Social and political aspects of birth control
In 1798 Thomas Malthus wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population. It posed the conundrum of geometrical population growth’s outstripping arithmetic expansion in resources. Malthus, who was an Anglican clergyman, recommended late marriage and sexual abstinence as methods of birth control. A small group of early 19th-century freethinkers, including Jeremy Bentham, Francis Place (himself the father of 15 children), and John Stuart Mill, suggested more pragmatic birth control methods such as coitus interruptus, vaginal barriers, and postcoital douching. Robert Dale Owen, the son of a Scottish social reformer, helped spread these revolutionary ideas in North America, and in 1832 a Massachusetts physician and freethinker, Charles Knowlton, wrote a slim book called The Fruits of Philosophy: or The Private Companion of Young Married People. Although Knowlton’s first edition was published anonymously, he was fined and imprisoned. The book appeared in England two years later and continued to be read for the next 50 years. In 1876 a Bristol publisher was prosecuted for selling The Fruits of Philosophy. Incensed, Charles Bradlaugh, the leader of Britain’s National Secular Society and subsequently a member of Parliament, and Annie Besant reissued the pamphlet and notified the police. They were charged and tried, the public prosecutor claiming “this is a dirty, filthy book,” but the conviction was quashed on grounds of a faulty indictment. The trial received wide publicity and, through the national press, brought birth control onto the breakfast table of the English middle classes at a time when, for economic reasons, they were eager to control their fertility. The Malthusian League, founded some years earlier by George Drysdale, began to attract wide public support. Similar leagues began in France, Germany, and The Netherlands, the latter opening the world’s first family planning services, under Dr. Aletta Jacobs, in 1882.
But it was two women, Margaret Sanger in the United States and Marie Stopes in Britain, who were to make birth control the object of a national, and ultimately global, social movement. Both used the controversy that surrounded birth control as a ready way of attracting attention. Sanger, a trained nurse, encountered miserable conditions in her work among the poor. She was inspired to take up her crusade when she attended a woman who was dying from a criminally induced abortion. In 1914 she started a magazine, The Woman Rebel, to challenge laws restricting the distribution of information on birth control. She was indicted and fled to Europe, but when she returned to stand trial in 1916 the charges against her were dropped. Later that year she opened a family planning clinic in Brownsville, Brooklyn, New York, but the police immediately closed it, and Sanger was arrested and convicted on charges of “maintaining a public nuisance.” After many vicissitudes, a compromise was struck and family planning clinics were allowed in the United States on the condition that physicians be involved in prescribing contraceptives. In 1936 a New York court, in a case known as United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries, ruled that contraceptives could be sent through the post if they were to be intelligently employed by conscientious physicians for the purpose of saving life or promoting the well-being of their patients.
The movement for birth control was led in Britain by Marie Stopes, the daughter of a middle-class Edinburgh family. She was one of the first women to obtain a doctorate in botany (from the University of Munich in 1904). In 1918 she published an appeal for sexual equality and fulfillment within marriage, Married Love, which at the time was considered to be a radical text. Margaret Sanger met Marie Stopes and persuaded her to add a chapter on birth control. While Sanger’s advocacy emphasized the alleviation of poverty and overpopulation, Stopes sought as well to relieve women of the physical strain and risks of excessive childbearing. Her Married Love was followed by Wise Parenthood (1918), and in 1922 Stopes founded the Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress.
The population explosion
In 1790 a Venetian monk, Gianmaria Ortis, concluded that human population growth could not continue indefinitely. Malthus’s work a few years later stimulated more discussion and also provided the intellectual clue that inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of biological evolution through the survival of the fittest. The debate about human numbers remained academic, however, until the 1950s, when a surge in population occurred as a result of the comparative peace and prosperity following World War II.
In Malthus’ time world population was under 1 billion and when Sanger and Stopes opened the first birth control clinics population was still less than 2 billion. In 1960 global population surpassed 3 billion, and the next 1 billion was added in a mere 15 years. In the 19th century the population of industrialized countries rarely grew by more than 1 percent per annum, but in the 1960s and ’70s many developing countries exploded at a rate of 2 to 3 percent per year. In the late 1980s more than 90 million people were added to the global population annually. However, that marked the peak in population growth rate. In the decades that followed, world population growth rate dropped significantly, and in the 21st century the number of people added to the global population began to decrease by 1 million each year.
Rapid population growth had several economic consequences. It required heavier investment in education, health, and transport merely to maintain these services at their previous level; yet, the working population had a higher burden of dependence to support, making both individual and national saving more difficult. Although population growth is not the only problem that divided rich and poor countries, it was one important variable that widened the gap in growth in per capita income between developed and less-developed countries. Advocates of birth control viewed it as a means to prevent the personal and social pressures that resulted from rapid population growth.