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- Basic concepts of particle physics
- The basic forces and their messenger particles
- Classes of subatomic particles
- The development of modern particle theory
- Quantum electrodynamics: Describing the electromagnetic force
- Quantum chromodynamics: Describing the strong force
- Electroweak theory: Describing the weak force
- Current research in particle physics
The weakest, and yet the most pervasive, of the four basic forces is gravity. It acts on all forms of mass and energy and thus acts on all subatomic particles, including the gauge bosons that carry the forces. The 17th-century English scientist Isaac Newton was the first to develop a quantitative description of the force of gravity. He argued that the force that binds the Moon in orbit around the Earth is the same force that makes apples and other objects fall to the ground, and he proposed a universal law of gravitation.
According to Newton’s law, all bodies are attracted to each other by a force that depends directly on the mass of each body and inversely on the square of the distance between them. For a pair of masses, m1 and m2, a distance r apart, the strength of the force F is given byF = Gm1m2/r2. G is called the constant of gravitation and is equal to 6.67 × 10−11 newton-metre2-kilogram−2.
The constant G gives a measure of the strength of the gravitational force, and its smallness indicates that gravity is weak. Indeed, on the scale of atoms the effects of gravity are negligible compared with the other forces at work. Although the gravitational force is weak, its effects can be extremely long-ranging. Newton’s law shows that at some distance the gravitational force between two bodies becomes negligible but that this distance depends on the masses involved. Thus, the gravitational effects of large, massive objects can be considerable, even at distances far outside the range of the other forces. The gravitational force of the Earth, for example, keeps the Moon in orbit some 384,400 km (238,900 miles) distant.
Newton’s theory of gravity proves adequate for many applications. In 1915, however, the German-born physicist Albert Einstein developed the theory of general relativity, which incorporates the concept of gauge symmetry and yields subtle corrections to Newtonian gravity. Despite its importance, Einstein’s general relativity remains a classical theory in the sense that it does not incorporate the ideas of quantum mechanics. In a quantum theory of gravity, the gravitational force must be carried by a suitable messenger particle, or gauge boson. No workable quantum theory of gravity has yet been developed, but general relativity determines some of the properties of the hypothesized “force” particle of gravity, the so-called graviton. In particular, the graviton must have a spin quantum number of 2 and no mass, only energy.
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