Due to the transmission of pathogens, such as bacteria and parasites, through drinking water, the study of water hygiene is very important in controlling and preventing diseases. Waterborne or water-washed parasitic diseases have caused epidemic and endemic diseases in both developed and developing countries ( 1 ). The water-borne protozoan parasites in humans include Toxoplasma gondii, Entamoeba histolytica, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Isospora belli, Blastocystis hominis, Balantidium coli, Acanthamoeba species (spp.), and Naegleria spp. ( 1 , 2 ). Samarra is an Iraqi archaeological city, which is located in the north of Baghdad, the capital of Iraq (120Km), and is characterized by its rising population density ( 3 ) (Figure 1).
The main source of drinking water in Samarra, Iraq, is the Tigris river near the city, which is also used with groundwater in industry, as well as agriculture, and other purposes in the city ( 3 - 5 ). Since the quality of water is of significant importance for humans, animals, and plants, any chemical, physical, and biological changes in water properties may affect the living organisms and make water unsuitable or polluted ( 6 ). Many researchers have investigated the chemical, physical, and biological properties of drinking water in Samarra, Iraq. Dheyab ( 7 ) found that the concentration of dissolved oxygen was 4.75 ppm (at 23˚C), chlorine was 2.97 ppm (more than the normal limit), electrical conductivity was 0.3 cm/m (within the normal limit), total soluble salt was 201 ppm (within the normal limit), turbidity was 2.26 Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (more than the normal limit), and pH was 7.99 (more than the normal limit). In another study, Ibrahim, Al-Tawash ( 8 ) indicate that water in Samarra is not drinkable, according to the Water Quality Index, and also it contains high concentrations of heavy metals (more than the standard limit), such as Cd, Se, Fe, Li, Pb, Mn, Ni, Hg, Cr, Be, As, V, Al, and uranium. Moreover, it was found that the drinking water in Samarra, Iraq, was also contaminated with microorganisms, including Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ( 9 ), and Cryptosporidium parvum ( 10 ).
Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate protozoan parasites in the drinking water of different places in Samarra, Iraq.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
In total, 100 samples of drinking water were collected in sterilized plane tubes (10-20) ml from 10 places in Samarra, Iraq (i.e., Al-Sekek, Al-Kadesia, Alzeraa, Al-Shuhdaa, Al-Muthana, Al-Shorta, Al-Mamal, Al-Khedraa, Al-Efraz, and Al-Jubereaa), from the beginning of December to the end of February. The water samples were collected in clean and sterilized disposable plastic bottles, and they were then labeled and transported to the laboratory of parasites for parasitology examination.
2.2. Parasitological Detection of Water Samples
Water samples were examined to detect oocysts or cysts of protozoan parasites by using the Direct wet smear, Lugol’s iodine, and Modified Ziehle Nelseen stain methods, The direct wet smear and Lugol’s iodine were utilized to detect Giardia lamblia by the identification of cysts, the Modified Ziehle Nelseen stain was used to detect Cryptosporidium parvum red-pink oocysts ( 11 ), and the Lugol’s iodine was employed for the detection of Entamoeba histolytica cysts ( 12 ).
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The results were analyzed by the SPSS software (version 20), and the significant differences between mean±SD were assessed by the independent sample t-test with a P<0.05 significance level.
The present study evaluated the prevalence of parasites in the drinking water of Samarra, Iraq, during different months. The findings indicate that 80% of the collected specimens were infected with parasites (Table 1).
|Sample area||No of samples under examination||No of infected samples||Infection percentage (%)|
As can be seen in table 1, the highest percentage of infection with parasites (100%) was found in Al-Shuhdaa, Al-Muthana, Al-Efraz, and Al-Jubereaa, whereas the lowest percentage (50%) was detected in Al-Mamal. The percentage of infection in other places were 71.4% in Alzeraa, 72.7% in Al-Sekek, 75% in Al-Kadesia, 80% in Al-Shorta, and 84.6% in Al-Khedraa.
The results also showed that the infection percentage slightly differed in different months of sample collection, and the total percentage was determined at 80% in December, 79.17% in January, and 80.43% in February. It is thus indicated that the highest percentage of infection prevalence (80.43%) was in February (Table 2).
|Sample area||No of the samples under examination||No of infected samples||Infection percentage (%)|
Furthermore, three types of protozoan parasites were detected in the studied water samples, which include Entamoeba histolytica (36%), Giardia lamblia (23%), and Cryptosporidium parvum (21%) (Table 3).
|Diagnostic parasite||Exanimated samples||Infected samples||Infection percentage (%)|
Water pollution is a major problem for human health worldwide since polluted water causes many deaths each year, especially among children and older people. Water pollution includes microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, viruses, and parasites) or chemicals (e.g., heavy metals); therefore, water loses its quality and becomes unsuitable for humans, animals, and plants. In the last 10 years, the number of waterborne diseases, especially those caused by parasites, increased due to the contamination with wastewater since 80% of untreated wastewater is dumped into the environment and pollutes the rivers. Parasitic diseases are transported by the drinking water and cause endemic or epidemic diseases in both developing and developed countries ( 2 ). Therefore, it is essential to take necessary measures to improve the quality of water by the identification of these organisms.
The results of the current study indicated the presence of protozoan parasites, which include Giardia lamblia cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst, in the drinking water. Cysts and oocysts of parasites were found resistant to environmental conditions and chlorine. Small size (1-17 micrometers) Cryptosporidium spp. oocytes and Giardia spp. cysts can pass through water purification systems and cause an epidemic after drinking water ( 13 , 14 ).
The findings also revealed the presence of Entamoeba histolytica cysts in a ratio higher than other parasites, which is one of the most important parasitic pathogens in polluted water supplies. The leading cause of water contamination with protozoa worldwide is Entamoeba histolytica, which is also responsible for the high mortality rates in children ( 15 ).
Many studies have identified the presence of cysts and oocysts of the three diagnostic parasites (Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Giardia lamblia) in the drinking water in Iraq. Baqer, Hammood ( 1 ) identified Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in the tank water in Baghdad, Iraq, while Koloren and Ayaz ( 16 ) identified Cryptosporidium parvum in the environmental water in Turkey. Additionally, AL-Samrri ( 17 ) detected Cryptosporidium oocysts in the drinking water in Samarra, Iraq. The present study recommends that efforts should be made to protect raw water from sources of contamination by maintaining water treatment systems. The main source of drinking water contamination with parasites in Samarra, Iraq, is breakages and cracks of drinking water tubes between water stations and houses, as well as the contamination of water in tubes with the contaminated groundwater.
Study concept and design: R. R. H. A.
Acquisition of data: A. S. M. A.
Analysis and interpretation of data: B. I. H.
Drafting of the manuscript: R. R. H. A.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: R. R. H. A.
Statistical analysis: A. S. M. A.
Administrative, technical, and material support: R. R. H. A.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
- Baqer NN, Hammood AH, Hassan KF, Hassan ESA-d. Detection of water-borne parasites in drinking water of Baghdad, Iraq. Afr J Infect Dis. 2018; 12(2):1-6.
- Waterborne zoonoses. IWA publishing; 2004.
- Northedge A. Remarks on Samarra and the archaeology of large cities. antiquity. 2005; 79(303):119-29.
- Ibrahim H. Investigating Groundwater Quality in the Azraq Oasis Area Using GIS and Remote Sensing: Thesis Al-Bayt University; 2006.
- Ibrahim ZH, Ibrahim SA, Shaban AH, Jasim KA, Mohammed MK. Radiological Dose Assessments for Workers at the Italian Fuel Fabrication Facility at Al-Twaitha Site, Baghdad–Iraq with Aid of GIS Techniques. Energy Procedia. 2017; 119:709-17.
- Cunningham WP, Cunningham MA. Environmental Science A Global Concern (Eleventh). Mc Graw Hill Companies; 2010.
- Dheyab MA. study of some physical and chemical properties of drinking water in Samarra city and comparing with mineral water. Tikrit J Pure Sci. 2016; 21(4)
- Ibrahim SA, Al-Tawash BS, Abed MF. Environmental assessment of heavy metals in surface and groundwater at Samarra City, Central Iraq. Iraqi J Sci. 2018; 59(3A):1277-84.
- Khalaf AT, Jassim AA, Muaffaq A. Water Piped to some Areas in Samarra City. Tikrit J Agric Sci. 2017; 17
- AL-Nazzal AL, Khaleel YI. Isolation and identification of pathogenic bacteria from drinking water in Salahdeen province by using membrane filter Method. J Univ Anbar Pure Sci. 2009; 3(3)
- Markell EK, Voge M. Medical parasitology. 1976.
- Cheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2: Cambridge university press; 2005.
- Hambidge A. Reviewing efficacy of alternative water treatment techniques. Health Estate. 2001; 55(6):23-5.
- Moore A, Vesey G, Champion A, Scandizzo P, Deere D, Veal D, et al. Viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts exposed to chlorine or other oxidising conditions may lack identifying epitopes. Int J Parasitol. 1998; 28(8):1205-12.
- Ghasemi E, Rahdar M, Rostami M. Prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar in drinking water in the city of Shush, Khuzestan Province in 2011. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2015; 4(2):582-8.
- Koloren Z, Ayaz E. Genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in environmental water in Turkey. Acta parasitologica. 2016; 61(4):671-9.
- AL-Samrri AIM. The role of water in distributiom of Cryptosporidium parvum in Samarra city. Tikrit J Pure Sci. 2006; 11(1)