The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore is the cathedral church (Duomo) of Florence, Italy. This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral Duomo is a generic Italian term for a Cathedral church The formal word for a church that is presently a cathedral is cattedrale; a Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The basilica is notable for its dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, its exterior facing of polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink bordered by white. The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basiliké Stoà, Royal Stoa) was originally used to describe a Roman Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. For the character from the Oz series see Polychrome (fictional character.
The basilica was built on the site of a previous cathedral, Santa Reparata (locals of Florence continued to call the Cathedral by this former name for some time after reconstruction), and was inspired by the new cathedrals in Pisa and Siena. Santa Reparata is the former Cathedral of Florence, Italy. Its name refers to Saint Reparata, an early virgin martyr who is the co- Patron Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. By the end of the 13th century, the nine-centuries-old church of Santa Reparata was crumbling with age, as attested in documents of that time such as the Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani (1276–1348). The Nuova Cronica or New Chronicles is a 14th century History of Florence created in a year-by-year linear format and written by the Giovanni Villani (c 1276 or 1280&ndash1348 His Cronica is viewed as the first introduction of statistics as a positive element in history  Furthermore, it had become too small in a period of rapid population expansion.  Prosperous Florence also wanted to exceeded in size by Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, Saint Paul's Cathedral in London, the Seville Cathedral, and the Milan Cathedral. The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St St Paul's Cathedral, is the Anglican Cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, and the seat of the Bishop of London. The Cathedral of Seville, also known as Catedral de Santa María de la Sede (Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See) is the Cathedral of the city of Seville Milan Cathedral (Italian Duomo di Milano; Milanese: Domm de Milan) is the Cathedral
The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296 (although the design was altered several times and later reduced in size). Arnolfo di Cambio (c 1240 &ndash 1300/1310 was an Italian Architect and sculptor. Arnolfo di Cambio was also the famous architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. The Basilica di Santa Croce (Basilica of the Holy Cross is the principal Franciscan church in Florence, Italy, and a Minor basilica of the The Palazzo Vecchio (IPA pronunciation vɛkio (Italian for Old Palace is the town hall of Florence, Italy He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, 1296 by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian A Papal Legate – from the Latin authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the Pope to Foreign nations or to some part of the Catholic The building of this vast project was to last 170 years, the collective efforts of several generations.
After Arnolfo died in 1302, work on the cathedral slowed for the following thirty years. Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany The project obtained new impetus, when the relics of San Zanobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata. Saint Zenobius (San Zanobi Zenobio (337 – 417 is venerated as the first bishop of Florence. In 1331, the Arte della Lana (Guild of Wool Merchants) took over exclusive patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued along di Cambio's design. Andrea Pisano ( Pontedera, 1290 &ndash Pontedera, 1347 also known as Andrea da Pontedera, was an Italian sculptor and His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. A campanile &ndash pronounced /kampaˈnile/ &ndash is especially in Italy, a free-standing Bell tower, often adjacent to a church When Giotto died in 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was again halted due to the Black Plague in 1348. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia
In 1349 work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, commencing with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. Francesco Talenti (c 1300 &ndash 1369 was an Italian architect and sculptor who worked in Florence. APSE standing for Ada Programming Support Environment is a program or set of programs to support Software development in the Ada programming language. In 1359 Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the center nave in four square bays. Giovanni di Lapo Ghini was a 14th century Italian Architect working in Florence, he was one of the architects who contributed to the completion of the Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Orcagna. Alberto Arnoldi (or di Arnoldo) was a 14th century Italian sculptor and architect Andrea di Cione di Arcangelo (c 1308 &ndash August 25 1368) better known as Orcagna, was an Italian painter sculptor and architect By 1375 the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418 only the dome remained incomplete. In Romanesque and Gothic Christian Abbey, Cathedral Basilica and church Architecture, the nave is the
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. Carrara is a City in the Province of Massa-Carrara ( Tuscany, Italy) famous for the white or blue-gray Marble quarried there Prato is a city in Tuscany, Italy, the capital of the Province of Prato. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower. In Christian architecture the baptistery or baptistry ( Latin baptisterium) is the separate centrally-planned structure surrounding the The Florence Baptistry or Battistero di San Giovanni ( Baptistery of St Giotto’s bell tower ( Campanile) stands on the Cathedral square (Piazza del Duomo in Florence, Italy There are two lateral doors, the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with works of art of Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. Nanni d'Antonio di Banco (c 1384 &ndash 1421 was a Italian sculptor from Florence. Donatello ( Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c 1386 &ndash December 13, 1466) was a famous early Renaissance Italian Jacopo della Quercia (c 1374 &ndash October 20, 1438) was an Italian sculptor of the Italian Renaissance a contemporary of Brunelleschi, The six lateral windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows, closest to the transept, admit light; The other two are merely ornamental. Full descriptions of the elements of a Gothic floorplan are found at the entry Cathedral diagram. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic. Clerestory (ˈklɪə(rstɔəri lit clear storey, also clearstory, clearstorey, or overstorey) is an architectural term denoting The floor of the church was laid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
During its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici on Easter Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death). Girolamo Savonarola ( September 21, 1452 &ndash May 23, 1498) was an Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from Giuliano de' Medici (1453&ndash April 26, 1478) was the second son of Piero de' Medici (the Gouty Easter ( Greek: Πάσχα Pascha or Pasxa) is the most important religious feast in the Christian Liturgical year. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Lorenzo de' Medici (January 1 1449 &ndash 9 April 1492 was an Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance
By the beginning of the fifteenth century, the drum of the church was built. However, the 42 meter wide space above the church's chancel still did not have the planned octagonal cupola, even though a brick model from 1367 already existed (as related in the "Life of Brunelleschi" by Antonio Manetti, ca. In Architecture, a cupola or lantern is a radially symmetrical ornamental structure (often dome-shaped or quadrilateral located on top of a larger 1480).
In 1419, the Arte della Lana held a competition to design a dome and cupola for the cathedral. The Arte della Lana was the wool guild of Florence during the Late Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The two main competitors were Lorenzo Ghiberti (famous for his work on the "Gates of Paradise" doors at the Baptistery) and Filippo Brunelleschi who was supported by Cosimo de Medici, with Brunelleschi winning and receiving the commission. Lorenzo Ghiberti (born Lorenzo di Bartolo) (1378 &ndash December 1, 1455) was an Italian artist of the early Renaissance best known Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. 
The building of a stone dome posed many technical problems. Though Brunelleschi drew his inspiration from the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome, the use of concrete had long since been forgotten. The Pantheon ( Latin Pantheon, from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheon, meaning "Temple of all the gods" is a building in Rome He would have to build the dome out of bricks. To show what his dome was to look like, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco (on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo). Donatello ( Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c 1386 &ndash December 13, 1466) was a famous early Renaissance Italian Brunelleschi won by a nose. His model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, as to ensure his control over the construction.
Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious and unprecedented: the distinctive octagonal design of the double-walled dome, resting on a drum and not on the roof itself, allowed for the entire dome to be built without the need for scaffolding from the ground.  But, because the dome rested on a drum with no external butresses supporting it, there could be no lateral thrusts at the base of the dome. To ensure this, Brunelleschi used horizontal tension chains of wood and iron set at the base of the dome.
This enormous construction weighs 37,000 tons and contains over 4 million bricks. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. He made several models and drawings of details during the construction. Brunelleschi had to invent special hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and brilliant masonry techniques were Brunelleschi's spectacular contribution to architecture. The ability to transcribe a circle on a cone face within the innermost double-shelled wall makes the self-sustaining "horizontal" arch construction possible, since geometrically, a circular plan is needed for such an erection.
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, mocked these plans and called them unfeasible. Brunelleschi, deeply offended, then pretended a sickness and left for Rome, leaving the project in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423 Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.
Work started on the dome in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436 (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). Pope Eugene IV (1383 &ndash February 23, 1447) born Gabriele Condulmer, was Pope from March 3, 1431, to his death Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history (The Roman Pantheon, a circular dome, was built in 117–128 C. The Pantheon ( Latin Pantheon, from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheon, meaning "Temple of all the gods" is a building in Rome E. with support structures) to be built without a wooden supporting frame and was the largest dome built at the time (it is still the largest masonry dome in the world). It had been one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo). A buttress is an architectural structure built against (a counterfort) or projecting from a Wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in 1461. Michelozzo di Bartolomeo Michelozzi (1396 - 1472 was an Italian Architect and sculptor. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. Andrea del Verrocchio, born Andrea di Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, (c This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114. 5 metres (375 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
The commission for this bronze ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention. 
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo. Baccio D'Agnolo, born Bartolomeo Baglioni ( May 19 1462 - March 6 1543) was an Italian Woodcarver, sculptor Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. Only 150 years later would this dome be surpassed by Michelangelo's dome of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the nineteenth century.
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto's death. A mid-15th century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. Bernardino Poccetti, also known as Barbatelli, ( 26 August, 1548 - 10 October, 1612) was an Italian Mannerist painter and This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. Andrea di Cione di Arcangelo (c 1308 &ndash August 25 1368) better known as Orcagna, was an Italian painter sculptor and architect Taddeo Gaddi (c 1300 &ndash 1366 was an Italian painter and Architect, active during the early Renaissance. This original façade was only completed in its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587-1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Bernardo Buontalenti, byname of Bernardo Delle Girandole (1536? – June 25 or 26 1608 was an Italian stage designer architect theatrical designer Francesco I de' Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany ( 25 March 1541 &ndash 17 October 1587) was the second Grand Duke of Tuscany, ruling Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs have been proposed in later years but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
In 1864, a competition was held to design a new façade and was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808-1883) in 1871. Work was begun in 1876 and completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
The three huge bronze doors date from 1899 to 1903. They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna. The mosaics in the lunettes above the doors were designed by Niccolò Barabino. In architecture a lunette (French lunette "little moon" and also "glasses" is a half-moon shaped space either masonry or void They represent (from left to right): Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions, Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist, Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists paying homage to the Faith. The pediment above the central portal contains a half-relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter
On top of the façade is a series of niches with the twelve Apostles with, in the middle, the Madonna with Child. A pediment is a classical architectural element consisting of the triangular section found above the horizontal structure ( Entablature) typically supported by Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists. A Rose window (or Catherine window) is often used as a generic term applied to a circular Window, but is especially used for those found in churches A tympanum (plural tympana is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance bounded by a Lintel and Arch.
The cathedral is built as a basilica, with a nave and two aisles, forming a Roman cross. The nave and the aisles are divided by wide pointed arches with composite pilasters, dividing the nave into four square bays.
Its dimensions are enormous: length 153 metres (502 ft), width 38 metres (124 ft), width at the crossing 90 metres (295 ft). A crossing, in ecclesiastical architecture, is the junction of the four arms of a Cruciform (cross-shaped church The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres (75 ft). The height from pavement to the opening of the lantern in the dome is also 90 metres (295 ft).
The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression. See also Gothic art Gothic architecture is a style of Architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola.
Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits (the singing galleries for the choristers) of Luca della Robbia and Donatello. A cantor or chanter (Gk ψάλτης is the chief singer (and ofttimes instructor employed in a church with responsibilities for the ecclesiastical Choir Luca della Robbia (1400-1482 was an Italian sculptor from Florence, noted for his Terracotta roundels
As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:
Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello (1443). This one-handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica (Italian time), a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours. This timetable was used till the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order.
The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. For the Blackford Oakes novel see Stained Glass (novel The term stained glass refers either to the material of coloured Glass or to the art The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary. They are the work of the greatest Florentine artists of their times, such as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained-glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century. Gaddo Gaddi (c 1239 &ndash c 1312 was an Italian painter and mosaicist of Florence in a Gothic art style
Donatello designed the stained-glass window (Coronation of the Virgin) in the drum of the dome (the only one that can be seen from the nave).
The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso (1323), bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time. Tino di Camaino (c 1280 &ndash c 1337 was an Italian sculptor
The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano (1495-1497). Benedetto da Maiano ( 1442 - May 27 1497) was an Italian sculptor of the early Renaissance. The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli. Bartolommeo (or Baccio Bandinelli, actually Bartolommeo Brandini ( October 17, 1493 &ndash shortly before February 7, 1560) The ten-paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ. Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction
In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Saint Zenobius (San Zanobi Zenobio (337 – 417 is venerated as the first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser-known Giovanni Balducci. Giovanni Balducci, called Il Cosci after his maternal uncle (c There was also a glass-paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo.
Many decorations date from the 16th century, under patronage from the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo (1520-26). Some pieces of marble from the facade were used, topside down, in the flooring (as was shown by the restoration of the floor after the 1966 flooding).
At first, it was suggested that the interior of the 45 metre (147 ft) wide dome should be covered with a mosaic decoration to make the most of the available light coming through the circular windows of the drum and through the lantern. Brunelleschi has proposed the vault to glimmer with resplendent gold, but his death in 1446 put an end to this project, and the walls of the dome were whitewashed. Grand Duke Cosimo I de' Medici decided to have the dome painted with a representation of The Last Judgment. Cosimo I de' Medici (June 12 1519 &ndash April 21 1574 was Duke of Florence from 1537 to 1574 reigning as the first Grand This enormous work, 3,600 metres² (38 750 ft²) of painted surface, was started in 1568 by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari and would last till 1579. Giorgio Vasari ( 30 July 1511 – 27 June 1574) was an Italian painter and Architect, who is today famous Federico Zuccari, also known as Federigo Zuccaro (c 1542/ 1543 - July 20 1609) was an Italian Mannerist painter The upper portion, near the lantern, representing The 24 Elders of Apoc. 4 was finished by Vasari before his death in 1574. Federico Zuccari and a number of collaborators, such as Domenico Cresti, finished the other portions: (from top to bottom) Choirs of Angels; Christ, Mary and Saints; Virtues, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Beatitudes; and at the bottom of the cuppola: Capital Sins and Hell. Domenico Passignano (born Cresti or Crespi (1559 - 1636 was an Italian painter of a late- Renaissance or Contra- Maniera style that emerged in These frescoes are considered Zuccari's greatest work. But the quality of the work is uneven because of the input of different artists and the different techniques. Vasari had used true fresco, while Zuccari had painted in secco. Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or Fresco-secco (or a secco) is a Fresco Painting technique in which watercolors are applied to dry Plaster that has been moistened to
The cathedral underwent difficult excavations between 1965 and 1974. The subterranean vaults were used for the burial of Florentine bishops throughout the centuries.
Recently the archaeological history of this huge area was reconstructed: remains of Roman houses, an early Christian pavement, ruins of the former cathedral of Santa Reparata and successive enlargements of this church. Close to the entrance, in the part of the crypt open to the public, is the tomb of Brunelleschi. That the architect was permitted such a prestigious burial place is proof of the high esteem he was given by the Florentines.
A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system.