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solar neutrino problem, long-standing astrophysics problem in which the amount of observed neutrinos originating from the Sun was much less than expected.
In the Sun, the process of energy generation results from the enormous pressure and density at its centre, which makes it possible for nuclei to overcome electrostatic repulsion. (Nuclei are positive and thus repel each other.) Once in some billions of years, a given proton (1H, in which the superscript represents the mass of the isotope) is close enough to another to undergo a process called inverse beta-decay, in which one proton becomes a neutron and combines with the second to form a deuteron (2D). This is shown symbolically on the first line of equation (1), in which e− is an electron and ν is a subatomic particle known as a neutrino.
While this is a rare event, hydrogen atoms are so numerous that it is the main solar energy source. Subsequent encounters (listed on the second and third lines) proceed much faster: the deuteron encounters one of the ubiquitous protons to produce helium-3 (3He), and these in turn form helium-4 (4He). The net result is that four hydrogen atoms are fused into one helium atom. The energy is carried off by gamma-ray photons (γ) and neutrinos (ν). Because the nuclei must have enough energy to overcome the electrostatic barrier, the rate of energy production varies as the fourth power of the temperature.
Equation (1) shows that for every two hydrogen atoms converted, one neutrino of average energy 0.26 MeV carrying 1.3 percent of the total energy released is produced. This produces a flux of 8 1010 neutrinos per square centimetre per second at Earth. In the 1960s the first experiment designed to detect solar neutrinos was built by the American scientist Raymond Davis (for which he won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2002) and carried out deep underground in the Homestake gold mine in Lead, S.D. The solar neutrinos in equation (1) had an energy (less than 0.42 MeV) that was too low to be detected by this experiment; however, subsequent processes produced higher-energy neutrinos that Davis’s experiment could detect. The number of these higher-energy neutrinos observed was far smaller than would be expected from the known energy-generation rate, but experiments established that these neutrinos did in fact come from the Sun. One possible reason for the small number detected was that the presumed rates of the subordinate process are not correct. Another more intriguing possibility was that the neutrinos produced in the core of the Sun interact with the vast solar mass and change to a different kind of neutrino that cannot be observed. The existence of such a process would have great significance for nuclear theory, for it requires a small mass for the neutrino. In 2002, results from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, nearly 2,100 metres (6,900 feet) underground in the Creighton nickel mine near Sudbury, Ont., showed that the solar neutrinos did change their type and thus that the neutrino had a small mass. These results solved the solar neutrino problem.
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