1: From Theory to Practical Application
2: Behavior Modification
3: Learned Helplessness
4: Limits of Behavioral Theory
the only thing worth measuring in behavioral theory
is behavior, it is only logical that the one thing
behaviorists focus on changing is also
behavior. Behavior modification is the generic
term given any process derived from learning theory
where the goal is to change a person's behavior or
the way he or she interacts with the world.
understand behavior modification, you have to
understand the two main concepts that it is based
on: Classical and Operant Conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to the pairing of
naturally occurring stimulus-response chains with
other stimuli in order to produce a similar response.
Operant conditioning started as an experiment in
learning and developed into the Law of Effect and
our knowledge of reinforcement, punishment, and
behavior modification, we apply these same
techniques in order to effect change on the way a
person acts or responds to the environment.
Changing complex behaviors, hence, requires complex
behavioral modification. The concept of shaping
comes into play here. Shaping refers to the
reinforcement of behaviors that approximate or come
close to the desired new behavior. The steps
involved are often called successive approximations
because they successively approximate or get closer
and closer to the desired behavior.
has found that this technique works well for phobias
and anxiety related disorders. Take
arachnophobia for instance, the fear of
spiders. To be diagnosed with a phobia you
must have both an irrational fear that is not
justified by current outcome and significant
distress or negative consequences because of this
irrational fear. To modify this fear or
the behavior of avoiding or running away from
spiders, behaviorists would apply the concept of
process of shaping involves the creation of a
hierarchy ranging from the least feared situation
(such as a stuffed animal that looks like a spider)
to the most feared situation (a real tarantula, for
example). We would then fill in the space between
the two with situations that progressively produce
higher levels of fear. The following is an
example of such a hierarchy:
would then start at the bottom of the hierarchy and
reinforce the person for engaging in this behavior,
or for our example, touching or handling the stuffed
animal. Once they master
this level, we would then move to the next level and
repeat the same process. Ultimately, through
shaping and behavior modification, the person will
be cured of their irrational fear of spiders.
This technique, and others based on the same
principles, have been found to be quite successful
for specific disorders.
concept described by Joseph Wolpe uses a hierarchy
like the example above but instead of applying
reinforcement, the client is taught to relax.
Some behaviors are incongruent with each other and
we have found that being tense, anxious and afraid
is not possible when a person is relaxed. The
theory argues that if we can teach a person to relax
in the presence of a feared object or situation,
then we can alleviate the associated fear.
systematic desensitization, an hierarchy is created,
typically by the client alone or with the assistance
of the behavioral therapist. Often the
hierarchy includes imagination such as imaging a
spider crawling toward you or imaging a spider on
your hand as intermediate steps. The goal of
this treatment is the same as shaping and
reinforcement; to eliminate the fear associated with
the object or situation.
techniques has also received much research that
suggests it is an effective and viable treatment for
phobias, anxiety related disorders, and even sexual
dysfunctions. The performance anxiety
associated with impotence in males is often reduced
significantly with systematic desensitization.
shaping uses the theory of operant conditioning and
reinforcement, systematic desensitization was
derived from classical conditioning. The
object (UCS), originally paired with fear (UCR) is
altered so that the object (CS) becomes paired with
relaxation (CR) and hence a relearning of a
conditioned response. Overall, both treatments have been applied to many
different symptoms related to anxiety and fear with
very positive outcomes.