+ = Hybridization - The Blending of Orbitals Poodle + Cocker Spaniel = Cockapoo + = sp orbital s orbital + p orbital =
What Proof Exists for Hybridization? We have studied electron configuration notation and the sharing of electrons in the formation of covalent bonds. Lets look at a molecule of methane, CH4. Methane is a simple natural gas. Its molecule has a carbon atom at the center with four hydrogen atoms covalently bonded around it.
Carbon ground state configuration What is the expected orbital notation of carbon in its ground state? Can you see a problem with this? (Hint: How many unpaired electrons does this carbon atom have available for bonding?)
Carbon’s Bonding Problem You should conclude that carbon only has TWOelectrons available for bonding. That is not notenough. What is taking place in order that carbon may form four bonds?
Carbon’s Empty Orbital The first thought that chemists had was that carbon promotes one of its 2s electrons… …to the empty 2p orbital.
However, they quickly recognized a problem with such an arrangement… Three of the carbon-hydrogen bonds would involve an electron pair in which the carbon electron was a 2p, matched with the lone 1s electron from a hydrogen atom.
This would mean that three of the bonds in a methane molecule would be identical, because they would involve electron pairs of equal energy. But what about the fourth bond…?
The fourth bond is between a 2s electron from the carbon and the lone 1s hydrogen electron. Such a bond would have slightly less energy than the other bonds in a methane molecule.
This bond would be slightly different in character than the other three bonds in methane. This difference would be measurable to a chemist by determining the bond length and bond energy. But is this what they observe?
The simple answer is, “No”. Measurements show that all four bonds in methane are equal. Thus, we need a new explanation for the bonding in methane. Chemists have proposed an explanation – they call it Hybridization. Hybridizationis the combining of two or more orbitals of nearly equal energy within the same atom into orbitalsof equal energy.
In the case of methane, they call the hybridization sp3, meaning that an s orbital is combined with three porbitals to create four equal hybrid orbitals. 2sp3 2sp3 2sp3 2sp3 1s These new orbitals have slightly MOREenergy than the 2s orbital… … and slightly LESSenergy than the 2porbitals.
sp3 Hybrid Orbitals Here is another way to look at the sp3 hybridization and energy profile…
sp Hybrid Orbitals While sp3 is the hybridization observed in methane, there are other types of hybridization that atoms undergo. These include sp hybridization, in which one s orbital combines with a single p orbital. This produces two hybrid orbitals, while leaving two normal p orbitals
sp2 Hybrid Orbitals Another hybrid is the sp2, which combines two orbitals from a p sublevel with one orbital from an s sublevel. One p orbital remains unchanged.
Exclusion Warning An understanding of the derivation and depiction of these orbitals is beyond the scope of this course and the AP Exam. Current evidence suggests that hybridization involving d orbitals does not exist, and there is controversy about the need to teach any hybridization. Until there is agreement in the chemistry community, we will continue to include sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridization in the current course.
Hybridization Involving “d” Orbitals Beginning with elements in the third row, “d” orbitals may also hybridize dsp3 =fivehybrid orbitals of equal energy d 2sp3 = six hybrid orbitals of equal energy
Hybridization and Molecular Geometry A = central atom X =atoms bonded to A E = nonbonding electron pairs on A
Sigma and Pi Bonds Sigma () bonds exist in the region directly between two bonded atoms. Pi () bonds exist in the region above and below a line drawn between two bonded atoms.
Sigma and Pi BondsSingle Bonds 1 bond Ethane
Sigma and Pi Bonds:Double bonds 1 bond Ethene 1 bond
Sigma and Pi BondsTriple Bonds 1 bond Ethyne 1 bond 1 bond
The De-Localized Electron Model Pi bonds () contribute to the delocalized model of electrons in bonding, and help explain resonance Electron density from bonds can be distributed symmetrically all around the ring, above and below the plane.