The Creek Indian War
Andrew Jackson had a long history with the Indians. During the War of 1812, he led militia forces in a war against Creek Indians.
One faction of the Creek sided with the British and fought the United States along the western frontier. This group, known as Red Sticks because of the bright red war clubs they carried, followed the teachings of the charismatic Shawnee, Tecumseh. In 1811 Tecumseh rallied his people, Where today are the Peqout? Where are the Narragansett, the Mahican, the Pokanoket? Will we let ourselves be destroyed in our turn without a struggle, give up our homes, our country bequeathed to us by the Great Spirit, the graves of our dead and everything that is dear and sacred to us? I know you will cry with me, Never! Never!
The Red Sticks believed that Indians of many tribes needed to unite against the United States. On August 30, 1813, the Red Sticks attacked Fort Mims in the Mississippi Territory. In the bloody massacre, they killed between 300 and 400 people, including militiamen, women, and children. Andrew Jackson would soon avenge the loss in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend
On March 27, 1814, Andrew Jackson, with a force 3,300 men consisting of Tennessee militia, United States regulars, and both Cherokee and Lower Creek allies, attacked Chief Me-Na-Wa and 1,000 Upper Creek or Red Stick warriors fortified in the horseshoe bend of the Tallapoosa River. The Red Sticks were trapped and slaughtered, ending the Creek War. In the treaty that followed, the Creek lost twenty million acres of land, half of all they claimed.
A Civilized People
In the early 19th century, the Cherokee people began adapting traditions of their white neighbors. While many white people believed that Indians were incapable of cultural change, the Cherokee proved them wrong. Their leaders saw value in the technology and culture of their white neighbors and successfully adopted their methods of farming, weaving, and home building. They created their own constitution and government. Some attended white schools.
In 1821, Sequoyah developed a written version of the Cherokee language. In 1828, the tribe began publishing a newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix. The first American Indian newspaper is still published today as the Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate. In 1827, the Cherokee drafted their own constitution, following the model of the United States. The constitution declared that they would never give up their ancestral homeland in the East. These dramatic developments won the admiration and support of many Americans, particularly in the Northeast.
In 1829, prospectors discovered gold in north Georgia on land that the Cherokee had long controlled. This new-found wealth was a major reason that whites demanded the eviction of the Cherokee. By 1830, the Georgia gold strike was producing over 300 ounces of gold a day. That same year, the Congress of the United States passed the Indian Removal Act. The Cherokees fought the removal laws in the Supreme Court and established an independent Cherokee Nation. In 1832, the Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee with Chief Justice John Marshall declaring that the Cherokee Nation was sovereign and the removal laws invalid. President Andrew Jackson defied the decision of the court and ordered the removal.
Trail of Tears
In 1838, General Winfield Scott and U.S. Army troops began removing the remaining Cherokee in the South to present-day Oklahoma. Some Cherokee had gone west before the federal government began Indian removal, but most had remained. Men, women, and children were taken from their homes, herded into makeshift shelters, and forced to march or travel by boat over a thousand miles during a bitter winter. About 4,000 Cherokee died during the journey. Their forced removal, known ever since as the Trail of Tears, is among the most tragic episodes in American history. They were one of five major tribes forced to move west.