Conjoint corrosion and wear in titanium alloys
Biomaterials 20 (1999) 765 — 772 Conjoint corrosion and wear in titanium alloys M.A. Khan, R.L. Williams*, D.F. Williams Department of Clinical Engin...
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Electrochemical corrosion of titanium and titanium-based alloys
Wear resistance and endurance of certain nitrided titanium alloys
Ultrasonic in situ continuous wear measurements of orthopaedic titanium alloys
Erosion– and cavitation–corrosion of titanium and its alloys
Corrosion of titanium carbide in sintered titanium carbide-molybdenum-titanium alloys
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Wear resistance of experimental titanium alloys with different antagonists
Wear of two titanium alloys under repetitive compound impact
Corrosion characterization of titanium alloys by electrochemical techniques
Corrosion behaviour of glow discharge nitrided titanium alloys
Biomaterials 20 (1999) 765 — 772
Conjoint corrosion and wear in titanium alloys M.A. Khan, R.L. Williams*, D.F. Williams Department of Clinical Engineering, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK Received 4 September 1996; accepted 11 November 1998
Abstract When considering titanium alloys for orthopaedic applications it is important to examine the conjoint action of corrosion and wear. In this study we investigate the corrosion and wear behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), bovine albumin solutions in PBS and 10% foetal calf serum solutions in PBS. The tests were performed under four different conditions to evaluate the influence of wear on the corrosion and corrosion on the wear behaviour as follows: corrosion without wear, wear-accelerated corrosion, wear in a non-corrosive environment and wear in a corrosive environment. The corrosion behaviour was investigated using cyclic polarisation studies to measure the ability of the surface to repassivate following breakdown of the passive layer. The properties of the repassivated layer were evaluated by measuring changes in the surface hardness of the alloys. The amount of wear that had occurred was assessed from weight changes and measurement of the depth of the wear scar. It was found that in the presence of wear without corrosion the wear behaviour of Ti-13Nb-13Zr was greater than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb or Ti-6Al-4V and that in the presence of proteins the wear of all three alloys is reduced. In the presence of corrosion without wear Ti-13Nb-13Zr was more corrosion resistant than Ti-6Al-7Nb which was more corrosion resistant than Ti-6Al-4V without proteins whereas in the presence of protein the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr and Ti-6Al-7Nb was reduced and that of Ti-6Al-4V increased. In the presence of corrosion and wear the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr is higher than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb or Ti-6Al-4V in PBS but in the presence of proteins the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr and Ti-6Al-7Nb are very similar but higher than that of Ti-6Al-4V. The wear of Ti-13Nb-13Zr is lower than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-6Al-4V with or without the presence of proteins in a corrosive environment. Therefore the overall degradation when both corrosion and wear processes are occurring is lowest for Ti-13Nb-13Zr and highest for Ti-6Al-4V and the presence of proteins reduces the degradation of all three alloys.  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Keywords: Titanium; Corrosion; Proteins
1. Introduction When considering materials for application as orthopaedic prostheses it is important to consider both their corrosion resistance and wear behaviour [1—8]. This is particularly important for Ti alloys owing to their high corrosion resistance under static conditions. When they are subjected to wear, however, the passive layer can be removed allowing active corrosion to occur while the alloy repassivates. The present study was designed to investigate how wear may accelerate the corrosion of three titanium alloys, Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr but also how corrosion affects the wear behaviour.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0044 0151 706 5606; fax: 0044 0151 706 5803; e-mail: [email protected]
The presence of proteins in the environment can play an important role in both the corrosion and wear processes and therefore in this study the tests were performed in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) with and without addition of bovine albumin (conc. 1 mg/ml) and foetal calf serum (10%). It is well known that proteins can influence the corrosion behaviour of implant alloys [9, 10] by interacting with the charged double layer that is established at the interface of the metal and the aqueous environment. When considering the action of wear in an environment containing protein molecules, it is known for such biological molecules to provide a lubricating effect towards the wear behaviour [8]. In a situation where corrosion and wear are occurring simultaneously there will clearly be a complex series of reactions occurring at the metal/aqueous environment interface.
0142-9612/99/$ — see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 2 - 9 6 1 2 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 2 2 9 - 4
M.A. Khan et al. / Biomaterials 20 (1999) 765—772
To investigate the conjoint action of corrosion and wear the main concerns are the ability of the passive layer to be removed by wear, the ability of the surface to repassivate and the susceptibility of the repassivated surface to subsequent wear and corrosion. The ability of the surfaces to repassivate were evaluated using cyclic polarisation techniques to obtain a value for the hysteresis present, i.e. the difference between the breakdown potential (E ) and the repassivation potential (E ). We   used surface hardness measurements to evaluate how the repassivated surface might differ from the original passivated surface following corrosion and/or wear. We used profilometry to quantify the depth of the wear scar and weight changes as a further measure of degradation.
2. Materials and methods Three alloys were tested, Ti-6Al-4V obtained from IMI (UK) Ltd., Ti-6Al-7Nb from Sulzer Medical Technology Ltd., Switzerland, and Ti-13Nb-13Zr from Smith and Nephew Richards Inc., USA. All materials were received in the annealed condition in the form of rods between 10 and 15 mm in diameter. Disc specimens were cut from the rods with a thickness of approximately 5 mm. A wire lead was attached to the back of each disc using a small amount of conducting paste. Each specimen was mounted into a thermosetting resin mould to form a 30 mm diameter rod. Each specimen was polished down to 1200 grit specification and then polished using 6, 1 and 0.25 lm diamond paste. A portion of the surface around the margins between the alloy and the resin was covered with an insulating laquer leaving a specimen area of 5 mm. Surface roughness measurements were undertaken for each specimen before and after each test using a surface profilometer ('Taylor-Hobson Surtronic 3' profilometer). All specimens were weighed before and after each test. Three specimens were tested under each condition. The surface hardness was measured for each material before and after each test using a Vickers hardness indentation machine. The hardness measurement was made at various locations within the central region of the wear tracks which was clear of corrosion debris. An average value was obtained using at least five individual measurements for each specimen. Three specimens of each alloy were evaluated. Cyclic polarisation data were obtained in the form of potential vs. current density curves between a range of 0—5000 mV using a 'AUTOSTAT' computer controlled potentiostat. The potential was increased at a rate of 200 mV min\, starting with the rest potential (E ). 0 Electrode potentials were measured against a saturated calomel reference electrode. Three different corrosive environments (i.e. PBS only, PBS#albumin (1 mg ml\) and PBS#whole serum (10%)) were used as the electro-
lyte. The solutions were aerated and maintained at 37$1°C throughout the tests using a water bath. Triplicate measurements were obtained in all cases. The corrosion resistance of the alloys was evaluated by measuring the difference between the breakdown and repassivation potentials, E and E , respectively. E was    noted to be the value at which the potential—current density plot was seen to show a sudden increase in current density. E was noted as the value of potential at  which the current density returned to the passive current density on the reverse scan. Generally, smaller differences between these two values indicated a better corrosion resistance. The specimens were tested under four different conditions: corrosion without wear, wear-accelerated corrosion, wear in a corrosive environment and wear in a non-corrosive environment. Corrosion without wear: The specimens were equilibrated in the electrolyte prior to cyclic polarisation. Following cyclic polarisation the specimens were examined under a microscope for evidence of pits. ¼ear-accelerated corrosion: Part of the surface of each specimen was continuously abraded, using a simple pin-on-disc type apparatus for 5 min prior to corrosion testing. The pin was made of alumina and thus was much harder than the metal specimens tested. ¼ear in a corrosive environment: The specimens were worn continuously for a period of 10 min in PBS, PBS# albumin (1 mg ml\) and PBS#10% serum. ¼ear in a non-corrosive environment: For non-corrosive wear, the specimens were worn continuously for a period of 10 min in distilled water with and without additions of albumin and whole serum.
3. Results 3.1. Corrosion and wear-accelerated corrosion Figure 1 shows the corrosion resistance of the alloys, within the three different environments, following corrosion without wear and wear-accelerated corrosion. Following corrosion tests in PBS, it was noted that the corrosion behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-13Nb-13Zr was accelerated by the wear process by a similar extent, whereas, that of Ti-6Al-7Nb was influenced to a much greater extent (i.e. the value of E !E was seen to   increase by twice as much as for the other two alloys). However, it was evident that Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy was the most corrosion resistant alloy of the three followed by Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-6Al-4V, respectively, during both corrosion and wear-accelerated corrosion testing. In the presence of albumin the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V is significantly improved whereas that of Ti-6Al-7Nb was basically unchanged and that of Ti13Nb-13Zr was marginally reduced. Following the wear
Fig. 1. E !E for all three Ti alloys in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin or 10% foetal calf serum under conditions of   corrosion or wear-accelerated corrosion presented as the mean and the range of three measurements. Ti64"Ti-6Al-4V, Ti67"Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti1313"Ti-13Nb-13Zr, c"corrosion, wac" wear-accelerated corrosion, pbs"phosphate buffered saline, alb" 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin, fcs—10% foetal calf serum.
process, however, a large decrease in the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V was observed, although it was more corrosion resistant than without albumin, whereas the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-7Nb was affected to a far less extent such that the presence of albumin appeared to protect the Ti-6Al-7Nb surface from corrosion following the wear process. The corrosion behaviour of Ti-13Nb13Zr following the wear process was not influenced by the presence of albumin. In the presence of albumin the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr were not significantly different either with or without the wear process and they were both more corrosion resistant than Ti-6Al-4V. In the presence of FCS the corrosion resistance of all three alloys was slightly lower than it was in albumin solution without the wear process. Following the wear process the corrosion resistance of each alloy was reduced further and to a greater extent than in the albumin solution. The corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-13Nb-13Zr were lower following wear in FCS than following wear in PBS and that of Ti-6Al-7Nb was very similar to that following wear in PBS. That is all three alloys showed their lowest corrosion resistance following wear in FCS. Figure 2 displays the Vickers hardness values of all three alloys, following corrosion and wear-accelerated
corrosion (the hardness values of the three alloys before testing were Ti-6Al-4V"322, Ti-6Al-7Nb"349 and Ti-13Nb-13Zr"353). Corrosion of the three alloys in PBS caused a decrease in all their hardness readings, this decrease being greatest for Ti-13Nb-13Zr. Following the wear process, however, a significantly larger decrease in the hardness was observed for all three alloys. In the presence of albumin a much larger decrease in hardness was observed than in PBS alone under pure corrosion conditions. Under wear-accelerated corrosion conditions no significant further change in hardness was measured. It follows that the alloy surfaces had harder surfaces under wear-accelerated conditions in albumin than in the presence of PBS alone. Corrosion in FCS produced similar hardness measurements on all three alloys to those following corrosion in albumin. Slightly larger changes were observed following wear-accelerated corrosion in FCS than in albumin with the hardness of the Ti-6Al-4V surface increasing and those of the Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr surfaces decreasing. 3.2. Wear in corrosive and non-corrosive environments Figure 3 summarises the weight change of the specimens, before and after wear in non-corrosive and
Fig. 2. Vickers hardness values for all three Ti alloys in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin or 10% foetal calf serum under conditions of corrosion or wear-accelerated corrosion presented as the mean and standard deviation. Ti64"Ti-6Al-4V, Ti67"Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti1313"Ti-13Nb-13Zr, c"corrosion, wac" wear-accelerated corrosion, pbs"phosphate buffered saline, alb" 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin, fcs—10% foetal calf serum.
Fig. 3. Weight change for all three Ti alloys following wear in a corrosive environment and a non-corrosive environment in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin or 10% foetal calf serum presented as the mean and the range of three measurements. Ti64" Ti-6Al-4V, Ti67"Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti1313"Ti-13Nb-13Zr, wc"wear in corrosive environment, wnc"wear in a non-corrosive environment, pbs"phosphate buffered saline, alb"1 mg ml\ bovine albumin, fcs—10% foetal calf serum.
Fig. 4. Depth of the wear scars on all three Ti alloys following wear in a corrosive environment and a non-corrosive environment in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), 1 mg ml\ bovine albumin or 10% foetal calf serum presented as the mean and the range of three measurements. Ti64"Ti-6Al-4V, Ti67"Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti1313"Ti-13Nb-13Zr, wc" wear in corrosive environment, wnc"wear in a non-corrosive environment, pbs"phosphate buffered saline, alb"1 mg ml\ bovine albumin, fcs—10% foetal calf serum.
corrosive environments. These data showed that the only condition under which a loss of weight occurred was during wear in distilled water. There was a small weight gain following wear in a corrosive environment of PBS alone. Following the addition of albumin there was a weight gain under both non-corrosive and corrosive wear conditions. This gain being slightly larger for Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-13Nb-13Zr under corrosive than noncorrosive wear conditions. In the presence of FCS there was a further slight increase in weight. This again being slightly larger under corrosive than non-corrosive wear conditions. Figure 4 presents the surface roughness data evaluating the depth of the wear scars produced under each condition. It is generally observed that in the presence or absence of proteins the wear scar was deeper following corrosive wear than following non-corrosive wear for all materials. It is also demonstrated that the addition of protein reduced the depth of the wear scar for all materials under both non-corrosive and corrosive wear conditions. Following wear in a corrosive environment it is generally observed that the wear scars were less deep for Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr than for Ti-6Al-4V. Under non-corrosive wear this trend was not so obvious.
4. Discussion The conjoint degradation processes of corrosion and wear of metal surfaces is clearly of great importance in the design of orthopaedic prostheses. It is also clear that in a situation in which corrosion and wear are both possible degradation mechanisms each could have a profound effect on the other. Both processes will be 'controlled' to a certain extent by the properties of the oxide layer on the surface of the material and the interaction of the environment with that surface. In terms of corrosion without the presence of wear the major factors would be the ability of the passive oxide to be breached and then to re-passivate in the environment. This re-passivation process will depend on the properties of the oxide formed, and thus the alloy composition, and the constituents of the environment. Thus, the re-passivated oxide may have a different composition to the original oxide and this may be reflected in the hardness of that surface. For instance when using ionic solutions such as PBS removal of the oxide layer at high potentials would attract anions, mainly Cl\ ions to form metal chlorides, while a 'new' oxide layer is formed to repassivate the surface. These metal chlorides may interact with the oxide layer formed [11]. In protein solutions,
however, the protein molecules may be attracted to the surface of the specimen following removal of the oxide layer. The protein molecules can form metal complexes. Therefore, during re-passivation of the oxide layer one might expect its composition to change due to the inclusion of metal chloride and metal/protein/chloride complexes [10]. In terms of wear without corrosion the amount of wear or the susceptibility of a surface to wear will be 'controlled' to a certain extent by the hardness of the surface oxide. The depth of the wear scar, however, will depend on the wear mechanism that is occurring. If the main mechanism is wear of a softer material by a harder material in abrasive wear then one would expect the softest material to wear to the greatest depth. If, however, 3-body wear could be a significant wear mechanism then the wear of a harder material could produce harder wear particles which could cause a greater amount of wear if trapped between the surfaces [12]. During pure wear, weight changes can be related to loss of material worn away or adsorption of material from the environment. During corrosion processes weight changes can be associated with material lost via dissolution or build up of material due to repassivation incorporating material from the environment. Therefore, under conditions of corrosion and wear the final weight change will be a complex phenomena taking all these possible processes into account. This study aimed to investigate the conjoint action of corrosion and wear of three possible orthopaedic titanium alloys. From previous studies certain information is already known about these alloys. Ti-6Al-4V and Ti6Al-7Nb are both alpha-beta titanium alloys with the Al component stabilising the alpha phase and thus maintaining the improved mechanical properties over pure titanium and V and Nb stabilising the beta phase to maintain the corrosion resistance. Nb has been put forward as a replacement for V owing to possible toxic effects of V. Ti-13Nb-13Zr is a near-beta titanium alloy which possesses a higher corrosion resistance to the other two alloys but still has enough alpha phase to provide the necessary mechanical properties. The increased corrosion resistance is reasoned to be due to the fact that Nb and Zr are less soluble than Al and V and that the passive oxide layer on the surface of the alloy is more inert since it consists of a dense rutile-like structure, when formed in air at room temperature, providing greater protection to the underlying alloy [13—15]. Under conditions of corrosion alone in PBS it can be clearly seen that Ti-13Nb-13Zr has the highest corrosion resistance as has been reported previously [13]. Following the addition of albumin the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V is higher than that of both Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr and in fact albumin increases the corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-4V and decreases the corrosion resistance of the other two alloys. Following the
addition of FCS there was a decrease in the corrosion resistance of all three alloys. This demonstrates the interaction of the protein with the corrosion reactions of these three alloys and suggests a different interaction of the protein with each alloy. It is well known that proteins influence the corrosion behaviour of some metals and that their presence can either inhibit or accelerate the corrosion phenomena. The role of proteins in a corrosive environment is governed by many factors such as the surface chemistry of the metal, protein adsorption characteristics, interaction of protein molecules with other ions present in the electrolyte to produce organic complexes and the transport of anionic and cationic charges around and away from the local environment [10, 16, 17]. When the specimens were subjected to wear immediately prior to corrosion testing it was demonstrated, as would be expected, that in PBS the corrosion resistance was reduced. This is presumably due to the removal of the surface oxide by the wear process which is not so effectively re-passivated. Changes in the surface oxide formed during re-passivation are reflected by changes observed in the hardness measurements on the materials. It is shown for all three alloys that the as-prepared specimens have the hardest surface oxides with Ti13Nb-13Zr being the hardest and Ti-6Al-4V the lowest. Following corrosion in PBS the hardness of all the surfaces was reduced suggesting a change in surface oxide structure following corrosion. Ti-13Nb13Zr is reduced to the greatest extent and Ti-6Al4V only minimally. Following wear-accelerated corrosion in PBS the hardness values for all three alloys were reduced even further suggesting that the wear process prior to corrosion testing had a significant influence of the surface oxide formed during re-passivation. The presence of proteins in the environment also caused a reduction in the hardness both in pure corrosion and generally to a slightly greater extent following wear-accelerated corrosion, although this was not so for Ti-6Al-4V in FCS. It might be possible that protein from the environment was interacting in some way with the surface oxide formed during re-passivation, and it may be by this route that the corrosion resistance was reduced. We then turned the phenomena the other way round, i.e. we investigated the influence of corrosion on the wear process. Wear was evaluated by measuring weight change and depth of wear scar in either distilled water (to represent a non-corrosive environment) or in PBS (to represent a corrosive environment). In both solutions measurements were also taken following the addition of proteins. It needs to be taken into account that only a small portion of the surface was subjected to wear but weight change measurements represent weight change of the whole specimen.
The only condition under which a loss of weight was observed was following wear in distilled water which must be due to the removal of material by the wear process. This resulted in a wear scar of 0.79 lm for Ti-6Al-4V, 0.86 lm for Ti-6Al-7Nb and 1.09 lm for Ti-13Nb-13Zr such that the greatest weight loss corresponded to the deepest wear scar. Although Ti-13Nb13Zr suffered the greatest degradation via wear under these conditions we also know that it had the hardest surface oxide prior to testing. This could suggest that 3-body wear was playing a role in the wear process. Following the addition of albumin there was an increase in weight for all three alloys, this being greatest for Ti-13Nb-13Zr and least for Ti-6Al-4V. The wear scar for all three alloys under these conditions were very small. This could suggest two things: the first is that the weight gain could be due to adsorption of protein to the entire specimen surfaces and the second that the adsorbed protein could have a lubricating effect thus reducing the wear. This process was increased further by the addition of FCS rather than albumin except for the weight gain for Ti-13Nb-13Zr. When wear occurs in a corrosive environment in all cases there is an increase in weight. The weight gain increased as albumin and further when FCS was added and increased more for Ti-13Nb-13Zr than for Ti-6Al7Nb which was more than for Ti-6Al-4V. In PBS alone the weight gain was presumably due to the increase in oxide thickness on the total specimen surface which outweighed the loss of material at the wear scar since it was also demonstrated that a large increase in the depth of wear was measured. The weight gain increased in the order Ti-6Al-4V"Ti-6Al-7Nb(Ti-13Nb-13Zr whereas the wear scar depth decreased Ti-6Al-4V' Ti-6Al-7Nb'Ti-13Nb-13Zr, which is the opposite trend to that obtained using distilled water suggesting that the ionic molecules within PBS solution and their interaction with the surface during oxide removal seems to affect the resulting wear. This suggests that corrosion has less of an accelerating effect on the wear of Ti-13Nb-13Zr than on Ti-6Al-7Nb or Ti6Al-4V. The addition of protein further increased the weight gain of all three alloys and decreased the wear scar depths. This could be due to protein adsorption occurring or the protein being incorporated with the wear or corrosion products adhered to the surface and thus lubricated the wear process. Also as before, the wear scar on Ti-13Nb-13Zr is the lowest and that of Ti-6Al-4V the highest under each condition and similarly the weight gain the highest on Ti-13Nb-13Zr and the lowest on Ti-6Al-4V. In other words, a greater amount of protein was incorporated into the surface oxide or adsorbed to the surface of Ti-13Nb-13Zr than the other alloys and this resulted in a shallower wear scar.
5. Conclusions 1. In the presence of wear without corrosion the wear behaviour of Ti-13Nb-13Zr was greater than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb or Ti-6Al-4V and that in the presence of protein the wear of all three alloys is reduced. 2. In the presence of corrosion without wear Ti-13Nb13Zr was more corrosion resistant than Ti-6Al-7Nb which was more corrosion resistant than Ti-6Al-4V without protein whereas in the presence of protein the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr and Ti-6Al-7Nb was reduced and that of Ti-6Al-4V increased. 3. In the presence of corrosion and wear, the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr is higher than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb or Ti-6Al-4V in PBS but in the presence of proteins the corrosion resistance of Ti-13Nb-13Zr and Ti-6Al-7Nb are very similar but higher than that of Ti-6Al-4V. The wear of Ti-13Nb-13Zr is lower than that of Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-6Al-4V with or without the presence of proteins in a corrosive environment. 4. The overall degradation when both corrosion and wear processes are occurring is lowest for Ti-13Nb13Zr and highest for Ti-6Al-4V and the presence of proteins reduces the degradation of all three alloys.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by a postgraduate studentship from the University of Liverpool for M.A. Khan which is gratefully acknowledged.
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