Power Point - Acquiring Knowledge for Second Language Use
Acquiring Knowledge for
Compiled By :
Indra Kurniawan F12111046
Nanang Sulistyo F12111073
Reni Ariyanti F12111036
Competence and Use
In previous chapter, communicative competence is
defined as “everything that a speaker needs to know in
order to communicate appropriately within a particular
community.” This construct combines the knowledge of
language which defines linguistic competence, knowledge
of the specific components and levels of a language, and
knowledge that is required for their appropriate use in
Relationship of domains of communicative competence.
The ability to use language appropriately includes
pragmatic competence. Crystal (1997a:301) defined it
as what people must know in order to interpret and
convey meaning within communicative situatios;
knowledge that accounts for “the choice they make, the
constraints they encounter in using language in social
interaction, and the effects their use of language has on
in the act of communication.
Academic vs Interpersonal Competence
L1 competence ideally involves the broad repertoire of
knowledge which people need to communicate
appropriately for many purposes within their native
language community. L2 competence is typically, perhaps
unavoidably, much more restricted, especially when SLA
takes place in a foreign language setting.
Priorities for L2 Use
In considering the purposes fro which people learn second
languages, we must make a distinction between at least two
fundamental types of communicative competence, those are
academic competence and interpersonal competence.
It would include the knowledge needed by learners who
want to use the L2 primarily to learn about other subjects, or
as a tool in scholarly research, or as a medium in a specific
professional or occupational field. Learners with such a goal
should concentrate above all on acquiring the specific
vocabulary of their field or subject area, and on developing
knowledge that enables them to read relevant texts fluently
in that subject area.
It encompasses knowledge required of learners who plan to
use the L2 primarily in face-to-face contact with other
speakers. As with academic competence, vocabulary is the
most important level of language knowledge for these
learners to acquire, although the domains of vocabulary
involved are likely to be very different.
The contrast in priorities for L2 communicative activities
depending on academic versus interpersonal needs. The key
differences are that reading is typically much more
important for academic than for interpersonal needs, and
that speaking is usually much more important for
interpersonal than for academic purposes.
Classification of Activities involving
Receptive Reading Listening
Productive Writing Speaking
The four areas of activity involving language use may be
classified along two dimensions : receptive and
productive. The activities that have the highet priority in
academic competence are receptive (reading and
listening), and the activities with highesy priority for
interpersonal competence are oral (listening and
Components of language knowledge
Linguistics have traditionally diveded language into the
following five components for purpose of description and
- Vocabulary ( lexicon )
- Morphology ( word structure )
- Syntax ( grammar )
- Discoure ( ways to connect sentences and organize information
Determining the specific L2 needs to any group of learners
involves identifying what subset of linguistic elements is
associated with the varieties ( or registers ) of a language that are
used in particular situations.
Such corpus linguistic analysis can be
especially useful in determining the relative
frequency of different vocabulary items and
grammartical patterns as a basis for deciding
what needs to be taught for specific
Vocabulary (or lexicon ) is the most important level of L2
knowledge for all learners to develop –whether they are
aiming primarily for academic, or interpersonal
competence, or for a broader scope of communicative
competence that spans the two.
The core vocabulary in every language includes function
words, a limitated set of terms that carry primarily
grammatical information. For example, in English the most
frequently used words includes: determiner the, that,
this;prepositions to, for, conjunctions and, but:pronouns I, it,
he, she, you, and auxiliary verbs is/ was/be/ have/ has/ had/.
The most frequently used words in spoken (but not written)
English also include interjections yeah, oh;contractions it’s,
that’s,don’t; and verbs expressing personal opinion or felling
know, like, think.
English words that occur with high frequency in a wide
range of academic (but not interpersonal ) contexts include
modifies such as analytical, explanatory, and implicit, as
well as names for scientific concepts such as data,
hypotheses, and correlations.
Vocabulary and expressions are most likely to be very
different in unrelated languages, since they are rarely
Interpersonal situations can be subdivided into those
which have primarily affective (interactional) purposes,
and those which are task-oriented (transactional).
Vocabulary knowledge is acquired to different degress
with learners first recognizing, words they see or hear,
then the producing them in limited contexs, and
ultimately (perhaps) fully controling , their accurate and
appropriate use L2 speakers may never acquire complete
knowledge of some words that nevertheles become part
of their productive repertoire .
The types of knowledge contribute to effective use of
context for vocabulary learning ( Nagy 1997 ).
Linguistic knowledge : syntactic information :
constraints on possible word meaning: patterns in word
structure : meaning of surrounding words.
Word knowledge : understanding of the concepts which
the words represent: familiarity with related conceptual
frameworks :awareness of social associations
Strategic knowledge : control over cognitive resources.
L2 learning at the level of morphology (word structure) can be
very important for vocabulary development as well as for
achieving grammatical accuracy. For instance, thousands of
words are formed by compounding smaller words
Example: (wind + shield = windshield [British Windscreen])
or by adding prefixes and suffixes (called derivational
morphology) that can create new meanings (e.g. un- + kind =
unkind) or change part of speech (e.g. friend [noun] + -ly =
Suffixes may convert adjectives to verbs or nouns, verbs to
nouns, nouns to adjective or verbs and adjectives to adverbs.
Words used for academic communication (especially in
writing) are characteristically longer than words used
for interpersonal communication (especially in speech),
and using them requires knowledge of such word-
forming elements and processes.
Grammatical accuracy in many languages requires
knowledge of the word parts that carry meanings such
as tense, aspect, and number (called inflectional
morphology, or inflections).
The process is interisting target of study in SLA because
errors at the level of morphology often persist even many
years after individuals have learned substantial vocabulary
and mastered most elements of L2 syntax.
Accuracy in production of morphology is usually
expected as part of advanced academic language
competence, and in the interpersonal competence of L2
speakers who want or need to project an image of being
well educated, or who want to be fulled as in group
Mastery of the L2 sound system was considered the first
priority for teaching and learning. As components of
academic competence, proficiency in phonological
perception is required for listening if learners are studying
other subjects through the medium of L2, and at least
intelligible pronounciation is needed for speaking in most
educational settings. A much higher level of proficiency in
production is required if researches or students are using
the second language to teach the others or for participing
orally in professional conferences, but the relative priority
of pronouncation otherwise remains low compared to
vocabulary and syntax.
As a component of interpersonal competence, proficiency
in phonological perceptionand intelligible production are
essential for successful spoken communication, but a
significant degree of "foreign accent" is acceptable in
most situations as long sa it is within the bounds of
intelligibility. Native or near-native pronouncation is
usually needed only when when learners want to identify
socially with the L2 language community for affective
purposes, or when their communicative goals require such
identification by hearers.
Aspects of the sound systems are likely o differfor L1 and
Which speech sounds are meaningful components of the
phonological system (phonemes)
Possible sequences of consonants and vowels
Which speech sound can and cannot occur in
combination with one another, in which syllable and
intonation patterns (stress, pitch, and duration)
Rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops)
Transfer from L1 to L2 phonology occurs in both
perception and production, and is thus a factor in both
listening and speaking. Trubetzkoy (1939-1958)
characterized perception of L2 speech sounds as being
filtered through the phonological system of L1, which acts
like a shieve. Particularly at early stage of acquisition, L2
learners are likely to perceive L2 pronouncation in terms
of the L1 phonemic categories which have already been
Constrastive analysis of L1 and L2 does not account for all
learners errors, and many problem which are predicted do
not emerge. The approach has been most realiable for
predicting L1 influence on L2 acquisition of phonology.
The concept of phonemes as bundles of distinctive features is
also relevant in accounts of why L2 speech sounds are perceived
in terms of L1 categories. On this account, each phoneme in a
language consists of a unique bundle of distinctive features which
make it perceptibly different from other phonemes to speakers of
that language. Another aspects of perception and production of
speech segments which has received cosiderable attention is
voice onset time ( VOT). Which is related to the location of a
phoneme boundary and to identification of initial stop
consonants. Another effect that is found is one of exaggeration,
where learners sometimes maximize a difference between L1 and
Individual, sociolinguistic, and sociocultural factors can also have
a major impact on L2 phonology.
The process of acquiring the syntax of another language begins with
recognizing that sentences are more than just combinations of words,
and that every language has specific limits and requirements on the
possible orders and arrangements of elements.
Contrastive analysis helps us anticipate some of the problems and
difficulties – or lack thereof – that we may face in trying to acquire
A first step is realizing that certain aspects of language are
universal, but how they are expressed may vary greatly. Using S for
subject, V for verb, and O for object, linguists classify languages
according to the typical order in which these components occur, e.g.
SVO English, Chinese, French, Russian
SOV Japanese, Turkish, Persian, Finnish
VSO Irish, Welsh, Samoan, Zapotec
English as it was spoken a thousand years ago (Old English) was more like Russian or
Latin, as this sentence shows:
Se cyning seah done bisceop.
(‘The king saw the bishop.’)
Since the form of the definite article (se vs done) identified whether the noun was subject
(nominative case) or object (accusative case), the order could be switched without
changing the basic meaning:
done bisceop seah se cyning.
Se cyning done bisceop seah.
done bisceop se cyning seah.
Modern English has lost this flexibility, since the invariant form of “the”no longer
reflects the function of the noun in the sentence. Note, however, that word order in Old
English was not completely free, since the position of the article could not be switched
with the noun. Just as we cannot say
*King the saw bishop the.
The order of these words could not be switched either. Just so, even in very flexible languages,
the order of elements within constituent phrases may be quite rigid:
InTokyo Tokyo de
*Tokyo in *de Tokyo
English speakers are familiar with the concepts of grammatical gender and number, which
determine the choice of pronouns, and whether the noun is marked for singular or plural:
The boy He/him The boys
The girl She/he The girls They/ them
The tree It/it The trees
English speakers acquiring a Romance language (French, Spanish, Italian) must learn
to categorize all nouns into two genders, rather misleadingly labeled “masculine” and “feminine,”
and to select articles to agree in gender and number with the noun, as well as to show this
agreement in adjectives (and to place most adjectives after rather than before the noun):
the white building the white house
the white buildings the white houses
While speakers of these languages face a simpler task in acquiring this aspect of English:
el edificio blanco la casa blanca
los edificios blancos las casas blancas
they conversely must learn when not to use the definite article:
*I always enjoy the rap music.
English speakers acquiring a Chinese language will have to internalize a completely different
system of gender, one based primarily on the shape of things, e.g.:
a book yiben shu (collection of objects)
a table yizhang zuo (flat object)
a pen yizhi bi (long, thin object)
Other differences between English and some other languages include whether any movement of
words in the sentence is required to form yes/no andWh-questions, how passives are formed,
where and how negation is marked (and whether “double negatives” are required, as in Romance
languages), and how time and perspective are marked in the verb system.
Academic sentence is achieved in English is through the use of nominalizations, by which
whole sentences are transformed into fillers for noun phrase positions. E.g.
Edison invented the phonograph. ==> Edison’s invention of the phonograph
I analyzed the report. ==> My analysis of the report
Someone constructed the Sphinx. ==>The construction of the Sphinx
Bacteria exist in the mouth. ==>The existence of bacteria in the mouth
This process allows several simple sentences to be combined into one, and increases the density of
information transmitted. E.g.
Scientists were working in a laboratory.
The laboratory was in Chicago.
Scientists discovered something.
Bacteria exist in the mouth.
This is what they discovered.
Someone reported this event last month.
==> The discovery of the existence of bacteria in the mouth
by scientists in a laboratory in Chicago was reported last
In contrast, grammatical structures used for interpersonal functions are much
more likely to be short, simple sentences and language used for affective purposes often
serves to express a speaker’s point of view rather than to transmit referential information.
Because many of the grammatical structures common to interpersonal
communication are different from those found in written academic texts, even the
development of considerable fluency for everyday interactive purposes does not guarantee
that a learner will acquire the syntactic knowledge that is necessary for the advanced literacy
that full academic competence requires. Nor does proficiency in processing the formal,
complex structures of academic writing guarantee a learner’s ability to participate
appropriately in informal conversations which are characterized by sentence fragments and
contractions, rapid give-and-take, and “everyday” vocabulary. Beyond very basic common
structures, the syntactic knowledge required for either domain requires extensive input that
is specific to the intended context of use.
Linguistic elements at the level of discourse function beyond the
scope of a single sentence. At a microstructural discourse level these include
sequential indicators, logical connectors, and other devices to create cohesion.
At a macrostructural discourse level we go beyond linguistic elements to
knowledge of organizational features that are characteristic of particular
genres, and of interactional strategies. Both microstructural and
macrostructural levels are sensitive to the relationship between language forms
and the communicative situations within which they are used, requiring an
essential interface of linguistic knowledge with content, culture, and context.
Sequential indicators are linguistic elements that connect phrases,
clauses, or longer units of written or spoken text to signal the order in which
events take place. In English they may be set off with a comma or pause, as in
the following example (which is a paraphrase of the preview to this chapter):
First, we will consider an overall characterization of communicative
competence. Then, we will distinguish between knowledge that is required for
academic versus interpersonal functions. Next, we will categorize and prioritize
areas of knowledge according to traditional levels of language. Finally, we will
explore aspects of communicative competence in relation to activity type.
Other common indicators of temporal sequence in English include
before–after, and yesterday–today–tomorrow. An overlapping set of
indicates spatial sequence and may also be used to delineate items in a list
(often in order of priority or relative importance).
Logical connectors occur between clauses or other
grammatical constituents to indicate such relations between them
as cause–effect (e.g. because; as a result; consequently) contrast
(e.g. however; on the other hand), and addition of information
(e.g. furthermore; moveover). Academic written English typically
prefers overt verbal expression of the connections, but many
other languages (e.g. Chinese and Korean) often prefer to express
such relationships by juxtaposition of clauses rather than with
added linguistic elements. Use of overt logical connectors is an
aspect of English L2 which is problematic for many learners.
Cohesion devices link one element of discourse to
another, integrating them into a unified text. They include many
of the sequential indicators and logical connectors that are listed
above, but also such ties as pronominal and lexical reference,
substitution, and ellipsis. The most frequently cited typology of
English devices is by Halliday and Hasan (1976).
6.7 Types of cohesion in English
• Demonstratives; articles
• Nominal substitutes
• Verbal substitutes
• Clausal substitutes
• Nominal ellipsis
• Verbal ellipsis
• Clausal ellipsis
(omissions at subsequent mention)
and, as well as
yet, but, however
so, it follows
then, in the end
of course, anyway
• Same item
• Synonym or near synonym
• “General” item
the ascent–the climb
a new Jaguar–the car
the rafters–those things
Some of these devices are illustrated in the following paragraph:
Students who acquire second languages do so(1) in many social contexts.For example, they(2) may
learn L2s(3) in formal classrooms,or [ ](4) in informal interaction with native speakers. Language
learners(5) may profit from either setting(6),but(7) of course(8) not all(9) will have equal success.
In the end(10),motivation as well as(11) aptitude and(12) opportunity is a critical variable(13).
1=Substitution for acquire second languages
2=Pronominal reference for students who acquire second languages
3=Synonym for acquire second languages
4=Ellipsis for they may learn L2s
5=Synonym for students who acquire second languages
6=Substitution for formal classrooms and informal interaction
9=Substitution of quantifier for elided language learners
13=Superordinate for motivation,aptitude,and opportunity
Both academic and interpersonal domains involve
conventionalized categories and types of discourse, called
genres. Different genres are typically characterized by having
different functions within a language community, involving
different classes of participants (speakers/writers and audience),
addressing different topics, and requiring different language
styles and organization. Academic genres include research
papers, lectures, and book reviews; interpersonal genres include
conversations, service encounters (e.g. ordering food in a
restaurant), and letters. Genres are “conventionalized” categories
of discourse in the sense that knowledge of their nature and
regularities is shared by members of a language community as
part of the cultural component of communicative competence.
L2 learners of a language often have to learn new organizational
features for a relevant genre as well as new linguistic elements when they wish
to join the community that uses it. For example, academic research reports that
are written in English commonly follow the following sequence (see Swales
(1) Statement of the problem under investigation and its potential
(2) Specific research questions or hypotheses
(3) Review of related research
(4) Description of data collection and analytic procedures
(5) Presentation of findings
(6) Discussion of results
(7) Conclusion (often including mention of limitations and suggestions
for future research)
There is variability in the pattern by discipline (e.g. academic reports differ
somewhat depending on whether they are situated in the physical sciences,
social sciences, or humanities), but an English-speaking researcher in any
subject area would consider it “odd” if a report presented findings before
describing data-collection procedures, and a report which deviated significantly
from disciplinary conventions of organization would probably not be accepted
in fulfillment of an academic thesis requirement or be published by a
professional journal. An example of cultural differences in the organizational
pattern of this academic genre is that a Chinese scholar is likely to omit the
review of related research, whether writing in Chinese L1 or English L2 (Taylor
and Chen 1991). Contrastive Rhetoric is an area of research that compares
genre-specific conventions in different languages and cultures, with particular
focus on predicting and explaining problems in L2 academic and professional
writing (see Connor 1996 for a survey of research topics and findings).
Examples of conventional features that L2 learners must acquire for
interactional genres include politeness and turn-taking strategies for
conversations. Some general (and perhaps universal) rules for politeness have
been suggested, such as “Do not impose” and “Help the other person save face”
(Traugott and Pratt 1980), but similar communicative behaviors may be
interpreted differently in different cultures. Essentially the same act may be
perceived as “friendly” in one setting but “rude” in another (e.g. asking a casual
acquaintance about their religious or political views, or whether they have
children). Appropriate conversational turn-taking in some cultures
involves interruptions, overlaps, or simultaneous speaking; some cultures
require several seconds of silence before another speaker may begin, with a
shorter interval again considered “rude” or overly aggressive.
Transfer of politeness and turn-taking conventions from L1 to L2 in cases
where such contrasts exist may not interfere with expression and interpretation
of the referential content of messages but can contribute to instances of serious
misunderstanding of speaker intent and message tone. Comparative research
on interactional genre with particular focus on such factors can be found in the
domain of Intercultural Communication (e.g. see Scollon and Scollon
Development of the ability to use elements of L2 discourse
appropriately is not unlike the development of other elements of
interlanguage. It takes place gradually and systematically, and many errors
in production can be attributed to either transfer of L1 knowledge in using the
L2 or to developmental patterns within the L2 (e.g. Ellis 1997). And as with the
other elements, the nature and amount of input to learners largely determines
the degree of proficiency that they will attain. The development of academic
discourse competence requires reading and hearing an ample number of
academic texts within meaningful contexts, and it benefits from feedback on
the appropriateness of written production. Development of interpersonal
discourse competence requires opportunity for social interaction and the input
and feedback that it produces.