In recent years, a multifactorial pathogenesis with genetic predisposition has been emphasized . a chronic inflammatory disease that mainly affects the central facial skin (cheeks, chin, nose, and central forehead); it is characterized by flushing, transient or persistent rash, inflammatory papules and pustules, telangiectasia, and ocular manifestations [1-3]. According to its clinical presentation, it has been classified by the National Committee of Experts into the four following subtypes: erythematotelangiectatic, papulopustular, phymatous, and ocular . Rosacea affects about 10% of the population with a greater risk of sun-sensitive fair skin ; the disease can also develop in Asian and African populations Cloflubicyne . The severity of the disease appears to depend around the patients gender and age, where rosacea is usually three times more frequent in women than in men but more severe in men and younger patients, suggesting that this more severe forms of the disease manifest sooner or that the disease improves over time . The ocular variant of rosacea represents between 10% and 50% of the total rosacea population and is characterized by inflammation of the ocular surface tissues, including the eyelid edge (blepharitis) and eyes (tear film instability, eye irritation, red eyes, eye dryness, conjunctivitis, etc.) [8,9]. In the most severe cases, chronic corneal damage may lead to corneal neovascularization Cloflubicyne (CNV), corneal perforations, corneal ulcers, and corneal edemas, which compromise corneal transparency and lead to visual loss [3,10,11] (Physique 1). Open in a separate window Physique 1 Clinical manifestations of oculocutaneous rosacea. A: Patient with phymatous rosaceaCassociated rhinophyma, blepharophyma, nasal and facial erythema with telangiectasia. B: Blepharophyma with thickened lid edges, lid margin telangiectasia, meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD). C: Corneal neovascularization (CNV) of ocular rosacea growing from the superior limbus with a crescent pattern forming a vascular pannus. D: Catarrhal corneal infiltrate caused by rosacea. E: Common peripheral ulcerative keratitis (PUK) of rosacea, corresponding to sterile corneal melting of a crescentic area with newly formed stromal vessels. F: Advanced stage of ocular rosacea with white corneal infiltrates and whole corneal neovascularization, including the visual axis. To date, the diagnosis of rosacea has been established clinically based on observation and interpretation of skin and ocular signs. While many patients show both ocular and skin signs, some may only show ocular signs, which can make diagnosis more difficult [12-14]. The mechanisms of rosacea are still unclear. In recent years, a multifactorial pathogenesis with genetic predisposition has been emphasized . Many triggering factors, such as ultraviolet (UV) exposure, local inflammatory responses to skin microorganisms (associated with infestation and ocular rosacea has also been advocated [29,30]. Overall, all these phenomena in the skin and eye act in synergy to maintain chronic inflammation at the cutaneous, epidermal, conjunctival, and perivascular interface, eventually leading to secondary fibrosis . In this paper, we aim to review the common and specific pathogenic mechanisms of cutaneous and ocular rosacea and focus on the few models used to study this disease. Deregulation of the immune system Activation of immune-mediated inflammatory pathways appears to be at the center of the pathogenesis of rosacea and involves the coordinated activity of several cell types, such as mast cells and macrophages, and the release of proinflammatory mediators, such as IL-6, IL-1, IL-18, or TNF- [32,33]. Inhibition of these inflammatory pathways is usually correlated with clinical improvement. Innate immune system Cloflubicyne TLR-2/4 pathways As part of the innate immune system, members of the TLRs, which recognize physical and chemical stimuli or microbial pathogens, are expressed on the surface of various skin cells, including keratinocytes, macrophages, and mast cells . Induction of the innate immune response by TLR stimulation TLR2 induces the controlled and limited activation of NF-B and the subsequent production of cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides . However, uncontrolled activation of the innate immune system leads to deleterious consequences . In the skin of rosacea patients, TLR-2 is usually overexpressed around the keratinocytes in the epidermis and on infiltrating cells in the dermis [19,21], enhancing skin sensitivity to external stimuli and.
- Results of ongoing tests will better inform clinicians concerning the security and effectiveness of DOACs for treatment of acute VTE
- RIPK3-mediated phosphorylation of the mixed-lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL) promotes its oligomerization and insertion into the plasma membrane, forming a membrane-disrupting pore, leading to death248