The fossil evidence
By 3.5 million years ago at least one hominin species, Au. afarensis, was an adept walker. In addition to anatomic evidence from this time, there is also a 27.5-metre (90-foot) trackway produced by three individuals who walked at a leisurely pace on moist volcanic ash at Laetoli in northern Tanzania. In all observable features of foot shape and walking pattern, they are astonishingly similar to those of habitually barefoot people who live in the tropics today. Nevertheless, although the feet of the Laetoli hominins appear to be strikingly human, one should not assume that other parts of their bodies were as similar to ours.
A trail of footprints probably left by Australopithecus afarensis individuals some 3.5 million years ago, at Laetoli, northern Tanzania. John Reader/Photo Researchers
A single footprint of Australopithecus afarensis (top), left some 3.5 million years ago at Laetoli, Tanzania, shows a striking similarity to a single footprint of a habitually barefoot modern human being from Peru (bottom). John Reader/Photo Researchers
The fragmentary femoral remains found in Kenya of six-million-year-old Orrorin tugenensis indicate to some experts that they too were bipeds. Ar. ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya), a primate from Aramis, central Ethiopia, and one of the two fossil species of Ardipithecus, was also bipedal. In this case the evidence comes from the foramen magnum, the hole in the skull through which the spinal cord enters. In Ardipithecus this opening is similar to ours in being located centrally under the skull instead of at the rear of it. A rear-facing foramen magnum indicates a stooped posture, whereas a downward-facing hole positions the skull atop the spinal column. Other characteristics indicative of bipedalism in Ardipithecus include an increased tarsal region in each foot and a pelvic structure with muscle-to-bone attachment sites comparable to later, bipedal hominins. In addition, the leg bone of Au. anamensis from northern Kenya (4.2–3.9 mya) attests to its bipedalism.
hominin fossil sitesHominin fossil sites of the Awash River basin, Ethiopia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
View of the base of the human skull, showing the central location of the foramen magnum. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
All hominins living at the time of the Laetoli track makers were probably obligate bipeds when on the ground, but some of them (including some younger species) exhibit features that argue for regular arboreal climbing, probably for food, rest, nightly lodging, and predator avoidance. Hadar, in northern Ethiopia, has yielded a trove of remains of A. afarensis (3.8–2.9 mya). They include many parts of the locomotor skeleton that reveal a bipedal habit: short ilia, a wide and stout sacrum, and femoral angling, among other features. At the same time, the curved fingers and toes, laterally flared ilia, and short femurs with long upper limbs, as well as the configuration of its rib cage, indicate that they could readily climb and maneuver in trees. A. bahrelghazali (3.5–3.0 mya) of central Chad and Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5 mya) from northern Kenya are represented solely by teeth and by skull and jaw fragments from which positional behaviour cannot be inferred.
The earliest fossils of human ancestors have been found in Africa. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Parts of the locomotor skeletons of later hominins such as A. africanus (3.3–2.4 mya) and Paranthropus robustus (1.8–1.5 mya) of South Africa do not differ markedly from those of A. afarensis. The locomotor skeleton of eastern African P. boisei (2.2–1.3 mya) is poorly known, but there is no reason to assume that it was different from other Paranthropus species. Bouri, a 2.5-million-year-old site in central Ethiopia, yielded arm and leg bones that are contemporaneous with craniodental remains of A. garhi. The femur is elongated relative to the humerus, as in H. sapiens, but, unlike the human forearm, that of the fossil specimen is relatively long. Thus, by 2.5 mya at least one hominin species had developed the long femurs of striding bipeds, though it retained long forearms like arboreally active Australopithecus and Paranthropus.
H. habilis (2.0–1.5 mya), best known from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, exhibits small teeth and a large brain, but it has long upper limbs (especially the forearms), short femurs, curved finger bones, and other chimpanzee-like traits that indicate a mélange of arboreal and terrestrial adaptations. Because of these similarities, some investigators classify H. habilis in genus Australopithecus as Au. habilis.
The pelvis of H. heidelbergensis (600,000–200,000 years ago, or 600–200 kya) and that of Neanderthals (200–30 kya) are distinct from the pelvis of H. sapiens in some features that recall those of Australopithecus. The pelvis is broad, with ilia flaring out to the side. The femoral necks are also relatively long. These features are related to stabilizing the pelvis in stocky bipedal hominins. The pelvises of both H. heidelbergensis and Neanderthals could accommodate a wider birth canal. This feature is important because they may have had notably larger brains (about 1,200 grams [2.65 pounds] and 1,400 grams [3.09 pounds], respectively) than earlier hominins did—a trait that is reflected in the size of the fetal skull.
Regrettably, development of foot structure in early Homo—i.e., between A. afarensis and Neanderthals—is virtually undocumented by skeletal evidence. The oldest footprints indicative of contemporary foot function, however, have been found in Ileret, Kenya. These prints have been dated at 1.51 to 1.53 mya, and their size and depth suggest that they were made by H. ergaster or H. erectus. Therefore, it is safe to assume that by about 1.53 mya the uniquely human locomotor and associated cooling systems were basically established. Subsequent alterations in pelvic shape may be related to the passage of larger-brained babies through the birth canal.
Background and beginnings in the Miocene
Striding through the Pliocene
The anatomy of bipedalism
Theories of bipedalism
Hominin habitats
Tools, hands, and heads in the Pliocene and Pleistocene
Refinements in hand structure
Increasing brain size
Refinements in tool design
Reduction in tooth size
The emergence of Homo sapiens
Language, culture, and lifeways in the Pleistocene
Speech and symbolic intelligence
Learning from the apes
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