==Meanings of eugenics== Definitions of the term vary. The term ''eugenics'' is often used to refer to a movement and social policy that was influential during the first half of the twentieth century. In an historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities". It is sometimes more broadly applied to describe any human action whose goal is to improve the [[gene pool]]. Some forms of infanticide in ancient societies, present-day reprogenetics, pre-emptive abortions and designer babies have been (sometimes controversially) referred to as eugenics. Because of its [[normative]] goals and historical association with [[scientific racism]], as well as the development of the science of [[genetics]], the international scientific community has mostly disassociated itself from the term "eugenics", sometimes referring to it as a pseudo-science, although one can find advocates of what is now known as ''[[liberal eugenics]]''. Modern inquiries into the potential use of genetic engineering have led to an increased invocation of the history of eugenics in discussions of bioethics, most often as a cautionary tale. Some [[bioethics|ethicists]] suggest that even non-coercive eugenics programs would be inherently unethical, though this view has been challenged by such thinkers as Nicholas Agar.<ref>For example, [[Nicholas Agar]], ''Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement'' (Blackwell, 2004).</ref> Eugenicists advocate specific policies that (if successful) would lead to a perceived improvement of the human gene pool. Since defining what improvements are desired or beneficial is arguably a cultural choice rather than a matter that can be determined objectively (e.g. by empirical, scientific inquiry), eugenics has been deemed [[pseudo-science]] by many. The most disputed aspect of eugenics has been the definition of "improvement" of the human gene pool, such as what is a beneficial characteristic and what is a defect. This aspect of eugenics has historically been tainted with [[scientific racism]]. Early eugenicists were mostly concerned with perceived [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] factors that often correlated strongly with [[social class]]. Many eugenicists took inspiration from the [[selective breeding]] of animals (where purebreeds are often strived for) as their analogy for improving human society. The mixing of races (or miscegenation) was usually considered as something to be avoided in the name of racial purity. At the time, this concept appeared to have some scientific support, and it remained a contentious issue until the advanced development of [[genetics]] led to a scientific consensus that the division of the human species into unequal races is unjustifiable. Eugenics has also been concerned with the elimination of [[hereditary diseases]] such as [[haemophilia]] and [[Huntington's disease]]. However, there are several problems with labeling certain factors as "genetic defects": * In many cases, there is no scientific consensus on what a "genetic defect" is. It is often argued that this is more a matter of social or individual choice. * What appears to be a "genetic defect" in one context or environment may not be so in another. This can be the case for genes with a [[heterozygote advantage]], such as sickle cell anemia or [[Tay-Sachs disease]], which in their [[heterozygote]] form may offer an advantage against, respectively, malaria and tuberculosis. * [[List of people with disabilities|Many people]] can succeed in life with disabilities. * Many of the conditions early eugenicists identified as inheritable (pellagra is one such example) are currently considered to be wholly or at least partially attributed to environmental conditions. Similar concerns have been raised when a [[prenatal diagnosis]] of a [[congenital disorder]] leads to [[abortion]] (see also [[preimplantation genetic diagnosis]]). Eugenic policies have been historically divided into two categories: ''positive eugenics'', which encourage a designated "most fit" to reproduce more often, and ''negative eugenics'', which discourage or prevent a designated "less fit" from reproducing. Negative eugenics need not always be coercive. A state might offer financial rewards to certain people who submit to sterilization, although some critics might reply that this incentive along with social pressure could be perceived as coercion. Positive eugenics can also be coercive. [[Abortion]] by "[[fit]]" women was illegal in [[Nazi Germany]]. During the twentieth century, many countries enacted various eugenics policies and programs, including: *Promoting differential birth rates *[[Compulsory sterilization]] *Marriage restrictions *Genetic screening *[[Birth control]] *[[Immigration]] control *[[Segregation]] (both [[racial segregation]] as well as segregation of the mentally ill from the normal) *[[Genocide]] Most of these policies were later regarded as coercive, restrictive, or genocidal, and now few jurisdictions implement policies that are explicitly labeled as eugenic, or unequivically eugenenic in substance (however labeled). However, some private organizations assist people in [[genetic counseling]], and [[reprogenetics]] may be considered as a form of non state-enforced, "liberal" eugenics.
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