The Muslim conquests were an important agent of unification for the Jewish communities throughout the diaspora. From the seventh century onwards, the vast majority of Jews were under single rule and part of a large network of commercial ties connecting the different sectors of the Muslim empire. After the Arabs conquered the Maghreb (“the west” in Arab geographic terminology, designating North Africa and Spain), thousands of Jews immigrated there, mostly from the east (particularly from the areas of Iraq and Iran of today).
The Jewish demographic map reflected a diversity largely due to incessant migrations. Nevertheless, there was a stable framework — a central authority which delegated some of its prerogatives to each community. Existing prior to the emergence of Islam, this structure was consolidated when the Muslim caliphate embraced a world of immense dimensions, obeying first Damascus and then Baghdad.
The seat of spiritual authority of the Jewish world was the yeshiva (academy). Between the eighth and 11th centuries, this was not simply a learning institute, but also the supreme court and source of instruction for all Jews. The head of the yeshiva, the gaon, was regarded as the highest religious authority, but his responsibilities also included organizing the courts, appointing judges and community leaders as well scribes, ritual slaughterers and other officials. The gaon was authorized to dismiss any one of these, and it was he who exercised the powerful weapon of excommunication.
The geonim (plural of gaon) became incontestable leaders of the Jewish world as a result of two developments. The first was the conflict between the heads of the academies and rosh ha‑golah (the exilarch) who officially represented the Babylonian community to the authorities. The two Babylonian academies, the yeshiva of Sura and the one in Pumbedita, were transferred to Baghdad in the early ninth century and continued to carry the names their former locations. Before then the exilarch had held full authority and he nominated the heads of the academies who were regarded as spiritual leaders only. But in time, the heads of the academies acquired more power; the office of exilarch persisted, but essential secular functions were taken over by the geonim.
The second development involved conflict between the center in Palestine and the Babylonian geonim over hegemony in the diaspora. The yeshiva in the Land of Israel had traditionally been responsible for the communities in Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt; the Babylonian center had jurisdiction over the communities in Iraq, Iran and Yemen. The North African communities were autonomous and solicited by both rival centers. Ties between the communities were bilateral: The communities sent their halachic questions and donations to the yeshivas; and the heads of the academies in turn supplied answers and commentaries (responsa), as well as laudatory poems and honorary titles, tokens of respect for their supporters.
In the competition over North Africa, the Babylonian yeshivas gained the upper hand. The centralized structure of the caliphate, the authority of the Babylonian Talmud, and the fact that many North African Jews had come from the east and preferred to address their questions and send money to their country of origin—all these combined to the advantage of the Babylonian geonim. In the 10th century, the supremacy of the Babylonian center was unequivocally established, and the geonim were responsible for fashioning the thought of all Jews within the Muslim world.
More than any other, the figure of Saadiah ben Joseph (882-942) best represents the geonic period. Born in Egypt, this original and innovative thinker immigrated to Babylon in 922. On his arrival he played a major role in the most significant medieval Jewish polemics: the debate over the calendar, which revolved around the question of the precise date of Passover. Until then only the yeshiva in the Land of Israel proclaimed dates of the festivals; using Saadiah’s arguments, the Babylonian center now successfully established its authority. From 922 onwards, most Jewish communities in the diaspora were to celebrate Passover on the date decided upon by the Babylonian academy.
This polemic, together with the conflict which arose a decade later between the gaon and the exilarch, made Saadiah ben Joseph the incontestable authority for all Jewish communities in the Muslim lands — a position which was to be overshadowed only by Maimonides 300 years later.
Reprinted with permission from A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People, published by Schocken Books.
Pronounced: TALL-mud, Origin: Hebrew, the set of teachings and commentaries on the Torah that form the basis for Jewish law. Comprised of the Mishnah and the Gemara, it contains the opinions of thousands of rabbis from different periods in Jewish history.