Acara of the Householder
Desavrata: We now turn to the Desavrata. We shall first explain the
nature of Desavrata according to those who have regarded it as one of
the Siksavratas. Kundakunda has not recognised this vow, but speaks of
Sallekhana in its place. Karttikeya and Samantabhadra have included
Desavrata in the Siksavratas, but the latter considers it to be the
first and the former, the fourth of the Siksavratas. The Sravaka
Prajnapti,6 Haribhadra,7 Hemacandra 8
etc., have regarded Desavrata as the second of the Siksavratas. It may
be pointed out here that Karttikeya, Samantabhadra and Hemacandra have
not considered Sallekhana to be useless, but have delineated it after
the Silavratas. The other tinkers 9 have subscribed to this
Prajna. 281, cf. Yo. Sa. III.2.
Srava. 70; Puru. 138; Sarvartha. VII.21; Amita.Srava.VI.77; Saga.
Kartti.341. 4. Sarvartha. VII,21; Raja.VII.21/18;Yosa.III.3.
Ta.Su.I.30; Ratna.Srava.73;Puru. 188; Uvasaga.I.50;Amita.Srava.VII.8.;
Saga.Dharma.v.5; Srava.Prajna.283. Dharma. Bi.161.
Srava.Prajna.318. 7.Dharma. Bi.151. 8. Yo.Sa.III.84.
Ta.Su.VII.22; Amita. Srava.Vi.98;Puru. 175 to 179; Subhasita. 822-
describing Sallekhana after the delineation of Silavratas. Of the
extensive range of Space demarcated in the Digvrata, when further
curtailment is made each day with reference to a house, a garden, a
village, a field. A river, a forest and a Yojana stone, it is called
Desavrata.1 As regards the time limit, Samantabhadra says that it may
consist of a year, half a year, four months, two months, one month, and
fifteen days.2 but according to Hemacandra, the time limit consists of a
day or a night .3 It is to be borne in mind that, beyond the fixed
limit of space, for the determined time the gross and subtle sins are
absolutely renounced to such an extent that the observer of Desavrata
may be credited with the designation of Mahavrati for the time- limit of
Desavrata.4 In addition to the above view of the Desavrata,
Karttikeya expounds that sense objects should also be limited like the
limitation in the extensive range prescribed by the Digvrata.5
Perhaps this alludes to the further limitation of the objects of
Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata which is regarded by him as the Gunavrata. In
other words, the Desavrata in the light of Karttikeya equally narrows
the extent of Digvrata and Bhogopabhoparimanavrata, whereas
Samantabhadra and the Sravaka Prajnapti subscribe to the limitation of
mere Digvrata. This is the exposition of Desavrata in conformity with
those who have recognised this among the Siksavratas.
now turn to those who have regarded this as one of the Gunavratas.
According to Umasvati6 and Vasunandi, the Desavrata is a
Gunavrata. The Tattvarthasutra Bhasya 7 and the
Sarvarthasiddhi 8 expound the nature of Desavrata as
limiting one's own movements to the region determined by
certain village and as renouncing the rest of the places. Amitagati
subscribes to this defintion.9 If this interpretation of
Desavrata which implies its life- long observance is accepted, it cannot
be distinguished from the Digvrata. Probably keeping this in view,
Akalanka and Camundaraya specifically mention that the Digvrata
Prajnapti and the Karttikeyanupreksa do not speak of the signs to be
used for curtailments.
Srava. 34. Kartti. Comm. 368.
3. Yo. Sa.
III.84. 4. Ratna.Srava,95.; 5. Kartti.367.
interpreter Pujyapada regards Desavrta as Gunavrata (Sarvartha. VII.21.)
8. Sarvartha.VII.21. 9.Amita.Srava.Vi.78.
observed for the full life, but that the Desavrata is observed for a
limited time. Amrtacandra also prescribes limited time in the Desavrata.
If Akalanka's and Amrtacandra's view is kept in mind, we shall have no
distinction between Desavrata as Gunavrata and Desavrata as Sikksavrata.
Thus according to one interpretation it is superfluous, since it can be
absorbed into the Digvrata, while according to the other it should be
regard as Siksavrata, since it prescribes its observance for a limited
time. It is true that Akalanka and Amrtacandra avoid this controversy
of Gunavrara and Siksavrata by not dividing the seven Vratas in
Gunavratas and Siksavratas as Pujyapada has done. But still the
tradition of Desavrata as Siksavrata cannot over- look the
interpretation of Akalanka and Amrtacandra as favoring its case. It is
likely that after pondering over this confusing nature of the Desavrata
Vasunandi has explained it by affirming that it implies the abandonment
of the habitation of those countries or places where the observance of
vows is threatened or rendered difficult.1 This way of
elucidating the Desavrata is capable of justifying it as one of the
Gunavraras. It is very interesting to note that Srutasagara, the 16th
century commentator of the Tattvarthasutra has, in addition to the
definition of Digvrata, given by the Sarvathasiddhi, subscribed to the
view of Vasunandi by saying that the Desavrata consists in discarding
those places which obstruct the due observance of Vratas and which
occasion insularity of mind.2
Though the tradition of Umasvati and Samantabhadra differ in respect of
the classification of the Devastates, they coalesce in point of the
indication of its Aticaras. Transgressing the limits by 1) sending an
agent, 2) drawing attention by making sounds, 3) ordering for things
beyond limits, 4) making gestures and signs, and 5) throwing certain
articles, has been announced to constitute the five breaches of the
NATURE OF ANARTHADANDVRATA: We now propose to deal
with the nature of Anarthadandavrata. All the traditions unanimously
acknowledge this as the Gunavrata. Kartikeya defines Anarthadandavrata
as renouncing the commitment of such acts as are not subservient to any
useful purpose.4 Being frivolous, they simply engender
of mind, which results in depravity. Samantabhadra defines
Anarthadandavrata as refraining from wanton activity, even within
determined directional limits, caused by inauspicious physical, mental
and vocal operations, Akalanka in his commentary on the Tattvarthasutra
explicitly points out that the purport of placing Anarthadandavrata in
between Digvrata-Desavrata and Upabhogaparibhogaparibhogaparimanavrata
contributes towards the comprehension of the fact that, even within the
limits prescribed by the Dasavrata, the Digvrata and the
Upabhogaparibhogaparimanavrata, one should neither make purposeless
movements, nor enjoy such sensual pleasures as are of no account. The
Sravaka Prajnapti affirms that actions without any purpose bring about
more Karmic bondage than the actions with some end in view, inasmuch as
the former may be committed at any time even without any necessity,
while that latter are performed at some specific time out of some
necessity. Thus there is manifest concordance among the Jaina
philosophers regarding the nature of Anarthadanvrata.
FORMS OF ANARTHADANDAS: We now dwell upon the forms of Anarthdandas.
The perpetration of barren and inane actions admits of multitudinous
forms, but for the sake of comprehension either four or five forms have
been recorded. The Upasakadasa and the Sravaka Prajnapti recognise four
forms of Anarthadandas, whereas Karttikeys, Samantabhadra, and the
commentators of Tattvarthasutra like Pujyapada and Akalanka recognise
four forms of Anarthadandas. The four are: 1) Apadhyana, 2) Papopadesa,
3) Pramadacarita, and 4) Himsadana; and if Duhsruti is added to this
list we get five forms of Anarthadandas. The treatment of these
Anarthadandas is varied in nature, which is quite convincing in view of
the extensive field embraced by the Anarthadandas. Though Karttikeya
and Amratcandra have not mentioned the names of the five forms of
Anarthadandas, the above mentioned four denominations very aptly suit
the fivefold forms presented by both the Araya's. Though the life of
the householder is at every step a mixture of virtue and vice-since he
is pursuing the Anuvratas-yet these Anarthadandas unnecessarily entrap
the perpetrator in such a way as to cause the influx of inauspicious
Karmas which bring about unimaginable suffering in this life and the
Srava. 74 2. Raja. VII. 21/22 3.
Srava. Prajna. 290
43. 5. Srava. Prajna. 289
Let us come
to the meaning of the five forms of the Anarthadandas. First, Apadhyana
implies inauspicious reflections which procreate nothing except a
vicious trend of thought. This involves the fact of peeping into
another man's wife with an evil eye, witnessing the dissension among
persons, mutilating, imprisoning and killing others and getting
interested in hunting, victory, defeat, war, adultery, theft, gambling,
and the like. Hemacandra and Asadhara summarily include Arta Dhyana and
Raudra Dhyana in Apadhyana. Secondly, Papopadesa means the giving of
evil instructions to persons earning livelihood by service, business,
writing documents, cultivating land, and working in the field of art.
Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Akalanka and Camundaraya include in Papopadesa
the following things: the talk of selling slaves and beasts profitably
and the giving of direction to hunters, fowlers and the like. Thus the
provocation of vicious tendencies, on account of which an individual may
indulge in corrupted, passionate, and life-injuring ways may briefly sum
up the meaning of Papoadesa. Thirdly, Pramadacarita consists in doing
such actions purposelessly as digging the ground, uprooting trees,
trampling lawns, sprinkling water, burning and quenching fire, plucking
leaves, fruits and flowers, wandering etc. Fourthly, Himsadana implies
the giving of the instruments of Himsa like knife, poison, fire, sword,
bow, chain etc. According to Karttikeya the rearing of violent animals
like cat's etc., and the business of weapons like iron, Lac etc., come
under Himsadana. Lastly, Duhsruti, listening to and teaching such
stories as are passionexciting. Besides, the study of literature
aggravating worldly attachment describing erotic things, and dealing
with other intense-passion exciting things has also been included in
Duhsruti. Vasunandi does
344; 2 Ratna. Srava. 78; Sarvarthsa. VII. 21; Caritrasara. p. 16.
141, 146. 4Yo. sa. 5 Saga. Dharma. V. 9. 6. Puru. 142.
Srava. IV. 76 ; Sarvartha. VII. 21; Puru. 143; Saga. Dharma. VI. 11.
Caritra Sara. p. 17.
Kartti. 346; Ratna. Srava. 80; Sarvartha.
VII. 21 ; Puru. 143; Saga. Dharma. VI. 11. Caritra Sara. p. 17.
Srava. 77 ; Sravaka. Prajna. Comm. 289. puru. 144; Saga. Dharma. V. 8;
Sarvartha. VII. 21 ; Cartitrasara. p. 17.
347. 11 Sarvartha. VII. 21.; Puru. 145.; Caritrasara. p. 17
Srava. 79; Kartti. 348; Saga. Dharma. V. 9.
the five forms of Anarthadandas, but simply announces that he who is
observing Anarthadandavrata should avoid the business of iron, nets
etc., the use of false weights and measures, and the rearing of dogs, of
violent animals like cats etc.
The five transgressions that elate to define this vow are: 1) indulging
in licentious speech, 2) ridiculously gesticulating and uttering obscene
words, 3) prattling in a senseless manner, 4) becoming engrossed in
actions without any consideration of purpose, and 5) unnecessarily
accumulating articles of Bhoga and Upabhoga.
NATURE OF BHOGOPABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA: We now proceed to deal with the
nature of Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata. The word 'Bhoga' pertains to those
objects which are capable of being used only once, for instance,
betel-leaf, garland etc., and the word 'Upabhoga' covers those objects
which are capable of being used again and again, for instance, clothes,
ornaments, cots etc. Thus the Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata implies the
limitation in the use of the objects of Bhoga and Upabhoga in order to
reduce attachment to the objects. Only Vasunadi bifurcates it into
Bhogavirati and Paribhoganivrtti by keeping in view the aforementioned
nature of Bhoga and Upabhoga. It ma be pointed out here that this
Varity includes not only the positive process of limitaion, but also the
negative prowess of renunciation. Karttikeya tells us that the
renunciation of those things that are within one's won reach is more
commendable than the renunciation of those things that are neither
possessed, nor likely to be possessed in future. Samantabhadra points
out that Vrata does not consist in giving up things unsuitable to
oneself along with those which are not worthy to be used by the exalted
persons, but that it consists in
Srava. 81; Tasu. VII. 32; Puru. 190.; Caritrasara. p. 17. Dharma. Bi.
163; Amita. Srava. VII. 10; Saga. Dharma. V. 12.
Upasakadasa and the Sravaka-prajnapti put 'bringing together the parts
of implements' in place of the fouth as mentioned above.
4 The other
name for his used by the Upasakadasa, th Tattvarthasutra, the Sravaka
Prajnapti, etc. is Upabhga-Paribhoga-Parimanavrata. Here Upabhoga is
equivalent to Bhoga' and Partibhoga is equal to ' Upabhoga'.
Srava. 83; Amita. Srava. VI. 93; Yo. Sa III. 5. Saga. Dharma. V. 14; Yas.
and Ic. p. 283.
350; Ratna, Srava. 82; Sarvartha. VII. 21. Saga. Dharma. V. 13.
Sravva. 217, 218.
deliberate renouncement of the suitable objects of senses, since the
above two types of things are not even used by commonplace persons.
Amrtancandra tells us that the layman should renounce, according to his
capacity, the use of objects which are not prohibited.
TWO KINDS OF ABNEGATION IN BHOGOPABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA: In the
Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata abnegation is of two kinds: Yama and Niyama;
the former is for the whole duration of life, while the latter is for a
limited period. Three types of things, namely, 1) objects causing
injury to living beings processing more than oneness, like meat and
honey; 2) objects developing spiritual laziness like wine, opium, seeds
of thorn-apple, the intoxicating hemp and the like; and 3) objets
causing injury to infinite one-sensed Jivas forming one body like
ginger, radish, carrot etc., along with butter, flowers of Ketaki etc.,
should be forsaken for life. Besides, the use of objects like
ornaments, conveyance etc., which have been considered as not necessary
and the use of objects detested by the exalted personages like
variegated colored clothes, odd dress and the like, should be forsaken
either for life or for a limited period of time. The renouncement for
life or for a limited period of time. The denouncement for a limited
time, i.e., for an hour, a day, a night, a fortnight, a month, a season
or half a year, should be made concerning food, conveyance, couch,
bathing unguents, betel-leaf, clothes , ornaments, copulation, music and
singing, since the householder cannot dispense with these things
altogether. By virtue of pursuing such discipline, Animas is observed
owing to not incurring Himsa arising from the use of the articles of
Bhoga and Upabhoga, that have been renounced.
After dealing with the Digambara view of Bhogopabhogavrata, we
now proceed to point out the Svetambara view. The Upasakadsa and the
Sravaka Prajnapti tell us the Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata concerns itself
with the purity of food and that of occupation.
Srava. 86 . 2. Puru. 164. 3. Ratna. Srava. 87
; Saga. Dharma. V. 14.
VII. 21. 5 Raja VII. 21/27; Caritrasara. p. 25.
Srava. 88, 89.
7 Puru. 166.
8 The puit
of food means the avoidance of such food as causes Himsa of mobile
beeings, for iinstance, meat, honey etc.
9 The purit
of occupation signifies the abandonment of such evil trades as cause a
good deal of Himsa for instance, livelighood from charcoal, trade in
animal by-products etc.
topics included at least by the Svetambaras under the
Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata are the renouncement of the Ananta-kaya, the
Abhaksyas and Ratribhojana." Here we observe that the Gigambara version
of the Vrata includes both the elements of Yama and Niyama under its
scope, but that the Svetambara version seems to comprised only the
element of Yama.
BHOGOPOABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA AS GUNAVRATA AND SIKSAVRATA: Notwithstanding
the delineation of the nature of Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata by the
indifferent traditions of the Gigambaras without any marked difference,
Vasunandi and the commentators of the Tattvarthsutra, namely, pujyapada
and Vidyanandi enumerate this in the Siksavratas, while Samantabhadra
and karttikeya count this as Gunavrata. This difference of opinion is
on account of the dual nature of the vow itself. It possesses both the
elements of Yama and Niyama characteristics of Gunavrata and Siksavrata
respectively. So it can be interpreted both ways. The difference is of
emphasis and not of nature.
The five transgressions of this vow according to Umasvati are: eating 1)
articles having life, 2) articles in contact with those having life, 3)
articles mixed with those having life, 4) articles not well-cooked and
5) fermented and aphoradisiacal articles. These Aticaras are too narrow
to include the comprehensive extend of the Bhogopabhoga, so, it seems
Samantabhadra has framed different Aticaras. The five Aticaras
according to Samantbhadra are: 1) eating 1) articles having life, 2)
articles in contact with those having life, 3) articles mixed with those
having life, 4) articles not well-cooked and 5) fermented and
aphrodisiac articles. These Aticaras. The five Aticaras according to
Samantabhadra are: 1) constant craving for the venom of sensual
enjoyment, 2) dwelling upon bygone pleasurable experiences, 3) too much
indulgence even after enjoyment, 4) having acute craning for the
gratification of senses in future, and 5) too much indulgence during
After dealing with the nature of Digvrata, Anarthadandavrata, Devastate
and Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata, we now turn to the
prajna. Comm. 287, 288.
having infinite one sensed Jivas, such as ginger, radish, carot etc.
3 Things not
fit to e eates such as ice, ocurds kept for more than two days, tainted
Yoga. p\. 102. ( For the detailed traeatement of Anantakayas and
Abhaksyas, see jaina Yoga. 110-116). We have already discussed this
5 Tasu. VII.
35; Raja. VII. 35. Puru. 193; Caritrasara. p. 25; Dharma. Bi. 162;
Srava. 90.remaining three Vratas, namely, Samayika, Prosadhopavasa and
Atithisamvibhaga which are unanimously pronounced as Siksavratas.
NATURE OF SAMAYIKA: Samayika is the positive way of submerging
the activities of mind, body and speech in the Atman. Amrtacandra tell
us that the purpose of Samayika is to attain the Atman after espousing
the economies state of mind produced by renouncing attachment and
aversion to the objects of the world. Samantabhadra defines Samayika as
relinquishing the five types sins to the farthest extreme during the
time fixed for the act of Samayaika. The Sravaka Prajnati tell us that
Samayika negatively implies the abandonment of snuffle actions and
positively, the practice of non-sinful actions. The economies state of
mind, in the as of the householder, is equivalent should be
distinguished from Sddhopayaoga, the ideal to be achieved through
strenuous self-denial. Jus as Samyagdarsana is at the root of
liberation (Moksa ), so Samayika is at the root of the conduct for Moksa.
Reflection on the nature of the would as inauspicious, transitory, and
full of pain, and reflection on the nature of salvation as auspicious,
permanent and blissful-both these constitute what is allied the content
of auspicious deliberations.5
The consideration of seven requisites, namely, 1) place, 2) time, 3)
posture, 4) meditation, and threefold purifies, namely, 5) mental, 6)
bodily, and 7) voal, is necessary for the successful performance of
Samayika. 10 That place which is free from disturbing noise, gathering
of persons, and insects like mosquitoes, flies, etc., is the solitude,
whether it is a forest, a house, a temple or any other place, should be
chosen to perform Samayika. 2) Samayika should be performed three time
as a day, i.e., in the morning, noon and evening. The great Acarya
Amrtacandra says that the householder should consider the act of
Samayika as obligatory and perform it at least twice a day, i.e., in the
morning and evening. He further remarks that its performance at other
times will conduce towards the enhancement of the spiritual and moral
characteristics, hence it is not
1 Raja. VII.
21/7; Caritrasara. p 19. 2 Puru. 148
Srava. 97. 4 Srave. Prajna. 292.
Srava. 104. 6 Kartti. 352/
353. 8 Ratna. Srava. 99. 9 Kartti. 354
but beneficial. Samantabhadra says that one should perform Samayika
till the time one fixes for it according to one's own mental states.
After with drawing oneself from all kinds of worldly activities, and
after subduing all mental disturbances, one should increase the duration
of Samayika on the fasting and half-fasting days. It should also be
gradually enchanted daily, since Samayika serves as a great cause for
fulfilling the five vows. 3) Sitting and standing postures are
generally recommended for the performance of Samayika. 4-7) The
aspirant should purge the mind of sensual pleasures by concentrating on
the sermons of the Jina, adopt submissive and surrendering gestures, and
finally, either repeat the devotional hymns mentally or absorb himself
in self-meditation. He should bear hardships caused by cold, heat,
insect-biting as well as troubles created by enemy without breaking
silence, and without disturbing the purity of physical, mental and vocal
activities. By the performance of Samayika he who keeps in view the
aforementioned requisites is naturally led to abandon even all the
subtle vices which entangle the householder. And for the time one fixes
for the act of Samayika, one approaches asceticism.
The five transgressions which should be avoided are: Losing one's
control over 1) mind, 2) body and 3) Speech, 4) Lacking interest in
Samayika, and 5) forgetfulness of Samayika.
NATURE OF PROSADHOPAVASAVRATA: Samantabhadra and others enunciate the
Prosadhopavasavrata as renouncing the four kinds of food on the eighth
and fourteenth lunar days in each fortnight. Probably keeping in view
the infirmness of disciples, Karttikeya also includes the eating of
unseasoned food once a day in the Prosadhopavasavrata, and Amitagati and
Asadhara also comprise the taking of
149. 2 Ratna. Srava. 98. 3 Ratna. Srava. 100
Srava. 101. 5 Kartti. 35. 6 Kartti. 355, 356.
Srava. 103, Caritrasara. p. 19.
Srava. 102; Kartti. 357 ; Puru. 150
Srava. 102 ; Kartti 357 ; Puru. 150.
Srava. 105. puru. 191 ; Ta su. VII. 33; Dharma. Bi. 164; Srava. prajna.
12 Puru. 151
; Saga. Dharma. V. 34 ; Amita. Srava. VI 88 ; Tattvarthavrtti. VII. 21
Kartti. 359 Yas. & Ic. p. 282.
359. 14 Amita. Srava. VI. 90
Dharma. V. 35.
in this Vrata. The observance of this Vrata requires the performance of
meditation, the study of spiritual literature, and the avoidance of
batch, perfumes, bodily embellishment, ornaments, cohabitation and
household affairs. The Sravaka Prajnapti prescribes that the
relinquishment of food, bodily embellishment, cohabitation, household
affairs should be effected either partially or completely in the
Prosadhopavasavrata. Here we observe that though the Digambara Acaryas
allow the partial renunciation of food, they prescribe complete
relinquishment of cohabitation, bodily embellishment and household
affairs in observing the Prasadhoopavasavrata, as we have said above.
As regards the place for the performance of this Vrata, a temple, the
abode of Sadhus, a Prosadhasala, or any holy place should be chosen for
PROCEDURE OF PRASADHOPAVASAVRATA: Amrtacandra notably lays down the
procedure for observing the Prosadhopavasavrata. After renouncing all
household affairs and all worldly attachment, one should undertake the
vow at the middle of the day previous to the Prosadha day. After this,
one should repair to a sequestered place, forsake all sinful
activities, renounce all sensual pleasures, and observe due restraint of
body, speech and mind. After passing the rest of the day in auspicious
deliberations, the evening should be occupied with the performance of
Samayika. The night should be passed on a pure mat after getting over
sleep by being engrossed in the study of spiritual literature. On the
next morning, after performing Samayika, one should engage oneself in
the worship of Jina with Prasuka objects. In the same prescribed
manner, the day, the second night, and half of the third day should be
spent with circumspection. Thus, sixteen Yamas (48 hours) constitute
the time of Prosadhopavasavrata. "The Svetambara writers mention a
period of twenty-four hours" and lays down the procedure of the Vrata
fundamentally in the same way as above. The difference consists of
PROSADHOPAVASAVRATA AND THE FIVE SINS: On account of being free from all
sinful activities the observer of Prosadhopavasavrata approaches the
complete vows only pursuable by the saints. He
Kartti. 358. Ratna. Srava. 107, 108; Amita. Srava. VI. 89. yas Ic. p.
Srava. Prjna, Comm. 322l /sarvartha. VII. 21 ; Caritrasara. p. 22.
Puru. 152 to 157.
jaina Yoga, p. 142. 5 Ibid. p. 145.
Himsa of all kinds of Jivas because of the renunciation of the articles
of Bhoga and Upabhoga. He shuns falsehood, stealing, acquisition and
unchastely on account of the control of speech, the abstinence from all
misappropriation, the absence of the feeling of attachment, and the
avoidance of sexual intercourse respectively.
NATURE OF ATITHISAMVIBHAGAVRTA: We now proceed to represent the nature
of Atithisamvibhagavrata. According to Karttikeya, he who after
acquiring certain qualifications, offers four kinds of gifts in
conformity with the nine fold ways of entertaining the three kinds of
deserving recipients is announced to be legitimately pursuing the
Atithisamvibhagavrata. The offering should be made for mutual
ennoblement without expecting any return. It will not be amiss to point
out that Samantabhadra denominates this vow as Vaiyavratya, probably to
extend the scope of the vow. It also includes the fact of removing the
ailments of those pursuing the path of renunciation, of massaging their
feet, as well as of serving them in various other ways. Besides, it is
to the credit of Samantabhadra that he renders devotion to Arahantas
obligatory for those who follow this vow. According to the Sravaka
Prajnapti, this vow consists in offering pure food to the saint by
keeping in view the following things: Place (desa), time (kala), faith (sraddha),
respect (satkara), and due order (karma), Haribhadra explains these
terms in the following way: place signifies the area producing wheat or
rice etc.; time means famine or otherwise; purity of mind is faith; the
formalities of standing up, offering seat, worshipping, following the
saint when he is returning etc., come under
Puru. 158, 159.
Ratna. Srava. 110 ; Puru. 192; Raja. VII. 34; Dharma. Bi. 166.
Caritrasara. pp. 22-23. Saga. Dharma. V. 40.
We shall presently deal with them.
Kartti. 360, 361.
Puru. 167; ratna. Srava. 111. 6 Ratna. Srava. 112.
Srava Prajna. 325, 326.
due order points to the articles of food to be offered one after there
CONSIDERATION OF FIVE OBJETIVES FOR THE ADEQUATE OBSERVANCE OF THIS VOW:
This vow comprises the consideration of the five objectives for its
adequate observance, namely, 1) classes of deserving recipients, 2)
qualifications of a donor, 3) things worthy of gift, 4) method of giving
and 5) yield of gift. 1) Merit develops with respect to the degree of
conduct along with Samyagdarsana. Hence three kinds of deserving
recipients have been recgonised. a) The saint who has consecrated his
life for the achievement of liberation, and consequently, who has
absolutely forsaken all the sins stands at the highest rung of the
ladder of merit. b) The householder who pursues the twelve vows or
observes the discipline prescribed by he eleven stages of advancement
(eleven Pratimas) stands at the middle of the ladder of merit. c) He
who is endowed with the characteristic of Samyagdarsana but who does not
observe the right course of ethical discipline stands at the last rung
of the ladder of merit. We shall now describe the nature of I) Kupatras,
ii) Aparas, and iii) Karunapatras in order to distinguish them form the
aforementioned three kinds of Part's (deserving recipients). I) In the
absence of Samyaggdarsana he who is adhering to vows, performing
austerities, and striving for the betterment of living beings is
designated as Kupatra (not entitled to the gift to be offered with
religious devotion). In other words, sheer moral purity in the absence
of spiritual or religious conversion cannot be the objet of devoted
offering. We may point out in passing that this aspect of Dana thrown
light upon the spieitualisation of Jaina ethical living. Ii) He who
possesses neither moral conduct nor Samyagdarsana should be regarded as
Apatra (not entitled to the gift as such). Apatra is a curse to
society, iii) children and such persons as are very old, dumb, blind,
deaf, foreigner, diseased, and indigent should be given suitable things
out of compassion.8 We cannot
Prajna. Comm. 325.
Srava. 221 ; Puru. 171 ; Amita. Srava. X. 4; Saga. Dharma. V. 44.
Srava. 222 ; Puru. 171 ; Amita. Srava. X. 27 to 30; Saga. Dharma. V. 44.
Srava. 222. amita. Srava. X. 32. Puru. 171; Saga. Dharma. V. 44.
Srava. X. 34, 35. Vasu. Srava. 223.
Srava. X. 36, 37, 38. Vasu. Srava. 223.
mentioning that Bhakti Dana should be distinguished from social charity
(Dana) inclusive of Karuna Dana. The three Patras (deserving
recipients) receive gifts out of devotion but Kupatas and Karunapatras
should be given from moral or social point of view. It is to the credit
of the Jainas that they have not ignored the social aspect of Dana in
emphasizing Bhakti Dana or Patra Dana. 2) As regards the qualifications
of a donor concerning the Patra Dana, the donor must possess the seven
virtues; namely, belief in the result of Dana given to the Patras,
affection for the merits of Patras, pleasure at the time of giving and
after giving, knowledge of the suitable gifts proper to the different
Patras, absence of longing for worldly benefits, control over anger even
at a critical juncture, showing real enthusiasm in such a manner as may
astound even the wealthy persons. All these are respectively called:
faith (sraddha), devotion (bhakti), joy(samtosa or taste), wisdom
(Vienna), unattachment (alubdhata, or alaulya), forbearance (ksama), and
enthusiasm (sakti or sativa). The Tattvarthabhasya enumerates eight
characteristics, namely, absence of jealousy towards the recipient (anasuya),
absence of sorrow in giving avisada), absence of condescension towards
the recipient (aparibhavita), joy in giving (pritiyaga), auspicious
frame of mind (kusalabhisamdhita), absence of desire for worldly benefit
(drstaphalanapeksita), straightforwardness (nirupdhatva), and lastly,
freedom from desire for other-worldly benefits (anidanatva). 3) To
consider the things worthy of gifts, generally four kinds of gifts have
been recgonised; namely, food, medicine, books and fearlessness. Food,
medicine, Upakarana (religious accessories) and the place of shelter is
the other list of four objects. All these things should be worthy of
the Patras. Only such things should be given as are useful for the
pursuance of studies and for practicing austerities of a very high
quality, and as do not bring about attachment, aversion, incontinence,
pride, sorrow, fear and the
Srava. IX. 3-10. Vasu. Srava. 224. Caritrasara. p. 26. Saga. Dharma. V.
2 Ta. su.
Bha. VII. 34. (I have practically followed the transaltion given in the
Jaina yoga. pp. 13-154) Amrtacandra enumerates almost the same
characteristics. (Puru. 169)
362. Amita. Srava. IX. 83, 106, 107. Vasu. Srava. 233.
Srava. 117. Caritrasara. p. 26. yas. and Ic. p. 283.
differ for a Svetambara nd a Digambara monk. We need not mention them
like. 4) The
gifts should be given according to the nine fold ways of entertaining a
Patra. This process consist of reception, offering a high seat, washing
the feet, adoration, salutation, purity of mind, purity of body, purity
of speech and purity of food. The saints should be entertained with
the above formalities but the other Pates according to their merits. 5)
As regards the yield of gift, greed is overcome by Dana and consequently
Atithidana amounts to the renunciation of Himsa. Besides, just as water
washes away bloods, so proper gifts to saints would for certain wipe off
the sins accumulated on account of the unavoidable household affairs.
The paying of obeisance to the holy saints causes noble birth; the
giving of Dana to them entails prosperous living; their servitude
promotes high respect; their devotion determines gracious look; and the
extolling of their virtues brings about celebrity. Vasunandi tells us
that the gift to Patras is just like a seed sown in a fertile land; and
the gift to Apertures is just like a seed sown in a barren land.
The five Aticaras of this vow are; 1) placing food on things having
life, 2) covering food with things having life, 3) offering food at an
improper time, 4) offering some other person's food, and 5) lack of
interest or jealousy towards the other giver.
TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING THE HOUSEHOLDER'S ETHICAL DISCIPLINE: VRATAS, AND
PRATIMAS: We have so far endeavored to expound the characteristic nature
of Anuvratas, Gunavratas bad Siksavratas. The last two types of Vratas,
which are called Salivates, are capable of educating the individual for
the exalted life of renunciation. They deepen his consciousness of sin,
thereby encouraging him to shun totally the causes of subtle Himsa,
which prevent the full-fledged performance of the auspicious Dhyanas
(Dharma and Sukla). It is evident that
1 Puru. 170.
2 Puru. 168.
Vasu. Srava. 225. Kartti. 360. yas. and Ic. p. 284. haribhadra includeds
these processes in Satkara, while commenting on the definition of the
vow given by the Sravaka prajnapti. ( Srava. prajna. Comm. 325).
3 puru. 172.
4 Ratna. Srava. 114. 5 Ratna. Srava.
Srava. 240, 241, 242.
VII. 36. Raja. VII. 36. The names of these Aicaras are the smae in
Digambara and Svetambara works, but the meaning differs slightly. we
have followe dPujapada's meaning.
deal with these two Dhyanas in the subsequent chapter.
sour of Himsa remains in the life of the householder, who pursues the
partial vows, is consequent upon the employment of the materials of
Bhoga and Upabhoga. Now he whose heart has been illumined, who has
developed in him the capacity of discharging the obligations which
result from the arduous life of asceticism proceeds towards the gradual
and the systematic renunciation of the articles of Bhoga and Upabhoga,
till he arrives at the full life of a saint. To express it
differently, the elevated outlook of life negatively depends upon
narrowing down the compass of Bhoga and Upabhoga to the irreducible
extent, and positively, upon steadily deepening the meditational aspect
of life. The negative aspect deserves to be extolled only when it is
accompanied by the positive phase of meditational development or
auspicious female and disposition of mind. In our study of the Jaina
ethical works, we find the exposition of the Acura of the householder on
the ground of Anuvratas, Gunavartas and Siksavratas as only one of the
ways of its presentation. This method of Approach to the conduct of the
householder is itself capable of effecting moral and spiritual
advancement by systematically prescribing the renouncement of the
objects of Bhoga and Upbhoga. The outstanding advocates of this sort
of presentation are Umasvati, Samantabhadra, Someday, Amitagati,
Amrtacandra and Hemacandra. Of these religio-thical saints, Umasvati,
Amrtacandra and Hemacandra have to all intents and purposes subscribed
to this view, whereas the rest, in spite of their having represented the
householder's ethical discipline on the aforementioned pattern, have
also referred to another way which shall be henceforth discussed. The
notable champions of another way, i.e. of the way which seeks to
represent that Aara of the householder on the basis of eleven stages,
which are technically called eleven Pratimas, are Kundakunda, Karttikeya,
Camundaraya and Vasunandi.
RECONCILONCILIATION OF THE TWO WAYS: These two ways may, at the first
sight, appear to present two divergent outlooks of Jaina ethical
discipline, but a little reflection would convince us that the
divergence is only superficial. The two are so closely related that is
the former way fo representation is pushed ahead for spiritual
development we are capable of having systematic stages of advancement.
To be more clear,
pahuda. 22 Kartti. 305, 306.
sara, p. 3. 4 Vasu. Srava. 4.
the vows of
Samayika, Prosadhopavasa, and Bhogopabhogaparimana give us the nine
stages of advancement towards the life of asceticism. Thus there is no
unbridgeable gulf between the two ways of delineation. There is
continuity and not a chasm between them. Besides, the latter way of
exposition on the basis of eleven stages is chronologically prior, the
credit of logical priority comes to the former.
THE ELEVEN PRATIMAS: The eleven Pratimas which have been mentioned by
Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Camundaraya, and Vasunandi are denominated 1)
Darsana, 2) Vrata, 3) Samayika, 4) Prosadha, 5) Sacittatyaga, 6)
Ratribuktityaga, 7) Brahamacarya, 8) Arambhatyaga, 9) Parigrahatyaga,
10) Anumatityaga, and 11) Uddistatyaga. The usagadhasao also speaks of
eleven Pratimalas, but does not mention their names. Karttikeya
enumerates twelve Pratimas but it should not be considered as the
violation of the traditional number which is eleven since the first
stage enumerated by Karttikeya is indicative of Samyagadarasana, i.e.,
of spiritual conversion which has not been separately enumerated by
other Acaryas but has been included in the 1st stage
mentioned by them. The remaining are the names of the eleven
Primates. Hence, there is no divergence from traditional enumeration.
Somadeva, in the first place, effects variation in the order of certain
stages and secondly substitutes 'Diva-Maithuna-virati' for 'Ratri-Bhukti-virati.
The former deviation from the traditional presentation has received no
support at the hands of subsequent thinkers, while the latter one has
been assimilated in their ethical discussions. We shall presently dwell
upon each of the eleven Pratimas and shall swell as endeavor to point
out that the aforementioned three
1 Sat. Vol.
I-p. Kasaya Pahuda. Vol. I. p. 130.
Pahuda. 22. 3. Ratna. Srava. 137 to 147.
70. Abhayadeva, the commentator of the Uvasagadasao, mentions the names
of eleven Pratimas in the following way : 1) Darsana, 2)Vrata, 3)
Samayika, 4) prosadha, 5) Kayotasarga, 6) Abrahma-varjana, 7)
Sacitta-tyaga, 8) Arambhatyaga, 9) Presyatyaga, 10) Uddistatyaga and 11)
Sramanabhuta. (Uvasaga. Comm. pp. 74-77) we observe that the names of
Pratimas given by the Svetambaras are somewhat different from those
given by teh Digambaras. But we shall point out afterwards that the
contents do not differ much.
305, 306. 7 Vasu. Srava. Intro. p. 50.
Prosadhopavasa, and Bhogopabhogaparimana) are capable of explaining the
nine stages of ethical headway.
DARSANA PRATIMA : The fist stage is Darsanapratima. After the attainment
of Samyadarsana the aspirant who should be styled Darsanika Sravaka
resolutely forsakes the use of odious things such as meat wine and the
like, and becomes indifferent to worldly and heavenly pleasures, and
nourishes the spirit of detachment. In conformity with the views of
Vasunandi, he who has acquired Samyagdarsana and has relinquished the
use of five Udamabara fruits and refrained himself from gambling, meat,
wine, honey, hunting, prostitution, adultery and stealing, should be
designated as Darsanika Sravaka. In addition to the relinquished of the
above indulgences, Vasunandi very emphatically cries down the practice
of taking food at night, and argues that he who indulges in eating at
night cannot claim to be practicing even the observances of the first
stage. If we pause a little to ponder over these decline actions of the
observances of the first stage, we can very easily conceive that this
stage comprises the Mulagunas in addition to Samyagdarsana. Hence, the
various conceptions of Mulagunas may give us various enunciation's of
the first stage. It is in all probability due to the recognition of this
fact that Somadeva calls the first stage 'Mulavrata'. It will not be out
place to point out that the characterization of this stage in accordance
with Vasunandi is so comprehensive as to comprise under it all the
preceding formulations concerning Milagunas. It has not the stringency
of Samantabhadra's and Jinasena's conceptions of Mulagunas wherein five
partial vows have been included and not the excessive mildness of
Somadeva's view. The pronouncement of the seven kinds of additions to
calamitous habits (saptavyasana) tends towards the inclusion of
the four types of sins to some extent, namely, Himsa, falsehood,
stealing and unchastity. Hence it is that in some measure the view of
Samantabhadra and Jinasena is included in it. We need not mention how
the Mulagunas prescribed by Amitagati, Somadeva are completely
comprehended in it.
Karti. 328, 329. 2 Ratna. Srava. 137; Caritrasara. P. 3.
Srava. 57 to 59. 4 Ibid. 314.
mentions under this stage only the attainment of Samyagdarsana.
Srava. 59; Vasu. Srava. Intro. P. 50.
meat, wine, hunting, prostitution, adultery and stealing.
Mulagunas and Samyagdarsana may depict the 1st stage. Just as the
conception of Mulagunas is dynamic, so the portrayal of the first stage
will also be dynamic character. In other words, this stage is capable of
involving the abandonment of newly evolved evil tendencies that may mar
the spiritual and the moral advancement owing to Samyagdarsana. It is of
capital importance to note that the first stage is the stage of mental
preparation accompanied be the initial training of the will by following
the short course of ethical discipline. We regard the separate treatment
of Mulguna as more correct, than the one along with Samyagdarsana, since
they are capable of being observed even by the great majority of
commonplace persons, by virtue of which the social structure may be
VRATA PRATIMA : The second stage is called Vrata pratima. This second
rung of the ladder of the householder's evolution of conduct comprises
the scrupulous observance of Anuvratas, Gunavratas and Siksavratas.2 We
have already dwelt upon the nature of these vratas, so need not turn to
SAMAYIKA AND VRATA PRATIMA : The third and fourth stages bear the
designations of Samayika and Prosadha Pratimas respectively. A question
may be asked : when Samayika and Prosadhopavasa have been treated as
Siksavratas, why have they been regarded as constituting the third and
fourth Pratimas respectively ? It is really a question and this becomes
all the more puzzling when we find that Samantabhadra and Karttikeya who
recognise Samayika and Prosadha as both Vratas and Pratimas have
practically prescribed the same course of discipline to be observed. In
Samayika Pratima, Karttikeya has prescribed the resoluteness of mind,
body and speech despite all perils to life, while Samantabhadra has
represented this characteristic in Samayika as Vrata, but has
distinguished Samayika as Pratima by prescribing the
prescribes only the observance of the Anuvratas in this stage. (Uvasaga.
comm. p. 76)
Srava. 3178/ Vasi/ Srava/ 207.
also recognises the performance of Samayika and the observance of
Prosadhopavasa in these two Pratimas ( See uvasaga. Comm. p. 76)
371, 372. 5 Ratna. Srava. 103.
performing Samayika thrice a day, which characteristic has been included
in Samayika as Vrata according to Karttikeya. In Prosadha as Pratima and
Prosada as Vrata no significant distinction has been made by Karttikeya
and Samantabhandra. We may now say that the distinction which has been
made is quite insignificant for being calculated as supplying the
adequate warrant for recognising these Vratas as indecent Pratimas. The
argument of Asadhara that these Silas, which were subserving the purpose
of guarding the Anuvratas, become in Pratimas independent Vratas, bears
little cogency, since though these Silas, no doubt serve the purpose of
custodian, yet it is unintelligible how they cancel the designation of
being called Vratas. The word 'Sills' prefixed to Vratas evinces simply
particularisation and not the cancellation of their being understood as
Vratas. May be, on account of this overt duplication, Vasunandi has
totally set aside these Vratas from Salivates, and his simply
represented them as the two Pratimas. If Kundakunda and Karttikeya have
wedded with this mode of delineation, i.e., have recognised Samayika and
Prosadha as both Vratas and Pratimas, it is to point out their paramount
importance for marching towards deep spiritual life. As a matter of
fact, these sum up the entire spiritual life of the householder.
Besides, Samayika and Prosadhopavasa are closely interrelated and so
influence each other. Prosadhopavasa assists in the due performance of
Samayika and sometimes Samayika encourages the performance of the other
with purity and zeal. Thus if Vasunandi is theoretically justifiable,
Kundakunda and Karttikeya are practically so. In the science of
spirituality theory cannot countervail practice. So, if these two Vratas
are elevated to the rank of Pratimas, it is to favor the deepening of
spiritual consciousness, and hence it is justifiable.
THE REMAINING PRATIMAS : Having vindicated the claims of Samayika and
Prosadhopavsa as Pratimas notwithstanding their recognition in Vratas,
we now proceed to enquire into the nature of the remaining Pratimas. All
the subsequent stages rest on the relinquishment of Bhoga and Upabhoga.
Sacittaga Pratima consists in renouncing the use of articles having
life, namely, roots, fruits, leaves, barks, seeds
Dhama. VII. 6.
like. The observer of the discipline prescribed by this stage does not
also feed others with those things which he himself has renounced. The
next stage is recognised to be either 'Ratri Bhuktivirati' or 'Divamaithunvirati.'
Kundakunda, Karttikeya and Samantabhadra subscribe to the former view
while the other authors like Amitagati, Chmundaraya, Vasunandi ,
Somadeva and Asadhana recognise 'Divamaithunavirati', i.e., abstinence
from sexual intercourse in the day. According to Karttikeya he who has
ascended this stage neither eats food nor feeds others at night nor
suggest others to do so. We may now say that this stage refers to the
limitations of both Bhoga and Upabhoga. The next stage known as
Brahmacarya Pratima prescribes absolute continence. This is indicative
of the further limitation in the objects of Upabhoga. The eighth stages
of householder's advancement which is known as Arambhatyaga signifies
the discontinuance of service, cultivation, business, in short, the
means of live hood. Besides, he neither suggests others to do business
etc., nor commends those who are doing so. The next stage, namely,
Parigrahatyaga Pratima enjoins the abandonment of all kinds of
accusations except clothes, and in those too the observer is not
attached. The statement of Samantabhadra and Karttikeya that the
observer of this stage should renounce all kinds
380; Ratna. Srava. 141; Saga Dharma. VI. 8; Vasu. Srava. 295. Abhayadeva,
regards this Pratima as the seventh in order and prescribes the same
course of discipline as above (Uvasaga. Comm. p. 76)
380. Abhayadeva calls this pratima by the name of Kayotsaga and regards
this as the fifth in order and includes in it the avoidance of
cohabitation in the da. he also prescribes the observance of the
Gunavratas and the Siksavratas in addition to the Anuvratas in this
Pratima. (uvasaga. Comm. p. 76)
pahuda. 22. 4 kartti. 382. 5. Ratna. Srava.
Srava. VII. 72 7 Caritrasara. p. 38. 8 Vasu. Srava.
Srava. Intro. p. 50. 10. Saga. Dharma. VII. 12.
384. Vasu. Srava. 297. Ratna. Srava. 1432. saga. Dhrma. VII. 16.
Abhayadeva defines it in the same way, though the order of the pratima
is the sixth.
Srava. 144. Vasun. Srava. 298. Abhayadeva holds that the aspirant
himself should not indulge in any activity for livelihood.
385. 14. Vasu. Srava. 299
Parigraha internal as well as external should mean the renouncement of
all Parigraha except clothes. In the tenth stage, the aspirant refuses
to give advice or suggestion regarding mattes concerning the
householder, hence it is called Anumatityaga Pratima. Here all the
objects of Bhoga and Upabhoga have been renounced except clothes, and
proper food cooked for him. The highest point of householder's
discipline is arrived at in the eleventh stage when the aspirant
renounces home and goes to the forest where ascetics dwell and accepts
vows in the presence of a Guru. He performs austerities, lives on food
obtained by begging, and wears a piece of lion-cloth. Thus he is
designed as excellent Sravaka and the stages is called Uddistatyaga
Pratima. Vasunandi gives a twofold classification of this stage, first,
the excellent Sravaka with one cloth, and secondly the same with the one
lion-cloth. The former applies instruments for cutting of his hair.
Keeps broom to avoid injury to small living beings, takes meals once a
day either in the palm of his hand or in some pot in a sitting posture,
and observes fast by renouncing all kinds of food on the four pious days
(Astami and Caturdasi ) of the month. This distinguishes him from the
latter who pulls out his hairs, and takes his meals in the palm of his
hand, other things being common to both. In both the cases, food is
begged either from one house after the monks have taken their meals and
fast is observed if food is not obtained from there, or from different
houses in case food is not received at one house.
THE THIRD WAY AS THE SYSTEMATIC AND ALL-INCLUSIVE EXPOSITON OF THE
HOUSEHOLDERS ETHICAL DISCIPLINE : We witness a third way of
1. Kartti. 386. Ratna. Srava. 145. Abhayadeva recognises neirther
the Parigrahatyaga Pratima nor the Anumatityaga Pratime. He speak of
Presytyaga Pratima, which implies the esfusal to make use of other for
388. Ratna.Srava. 146. Vasu.Srava.300.
According to Abhayadeva, in the Uddistatyaga Pratima the aspirant does
not take food prepared for himself; he either shaves his head or keeps a
top- knot. In the Sramanabhuta Pratima he either shaves his head or
pulls out his hair. Besides he keeps a broom and a begging bowl (Uvasga
comm.pp.76-77) These two stage almost correspond to the two-fold
division made by Vaunandi as mentioned above.
Vasu.Srava.302,303,311; Saga. Dharma.VII.39,40.
6.Vasu.Srava.304 to 309, Saga.Dharma. VII. 41 to 44, 46.
the house-holder's ethical discipline. This has emerged on account of
the tendency of comprehensive systematisation. Sallekhana (to be
henceforth discussed) which is included by Kundakunda in Vratas is taken
out by other Acaeyas from the extent of the Vratas and is given a
separate place. Besides, the Mulagunas, the Vratas, and the Pratimas
appear to be somewhat detached from one another. Though the conception
of Pratimas is capable of including Mulagunas and Vratas, yet it mingles
Mulagunas with Samyagdarsana. Thus it detaches Mulagunas from their
original function for which they have been designed, namely, for
preparing commonplace persons morally and for deciding the minimum of
morality. Again, though Mulagunas and Vratas along with Samayagdarsana
are capable of giving rise to Pratimas, yet Sallekhana remains isolated.
Thus the conception of Pratimas suffers from two defects; first, of
curbing the freedom of Mulagunas to embrace wide extent, and secondly,
of not including Sallekhana within them; and the conception of Mulagunas
and Vratas along with Samyagdarsana, from one defect of not comprising
Sallekhana with their purview. Probably keeping this in view, Jinasena
has devised an all-comprehen-sive way for describing the Acara into
Paksa, Carya and Sadhana. The follower of this discipline is called
Paksika, Naisthika, and Sadhana respectively. Asadhara has adopted this
way as the basis of his Sagaradharmamrta. He who has set his face
against the intentional injury to all mobile living beings, and who
observes Mulagunas is called Paksika. He is to abstain himself from
wine, meat, honey, five kinds of Udambara fruits and seven kinds of bad
habits already mentioned, and from eating corn-food at night. He is
further to devote himself to worship Arahantas, revere Gurus, offer
gifts to the Patras and try to earn fame by meritorious deeds of charity
and the like. Besides, he should practice universal friendship,
appreciate meritorious personages, be compassionate towards the
miserable and be indifferent towards the perverted. The aspirant who
devotes himself to the observance of Pratimas which also include Vratas
in styled Naisthika. And lastly, he who practises Sallekhana is called
Sadhaka. Thus we see that all the previous ways of describing the
householder's discipline have been properly harmonised.
145. 2 Saga. Dharma. I-19, II-2.
Dharma. II. 17, 76. 4 Ibid. I. 19.
NATURE OF SALLEKHANA AS DISTINGUISHED FROM SUICIDE : After reconciling
the threefold ways of describing the householder's ethical discipline,
we now proceed to explain the conception of Sallekhana as recognised in
Jainism. It implies the enervation of external body and internal
passions in a legitimate way by the gradual removal of the causes of
their nourishment so that one may renounce the present body with a view
to having a new bodily modification. To be more clear, the abandonment
of the bodily frame on being confronted with the uneschewable calamity,
famine, senility, and disease for the sustenance of spiritual practices
has been regarded as Sallekhana. This signifies that the process of
Sallekhana is to be adopted either in special circumstances when the
religious observances are being endangered on account of unavoidable
bodily infirmities and the like, or on the occasion when the time of
natural death has been in all probability. No doubt, the body which is
the medium of the upliftment of the soul is to be properly nourished and
cared for and the diseases are to be seriously met with any retreat. But
if the body refuse to respond to our earnest endeavors, we should not
falter to forsake it like a villain in the interest of saving the peace
of mind. Thus if one is encountered with the causes of the termination
of duration of the present life one should resort to the performance of
the process of Sallekhana, which is not other than the spiritual welcome
to death. This is not yielding to death, but a way of meeting the
challenge of death undauntedly and adequately. This happy embracement of
death has been calculated to carry the spiritual dispositions to the
next birth, but it is not very easy to practice. Those who have
submitted themselves to vicious deeds throughout their lives cannot
easily think to adopt the process of Sallekhana. Thus it requires an
earnest endeavour from the start. Samantabhadra declares that
austerities, if they have been truly, deeply, and successfully
performed, must bear the fruits of noble death. "Self-restraint, study,
austerities, worship, and charity, all become useless if the mind is not
pure at the last hour of life. Just as the training of a king who has
learnt the use of weapons for twelve years, becomes useless if he faints
on the battle field." It is to be remembered that the mere loss of the
strength of the body is of no
VII. 22. 2. Ratna. Srava. 122.
Dharma. VIII. 20; Amita. Srava. VI. 98, yo sa. III. 148.
Dharma. VIII. 5, 6,7. 5 Puru. 175. 6 ratna. Srava. 123. 7 yas. and Ic.
if it does not lead to the conquest of passions. The flagellation of the
body must issue in the denial of passions. The resignation of body to
death has not been considered to be as difficult as the observing of
self-control, and the fixing of one's mind in the Atman, when the vital
forces depart from the body. Thus the emphasis is on thee rejection of
passion, and consequently this noble death serves for the fulfillment of
Ahimsa. It is on account of this insistence on the abnegation of passion
that the process of Sallekhana must needs be distinguished from suicide
which is perpetrated by the cruel dominance of passions through the
mal-agency of water, fire, poison, inhibition of breath and the like.
Suicide is easy when compared with the adequate performance of
Sallekhana. The latter is undertaken only when the body fails to answer
to the spiritual needs of the individual and when the inevitability of
death is a matter of undisputed certainty; while suicide may be
committed at any time in the life time under the spell of emotional
disturbance or passionate attitude of mind.
PROCESS OF SALLEKHANA : To deal with the process of Sallekhana, the
aspirant must attain the purity of mind by renouncing attachment,
aversion and infatuation. Afterwards in modest and sweet words he should
make his earnest request to the members of his family and others around
him to pardon him for the vicious deeds committed by him to afflict them
wittingly and unwittingly. He should also forgive them from the bottom
of his heart for being troubled by them on certain occasions. He should
then practice the five Mahavratas and engage himself in the study of
scriptures with adequate zeal without allowing himself to be seduced by
grief, fear, hatred, and the like. Nourishment is to be renounced
gradually so that mental disturbance may be avoided. The persistence of
equanimous mental state is the prime necessity. The physical
renunciation of food to enervate the body must needs be balanced by the
enhancement of the strength of the spirit. In other words, the gradual
renunciation of the causes of physical nourishment. In the first place,
only milk and whey should be continued after having abandoned the solid
Dharma VIII. 22. 2. Ibid. VIII. 24.
3. Puu. 179.
4. Puru. 178
Srava. 124 to 128.
up even the former, only hot water should be taken. Subsequently fasting
should be observed. Then after entirely devoting himself to the
meditation on the fivefold holy names of Arahanta, Siddha, Acarya,
Upadhyaya and Sadhuy, the aspirant should bid fare well it his body.
While practising Sallekhana, the Sadhaka should avoid the
following faults : 1) desire to live, 2) desire to die, 3) remembrance
of friends, 4) revival of past pleasures, and 5) expectations for future
prosperity. Samantabhandra takes out 'revival of past pleasure' and puts
'fear' in its place. According to the Uvasagadasao the defects are 1)
longing for this world, 2) longing for the next world, 3) longing for
life, 4) longing for death, and 5) longing for sensual pleasures.