a subjective feeling that is mentally directed toward some object
In the ____________ __________ theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an emotion, which then leads to an arousal.
In _________'s theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to direct arousal, which is then interpreted as an emotion
According to ____________'s ________________ theory of emotion, in response to a stimulus, one must experience a physical arousal AND assign a cognitive label to the arousal in order to experience an emotion.
True or False: Cognitive labeling plays a role in determining emotions, but it is not very significant.
facial feedback hypothesis
According to this theory, facial expressions can cause, shape, and intensify emotions. This was demonstrated in Soussigan's "pencil study" in 2002.
facial expressions with a duration that is on the order of milliseconds.
physical arousal, cognitive label
According to Schacter's theory of emotion, there are two requirements for experiencing an emotion. What are these two requirements? 1) Experience ____________ ______________ in response to a stimulus. 2) Assign a ______________ _____________ to what was experienced.
True or False: Schacter provided experimental evidence for his theory of emotion by artificially providing physical arousal to his subjects (via epinephrine), and then manipulating the emotions they experienced by providing cues in the environment.
An emotion has two components. What are they?
The feeling associated with emotion, independent of the object
a free-floating emotional feeling, not directed at a specific object
a cluster of nuclei in the temporal lobe under the cerebral cortex, that forms part of the limbic system; it is the brain's early warning system, and is essiential for unconscious emotional processes
The amygdala receives sensory input via two routes: a very rapid ____________ route that analyzes incoming information even before it's processed by the cerebral cortex, and a somewhat slower _________ route that analyzes in more detail information that's processed by the cortex.
True or False: people with damage to the amygdala generally can still respond emotionally to stimuli . (Answer on pg 221)
The foremost portion of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex; it is essential for the full conscious experience of emotions and the ability to act in deliberate, planned ways based on those feelings.
amygdala, somatosensory cortex
The prefrontal cortex receives input from the ____________ and from the _________________ ________.
The prefrontal cortex of the ______ hemisphere appears to be most involved in negative emotions, and that of the ______ hemisphere appears to be most involved in positive emotions.
the entire constellation of factors, some inside the organism and some outside, that cause an individual to behave in a particular way at a particular time
an internal condition that orients an individual toward a specific category of goals and that can change over time in a reversible way; an aroused tension state
another name for drive.
Drive Reduction Theory
According to this theory, a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to carry out behaviors that satisfy the need, thereby reducing drives
True or False: Drive reducing behaviors, such as eating or drinking, are learned.
constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain
Drives that protect homeostasis are called _____________ drives. These include hunger and thirst.
Drives that cause an organism to avoid, escape, or fend off danger are called __________ drives. These include fear, and anger (may also include sleep).
Drives that promote sexual activity and nurturing are called _____________ drives.
Drives that cause one to seek out friendship and approval are called ________ drives.
___________'s theory of motivation argues that motivational needs are arranged hierarchically, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization
The highest category of needs in Maslow's heirarchy; it involves the development of one's potential to its full extent.
Drives that promote an organism to play, explore, or learn are called _______________ drives.
The "appetite control center" of the brain
The _______________ region of the hypothalamus is critical for appetite suppression. Damage to this area causes laboratory rats to become ___________.
The _______________ region of the hypothalamus is critical for appetite stimulation. Damage to this area causes laboratory rats to _______ a lot of weight.
A hormone secreted by the cells in the large intestine. High levels of this hormone have been correlationally and experimentally associated with decreased appetite.
A hormone secreted by fat cells; people who lack the gene associated with the production of this hormone are generally obese. The amount of this hormone that is secreted is directly proportional to the amount of fat that is in the cells.
True or False: Additional leptin injections can benefit people who want to lose weight, regardless of whether they have the ability to produce leptin on their own.
True or False: If you have a friend whose weight has increased, your weight is more likely to increase as well.
the part of the hypothalamus that is the "master center" of appetite control and weight regulation; it is situated in the center of the lowest portion of the hypothalamus, very close to the pituitary gland.
This hormone excites appetite-suppressing neurons and inhibits appetite-stimulating neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus
the phenomenon by which a person or animal who is satiated on one food still has an appetite for another food that has a different taste
a person's body weight in kilograms divided by the square of the person's height in meters.
A BMI of 25 or more is considered _____________, and one of 30 or more is considered _____________.
True or False: Within Western cultures, the determination of who does or does not become obese depends very much on genes and relatively little on the specific home environment. (Answer on pg 193)
True or False: Within Western cultures, the determination of who does or does not become obese depends very much on genes and relatively little on the specific home environment, so body weight is little influenced by the environment. (Answer on pg 193)
True or False: The environmental conditions that promote obesity are fairly constant within Western cultures, so differences in weight have mostly to do with genetic differences in how individuals respond to those conditions. (Answer on pg 193).
True or False: Decreased food intake is generally very effective in inducing weight loss. (Answer on pg 194)
the subjective feeling of pleasure, or satisfaction, that occurs when one receives a reward; this is based on experience
the desire to obtain a reward; this is typically measured by assessing the amount of effort an individual will exert, or the amount of pain the individual will bear, in order to obtain the reward
the effects that rewards have in promoting learning
medial forebrain bundle
a bundle of neurons that runs from the midbrain to the basal ganglia and other forebrain areas; contains neurons that are most crucial for the liking and wanting of a reward
midbrain, nucleus accumbens
The neurons of the medial forebrain bundle have their cell bodies in nuclei in the ___________ and synaptic terminals in a large nucleus in the ____________ _____________.
a nucleus(center of cell bodies) in the basal ganglia that is a crucial part of the brain's reward mechanism
a neurotransmitter in the brain that is crucial for the "wanting" component of reward, but not for the "liking" component; it is also crucial for an animals ability to learn to use cues to predict when and where rewards are available.
rats treated with drugs that block the effect of _____________ in the nucleus accumbens continue to like rewards, but they do not continue to seeks out or work for rewards that are not immediately present.
a neurotransmitter in the brain that act like morphine in inhibiting pain and that are crucial for the "liking" component of reward, but not for the "wanting" component
Dopanime release promotes ______________ ________________ (LTP) of neural connections within the nucleus accumbens.
When a reward is unexpected, the release of _____________ immediately after the reward helps to reinforce the remembered association between the reward and any stimulus or response that happened to precede it.
Drugs are addictive because they produce an immediate sense of euphoria, and they strongly activate the ___________-receiving neurons in the nucleus accumbens that are responsible for promoting reward-based learning.
central-state theory of drives
the theory that the most direct physiological bases for motivational states, or drives, lie in neural activity in the brain. According to this theory, different drives correspond to activity in different, localizable sets of neurons
central drive system
according to the central-state theory of drives, this is a set of neurons in the brain that, when active, most directly promotes a specific motivational state, or drive; this must 1)receive and integrate the various signals that can raise or lower the drive state, and 2)act on all the neural processes that would be involved in carrying out the motivated behavior
The ________________ is probably the hub of many central drive systems.
a condition of relative unresponsiveness to the environment
When a person is awake and attentive, their EEG shows low-amplitude, fast, irregular waves called _________ waves.
When a person is relaxed and awake (i.e., awake, but nonattentive), their EEG consists of large, regular waves called _________ waves.
Stage __ of the sleep cycle is a brief transition stage, when the person is first falling asleep.
Stage __ of the sleep cycle is characterized by brief bursts of rapid waves called sleep spindles, which are the most distinctive markers of the onset of sleep.
Stage __ of the sleep cycle is arbitrarily defined as the period when 10 to 50 percent of the EEG consists of delta waves.
As sleep deepens, an increased percentage of EEG is devoted to slow, irregular, high-amplitude waves called ________ waves.
Stage __ of the sleep cycle is the stage of deepest sleep; the EEG is almost entirely devoted to delta waves.
True or False: The goal of sleeping is to reach stage 4, the deepest stage of sleep. Once a person has reached stage 4 of the sleep cycle, the person has had enough sleep.
the recurring stage of sleep during which the EEG resembles that of an alert person; rapid eye movements occur, the large muscles of the body are most relaxed, and true dreams are most likely to occur. It is sometimes called emergent stage 1, and it marks the beginning of a new sleep cycle.
Stages 2, 3, and 4 of the sleep cycle are referred to collectively as ______________ ________.
True or False: In a typical night's sleep, a person goes through 4 or 5 sleep cycles, each lasting about 90 minutes, with the deepest non-REM sleep occurring in the first or second cycle. (Answer on pg 203).
True or False: Essentially everyone dreams several times a night, regardless of whether they remember dreaming when they wake up. (Answer on pg 204)
People who are awakened during non-REM sleep report some sort of mental activity, called _________ __________, roughly half of the time. This mental activity is akin to daytime thinking, although it is usually ineffective.
preservation and protection theory
This theory of sleep posits that sleep came about in evolution to preserve energy and protect individuals during that portion of each 24-hour day when there is relatively little value and considerable danger in moving about (due to predators).
True or False: meat-eating animals sleep less than grazing animals of comparable size. (Answer on pg 206)
When do animals that rely heavily on vision sleep? (Day or night?) When do animals that rely on other senses sleep?
According to this theory of sleep, the body wears out during the day and sleep is necessary to put it back in shape.
True or False: small mammals tend to sleep longer than large mammals. (Answer on pg 206).
True or False: REM sleep provides regular exercise to groups of neurons in the brain, which helps preserve important circuits. (Answer on pg 207)
True or False: REM sleep occurs to a much greater degree only in fetuses and infants, when compared to adults. This is only true for humans. (Answer on pg 207)
people who sleep far less than most other people and yet do not feel tired during the day.
a person who has a normal drive for sleep but who has great difficulty sleeping at night, and feels tired all day as a result of not sleeping
any physiological or behavioral change in a person or other living thing that has a period of about 1 day even in the absence of external cues signaling the time of day
The "clock" that controls the circadian rhythm of sleep in mammals is located in a specific nucleus of the hypothalamus called the ________________ _________.
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
A nucleus in the hypothalamus in front of the suprachiasmatic nucleus; stimulation of this area causes sleepiness.
True or False: lack of sleep is associated with hypertension, obesity, and a less effective immune system.
True or False: In an experiment, young adult males that were sleep-deprived for 4 nights became prediabetic.
chronic sleep deficit
The daylight savings study showed that gaining 1 hour of extra sleep is enough to significantly reduce the number of traffic accidents. This implies that we all operate under a ________ _________ _________.
____% of Americans report having sleep problems (including insomnia, snoring, sleep apnea, and restless leg).
Only ___% of Americans say "yes" when asked, "Do you have a sleep problem?".
___% of Americans report feeling tired or fatigued at least 1 day per week.
___% of Americans have been late for work because of sleep problems.
_______ sleep plays a role in memory consolidation; improvements on certain tasks occurs after this kind of sleep.
The primary adrenal sex hormone; the primary hormone responsible for the onset of sexual feelings and attractions in young humans of both sexes (starting at age 10). This hormone is secreted starting at about age 6, and the amount secreted rises continuously until the mid-teens, when it stabilizes at adult levels.
effects of sex hormones that create the long-lasting structural differences between males and females of a species; occur before or immediately after birth and cause the brain to develop in a male or female direction
temporary, reversible effects that sex hormones have on sexual drives; occur during or after puberty
In male mammals, including humans, the most crucial hormone for the maintenance of the sexual drive after puberty is _______________.
medial preoptic area
Area of the hypothalamus with receptor sites for testosterone; is a crucial part of the central drive system in male animals.
True or false: In human women, ovarian hormones apparently play a relatively small role in regulation of the sex drive. (Answer on pg 198).
The adrenals of adult human women produce both _______ and ________________. When injected into women whose adrenals have been removed, the latter reliably increases the women's sex drive.
True or False: Sexual orientation is something that most people can choose or change through willpower or psychotherapy. (Answer on pg 200).
True or False: The male homosexual brain is more like the female heterosexual brain than like the male heterosexual brain. (Answer on pg 200).
A psychiatirc syndrome that is likely to appear in the Sexual Disorders section of the DSM-V; it is informally known as sex addiction.
four, time, dysphoric, stressful, unsuccessful, disregarding, clinically significant, exogenous substance
FILL IN THE BLANKS: If hypersexual disorder appears in the DSM-V, a person will be diagnosed with the disorder if... (A) They have experienced recurrent and intense sexual fantasies, sexual urges, and sexual behavior in association with _____ or more of the following five criteria over a period of at least six months: 1) A great deal of ________ is consumed by sexual fantasies and urges, and by planning for engaging in sexual behavior, 2/3) The person repetitively engages in these sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior in response to ____________ mood states (e.g., anxiety, depression, boredom, irritability) or ___________ life events, 4) The person makes repetitive but ______________ efforts to control or significantly reduce these sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior, 5) The person repetitively engages in sexual behavior while ________________ the risk for physical or emotional harm to self or others. (B)There is ___________ ____________ personal distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning associated with the frequency and intensity of these sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior. (C) These sexual fantasies, urges, and behavior are not due to the direct physiological effect of an ___________ ______________ (e.g., a drug of abuse or a medication).
The determination of a new sexual disorder is a _____________ because any person can register on www.dsm5.org and submit opinions for each proposed disorder.
True or False: The order of Maslow's heirarchy of needs, from bottom to top, is 1) Basic Physiological Needs, 2) Safety Needs, 3) Esteem Needs, 4) Belongingness and Love Needs, and 5) Self-Actualizing Needs.
Maslow's theory is a _________ __________ of motivation because people strive to satisfy successively higher needs.
Liking occurs ________ a reward is received, while wanting occurs _________ the reward.
The restoration theory of sleep explains why __________ animals tend to sleep longer than __________ animals; the former have higher metabolic rates, leading to increased cellular injury that would require more time for repair.
According to this theory of sleep, REM-sleep "exercises" neural pathways in the brain.
According to this theory of sleep, REM sleep improves performance on certain tasks.
True or False: Facial expressions can CAUSE emotions.