- Government and society
- Cultural life
- Pre-Roman Spain
- Roman Spain
- Visigothic Spain to c. 500
- The Visigothic kingdom
- Christian Spain from the Muslim invasion to about 1260
- Christian Spain, c. 1260–1479
- Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, 1276–1479
- Muslim Spain
- United Spain under the Catholic Monarchs
- Spain under the Habsburgs
- The early Bourbons, 1700–53
- The reign of Charles III, 1759–88
- Charles IV and the French Revolution
- The French invasion and the War of Independence, 1808–14
- Ferdinand VII, 1814–33
- Isabella II, 1833–68
- The Revolution of 1868 and the Republic of 1873
- The restored monarchy, 1875–1923
- Primo de Rivera (1923–30) and the Second Republic (1931–36)
- The Civil War
- Franco’s Spain, 1939–75
- Spain since 1975
- Kings and queens regnant of Spain
Moderates, progressives, and the generals
The Carlist wars left civilian politicians discredited, and generals became the arbiters of politics not, as in 1814–20, as intruders but as part of the political machinery. They became the “swords” of the two main political groups. The moderados (moderates), who were upper-middle-class oligarchic liberals fearful of democratic violence and upholders of the prerogatives of the crown, represented the conservative stream in liberalism. Their rivals, the progresistas (progressives), were the heirs of the exaltados and represented a lower stratum of the middle class; the progresistas were prepared to use the discontent of the urban masses in order to bring pressure on the crown to give them office. Their instrument was the Urban Militia. General Espartero used his military faction and his supporters among the younger progresista politicians and their artisan followers in the great cities to oust María Cristina and establish himself as regent (1841–43). Espartero proved a disappointment to the radical progresistas, who now allied with his conservative opponents under his military and political rival, Ramón María Narváez. In 1843 Espartero was ousted by a pronunciamiento.
Narváez jettisoned his progresista allies through a court intrigue, and between 1844 and 1854 he and his fellow generals dominated domestic politics as representatives of the moderados. Their administrative, educational, and financial measures and the formation of the Civil Guard were lasting achievements; however, the generals could not stabilize their rule on the basis of their constitution of 1845, a conservative revision of the constitution of 1837. The period was disturbed by a series of progresista military risings.
To the left of the progresistas, who were prepared to accept the monarchy if it gave them office, developed a Democratic Party, which was prepared to dethrone Isabella II, who was declared of age to rule in 1843. Never strong in numbers outside the towns, the Democrats radicalized politics. Orthodox progresista politicians were embarrassed by their extremist attitudes but could not neglect their potential role as urban revolutionaries.
It was not the Democrats but a group of discontented generals led by Leopoldo O’Donnell who successfully revolted in 1854. They were prepared to sacrifice the dynasty because the queen and her mother favoured a rigid court conservatism that effectively excluded them from influence. The rebellious military oligarchs were forced to call in civilian and radical support. This turned their pronunciamiento into a mild revolution. Isabella survived only through Espartero’s political timidity. Unprepared to accept the backing of the Democrats as the “George Washington of Spain,” he accepted an alliance with O’Donnell, who was determined to arrest the drift to radicalism. In 1856 he broke with Espartero, defeated a demonstration in his favour, and dissolved the National Militia, the instrument of the left-wing Progressives. The radical thrust was thus defeated.
The “revolutionary” period of 1854–56 saw no important constitutional change, but the further extension of disentailment to the lands belonging to the municipalities (the Land Reform of Madoz ) and the new law for limited companies provided the legal structure for a rapid expansion of the economy. To promote this expansion, there were new injections of foreign credit—particularly French—and new banks. This capital allowed construction to begin on the railroad network that was to provide the transport infrastructure for a national market. The textile industry of Catalonia flourished as a modern wool manufacture grew up; in the Basque Country the second pole of an industrial economy developed slowly around iron. The still-dominant agricultural sector expanded as the church and common lands provided new fields for wheat, the easiest of cash crops; the growth of such towns as Barcelona created a market for vegetables, wines, and fruit.
Expansion resulted in the classic expression of 19th-century liberalism—the haute bourgeoisie of finance and industry. Members of this new class ranged from solid Catalan manufacturers demanding protective tariffs to safeguard their gains to daring speculators such as José, marqués de Salamanca, a railway financier who took an active part in political life and the urbanization of Madrid. It also included successful generals ready to forget their humble origins. Together with the large landowners, these groups formed the oligarchy of liberalism.
The government that presided over this prosperity was O’Donnell’s Liberal Union, which was an attempt to fuse all dynastic parties in a broad-based coalition. It provided a long period of stable government (1856–63), and, had the Progressive politicians been less afraid of losing their left wing to the Democrats and had the queen been willing to grant Progressives power, the dynasty might have survived. Instead, she excluded the Progressives and forced them first to withdraw formally from political life and then to contemplate revolution. Their “sword,” General Juan Prim y Prats (a pharmacist’s grandson and a striking example of the social mobility of the liberal army), was a resolute conspirator and the ablest of the political generals of the 19th century. When Isabella’s court ministers alienated O’Donnell’s followers, a powerful coalition was formed, and Prim dropped his alliance with the Democrats. A series of mediocre ultraconservative governments, a growth in democratic agitation among university intellectuals (whose main concern was the hold of the church over education), and an economic slump caused by bad harvests gave wide support to the military rising against Isabella. Her armies would not defend her, and she was forced to leave for France in September 1868.
1Includes 58 indirectly elected seats.
2The constitution states that “Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State,” but that “the other Spanish languages [including Euskera (Basque), Catalan, and Galician will] also be official in the respective Autonomous Communities.”
|Official name||Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain)|
|Form of government||constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate ; Congress of Deputies )|
|Head of state||King: Felipe VI|
|Head of government||Prime Minister: Mariano Rajoy|
|Official language||Castilian Spanish2|
|Monetary unit||euro (€)|
|Population||(2013 est.) 47,888,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||195,364|
|Total area (sq km)||505,991|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2011) 77.4%|
Rural: (2011) 22.6%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2011) 79.1 years|
Female: (2011) 84.9 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: (2008) 98.4%|
Female: (2008) 96.9%
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2012) 30,110|