The metal and its alloys
A ductile, silvery white metal usually with dull lustre owing to a surface film of aluminum oxide, aluminum is light, weighing approximately one-third as much as an equal volume of copper or steel. It is corrosion-resistant, is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, reflects both light and radiant heat, is nonmagnetic, does not readily absorb neutrons, can be safely used with foods and medicines, and can be formed by all known metalworking processes.
Aluminum can be joined by welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, riveting, stitching, or stapling and by means of a number of mechanical assemblies such as nuts and bolts, screws, and nails. It can be given a wide variety of mechanical finishes by grinding, polishing, buffing, abrasive blasting, and burnishing. A variety of chemical finishes can be used, such as alkaline or acid etches, bright dips (these give an extremely shiny finish to metal), chemical milling, and immersion plating. It is suited to an electrochemical process called anodizing. Or it can be electroplated with other metals or given organic coatings such as paint, lacquer, and plastic films. Aluminum can be finished by porcelain enameling or metallizing.
High-purity aluminum (99.9 percent) is relatively soft and has a fairly low tensile strength of about 50 megapascals (500 kg per square cm, or 7,000 pounds per square inch) in the annealed condition. (Annealing involves heating and then cooling slowly to make the metal less brittle.) By alloying and proper thermal and mechanical treatment, however, it can be made much harder and stronger, with tensile strengths as high as 700 megapascals. Unlike some other metals, the strength and ductility of aluminum increase at very low temperatures. Upon melting, the solid metal expands about 7 percent in volume, the solidification shrinkage being 6.6 percent of the liquid volume. Hydrogen is the only gas known to be appreciably soluble in molten aluminum; its solubility increases with temperature but becomes nearly zero when the metal freezes.
Aluminum may act as a base to form salts with acids or as a weak acid to form salts with strong alkalies. It is stable in air because of a thin, transparent oxide film that forms on exposure to air, protecting the aluminum from further oxidation and reaction. Growth of this natural oxide film is self-limiting—that is, when a thin layer is formed, further growth is halted. Molten aluminum is protected in air by a thicker oxide coating, which also deters further oxidation. Finely divided atomized or flake aluminum mixed with air and ignited will explode violently. Aluminum reacts rapidly with boiling water to liberate hydrogen and form aluminum hydroxide.
In its superpure condition (99.99 percent), aluminum lacks strength and hardness but is formable, weldable, corrosion-resistant, and an excellent conductor of electricity. Superpure aluminum has many applications: in chemical equipment, in reflectors, as a catalyst in making gasoline, in fine jewelry, and in electronic components. Most aluminum used today, however, is alloyed with other elements to increase strength.
The most common alloying elements are manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and silicon (Si). (Lithium [Li] is added to some of the newest alloys for the aerospace industry.) Smaller amounts of chromium (Cr), zirconium (Zr), vanadium (V), titanium (Ti), boron (B), tin (Sn), bismuth (Bi), and lead (Pb) may be added for particular purposes. Iron is present as an impurity.
Aluminum alloy products may be cast in a foundry into their final shape through sand-casting, permanent-mold-casting, or die-casting, or they may be cast into cylinders or rectangular blocks that are worked, or wrought, into products such as sheet, plate, forgings, or extrusions.
The Aluminum Association of the United States has established systems for classifying foundry and wrought aluminum alloys. Foundry alloys are identified by four-digit numbers, with the first numeral indicating the major alloying element or group of elements (see table; sometimes a letter precedes the four digits to identify a variant of the original composition).
|Designation of aluminum foundry alloys|
|*The alloy is at least 99 percent aluminum.|
Compositions of the major foundry alloys are listed in the table.In addition to the major elements, foundry alloys may contain a small amount of titanium to refine the size of the crystallites or grains that make up the casting, as well as small amounts of manganese, chromium, or nickel for increased strength. The metallurgical structures and properties of the castings are also affected by the rate of cooling, which in turn is strongly affected by the casting method.
|alloy elements (percent)|
|*S, sand-cast; P, permanent-mold-cast; D, pressure die-cast.|
|**Aluminum and impurities constitute the remainder.|
|213.0||P||2.0||7.0||cylinder heads, timing gears|
|242.0||S, P||4.0||1.5||2.0 Ni||cylinder heads, pistons|
|319.0||S, P||6.0||3.5||engine parts, piano plates|
|A332.0||P||12.0||1.0||1.0||2.5 Ni||pistons, sheaves|
|F332.0||P||9.5||3.0||1.0||pistons, elevated temperatures|
|333.0||P||9.0||3.5||0.3||engine parts, meter housings|
|355.0||S, P||5.0||1.3||0.5||general; high strength, pressure tightness|
|356.0||S, P||7.0||0.3||intricate castings; good strength, ductility|
|360.0||D||9.5||0.5||2.0 Fe max||marine parts, general purpose|
|380.0||D||8.5||3.5||2.5 Fe max||general purpose|
|A413.0||D||12.0||large intricate parts|
|443.0||D||5.3||2.0 Fe max||carburetors, fittings, cooking utensils|
|B443.0||S, P||5.3||0.8 Fe max||general purpose|
|514.0||S||4.0||hardware, tire molds, cooking utensils|
|A712.0||S||0.5||0.7||6.5 Zn||general purpose|
The 3XX.X alloys are used in the highest volume. Both copper and magnesium increase strength in the as-cast temper, and strength is increased by subsequent precipitation treatments at mildly elevated temperatures to produce fine intermetallic particles such as Mg2Si or Al2Cu. Even higher strength and ductility are obtained by a high-temperature solution treatment followed by rapid cooling and precipitation treatment. When the silicon (Si) content exceeds 12 percent, silicon crystals in the castings enhance wear resistance as well. In the automotive industry, 3XX.X castings have replaced cast iron in transmission cases, intake manifolds, engine blocks, and cylinder heads because the reduced weight improves fuel economy.
The 2XX.X alloys develop the highest strengths. Good design and foundry techniques must be followed to produce acceptable products, and heat treatment must be applied to develop high strength and to ensure high resistance to stress- and corrosion-induced cracking. Because they have lower general corrosion resistance than other aluminum alloy castings, aluminum-copper castings are usually coated for critical applications.
The 5XX.X alloy castings are specified when high resistance to corrosion in marine and other severe environments is demanded. These alloys are also used where the finish is of paramount importance and in the food-processing industry.
The 7XX.X alloys exhibit good finishing characteristics, are resistant to corrosion, and are capable of developing high strength by precipitation at room temperature.
The 8XX.X alloys are used for sleeve bearings and bushings because the tin prevents seizing and galling.
The 4XX.X alloys are used when moderate strength along with high ductility and impact resistance are required. They are also used when stability after exposure to elevated temperatures is important.
Wrought alloys are identified by a four-digit system. Again, the first numeral indicates the major alloying element or group of elements. (See table.)
|Designation of aluminum wrought alloys|
|*The alloy is at least 99 percent aluminum.|
Properties of wrought alloy products depend on temper as well as composition. For example, when the highest formability is desired, the products are softened by exposing them to an elevated temperature and cooling them slowly. The 3XXX and 5XXX products are strengthened by working them at room temperature to induce strain hardening, while the 2XXX, 6XXX, and 7XXX products achieve their highest strengths by heat treatment to promote precipitation of the major alloying elements.
Aluminum-manganese alloys are the oldest yet most widely used because of their combination of strength, formability, and corrosion resistance. The bodies of aluminum beverage containers are made from alloy 3004. Alloy 3003 is used for flexible packaging such as frozen food trays, and, along with 3004 and 3105, it is used for residential siding and industrial and farm roofing. Cooking utensils, gutters, and downspouts also are made from 3XXX alloys.
Aluminum-magnesium alloys provide higher strength than the 3XXX alloys and are also formable, corrosion-resistant, and weldable. Alloy 5182 is used for the lids of beverage cans. Alloys 5005 and 5083 and varieties of 5052, 5056, and 5086 are used in appliances, utensils, sheet-metal work, pressure vessels, television towers, welded structures, boats, and chemical-storage tanks. Screens, nails, and other fasteners are usually made from 5XXX alloys.
Aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys develop strength through thermal treatments that precipitate fine Mg2Si particles. The most widely used 6XXX alloy products are 6063 extrusions and 6061 sheet, plate, forgings, and extrusions. The 6063 extrusions are widely used for storm doors, window frames, furniture tubing, and miscellaneous architectural uses. Alloy 6061 products are employed in the transportation industry in trucks, boats, and railroad cars, as well as for furniture, pipelines, and heavy-duty structures requiring good corrosion resistance. Highly polished and precipitation-strengthened 6061 truck wheels save fuel because they weigh less than steel wheels. Alloy 6201 wire has proved suitable for electrical conductor cable. One of the newest 6XXX alloys, 6013, has applications in aircraft construction because of its attractive combination of density, strength, formability, and corrosion resistance. Another pair of 6XXX alloys, 6009 and 6010, are used for hoods and deck lids of automobiles because they save fuel by reducing structural weight.
Aluminum-copper alloys are capable of developing higher strength than either 3XXX, 5XXX, or 6XXX alloys, but their corrosion resistance is generally lower. Alloy 2014 forgings find wide application in the transportation industry, and 2024 sheet, plate, and extrusions are used extensively for the fuselages and lower portion of the wings of civilian and military transport aircraft. (The 2024 sheet used on the fuselages of most commercial aircraft is clad with a thin layer of essentially pure aluminum to provide improved corrosion resistance.) New aluminum-copper alloys containing lithium are beginning to be specified for military and commercial aircraft because of their lower density. The magnesium-free alloy 2219 is used for the fuel and oxidizer tanks of space vehicles because it is weldable and develops high strength at cryogenic as well as elevated temperatures. Alloys 2036 and 2008 are used in the automotive industry for hang-on components such as hoods, deck lids, and doors.
Aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloys develop the highest strength. The copper-free alloy 7005, being weldable and showing good corrosion resistance, is used in the ground transportation industry. The highest strength 7XXX alloys contain copper and are not weldable; they find use mainly in the aircraft industry because of their high ratio of strength to density. (The joints in aircraft construction are riveted, so that weldability is not a concern.) Alloy 7075 has been the workhorse of high-strength aluminum alloys since the 1950s. New tempers were developed for this alloy in the 1970s to provide improved resistance to stress and corrosion cracking and to exfoliation corrosion, and variants were developed for more attractive combinations of strength and fracture toughness. Alloy 7050 was developed in the 1970s to provide high strength combined with high resistance to stress and corrosion cracking in bulkheads and other components machined from thick products for military aircraft. A higher-strength variant, 7150, was developed in the early 1980s for use on the upper wing skin of commercial aircraft, and a new temper of this variant was introduced in the late 1980s to provide high resistance to corrosion at the highest strength level.
Aluminum-silicon alloys are used for welding wire and brazing material, because large amounts of silicon impart great fluidity to molten aluminum.
Aluminum oxide exists in several different crystallographic forms, of which corundum is most common. Corundum is characterized by a high specific gravity (4.0), a high melting point (about 2,050 °C, or 3,700 °F), great insolubility, and hardness.
Aluminum oxide is the major ingredient in the commercial chemicals known as aluminas. Of the pure, inorganic chemicals, aluminas are among the largest volume produced in the world today. Rubies and sapphires are crystalline, nearly pure varieties of alumina, coloured by small amounts of impurities. Synthetic rubies and sapphires are made commercially by fusing a mixture of high-purity aluminum oxide with colouring agents in an oxyhydrogen blowpipe flame. Most are cut and drilled to form tiny “jewel” bearings in watches and various precision measuring instruments.
Activated alumina is a porous form of aluminum oxide from which much of the chemically combined water has been driven off at temperatures low enough to avoid sintering. It is chemically inert to most gases, nontoxic, and will not soften, swell, or disintegrate in water. It has the ability to adsorb and hold moisture without change in form or properties, and it has high resistance to shock and abrasion. Activated alumina is used in oil, chemical, and petrochemical industries as a dehydration agent and purifier in the manufacture of gasoline, petrochemicals, natural gas, and hydrogen peroxide.
Calcined alumina is aluminum oxide that has been heated at temperatures in excess of 1,050 °C (1,900 °F) to drive off nearly all chemically combined water. In this form, alumina has great chemical purity, extreme hardness (9 on the Mohs hardness scale, on which diamond is 10), high density, and a high melting point (slightly above 2,050 °C [3,700 °F]). It possesses good thermal conductivity, heat and shock resistance, and high electrical resistivity at elevated temperatures. This combination of properties makes calcined alumina useful in abrasives, glass, porcelains, spark plugs, and electrical insulators, but the greatest quantity of calcined alumina is used to obtain aluminum.
Tabular alumina is aluminum oxide that has been heated to temperatures above 1,650 °C (3,000 °F). Composed of tabletlike crystals, it has high heat capacity and thermal conductivity as well as exceptional strength and volume stability at high temperatures. For these reasons, a major use of tabular alumina is in the production of high-quality refractories, the materials used for lining industrial furnaces. High-alumina refractories are used in the metal and glass industries in boiler installations, in large furnaces and kilns for smelting metals and firing glass, pottery and porcelain, and in the manufacture of building bricks.
Most refractories are produced in the form of brick, bonded and fired in furnaces. Some castable refractories are made in the form of mortars, usually tabular alumina with calcium aluminate cement as a binder. These mortars, called grog, are sprayed under pressure to form the linings of the steel industry’s electric and basic oxygen furnaces, ladles, and coke ovens and for steam boilers, rotary kilns, and many other high-temperature applications.
Fused aluminas are used in special refractories for the glass industry. Fused alumina is calcined alumina that is melted in electric-arc furnaces, cooled, crushed, and recast into desired shapes. In another application, industrial processes requiring hot gases use a unique heat-transfer device called a pebble heater. Gases to be heated are passed through a bed of tabular alumina balls that have been heated to extreme temperatures. In still another application, an aluminous insulating material is formed by melting alumina and silica in an electric furnace and subjecting the molten mixture to high-velocity gases to produce fine white fibres.
The hydrous forms of alumina, called aluminum hydroxide, may contain either one or three molecules of water. Each may exist in two different crystalline phases, known as alpha and beta. In both forms, the alpha variety is more common. The alpha trihydroxide (gibbsite) and alpha oxide hydroxide (boehmite) occur in bauxite.
Aluminum trihydroxide is used extensively in the production of aluminum chemicals, such as aluminum sulfide, sodium aluminate, aluminum fluoride, and aluminum chloride hexahydrate. It is a raw material in the manufacture of petroleum catalysts, plastic and rubber goods, paper, glass and vitreous enamel, adhesives, varnishes, and toothpastes.
Aluminum sulfate is employed in water purification. Aluminum chloride in various forms is used as a catalyst in organic chemistry and in the cosmetic industry as a deodorant. Aluminum fluoride is used widely in the production of aluminum.Kent R. Van Horn Peter R. Bridenbaugh James T. Staley