- Introduction & Quick Facts
- Australia to 1900
- Early exploration and colonization
- Australia since 1900
- Nationhood and war: 1901–45
- Australia from 1945 to c. 1983
- Australia since 1983
- Domestic issues
- Australia to 1900
The advent of multicultural society
The massive influx of migrants in the postwar years marked a major cultural shift from a previously monocultural British-oriented society to one of the world’s most multicultural societies. From 1945 to 1960 Australia’s population almost doubled, from 7 million to 13 million, averaging an annual growth rate of 2.7 percent per year. By 1961, 8 percent of the population was not of British origin, with the largest migrant groups being Italians followed by Germans, Greeks, and Poles.
In the mid-1950s, as the Australian government began to relax its White Australia policy, one of the first changes was to allow non-European migrants the opportunity to apply for citizenship. This was followed by the abolition of the dictation test under the Migration Act of 1958, which put an end to the exclusion of non-European migrants. The most significant change to take place was Prime Minister Harold Holt’s introduction of the Migration Act 1966, which allowed non-Europeans with professional and academic qualifications to apply for entry. This effectively ended the White Australia policy (which was officially abandoned in 1973) with migrants now being selected according to their skills and ability to contribute to Australian society, not on the basis of ethnicity. This act also aimed at developing trade, tourism, and closer ties between Australia and other countries, particularly in Asia.
The 1970s marked a significant turning point in official immigration policies and in prior assimilation policies whereby new arrivals were expected to adopt Australian customs and culture. In 1973 the new Labor government, led by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, implemented the Universal Migration Policy, heralding the beginning of a culturally diverse society. This radical change in policy allowed a person from any country to apply to migrate to Australia, without being discriminated against on the basis of ethnicity, gender, or religion. The policy focused on encouraging skilled and professional workers to apply for immigration to increase Australia’s productive capacity and directly benefit the economy. Mass migration programs were renounced, resulting in a dramatic decline in the number of British and European immigrants from 1975. However, a new wave of migration began with the arrival of the first Asian refugees as part of the assistance programs signed with the United Nations to provide resettlement in Australia for people fleeing hardship and government persecution in other countries. As the Vietnam War wound down, most of the refugees came from Southeast Asia, fleeing persecution by the communist regimes that had taken control in the region. In 1975 the first refugees arrived from Vietnam by boat, landing on the shores of Darwin, Northern Territory. By 1985 more than 75,000 refugees from Southeast Asia had come to Australia. These immigrants worked mostly in low-skilled jobs, such as manufacturing. The number of migrants from Asian regions continued to increase during the 1990s, peaking in 1990–91 with 60,900 settlers. By 1998, 33 percent of all migrants arriving in Australia were Asian-born.
The big cities received the bulk of the postwar immigration. Melbourne’s early lead in industrialization was closely associated with the immigration boom, but Sydney eventually proved more attractive. The impact of immigration was not confined to these two centres; whereas the overseas-born population accounted for about one-third of the total for Sydney and Melbourne at the start of the 21st century the national proportion was more than one-fifth and rising. Each of the other state capitals and the industrializing provincial centres also received their share of the influx. The impact was much smaller in the rural districts, except for the areas under irrigation.
In addition, most major world crises have introduced fresh waves of immigrants: South and Central Americans fleeing civil wars or government persecution; Hungarian refugees escaping the consequences of the Hungarian Revolution in 1956; and Czechoslovaks departing in the wake of their country’s occupation by the Soviets in 1968. A large Polish migration occurred in 1981 under the Special Humanitarian Program in response to the declaration of martial law in Poland at the time. Other refugees arrived from the Middle East, Afghanistan, and China from the 1970s and from the Balkans in the 1990s. Since the end of World War II, some 600,000 refugees and displaced persons have arrived in Australia—more than one-tenth of the total number of new settlers. Consequently, about half of the population has been born overseas or has at least one foreign-born parent.
Thereafter, the share of non-European immigrants, particularly from Asia, began to increase. Most of the debates on immigration have focused on cultural and economic issues and only peripherally on ethnicity, and (with the exception of the complex Aboriginal issues) Australians largely have been spared the kinds of interracial conflict that have scarred other immigrant societies. Nevertheless, opposition to immigration and multiculturalism policies sparked the formation of the anti-immigrant One Nation Party in the late 1990s. Although the party’s success was limited, its position resonated with some Australian voters.
Postwar immigration proved an economic boost and achieved its intended purpose of significantly increasing the population size of Australia. In 2011 the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated the resident population to be more than 22 million people, about one-fourth of them having been born overseas. Although many new migrants suffered alienation and discrimination, on the whole this was one of the most successful and positive chapters in the history of Australia and marked the beginning of a new way of living. Australians began to appreciate the benefits of a multicultural society and the diversity offered by migrants from some 200 different countries.
As discussed above, there was a dramatic increase in the Indigenous population after World War II. This growth is usually attributed to greater pride in Aboriginality, the evolution of positive discrimination (affirmative action) policies in education, health, and welfare, and the official adoption of a generous definition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. (For a further discussion of the labels, see Britannica usage standards: Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia.) The relatively youthful age structure and high fertility rate of those enumerated as Indigenous largely account for the continuing upward trend. Nevertheless, infant mortality is unusually high, and average life expectancy at birth is about 30 percent lower than that of the rest of Australia.
Australia’s overall rate of natural population increase is less than half the world average, and its death and birth rates are also less than the world average. Life expectancy is high—in excess of 75 years for men and 80 years for women. Australia’s population age 65 and older is substantial and growing, and nearly one-fifth of the population (many from the immigrant and Aboriginal communities) is younger than 15.