- General features
- The distribution boundaries of flora and fauna
- Boreal kingdom
- Paleotropical kingdom
- Neotropical kingdom
- South African kingdom
- Australian kingdom
- Antarctic kingdom
Although the earliest study of the geographic distribution of animals was that of Sclater in 1858 (see above History), it was Wallace who set the parameters to determine the zoogeographic regions, or realms, in his classic book, The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876). Wallace recognized three realms: Megagaea or Arcotogaea, which includes Africa, Eurasia, and North America; Notogaea, including Australia, Oceania, and New Zealand; and Neogaea, including Central and South America. His divisions, although modified, form the basis of the realms recognized today (Figure 2).
Although different species have different dispersal abilities, even bird and insect distributions can be accounted for by traditional zoogeographic boundaries. In general, the distribution of terrestrial mammals, freshwater fish, and invertebrates seem to correspond well and provide the best evidence of zoogeographic divisions.
The zones where faunas mix have in many cases been well studied. Some classifications arbitrarily include them in one region (or realm), and some omit them from any formal assignment and relegate them to a Subtraction-Transition zone. An example of such a zone is Wallacea, which includes the Philippines, Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Lesser Sundas (Figure 2). Located between the Paleotropical and Australian realms, Wallacea contains a mixture of both regions. The fauna is impoverished and unbalanced, but the area does have a high endemicity.
The following divisions are based on and modified to a great degree from the work of P.J. Darlington.
The Holarctic (Figure 2) is usually divided on the basis of terrestrial organisms into two regions: Nearctic (North America) and Palearctic (Eurasia and North Africa). Unlike the North American phytogeographic region, the Nearctic zoogeographic region extends south to include all of Florida and Baja California. Some intriguing disjunct distributions are found in the Holarctic: some taxa are shared between Europe and eastern North America, some between Europe and eastern Asia, and others between western North America and eastern Asia. These distributions are perhaps explicable on the basis of the movement, in the recent past, of climatic zones.
Specialists on freshwater fish and invertebrates prefer to divide the Holarctic more finely. Petru Banarescu recognizes the following regions: Euro-Mediterranean; Siberian, Baikal, and Western Mongolian; Eastern, Western, and Arctic North American; and Central Mexican.
Among the families characteristic of this realm are mammals such as Talpidae (moles), Castoridae (beavers), Ochotonidae (pikas); amphibians such as three families of salamanders, Salamandridae, Cryptobranchidae, and Proteidae; and invertebrates such as the freshwater crayfish family Astacidae.
The Paleotropical, or Afro-Tethyan, realm (Figure 2) is clearly divided into two regions, which are sometimes regarded as separate realms: the Afrotropical, which includes continental Africa south of the Sahara and southwestern Arabia, and the Oriental, which includes tropical southern and southeastern Asia, including associated continental islands. Two other regions, Madagascar and Wallacea, are commonly separated from the two main ones.
Being in continuous geographic contact, the Paleotropical and the Holarctic realms merge into one another. Nevertheless, each has many distinct elements, in part but not entirely because of their different climates. The mammalian orders Pholidota (pangolins) and Proboscidea (elephants) are endemic to the Paleotropical region. Mammalian families that are confined to and extend across the realm include the Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys), Lorisidae (lorises, bush babies, angwantibo, and potto), Hystricidae (Old World porcupines), Viverridae (civets and mongooses), Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses), and Tragulidae (chevrotains). Endemic avian families include Bucerotidae (hornbills) and Pittidae (pittas); and endemic reptilian families, Chamaeleontidae (Old World chameleons).
The line between the Afrotropical, or Ethiopian, region and the Holarctic is generally drawn somewhere across the Sahara desert (Figure 2). A radical reanalysis of mammal distributions by Charles H. Smith, however, has concluded that the Mediterranean region, including both its southern and northern shores, is actually much more Paleotropical than Holarctic in aspect (Figure 4; compare Figure 2). Strictly speaking, the term Afro-Tethyan (in reference to the Tethys Sea; see above The effects of geologic changes on biotic distributions) would apply to this expanded concept.
In striking contrast to the plant life in the southern tip of Africa, which makes up the South African, or Capensic, kingdom, the fauna of the Cape region cannot be distinguished from that of the surrounding regions. Presumably any unique faunal Capensic element that may have existed at one time has merged with the tropical element. African mainland endemic taxa include the mammalian orders Hyracoidea (hyraxes), Tubulidentata (aardvarks), and Macroscelidea (elephant shrews); the mammalian families Chrysochloridae (golden moles), Pedetidae (springhares), Thryonomyidae (cane rats), and Giraffidae (giraffes and okapi); the bird families Struthionidae (ostriches), Balaenicipitidae (shoebills), and Sagittaridae (secretary birds); the frog subfamily Phrynomerinae; the freshwater fish subclass Palaeopterygii (bichirs), and families Mormyridae (snoutfish) and Malapteruridae (electric catfish); and the snail family Aillyidae.