Finding or creating and then
The Coding Problem
coding of texts and finding patterns.
Coding turns qualitative data (texts) into quantitative
codes just as arbitrary as the codes we make up in
e.g., the construction of questionnaires.
- to produce findings. The Data Collection process is not an end in
itself. The culminating activities of qualitative inquiry are analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of findings.
To make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of
information, identify significant patterns and construct a framework
for communicating the essence of what the data reveal
‘…have few agreed-on canons for qualitative data analysis, in the
sense of shared ground rules for drawing conclusions and verifying
sturdiness’ Miles and Huberman, 1984)
‘calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further
conclusions to which it tends’ (Glaser, 1941)
- means weighing up the arguments and evidence for and against.
Key points when thinking critically are (Glaser, 1941):
Persistence: Considering an issue carefully and more than once
Evidence: Evaluating the evidence put forward in support of the
belief or viewpoint
Implications: Considering where the belief or viewpoint leads; what
conclusions would follow; are these suitable and rational; and if not,
should the belief or viewpoint be reconsidered
involves additional processes:
Standing back from the information given
Examining it in detail from many angles
Checking closely whether each statement follows logically from
what went before
Looking for possible flaws in the reasoning, the evidence, or the
way that conclusions are drawn
Comparing the same issues from the point of view of other writers
Being able to see and explain why different people arrived at
Being able to argue why one set of opinions, results or conclusions
is preferable to another
Being on guard for literary or statistical devices that encourage the
reader to take questionable statements at face value
Checking for hidden assumptions
Checking for attempts to lure the reader into agreements
The Credibility of Qualitative Analysis
depends on three distinct but related inquiry elements:
1 Rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality
data that is carefully analysed, with attention to issues of
validity, reliability, and triangulation;
2 The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on
training, experience, track record, status, and presentation of
3 Philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm, that
is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry,
qualitative methods, inductive analysis and holistic thinking.
The Product of Qualitative Data
"Naturalistic inquiry is always a matter of degree"
extent to which the researcher influences responses
and imposes categories on the data.
The more "pure" the naturalistic inquiry, the less
reduction of data into categories.
Bogdan and Biklen
"working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable
units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what
is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you
will tell others" (1982:145)
to place the raw data into logical, meaningful categories;
to examine them in a holistic fashion;
to communicate this interpretation to others.
Common stages of analysis
Familiarisation with the data through review, reading, listening etc.
Transcription of tape recorded material.
Organisation and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification.
Anonymising of sensitive data.
Coding (or indexing).
Identification of themes.
Development of provisional categories.
Exploration of relationships between categories.
Refinement of themes and categories.
Development of theory and incorporation of pre-existing knowledge.
Testing of theory against the data.
Report writing, including excerpts from original data if appropriate (e.g.,
quotes from interviews).
3 broad levels of analysis that could be
Simply count the number of times a particular word or concept
occurs (e.g., loneliness) in a narrative: The qualitative data can then
be categorised quantitatively and subjected to statistical analysis.
For a thematic analysis want to go deeper than this.
All units of data (eg sentences or paragraphs) referring to loneliness could be
given a particular code, extracted and examined in more detail. Do
participants talk of being lonely even when others are present? Are there
particular times of day or week when they experience loneliness? In what
terms do they express loneliness? Do men and women talk of loneliness in
different ways? Are those who speak of loneliness also those who
experience depression? Themes could eventually be developed such as
‘lonely but never alone’ or ‘these four walls’.
For a theoretical analysis such as grounded theory you would want
to go further still.
1. Analysis Considerations
2 Context (tone and inflection)
3 Internal consistency (opinion shifts during groups)
4 Frequency and intensity of comments (counting, content
7 Iteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative process
moving back and forth)
Grounded theory – constant
open coding (initial familiarisation with the data)
delineation of emergent concepts
conceptual coding (using emergent concepts)
refinement of conceptual coding schemes
clustering of concepts to form analytical
searching for core categories
core categories lead to identification of core
identification of the themes emerging from the raw data,
"open coding" (Strauss & Corbin 1990)
identify and tentatively name the conceptual categories into
which the phenomena observed will be grouped.
goal - to create descriptive, multi-dimensional categories
which form a preliminary framework for analysis.
Raw data are broken down into manageable chunks, and
researcher devises an "audit trail".
Next stage of analysis:
Re-examination of the categories identified to determine how
they are linked: "axial coding“.
Discrete categories identified in open coding are compared
and combined in new ways as the researcher begins to
assemble the "big picture."
Purpose of coding not only to describe but to acquire new
understanding of a phenomenon of interest.
During axial coding the researcher is responsible for building
a conceptual model and for determining whether sufficient
data exists to support that interpretation.
Researcher translates the conceptual model into
the story line that will be read by others.
Research report should be a rich, tightly woven
account that "closely approximates the reality it
Stages of analysis not necessarily linear, in
practice occur simultaneously and repeatedly.
RULES OF DATA ANALYSIS
1 Timing of Analysis
a) in relation to data collection
following data collection = linear
continuing, interactive (e.g., constant comparative
analysis) in a matrix
b) in relation to phases of study
cyclical approach to data collection and analysis specified
in some designs - (e.g., action research, case study, co-
operative inquiry). Interim analysis.
2. Separability of Data
a) abstraction of ideas/concepts from 'raw data'
b) interaction between different datasets, e.g.,
'melting pot' of all data vs. each tranche
c) combination - when and how datasets may (or
must) be combined or separated
3. Admissibility of Data
a) relative value or worth of different kinds
of data and how it is assessed
b) validation required (and how) or not, e.g.,
by members, research participants, other
Mark, corral, and reduce data.
Start with codes a priori or allow to develop.
Codes evolve with time and experience.
Analyzing data and codes:
Mimic quantitative by counting, correlating.
Reduce data and focus analysis.
Proliferate codes to see layers of meaning.
Does not alter analysis process.
Usually not a shortcut or timesaver.
Programs fit different data & needs.
Atlas-ti: large datasets, unstructured coding, mimic paper
code & sort.
NUDIST: large datasets, structured coding, mimic quant
NVivo: less data, unstructured coding, find
patterns/relationships in codes.
Folio Views: huge datasets, focused coding, search & sort.
Code-based theory builders
Start the analysis right away and keep a running account
of it in your notes
Involve more than one person
Leave enough time and money for analysis and writing
Be selective when using computer software packages in
The Qualitative Analytical Process
(Adapted from descriptions of Strauss and Corbin, 1990, Spiggle 1994,
Miles and Huberman, 1994)
Components Procedures Outcomes
Data Reductions Coding Description
Data Display Comparison