The chronological system presented below has been developed by scholars over many decades, but is based in particular on the discoveries made by members of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition between 1927 and 1931 (Bronze and Iron Ages and Hellenistic to Roman periods) and by Porphyrios Dikaios and James Stewart between the 1930s and 1950s (Neolithic, Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age). The results were brought together in a series of analytic volumes published by the Swedish Cyprus Expedition between 1948 and 1972.
Archaeological discoveries and research since this time, including greater synchronisation of Cypriot cultural phases with those of surrounding regions, but also the increased availability of Carbon-14 (C-14) dates, has altered many details of this basic scheme. Furthermore, evidence for the very early history of Cyprus has expanded in a way almost unimaginable to previous generations of archaeologists working on Cyprus and new discoveries continue to alter the chronological and cultural framework within which scholars reconstruct the island’s past.
It should be stressed that the chronological boundaries between key periods given here, particularly the successive phases of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods and the Philia and Bronze Age are approximate. They are based in part on highly regionalised cultural sequences, many without firm C-14 dates, but even synchronisations with historical events and horizons can be misleading if understood literally or uncritically. Older terms for various phases of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods of the island (such as Khirokitia, Sotira and Erimi etc) have relatively limited application nowadays, as the histories of these sites often represent only one phase of the broader cultural period. They are include below however to help readers familiar with the older terms.
Given the rapid developments in the archaeology of the island in recent years, it is likely that these dates and associated periodisations will be subject to change in the near future in line with new discoveries and refinements of existing date. This includes the likelihood of greater clarity about the nature and chronology extent of the Cypro-Pre-Pottery Neolithic (especially the existence of its earliest phase) and the nature and date of hunter-forager sites such as Akrotiri-Aetokremnos, Nissi Beach and Akamas-Asprosl.
Detailed subdivisions of periods for the Bronze and Iron Ages are mostly based on the seriation (statistical analysis) of pottery types from tombs with very limited numbers of absolute dates. The latter are based on synchronisations with more closely datable objects/levels in neighbouring areas of the Eastern Mediterranean as well as a much small sample of narrow C14 dates. These should not be regarded as hard historical divisions but instead mark general cultural transitions within broader social and historical frameworks.
Dissatisfaction with aspects of the chronological system proposed by the Swedish Cyprus Expedition since it was first introduced has led to various modifications of the system over the years. Some of these changes have been incorporated without dispute, while others remain the subject of debate. The most recent major re-evaluation of the early Iron Age was published in 2009 by Smith based on the stratigraphy of Kition.
In addition, it should be noted that the conventional dates for the transition from Cypro-Archaic to Cypro-Classical (c. 475 bc ), Cypro-Classical to Hellenistic (traditionally 312 bc) or Hellenistic to Roman (58 or 30 bc) have often been fixed with reference to specific historical events. However, the degree to which these events had an immediate or even direct effect on the material culture of Cyprus is debatable. Consequently, more general dates are preferred, especially when discussing the development of object types which are known to have been in use for long periods. The reader is referred to individual chapters for further comments on the problems of dating specific sites or object types given the limited contextual evidence recorded by 19th-century excavators.
All dates given below are approximate and are bc unless otherwise stated. The dates for the earliest human activity on Cyprus are derived from uncalibrated C-14 data and are conventionally given as BP (Before Present) rather than bc. To avoid confusion for the non-specialist, straightforward calendrical dates are provided here, especially as it is highly likely that future developments will alter this information. For a general outline of dating methods, see C. Renfrew and P. Bahn 2008, Archaeology: Theories, methods and practice (5th ed.), London.
|Cultural Phase||Approximate date||Revised systems |
(esp. Knapp 2004;
|Akrotiri phase||10th millennium|
|Early/Middle Aceramic Neolithic||9000–7000|
Neolithic A (?)
|Earlier 9th millennium (?)|
|Later Aceramic Neolithic
(inc. Khirokitia culture)
(inc. Erimi culture)
|2500–2300||Prehistoric Bronze Age|
|MCIII||1750–1650||Protohistoric Bronze Age I|
|CGIA||1050–1000||ProBA III (–1000 BC)|
|CGII||950–900||(CG I–II) 1050–925/900|
|Late Roman/Early Byzantine||400AD –700AD|