them. The American concept
of zoning, the main tool of land use planning, although not a use typology is based on uses [33].
The British classification system deserves comment, given the long tradition of urban planning
in the UK and because it is one of the most developed systems of use categories, which is frequently
updated. Cullingworth and Nadin discuss the way use categories are applied in development
control [34] (pp. 152–154). It is particularly relevant for commercial property transactions, that
is, it mainly depends on a non-analytical perspective. The basis of this classification system is the
Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order, of which we shall use as an example the older Order
of 1987 [35,36]. This legislation consists at first view of three hierarchical levels: groupings of classes,
classes and their uses. Group A includes five classes, group B eight classes, group C four (or five)
classes, group D two classes, and there is also a "sui generis" class, including what the regulators felt
was left out.
However, this does not appear to be the case on closer inspection:
(a) The groupings are heterogeneous and do not cover any recognisable use category. For example,
Class A1 of grouping A includes "Shops", while Class A2 "Financial and professional services";
Class B1 includes some kinds of offices, while Classes B2 to B8 refer to different kinds of industry;
Class C revolves around accommodations (hotels and boarding houses, as well as residence) but
with Class C2 it also includes "residential" uses such as schools, hospitals and prisons; Class D
includes "non-residential" uses, from health services to museums; in the sui generis class theatres
are included, while cinemas are classified in Class D2.
(b) The contents of the classes do not belong to the same level. For example, Class A1 includes
"Shops" in general, but also the specific unitary types of post offices and florists; Class B1 includes
offices, while Class C2 includes schools, hospitals and prisons, which are unitary types, Class D1
museums and public libraries, also unitary types, and Class D2 cinemas and dance halls, still
unitary types.
On the whole, this Order contains about 20 classes, of which about one-third (6) concern industry.
A great number of uses are missing: a systematic classification should cover every possible type and
not only "examples" of types, as happens with Class B5. In addition to the lack of a rigorous rationale,
the classification is confusing because it is based on spontaneous, unspecified criteria, mixing two
different perspectives: a typological perspective concerning logical relations between uses and a spatial
one based on the location of uses. There is no room here to discuss this issue adequately, but it is not
possible to establish a typology of uses starting from their locational manifestations, which only give a
statistical indication but cannot lead to a structured result. Quite the opposite, the location of uses in a
spatial zone is a combination of logical categories of uses responding to the nature of the zone.
It should by now be evident why we feel planning needs a systematic classification of urban
uses. In addition to its evident value in analysis and its usefulness for applied planning proposals, its
most important contribution might be to give us a common, agreed-on terminology and thus facilitate
communication and understanding, not to mention clearly formulated legislation and regulation.
Below, we present the 21 urban categories and the decisions which led to their division into more
analytical functional sets (see Table A1, available also in .xls format in Supplementary Materials):
I. Agriculture.
II. Animal production.
III. Forestry and logging.
IV. Fishing and aquaculture.
Urban Sci. 2017, 1, 26 10 of 26
V. Mining and quarrying.
The above five urban categories are not further analysed into specialised functional sets, since
they are of very limited interest to urban planning.
VI. Manufacturing. Manufacturing is divided into small industry and industry on the basis of the
number of employees of the firm, since the number of occupants and the surface area are the two basic
units of measurement of urban uses. These units are the ones strictly corresponding to a functional
approach (the final aim of "spatial" planning), without having recourse to other fields. However, when
judged necessary, non-urbanological criteria may be used, such as the invested capital or turnover of
an enterprise. Manufacturing units that employ fewer workers than a certain threshold, which should
be determined in each case on the basis of the statistical distribution of the sizes of firms, are classified
as small industry, while manufacturing units with more workers are classified as industry. A threshold
of 50 employees is a satisfactory demarcation line on the scale from small industry manufacture to
industrial manufacture, at least given the magnitudes in the Greek manufacturing sector (the statistical
service of Greece divides our sub-category of small industry into a total of four groups, covering from
1 to 49 employees). Each of these two sub-categories can be further subdivided into sixteen sets of uses,
located on the level of sub-groups. This division, which follows the criterion of the type of product
being manufactured, leads to the definition of the sub-groups which appear in Table A1.
VII. Utilities. This category includes the nodes of the infrastructural networks (mains of natural
gas and liquid fuels, electricity lines, water and sewerage), as well as bus and lorry terminals, railway
stations, airports, seaports and telecommunications centres.
VIII. Transportation. The category of transportation is analysed on the basis of the nature of the
use into the sub-category of transport services on the one hand, and parking areas for vehicles and
boats on the other. The first sub-category is further divided, on the basis on the nature of the service
offered, into the sub-group of passenger transport and freight.
IX. Wholesale trade and warehousing. Wholesale trade and warehousing are different types of use
and from that point of view should constitute different urban categories. However, the distinction is
often not very clear-cut and for that reason we have chosen to combine them in a single urban category.
Warehousing is mainly a secondary activity functioning in support of some other, primary activity,
as for example, on an architectural scale, safe-deposit boxes providing storage space is a secondary
function of a bank and storage space in housing units is a secondary function of housing. In such
cases, the proportion of the floor area occupied by the function of storage is a small part of the whole
and does not change the character of the use. In the majority of cases, warehousing is either a part
of the activity of wholesale trade and thus classified as such, or part of a transport node (seaport,
airport or terminal), in which case it is a part of a complex use and follows the classification of the
latter. As a result, there are very few spaces used for warehousing in urban areas which are not part of
wholesale trade or of some complex activity. When warehousing occurs as a spatially independent
use, such spaces constitute the sub-category of warehousing, as distinct from the sub-category of
wholesale trade, which among other things includes all storage spaces used specifically for the activity
of wholesale trade.
X. Retail trade. Retail trade, as we know, is the activity of selling products directly to the consumer.
On the basis of the nature of the use taking place, it can be analysed into two sub-categories: general
retail trade and trade in services; the latter retains the characteristic of being addressed directly to the
consumer, but as a consumer of services [37] (p. 11). General retail trade is divided, on the basis of
the frequency of access of its customers, into four groups: daily retail trade, occasional retail trade,
infrequent retail trade and retail trade without the physical presence of the customer. The first three
groups can be further divided into subgroups on the basis of the type of product being sold, as seen in
Table A1. The sub-category of trade in services, in its turn, can be further analysed on the basis of the
service provided into the group of general trade in services and the group of repairs. Differentiation
on the basis of the type of service provided leads to the further division of the first group into the
sub-group of general trade in services and that of the activity of leasing, while the second group divides
into repair of personal and household goods, repair of vehicles and repair of machines and equipment.
XI. Recreation. The urban category of recreation is divided into two sub-categories: hotels and
campings on the one hand, and specialised recreational services on the other. This distinction is
based on the different nature of the uses in the sub-categories: hotels and campings are complex uses
which may include as many as all of the separate uses in the sub-category of specialised recreational
uses. In the case of the specialised recreational uses, since empirically no groups appear on the next
hierarchical level, we proceed directly to three sub-groups according to the type of recreational service
provided: recreational activities centred on food and beverages, recreational activities associated with
coffee shops and bars, and other recreational activities.
XII. Offices. The urban category of office services can be analysed into two groups on the basis
of the nature of the use. The first group, general offices, includes services offered by the private or
public sector in which service providers and consumers exchange oral information and/or written
documents [38] (p. 1). On the basis of the services provided, this group is further divided into five
sub-groups (see Table A1). The second group, that of ancillary offices, includes all offices functioning
as support for a primary use which takes place outside the office space and because of its nature cannot
be located spatially in a particular place. This is the case, for example, with offices maintained by
technicians (such as plumbers or electricians).
XIII. Education. The urban category of education can be analysed on the basis of the service
provided into four sub-groups: primary education, secondary education, tertiary education and other
educational activities. The first three sub-groups can also be defined in terms of the radius of the area
they serve, since they correspond to the neighbourhood, wider local, and urban/regional level.
XIV. Research activities. This category includes research centres, laboratories and institutes of basic,
applied and experimental research which are found as spatially independent uses, in other words
not as part of another primary use such as universities. They are not further divided into specialised
functional sets.
XV. Culture. The urban category of culture can be divided, on the basis of the nature of the use,
into the sub-group of general cultural uses and the sub-group of religious uses.
XVI. Health. This category includes all activities related to human health. There is no further
analysis into specialised functional sets.
XVII. Social services. The division of the urban category of social services follows the classification
of NACE, which differentiates these uses into two sets, depending on the type of service provided, in
particular whether it includes accommodations for the client. The provision of accommodation alters
the nature of the social services and leads to their classification into the subgroups of social services
which provide accommodation and those which do not.
XVIII. Order, safety and defense activities. This category includes all uses connected with public
order, security and defence, such as police and firefighting forces, courts, prisons and military bases.
There is no further analysis into specialised functional sets.
XIX. Sports. This category, which is not further analysed into specialised functional sets, includes
all installations used for athletic activities. We note that the unitary types of this category which appear
in urban space as installations differ significantly in terms of their size on the one hand, and on the
other hand in terms of the complexity of both their athletic and their general functional composition,
two dimensions which do not necessarily go hand in hand. We also find combinations of athletic
uses in installations with progressively greater levels of complexity and size, as are those proposed by
Operation Urban Reconstruction for the planning of urban athletic spaces [27].
XX. Housing. The urban category of housing includes those uses in which the primary activity is
the provision of long-term accommodation. On the basis of the nature of the use, it is analysed into
two sub-categories, of which the first is housing (including private and public or workers' housing as
well as corporate housing), while the second sub-category includes every other activity focused on the
provision of accommodations, such as school dormitories, student residences, serviced apartments
and condominium hotels.
XXI. Open and green spaces. This category includes all open spaces which are meant for strolling
or public gatherings, or are designed for viewing and aesthetic pleasure, independently of their
morphological characteristics or the urban furniture they may contain. It is not further analysed into
specialised functional sets.
In the above classification of uses it is obvious that differences in the nature of the uses is the
only criterion employed for the determination of the urban categories, and the primary criterion used
to determine the urban sub-categories, applied in all the cases with the exception of the distinction
between small industry and industry, which was based on the size of the firm. For the determination
of the urban groups, three criteria were used equally: the nature of the use, the frequency of access
and the type of product or service offered; the latter criterion was the only one employed in the
determination of the sub-groups. This confirms the order of importance of the four criteria set out
above for the definition of urban uses: the nature of the use is the most crucial criterion, with the
second being the type of product or service offered.
As we mentioned in the introduction to this paper, classification has one characteristic which
differentiates it from all other processes of creating groups, namely the fact that it is constructed to
serve a particular purpose. This purpose determines the more analytical classification criteria used
for the formation of groups, and each classification is judged, in the final analysis, on how well it
serves this specified purpose. In the classification above, we have avoided any reference to specific
operational goals, since we have tried to avoid any idiosyncratic reasoning and set out a classification
of urban uses both based on a sound theoretical foundation and offering a general guide for any urban
planning application. Indeed, our proposal is very closely connected to applied planning (as indicated
by the planning studies cited above) and to related principles of classification (such as NACE).
There are cases where it is useful or necessary to modify the classification chosen.
Such modifications may be of a purely planning nature, or due to external considerations. Taking the
planning modifications first, it may be necessary to condense the urban categories into a number of
classes that is more manageable for cartographical purposes (and statistically simplified). The usual
needs and constraints of the cartographical representation of urban space limit the presentation to no
more than 10 separate thematic objects, which leads to a condensation of the 21 urban categories into
less than half that number. In this case one could consider grouping the categories of the classification
into even larger sets (super-categories). Indeed, the first five categories (from agriculture to mining and
quarrying) can for the purposes of planning be combined into the super-category of non-urban uses,
or from the point of view of economics into that of the primary sector (see Table A2, available also
in .xls format in Supplementary Materials). The urban categories of transportation and utilities can
be combined with wholesale trade, since most of the latter consists of warehouses, which are directly
related to the uses of transportation. Retail trade can be grouped with the urban category of recreation,
since the latter is closely related to the trade in services, which is a sub-category of retail trade. Finally,
the categories of education, research and culture combine into the super-category of culture, and in the
same way the categories of health and social services make up the super-category of social services.
These modifications reduce by 10 the number of groups at the highest level of the classification.
In the case of modification due to external constraints, some non-urbanological criteria are
introduced and combined with the urban matrix to produce an empirically useful mixed classification.
A criterion which usually is of interest to a planning study is legal in nature and concerns the ownership
status of a particular use, which leads to a division of uses into private and public. The distinction
between private and public uses is very useful during the planning phase and for that reason it needs to
be kept in mind already during the phases of surveying and analysis of urban space. The introduction
of this criterion modifies the categories of office services, dividing it into the two sub-categories of
public administration and private offices offering services; a similar distinction needs to be applied
in the categories of education and health, establishing separate sub-categories of public and private
uses. Finally, the application of the same criterion in the case of sports leads to the renaming of the
category as public sports installations and the removal of all private schools of martial arts, fitness
facilities and schools of alternative gymnastics, which are re-classified in the sub-group of general
trade in services. In addition to the legal criterion of ownership status, the ecological criterion of
the nuisance level of a manufacturing unit is also frequently employed in planning. The use of this
criterion is particularly important in determining the location of manufacturing in relation to housing.
The customary classification of manufacturing units when this criterion is applied is to divide them
into polluting and non-polluting units, as seen in Table A2; a widening of the scale with the addition of
intermediate levels of pollution is also common. The combination of this classificatory approach with
additional criteria (size of industrial installation, type of manufactured product, type of raw materials,
amount of energy consumed) lead to the empirical division of manufacturing into light and heavy
industry. This is an alternative classification to the one presented in Table A2.
In Section 4, we made it clear that we understand urban categories as a function of socio-economic
practices. In fact, these categories are the products of society and history. They are social and not
individual products, and certainly not the invention of the planner's imagination. Due to their
character, they are not an amorphous constellation of uses, but a structured whole, produced by a
structured society. For the same reason, they do not remain stable in time, but change together with
social changes, as also the consecutive adaptations of the British use classes order show. However, in
each historical phase they do show a relative stability. Thus, proposing a theoretical classification in a
specific time, and for a specific social context, such as Europe, or the West in general, or of even greater
scope due to globalisation, is not an abstract exercise, but a valuable operational tool. When changes
occur, they are never sea-changes, and each time minor, rarely more important adjustments are needed
to the previous classification. Any classification is open to the future.
Every urban planning study, whether it concerns an analysis or a planning proposal, includes
as a definitive stage the classification of urban uses. The analytical phase includes the survey and
mapping of uses, for which the classification of uses into larger or smaller sets is a fundamental step in
filtering the complexity of urban space and revealing its basic functional structure. The planning phase
concludes with the official land use plan, that is, with the specification and/or proposal of particular
sets of uses which may be located on particular sections of ground. Thus, this operation too is based on
the same uses that were taken into account during analysis. We should also not forget urban legislation,
which mediates between analysis and planning. No plan can escape legal prescriptions and, from this
point of view, even a very well thought-out and "original" plan is not truly original. If the prescriptions
are problematic, so will the plan be. However, although the classification of urban uses constitutes the
foundation of any urban planning study, in all the three instances of analysis, legislation and proposals,
this field of research has remained insufficiently theorised, something we believe is directly related to
the lack of a theory of urban uses.
There is in the tradition of Anglo-Saxon human geography an idiosyncratic view, recently revived
in these postmodern times on a more general level including urban planning, according to which
each case is unique and no general rules can be established. There is no space here to address this
argument theoretically; we shall simply point out that the existence of urban legislation covering
wide geographical areas gives an answer in practice. Also, opting for "small narratives" is not the
same thing as a rejection of all (socio-)logical operations, and Sections 3 and 4 above address this
inescapable issue.
A tight classification such as the one proposed here may give the impression of inflexibility. This is
not our aim. We understand it as a valuable background, actually much richer than any specific case
of planning, which may guide planners by offering them the full range of uses on different levels
of generality and thus the possibility of not starting every time from zero. Such a system does not
preclude adjustments to local conditions and traditions, through division or unification of categories,
or further subdivisions even of unitary types.
We hope that the above discussion supports our view that urban and regional planning should be
founded on a theoretical urbanology and regionology, and should start from the major issue of the
classification of uses. We also hope we have shown that the latter is not just an intellectual pastime, but
addresses the very core of land use planning practice. We do not pretend that our answer to this issue
is a final solution. But at least it represents a first step and offers a basis for agreement or disagreement,
that is, discussion.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2413-8851/1/3/26/s1.
Author Contributions: Ioannis A. Pissourios and Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos contributed equally to the
conception, the design, and the writing of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Table A1. Classification of the unitary types of urban uses into categories, sub-categories, groups and
sub-groups (columns 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively), on the basis of purely urbanological criteria. Columns
5 and 6 give our numbering and description of each type of use, and Column 7 the code numbers of
the unitary types of urban planning according to NACE Rev.2.
CLASSES OF URBAN USES
Unitary Types of Land Use NACE Rev.2 Codes
Sub-groups
I. AGRICULTURE
Cultivation of cereals, rice, leguminous crops, oil seeds and other
1 1.11, 1.12, 1.14–1.19
non-perennial crops in open fields
2 Cultivation of vegetables, roots, tubers in open fields 1.13
3 Cultivation of non-perennial crops in greenhouses 1.13
4 Cultivation of perennial crops in open fields 1.2
5 Plant nurseries 1.3
II. ANIMAL PRODUCTION
6 Animal husbandry 1.41–1.46, 1.49
7 Poultry farming 1.47, 1.49
8 Apiculture and production of honey and beeswax 1.49
9 Sericulture and raising of other insects 1.49
10 Slaughterhouses 10.1
III. FORESTRY AND LOGGING
11 Forestry and logging in planted forest 2.1, 2.2
IV. FISHING AND AQUACULTURE
12 Fishing wharf no code
13 Aquaculture facilities 3.2
V. MINING AND QUARRYING
14 Mining of solid, liquid or gas minerals 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2
15 Quarrying 8.1, 8.91, 8.92, 8.93, 8.99
16 Salt production by evaporation of sea water or other saline waters 8.93
VI. MANUFACTURING
SMALL INDUSTRY (less than 50 employees)
Production and transmission of energy
17 Production and transmission of electricity 35.11, 35.12
18 Production of natural gas 35.21
19 Production and distribution of steam and hot water 35.3
Production of raw materials
20 Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products 19
21 Manufacture of wood and wooden raw materials 16.1, 16.21, 16.24
Table A1. Cont.
22 Manufacture of paper 17.11, 17.12
23 Manufacture of basic metals 24
24 Manufacture of basic chemicals and plastics in primary form 20.1
Production of structural raw materials and construction products
25 Manufacture of non-metallic structural raw materials 23.2, 23.5, 23.6, 23.7, 23.99
26 Manufacture of wooden structural raw materials 16.22, 16.23
23.11, 23.12, 23.14, 23.3,
27 Manufacture of non-metallic building and construction products
28 Manufacture of structural metal products 25.1
29 Manufacture of furniture 31.01, 31.02, 31.09
Manufacture of wooden and paper products
30 Manufacture of wooden products 16.29
31 Manufacture of paper products 17.2
Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
32 Manufacture of rubber and plastic products 22
Manufacture of glass and ceramic products
33 Manufacture of glass and ceramic products
Manufacture of metal products
Manufacture of fabricated metal products other than machinery
34 25.2, 25.3, 25.5–25.9
and equipment
35 Manufacture of machinery and equipment 28
36 Manufacture of weapons and ammunition 25.4
Manufacture of textile and leather products
13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.91, 13.92,
37 Manufacture of textiles
38 Manufacture of carpets and rugs 13.93
39 Tanning and dressing of leather; dressing and dyeing of fur 15.11
40 Manufacture of leather and fur apparel 14.11, 14.2, 15.12, 15.20
41 Manufacture of apparel other than fur and leather apparel 14.12–14.19, 14.3
Manufacture of food products, beverages and tobacco products
42 Production of olive oil 10.41
43 Flour mill 10.61
44 Production and distilling of grape must 11.02
45 Manufacture of food products, beverages and tobacco products 10, 11, 12
Manufacture of chemical and pharmaceutical products
46 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products 20.2, 20.3, 20.5, 20.6
Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical and cosmetic
47 20.4, 21
Manufacture of vehicles and transport equipment
48 Manufacture of bicycles and invalid carriages 30.92, 30.99
Manufacture of motorcycles, motor vehicles, trailers and
49 29, 30.91
50 Manufacture of railway locomotives and rolling stock 30.2
51 Building of ships and boats 30.1
52 Manufacture of aircraft, spacecraft and related machinery 30.3
Repair of ships, boats, aircraft, spacecraft, locomotives and other
53 33.15–33.17
54 Manufacture of military fighting vehicles 30.4
Manufacture of electrical and electronic products
55 Manufacture of electrical products 27
56 Manufacture of computer and electronic products 26.1–26.4, 26.51, 26.6, 26.7
Manufacture of optical and magnetic products
57 Manufacture of optical instruments and photographic equipment 26.7
58 Manufacture of magnetic and optical media 26.8
Manufacture related to printing, reproduction and publishing
59 Printing and service activities related to printing 18.1
60 Reproduction of recorded media 18.2
Manufacture of personal and household goods
61 Manufacture of mattresses 31.03
62 Manufacture of jewellery, bijouterie and related articles 32.1
63 Manufacture of watches and clocks 26.52
64 Manufacture of musical instruments 32.2
65 Manufacture of games and toys 32.4
66 Manufacture of medical and dental instruments and supplies 32.5
67 Manufacture of sports goods 32.3
Materials recovery and other manufacturing
68 Materials recovery 38.3
69 Manufacturing n.e.c. 32.9, 82.92
INDUSTRY (50 or more employees)
(Sub-groups as in the sub-category of Small Industry)
VII. UTILITIES
Infrastructure related to distribution of fuels and other products
70 35.22, 49.52
through mains
71 Infrastructure related to distribution of electricity 35.13
72 Infrastructure related to water collection, treatment and supply 36
73 Infrastructure related to waste treatment and disposal 38.2
Infrastructure related to television, radio and data broadcasting
and other telecommunications activities
75 Railroad infrastructure, other than terminal facilities 52.21
76 Water transport infrastructure, other than terminal facilities 52.22
77 Air transport infrastructure, other than terminal facilities 52.23
78 Public toilets no code
VIII. TRANSPORTATION
79 Railway passenger terminal facilities 52.21
80 Port passenger terminal facilities 52.22
81 Air transport passenger terminal facilities 52.23
82 Bus passenger terminal facilities 52.21
83 Passenger terminal facilities of other land transport 49.39
84 Taxi operation facilities 49.32
85 Road freight terminal facilities 52.21
86 Rail freight terminal facilities 52.21
87 Port freight terminal facilities 52.22
88 Air freight terminal facilities 52.23
89 Custom houses no code
90 Postal and courier activities 53
91 Car parking facilities 52.21
92 Marinas 93.29
IX. WHOLESALE TRADE AND WAREHOUSING
93 Wholesale of agricultural raw materials and live animals 46.2
94 Wholesale of food, beverages and tobacco 46.3
95 Wholesale of personal and household goods 46.41, 46.42, 46.44–46.49
96 Wholesale of electrical, electronic and communication products 46.43, 46.5
97 Wholesale of machinery 46.6
98 Other wholesale 45.31, 46.7, 46.9
99 Warehousing and storage 52.1
X. RETAIL TRADE
GENERAL RETAIL TRADE
Daily retail trade
Retail trade in food and beverages
Grocery shop: Retail sale in small non-specialised stores with food,
beverages or tobacco predominating
Supermarket: Retail sale in large non-specialised stores with food,
Greengrocery: Retail sale of fruit and vegetables in
specialised stores
Butcher's shop: Retail sale of meat and meat products in
special stores
Fish shop: Retail sale of fish, crustaceans and molluscs in
Bakery: Retail sale mainly of bread, but also of cakes, flour
confectionery and sugar confectionery in specialised stores
Patisserie: Retail sale of cakes, flour confectionery and sugar
confectionery in specialised stores
107 Liquor store: Retail sale of alcoholic beverages in specialised stores 47.25
Coffee roastery: Retail sale of coffee and dried fruits in
108 no code
109 Tobacco shop: Retail sale of tobacco products in specialised stores 47.26
Retail sale of dairy products and other food products in
111 Retail sale of organic food products in specialised stores no code
Other daily retail trade
112 Retail sale of cosmetic and toilet articles in specialised stores 47.75
113 Pharmacy 47.73
114 Stationery shop: Retail sale of stationery in specialised stores 47.62
115 Petrol station: Retail sale of automotive fuel in specialised stores 47.3
Occasional retail trade
Retail trade in clothing and footwear
116 Retail sale of clothing in specialised stores 47.71
117 Retail sale of footwear in specialised stores 47.72
Retail sale of leather clothing, footwear and other leather goods in
119 Retail sale of sporting equipment in specialised stores 47.64
Occasional retail trade in personal goods
120 Retail sale of optical goods and activities of opticians 47.78
121 Bookstore: Retail sale of books in specialised stores 47.61
122 Retail sale of music and video recordings in specialised stores 47.63
Retail sale of computers, peripheral units and software in
Retail sale of telecommunications equipment and services in
124 47.42, 61.90
Other occasional retail trade
Retail sale in department stores of apparel, furniture, appliances,
hardware, cosmetics, etc.
126 Toy store: Retail sale of games and toys in specialised stores 47.65
Retail sale of furniture, lighting equipment and other household
articles in specialised stores
Florist: Retail sale of flowers, plants, seeds and fertilisers in
Locksmith: Retail sale of padlocks, locks, keys, hinges and the like;
provision of key duplication services
Retail sale of electrical wiring and fittings and other
131 Retail sale of plumbing and heating equipment no code
132 Retail sale of hardware and paints in specialised stores 47.52
133 Retail sale of flat glass 47.52
134 Retail sale of building materials 47.52
Second-hand store: Retail sale of second-hand clothing, books and
other second-hand goods
136 Farmer's market: Retail sale via stalls and markets 47.8
Infrequent retail trade
Infrequent retail trade in personal goods
Jewellery store: Retail sale of watches and jewellery in
138 Retail sale of medical and orthopedic goods in specialised stores 47.74
139 Retail sale of travel and camping equipment and accessories 47.72, 47.64
140 Retail sale of scale models, arts and crafts equipment and materials no code
141 Sex shop: Retail sale of sex products no code
Photographer's shop: Retail sale of photographic, optical and
precision equipment
143 Retail sale and repair of bicycles 47.74, 95.29
Retail trade in household goods
144 Retail sale of sanitary fixtures, tiles and other ceramic products 47.52
Retail sale of carpets, rugs, wall and floor coverings in
146 Retail sale of electrical household appliances in specialised stores 47.43, 47.54
Retail trade in motor vehicles and motorcycles
147 Sale of motor vehicles 45.1
148 Retail sale of motor vehicle parts and accessories 45.32
149 Sale of motorcycles and related parts and accessories 45.4
150 Retail sale of second-hand motor vehicles and motorcycles 47.79
Other infrequent retail trade
151 Retail sale and repair of musical instruments 47.59, 33.19, 95.29
152 Retail sale of marine and fishing gear 47.72, 47.64
153 Retail sale of weapons and ammunition 47.78
154 Retail sale of textiles in specialised stores 47.51
Pet shop: Retail sale of pet animals and pet food in
Retail sale of souvenirs, handicrafts and religious articles 47.78
Art gallery: Retail sale of art and activities of commercial
158 Antique shop: Retail sale of antiques 47.79
159 Auction house: Retail trade performed in auction houses 47.79
160 Other retail sale of new goods in specialised stores 47.78
Retail trade without the physical presence of the customer
161 Retail sale through mail order houses or the Internet 47.91
RETAIL TRADE IN SERVICES
General trade in services
Services related to the provision of electricity and natural gas
163 Hairdressers 96.02
164 Beauty salons and massage parlours 96.04
165 Tattooing and piercing studios 96.09
166 Brothels and escort services no code
167 Services of astrologers and spiritualists 96.09
168 Veterinary and pet care services 96.09
169 Photographic services 74.2
Photocopying, document preparation and other specialised office
171 Washing and dry-cleaning services 96.01
172 Car washing and polishing services 45.20
173 Performance testing of motors and automobiles 71.20
174 Laboratories for technical testing and analysis 71.20
Renting and leasing of motor vehicles, air and water
175 50.10, 50.30, 77.1, 77.34, 77.35
176 Renting and leasing of personal and household goods 77.20
Renting and leasing of machinery, equipment and other
177 77.31–77.33, 77.35, 77.39
tangible goods
Repair of personal and household goods
178 Shoemaker's workshop: Repair of footwear and leather goods 95.23
179 Tailor/seamstress: Repair and alteration of clothing 95.29
180 Repair of computers and peripheral equipment 95.11
181 Repair of communications equipment 95.12
182 Repair of consumer electronics and household appliances 95.21, 95.22
183 Repair of watches, clocks and jewellery 95.25
Repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles
184 Mechanical maintenance and repair of motor vehicles 45.2
185 Electrical maintenance and repair of motor vehicles 45.2
186 Bodywork maintenance and repair of motor vehicles 45.2
187 Repair and replacement of seats of motor vehicles 45.2
188 Repair and replacement of screens and windows of motor vehicles 45.2
Sales, repair, fitting and replacement of exhaust pipes of
Sales, repair, fitting and replacement of tyres and tubes of
191 Maintenance and repair of motorcycles 45.4
Repair of machinery and equipment
192 Repair of machinery and metal products 33.11, 33.12
193 Repair of electrical equipment 33.14
194 Repair of electronic and optical equipment 33.13
195 Repair of other equipment 33.19, 95.24
XI. RECREATION
HOTELS, CAMPINGS AND SIMILAR ACCOMMODATIONS
196 Hotels providing accommodations, including motels and hostels 55.1, 55.2
197 Hotels providing accommodations and recreation 55.1, 55.2
198 Camping grounds, recreational vehicle parks and trailer parks 55.3
199 Mountain refuges 55.2
200 Beaches 93.29
SPECIALISED RECREATIONAL SERVICES
Recreational food and beverages services
Cocktail lounges, beer parlours, cafeterias, coffee shops and juice
201 bars: Preparation and serving of beverages for immediate 56.3
consumption on the premises
Restaurants, taverns, pizza parlours, snack bars: Provision of food
services to seated customers
Patisseries, pastry shops and donut shops: Provision of
confectioneries to seated customers
Canteens, fast-food and take-out restaurants: Provision of food
and beverages to non-seated customers
Recreational services that also provide food and beverages
Dance halls, bars, clubs, clubs with live music and discotheques:
205 Night entertainment with the provision of food and beverages to 56.3
seated customers
206 Fun parks for children no code
207 Coin-operated games 93.29
208 Bowling lanes 93.11
Other specialised recreational services
209 Cinemas: Motion picture projection activities 59.14
210 Gambling and betting shops 92
211 Casinos 92
212 Turkish baths, saunas and steam baths 96.04
213 Amusement parks 93.29
XII. OFFICES
General offices
Offices of public administration and offices of unions, organisations, clubs and associations
214 Public administration 84.1
215 Social security organisations 84.3
216 Local administration offices no code
217 Embassies and consulates 84.21, 99.00
218 Head offices of companies 70.1
219 Offices of international organisations 99
Chambers of Commerce, employers' organisations, professional
220 94.11–94.13
associations and trade unions
221 Offices of political organisations 94.92
222 Offices of sport clubs 93.12
Offices of non-government organisations, associations
and movements
Offices of financial services and insurance
224 Banks and credit unions 64.1
225 Currency exchanges
226 Offices of financial leasing 64.91
227 Pawnbrokers 64.92
228 Stock exchanges 66.11
229 Stockbrokerages 66.12
230 Activities of holding companies 64.2
231 Trust funds and similar financial entities 64.3, 66.19, 66.3
232 Other financial services 64.99
233 Private insurance, reinsurance and pension fund offices 65, 66.2
Offices of professional services
234 Management consultancy offices 70.2
235 Accounting, bookkeeping and auditing offices 69.2
236 Legal offices 69.1
237 Architectural and engineering offices 71.1
Graphic, industrial and fashion design and interior
decoration studios
239 Advertising offices 73.1
Real estate and real estate appraisal offices and other offices of
240 68, 46.1
Offices related to publishing, telecommunications and media industries
241 Publishing of books, periodicals and other publishing activities 58
Wire-based, wireless, satellite and internet-based
242 61, 63.99
telecommunications services
243 Radio stations 60.1
244 Television programming and broadcasting companies 60.2
245 Offices of web portals 63.12
246 News agencies 63.91
Motion picture, video and television programme production and
post-production services
Motion picture, video and television programme
249 Sound recording and music publishing services 59.2
Psychological, marriage and family counselling and credit and
debt counselling services
Computer programming, consultancy, data processing, hosting
251 62.01, 62.02, 62.09, 63.11
and related activities
252 Translation and interpretation activities 74.3
253 Employment and human resources services 78
254 Dating services 96.09
255 Market research and public opinion polling 73.2
256 Private investigators 80.3
257 Office and secretarial support services 82.19
258 Call centres 82.2
Billing and record-keeping services for complexes and
multistorey buildings
260 Organisation of conventions and trade shows services 82.3
261 Travel agencies, tour operators and other related offices 79
262 Funeral and related services 96.03
263 Collection agencies and credit bureaus 82.91
264 Other personal services 74.9, 90.02–90.04, 93.19
Ancillary offices
265 Catering and other food service activities 56.2
266 Security services 80.1, 80.2
Maintenance, cleaning and disinfecting services for buildings
and gardens
Operation of sewage systems, waste collection, remediation
268 37, 38.1, 39
activities and other waste management services
269 Freight transport services 49.41, 50.20, 50.40, 59.29
270 Removal services 49.42
271 Construction activities 41, 42, 43
272 Kindergardens 85.1
273 Elementary schools 85.2
274 Lower secondary schools and special lower secondary schools 85.31
Upper secondary schools and technical, vocational and other
special upper secondary schools
Post-secondary and tertiary education
Post-secondary non-tertiary technical and vocational institutes
and colleges
277 Technological educational institutes 85.42
278 Universities 85.42
Other educational activities
Learning centres, foreign language centres, computer skills and
279 85.59, 85.6
other private educational institutions
280 Music, dance, drama, photography and other fine arts schools 85.52
281 Driving, flying, sailing and shipping schools 85.32, 85.53
XIV. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
282 Research centres, research laboratories and research institutes 72
XV. CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
General cultural activities
283 Concert halls, theatres and other arts facilities 90.01
284 Libraries and archives 91.01
285 Museums and galleries 91.02
286 Conference centres no code
287 Exhibition halls, showrooms and trade shows no code
Archeological sites, historical sites and buildings and similar
Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues and other places
of worship
290 Burial activities 94.91
291 Cemeteries and memorial parks no code
XVI. HEALTH
292 General and specialised hospitals and clinics 86.1
293 Blood banks, sperm banks and transplant organ banks 86.9
294 Medical, paramedical and dental practices 86.2, 86.9
295 Blood analysis, X-rays and other diagnostic laboratories 86.9
XVII. SOCIAL SERVICES
Social services with accommodations
296 Orphanages and children's boarding homes and hostels 87.9
297 Homes for the elderly 87.1
Facilities for the mentally retarded and psychiatric
convalescent homes
299 Facilities for alcoholism or drug addiction treatment 87.2
Temporary homeless shelters and other homes for persons with
social or personal problems
301 Refugee camps no code
Social services without accommodations
302 Nurseries and child day-care homes 88.91
303 Other social services without accommodations 88.99
XVIII. ORDER, SAFETY AND DEFENCE ACTIVITIES
304 Military bases and other defense installations 84.22
Police stations, port and marine police, border and coastguard
306 Fire brigade 84.25
307 Justice and judicial installations 84.23
308 Prisons no code
XIX. SPORTS
309 Football stadiums, with or without track 93.11
310 Track and field stadiums 93.11
311 Basketball and volleyball stadiums 93.11
312 Artistic gymnastics, wrestling, boxing and weightlifting halls 93.11
313 Tennis courts 93.11
314 Swimming pools and stadiums 93.11
315 Shooting ranges 93.11
316 Ice rinks 93.11
317 Velodromes 93.11
318 Racetracks for horse races 93.11
319 Racetracks for cars and motorcycles 93.11
320 Golf courses 93.11
321 Winter sports arenas and stadiums 93.11
Fitness facilities and schools of martial arts and
alternative gymnastics
XX. HOUSING AND OTHER ACCOMMODATION
Housing, including public/workers' housing and corporate
324 School dormitories and student residences 55.9
325 Serviced apartments and condominium hotels 55.1, 55.2
XXI. OPEN AND GREEN SPACES
326 Urban greenery no code
327 Playgrounds no code
328 Urban squares no code
329 Neighbourhood parks and open green spaces no code
330 Botanical and zoological gardens and theme parks 91.04, 93.21
Table A2. Classification of the unitary types of urban uses into super-categories, categories,
sub-categories, groups and sub-groups (columns 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively), on the basis of
urbanological and legal criteria and cartographical constraints. Column 6 gives the code numbers of
the unitary types of urban uses included in each separate set of uses.
SUPER CATEGORIES
Codes of unitary types of
Sub-groups urban uses included in the
class (see: Table A1, column 5)
I. PRIMARY SECTOR 1–16
ANIMAL PRODUCTION 6–10
FORESTRY AND LOGGING 11
FISHING AND AQUACULTURE 12–13
MINING AND QUARRYING 14–16
II. MANUFACTURING 17–69
MANUFACTURING 17-69
SMALL INDUSTRY (less than 50 employees) 17–69
Polluting small industry 17–69
Production and transmission of electricity 17–19
Production of raw materials 20–24
Production of structural raw materials and construction products 25–29
Manufacture of wooden and paper products 30–31
Manufacture of rubber and plastic products 32
Manufacture of glass and ceramic products 33
Manufacture of metal products 34–36
Manufacture of textile and leather products 37–41
Manufacture of food products, beverages and tobacco products 42–45
Manufacture of chemical and pharmaceutical products 46–47
Manufacture of vehicles and transport equipment 48–54
Manufacture of electrical and electronic products 55–56
Manufacture of optical and magnetic products 57–58
Manufacture related to printing, reproduction and publishing 59–60
Manufacture of personal and household goods 61–67
Materials recovery and other manufacturing 68–69
Non-polluting small industry 17–69
(Sub-groups as in the sub-category of Polluting small industry) 17–69
INDUSTRY (50 or more employees) 17–69
Polluting industry 17–69
Non-polluting industry 17–69
(Sub-groups as in the sub-category of Polluting industry) 17–69
III. UTILITIES, TRANSPORTATION AND WHOLESALE TRADE 70–99
TRANSPORTATION 79–90
Passenger transport 79–84
Freight 85–90
PARKING FACILITIES 91–92
WHOLESALE TRADE AND WAREHOUSING 93–99
WHOLESALE TRADE 93–98
WAREHOUSING 99
IV. RETAIL TRADE AND RECREATION 100–212
RETAIL TRADE 100–195
GENERAL RETAIL TRADE 100–161
Daily retail trade 100–115
Retail trade in food and beverages 100–111
Other daily retail trade 112–115
Occasional retail trade 116–136
Retail trade in clothing and footwear 116–119
Occasional retail trade in personal goods 120–124
SUB-CATEGORIES Codes of unitary types of
urban uses included in the
Groups class (see: Table A1, column 5)
Other occasional retail trade 125–136
Infrequent retail trade 137–160
Infrequent retail trade in personal goods 137–143
Retail trade in household goods 144–146
Retail trade in motor vehicles and motorcycles 147–150
Other infrequent retail trade 151–160
Retail trade without the physical presence of the customer 161
RETAIL TRADE IN SERVICES 162–195
General retail trade in services 162–174, 321
Leasing 175–177
Repairs 178–195
Repair of personal and household goods 178–183
Repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles 184–191
Repair of machinery and equipment 192–195
RECREATION 196–213
HOTELS, CAMPINGS AND SIMILAR ACCOMMODATIONS 196–200
SPECIALISED RECREATIONAL SERVICES 201–213
Recreational services in food and beverages 201–204
Recreational services that also provide food and beverages 205–208
Other specialised recreational services 209–213
V. OFFICES 214–271
OFFICES 214–271
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 214–217
PRIVATE OFFICES 218–271
General offices 218–265
Offices of unions, organisations, clubs and associations 218–223
Offices of financial services and insurance 224–233
Offices of professional services 234–240
Offices related to publishing, telecommunications and
media industries
Personal services 250–264
Ancillary offices 265–271
VI. EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES 272–291
EDUCATION 272–281
PUBLIC EDUCATION 272–278
Primary education 272–273
Secondary education 274–275
Post-secondary and tertiary education 276–278
Other educational activities 279–281
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 282
CULTURAL ACTIVITIES 283–291
General cultural activities 283–288
Religious activities 289–291
VII. HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES 292–303
PUBLIC HEALTH 292–293
PRIVATE HEALTH 292–295
SOCIAL SERVICES 296–303
Social services with accommodations 296–301
Social services without accommodations 302–303
VIII. ORDER, SAFETY AND DEFENCE ACTIVITIES 304–308
ORDER, SAFETY AND DEFENCE ACTIVITIES 304–308
IX. PUBLIC SPORTS 309–322
PUBLIC SPORTS 309–322
X. HOUSING AND OTHER ACCOMMODATION 323–325
HOUSING AND OTHER ACCOMODATION 323–325
OTHER ACCOMMODATION 324–325
XI. OPEN AND GREEN SPACES 326–330
OPEN AND GREEN SPACES 326–330
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