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A primer for creating the illusion of three-dimensional form and space on two-dimensional surfaces
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William R. Benedict
Architecture Dept. Cal Poly
William R. Benedict
Architecture Department California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, CA 93407-0282 Phone: Email: 805 756-5082 email@example.com
© 2007 William R. Benedict All Rights Reserved
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Seeing & Drawing 7 Seeing Depth Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Binocular Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Monocular Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Concept Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Values, Edges & Lines in Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Aerial Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Color, Light & Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Size or Size Constancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Vertical Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Foreshortening or Shape Constancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Textural Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Perspective Basics 19 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Perspective Terms, Concepts, Positions & Assumptions . . . . 22 Vanishing Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Fundamental Techniques 25 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Horizontal Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Distribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Add One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Multiply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Subdivide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Diagonal Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Dimensioning Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Dimensioning Edges That Vanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Diagonal/Oblique Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Contour Types: The Basic Language . . . . . . . . 51 Using Measuring Points . . . . 73 Creating Values. 52 Oblique Vanishing Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 References . . . . . . . . . . 66 Contour Language Variations . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Contour Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Perspective Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Graphic Languages 63 Graphic Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 The Complete System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Content . . . . . . . . . . . 46 60/30 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Composite Contour Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Basic Line Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Half Way One-Point Perspective . . . . . . . . . . 61 Gesture Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Entourage 81 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 . . .4 8/2007 Drawing Form Three Direct Perspective Setups 41 One-Point Perspective . . . . . . . . . 44 Diagonal One-Point Perspective . . . . . . . . 69 Composite Tonal Languages . . . . . . 63 Graphic Grammar . . . . . 81 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 68/22° Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Good Graphic Communications 57 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shadow Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 60/30° Shortcut Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Line & Value Languages . . . . . 68 Basic Value Types & Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Freehand Drawing: Contour & Gesture 61 Introduction . . . . . .
. Dines. Nicholas T. Those who have been of particular inspiration include: Francis D. Jay Doblin. Doyle. Kirby Lockard. Gibson. James J. Lou Michael. Helms. Ching. and Jack Fredrick Myers.Drawing Form 8/2007 5 Drawing by: Karl Johnson Acknowledgements I am indepted to those who have studied and written on the subjects of perception and linear perspective. Michael E. Kevin Forseth. K. Michael E.
6 8/2007 Drawing Form .
310) Accommodation The movement of the ciliary muscle surrounding the eye that change the shape of the lens to assist in focusing on an object. It is a visual field that is being represented with a drawing. The visual field is sharp and detailed at the center. In doing so. Convergence "Because of the distance between the eyes. shapes and interspaces that surround us. includes those depth cues that result from our having two eyes. (Gibson 1974) The visual world consists of all the objects. (Wallschlaeger & Busic-Snyder 1992) .Drawing Form 8/2007 7 seeing & Drawing How can the illusion of three-dimensional form and space be created on two-dimensional surfaces?” The answer to this question requires an understanding of how we see and how drawing can represent what we see on a twodimensional surface. our personal experience of living in the world and drawing are related— we recognize the relationship between the marks on the paper and what they represent in the world. In drawing. This section will identify the fundamental visual depth cues and describe ways that they can be represented in drawings. and progressively becomes less detailed and vague as peripheral vision takes over until the limits of our cone of vision are reached or some other boundary is encountered. it is difficult to keep the eyes trained in a certain direction for very long. The visual field is a single stop-action view within the visual world—it is like a photograph. It has no central vanishing point and is continuous and panoramic in character. some combination of the depth cues is represented in order to create an illusion of three-dimensional form and space. The visual field is bounded—it contains only what can be seen at a given point in time and space with the head and eyes in a fixed position. Depth cues are signals that the brain recognizes and interprets in order to determine spatial relationships. These terms were defined by James J. the concepts of visual world and visual field differentiate between what there is to see and what is being seen. Binocular Cues Binocular vision is seeing with two eyes and therefore. These cannot be directly represented in drawings and include muscular and parallax cues. In perception. It is virtually theoretical. we consistently find our way through the world without bumping into things. Gibson as part of his theory of perception. the closer an object is to the viewer. because unlike a camera. surfaces. Muscular The muscles of the eye can change the shape of the lens and the convergence of the eyes. Seeing Depth Cues The establishment of spatial relationships is one of the most dominant and automatic goals of the perceptual process." (Wallschlaeger & Busic-Snyder 1992. edges. the more the two eyes must turn toward each other to focus. As a result. The visual world is perceived as a person's eyes. head and body moves through the environment. This muscular activity provides subtle depth cues.
head and/or body. They include the nature of the light that makes visual perception possible and the nature of the atmosphere that exists between the viewer and the things being seen. vertical location etc. The nearer the surface is to us the greater the disparity. . monocular cues can be categorized as those affected by environmental conditions and position. Linear Perspective Linear perspective is a drawing system based on our visual experience of the world. These physical relationships between the viewer and things provide important depth cues including size. Monocular cues are the primary means for interpreting intermediate-to-far distances. This can result from movement of the eyes. The mark (line and/or value) and the experienced reality share similar qualities—they look like each other. Position The things of the visual world have some position relative to one another. Move your head from side to side. . For example. Disparity Our eyes are located two to three inches apart and therefore. includes those depth cues that are not dependent on two eyes. Environment Regardless of the position of the viewer or the things of the visual world there are two environmental conditions that provide important depth cues. If one object is close and the other far away a great deal of shift between their edges will be perceived." (Wallschlaeger & BusicSnyder 1992.8 8/2007 Drawing Form Parallax Parallax is defined . . Shift in the rate of motion addresses the relationship between the viewer’s motion and the corresponding relative movement of edges in the visual field. overlap. If two objects are seen as overlapping and their edges do not shift position relative to each other when the viewer moves they are either on the same plane or so far away that the movement is not perceived. This causes us to pay particular attention to the edges of objects because they are potentially sources of new information. as an apparent change in the view of an object resulting from a change in the position of the viewer. This is because they can be directly represented in drawing. Notice the apparent movement of the near finger. They are particularly important for drawing because they are the primary tools available for creating the illusion of three-dimensional form and space on two-dimensional surfaces. Finally. It has the capability to systematically producing many of the position cues. see slightly different views of the visual world. Monocular Cues Monocular vision is seeing with one eye and therefore. surfaces that possess different values can be represented by areas of corresponding value in a drawing. Disparity operates out of awareness but is sensed because the location of the edges of a surface as seen by our eyes do not match. It is the best drawing system available for creating the illusion of being in a three-dimensional world. 311) The change in what is seen results from both the fact that we have two eyes and movement. The result is that things closer to the viewer move (change relative position) faster than things farther away." Movement Movement parallax is the apparent change in the view resulting from the movement of the viewer. As we move through the visual world our position changes and the perceived relationship between the things of the visual world changes. This can be dramatized by rapidly closing one eye then the other. Each of these involves the appearance and disappearance of distant objects from behind the occluding edges of nearer objects. Hold one finger close to your face and focus on the another one held at arm's length. which creates a new line of sight of the object. The first will be referred to as "Light" and the second "Aerial Perspective.
The following text and illustrations address each of the concepts contained in the map and describes strategies for their use in drawing. �������������������� Orientation An abrupt shift in brightness within a visual field is perceived as an edge. the surface’s inherent properties and the context or adjacent surfaces. Use as full a value range as possible and appropriate. The eye sees such gradients as “flowing along a continuous surface. The retina is primarily sensitive to grades of light and therefore.Drawing Form 8/2007 9 Concept Map The concept map below identifies the key concepts and illustrates their relationships. The more directly a surface faces the light source the brighter it will appear. The terms in gray boxes are the key cues that will be described. shape. Illumination produces value changes that reflect the spatial relationships of surface’s to the light source(s) and each other. A surface that is perceived as light in value is one that is both more highly illuminated and reflective than the adjacent surfaces. When the edge is created by the intersection of two surfaces at different angles to the light source they present different values. or color pattern lying on the plane of a surface.” (Michel 1996. In more general terms the existence of value changes indicates surfaces in some varying spatial relationship with respect to the light source and each other. A continuous gradient is any constant or smoothly changing value. . We perceive surfaces not because of their absolute but their relative value which is a function of their orientation to the light source. The perception of edges is based on seeing the limits of continuous gradients. The more a surface turns away from the light source the darker it will appear. ����������� ������ ����� �������� ����������� ������������������� ���������������� ������������������ �������������� ��������������� ���� ����������������� �������� �������������� ����������������� ������������ ������� �������������� ����������� ������������������ Light Perception of the visual world is based on the very consistent patterns of light reflected from surfaces. Orientation in Drawing Make the surface that most directly faces the light source white and give progressively darker values to surfaces as they turn away from the light source. A gradual transition in brightness indicates a curved or round surface. a sudden break in the gradient of light received is perceptually dramatic. 11) An edge is perceived when there is an abrupt change in the gradient that can be caused by the physical edge of an object or a shadow.
10 8/2007 Drawing Form Shadow Shadows tell us about the three-dimensional form of its casting object and the surface upon which the shadow falls. The shadow can indicate the relative orientation of the object and surface upon which the shadow falls. shade surfaces as 30% gray and shadows as 60% gray. In the illustration. those turned away for the light source (Shade) and shadows. For example. start sun surfaces as white. This is why a person’s face looks strange when lite from below. in the illustration. In creating a drawing. . For example. the top two cubes are floating and the bottom two are resting on the ground plane. Shade and Shadow in Drawing Surfaces can be categorized as those facing the light source (Sun). Sun. Build the values to create clear differentiations. our tendency is to read the top two forms as being recesses and the bottom two as projections. the lower right shadow shows that there is a semicircular ridge on the ground. We are used to interpreting the orientation of surfaces in the environment with respect to overhead illumination. shadows are the strongest indicators of the location of the light source. What relationships are indicated in the illustration? The shape of the shadow can also make visible the shape of the surface receiving the shadow. Overhead Light The sun and most artificial light sources are overhead and therefore cast shadows down. Overhead Light in Drawing Make the underside of things dark unless there is some other strongly established light source operating within the drawing. Finally. Shadows should strongly contrast with the illuminated surface upon which they fall. If the shadow and the object touch we know that the object is touching the surface that is receiving the shadow. Edges of an object that are hidden from our view may be disclosed in the shadow of the object. Keep the most highly illuminated surfaces white.
the object that creates the greatest contrast with its environment will appear closest. In these cases we experience the illumination of surfaces diminishing as their distance from the light source increases. Primary or profile lines representing occluding edges can be made heavier to give them a strong contrast with their surroundings. Both involve the appearance and/or disappearance of distant objects from behind the occluding edges of nearer objects. there are times when creating values is too time consuming or inappropriate for the desired communication. Values can directly represent the qualities of a surface by simulating its value in the drawing. The occluding edges of objects are of particular perceptual importance because it is at these edges that new information appears. Obviously values and lines can be used in many combinations to represent the visual world. Use relative contrast to control the perception of things in space and their relative importance. we use lines to represent abrupt changes in value—the edge of a value. At these times. make surfaces lighter as they mover closer in space. Relative Brightness When all other cues are equal.Drawing Form 8/2007 11 Values. In representing occluding edges of things we are enhancing an edge to acknowledge its meaning as a source of new information. Edges & Lines in Drawing Values and lines are used in drawings to represent things. This is especially true at night or in environments with a low level of illumination. Primary or profile lines represent occluding edges. . This new information may appear because something moves from behind the object or because we move and therefore can see what was previously concealed. In addition. Tertiary lines represent changes of value on a surface. Relative Brightness in Drawing Within a drawing context that is predominantly at the darker end of the value scale. Therefore. However. A language of line weights can be used to represent the spatial meaning of different value changes as shown in the illustrations. In a context that is white or light in value the darkest surfaces will appear closest. given a dark environment those things that are more strongly illuminated are perceived as closer to us. the object that is perceived as brightest will appear closest. the heavier profile line creates a stronger contrast that enhances the differentiation of the object and moves it forward in space. Secondary lines represent the meeting of two surfaces with different orientations. Another more general way of stating this cue is.
The result is that as things move farther away they loose detail. When this is combined with the effects of size and the limitations of our eyes this cue can become very pronounced. Render near surfaces with precise well defined lines and edges and reduce the precision as they recede into the distance. Near objects and surfaces are more photographic while far objects are more suggested or implied. Conversely. Reduce the chroma of surface colors as they recede into the distance and also make them progressively cooler.g. smoke. pale blue). contrast. The six concepts are being presented as pairs (detail/sharpness.12 8/2007 Drawing Form Aerial Perspective Aerial perspective address the phenomena produced by dust. Make far surfaces low in internal contrast using a limited range of values from medium to light. value and chroma and turn blue. Chroma/Blueness Just as the intervening atmosphere obscures detail it also obscures or reduces the apparent chroma of a surface. . Therefore. water droplets. Give near figures the greatest contrast with the ground and far figures less contrast. In the illustration. Contrast/Value As things move farther away from us the intervening atmosphere reduces contrast by making surfaces lighter and more similar in value. High chroma warm colors (e. sharpness. a narrow range of values (weak contrast) recedes. contrast/value and chroma/blueness) because of their close interrelationships. what has sharp and distinct (hard) edges and greater detail advances or appears closer and what has soft or fuzzy edges and less detail recedes or looks farther away. bright red) will always appear closer and more dominant than low chroma cool colors (e. in the air.. Detail/Sharpness in Drawing Provide greater detail on near surfaces and less as they recede back in space. Detail/Sharpness The intervening atmosphere tends to obscure detail and reduce the sharpness of edges. The result is that pure saturated colors and especially warm (red) colors advance while unsaturated (low chroma) and cool (blue) colors recede.g. etc. A wide range between light and dark values (strong contrast) is seen to advance and appear closer. Chroma/Blueness in Drawing Make the colors on near surfaces their full strength and chroma. The atmosphere is perceived as having a purple-blue color that veils everything in the landscape and tends to make all colors more blue and neutral.. Contrast/Value in Drawing Give near surfaces the greatest internal contrast in value using the full range from black to white. note the figures that contrast greatest with the background appear closest and that the checkerboard figures appear closer than the figures with less internal contrast.
g. The surfaces of elements that are closer tend to be darker. This is especially true when the two are used in relationship to each other. cooler and more grayed. Atmospheric Perspective This is the same as the Aerial Perspective cue discussed earlier. Light & Drawing In the second edition of Color Drawing (1999). For example. Michael Doyle focuses our observation of the world and identifies implications for color drawing. At the same time. The surface of an element in the background may gradually be darkened and cooled as it moves toward its boundary with the surface of a foreground element. shadows should be graded to be darker toward their boundary with illuminated surfaces and illuminated surfaces should be graded lighter toward the same boundary. [When creating chiaroscuro. A key technique to building this richness into drawings is to create surface colors from many colors that are placed side by side. The illuminating source may be a colored light or indirect light reflected off a colored surface. Michael Doyle describes the phenomena of light and color that surround us each day and admonishes us to carefully observe how they work as a basis for creating the illusion of three dimensional form and space on two-dimensional surfaces. 6) Surfaces in shade and shadow should not be drawn as gray or black. This includes the light from a bright blue sky. The reality is that the surface or area is comprised of many colors that are averaged or mixed together in the visual process. . Multiplicity of Color The color of any surface or area when seen from a distance appears to be a single color. Our life long experience in the world which is supported by the way our eyes function results in cooler colors appearing to recede and warm colors appearing to advance. distance from a light source and the colors reflected onto them from other surfaces. When illuminated. Chiaroscuro “The term chiaroscuro refers to the light-to-dark shading of an illustrated form in order to make it appear three-dimensional. but darker versions of the surface in sunlight. only darker. (Doyle 1999.. marker and colored pencil). Gradation Most surfaces appear uneven in color and value—surfaces graduate from one color to another and from one value to another. more vivid in color.] the color of a surface in shade or shadow usually remains the same color as its illuminated sides. The effect is particularly evident on neutral white or gray surfaces such as concrete. the surface of the foreground element may be gradually lightened and warmed as it approaches its boundary with the surface of the background element. . Local Tone Every surface has some intrinsic value—it falls somewhere between white and black on the value scale—based on its inherent color and regardless of its illumination. and that the degree of darkness depends on the” intrinsic value of the surface. Color of Shade & Shadow There are conditions when the shades and shadows on surfaces take on subtle colorations other than darker versions of the illuminated surface.Drawing Form 8/2007 13 Color. This visual quality is the result of a surface’s orientation to a light source. This is accomplished by layering several colors with one or more media (e. a white surface will always be lighter than a red surface no matter what its orientation to the light source. warmer and contain greater contrast. . The use of gradations in drawing is essential to making surfaces appear more realistic. This occurs when the source of the surface’s illumination is colored. As elements recede into the distance their surfaces tend to become lighter. Closer inspection will find the variations in color that the impressionist painters such as Seurat utilized in their paintings. In the following.
g.14 8/2007 Drawing Form Reflections Reflective surfaces reflect the colors they see back to the viewer. First. Each scene can be divided into three spatial layers: foreground. Arrangements of light and dark in a drawing can be achieved by combining these two strategies. the more luminous the color appears.e. a window in a sunlit wall) the reflected colors will be less intense and darker than those of the object being reflected. a far vertical edge of a cube is shorter than a near one. the subject and those things that are behind the subject. In most cases the reflected colors are less intense than those of the objects being reflected. Size and size constancy affect our interpretation of what we see based on what we know about things.” (Doyle 1999. the one known to be larger must be farther away. Place an object of known size (i. a human figure) to give scale to the other elements in a drawing—to provide a reference against which the size of other elements can be judged. The darker the background. medium/light and dark/light). color is limited to illuminated surfaces and diminishes rapidly with distance from the light source. things appear smaller in proportion to their distance from us and if two objects appear to be the same size.. Mirrored or highly polished surfaces usually distort the shape of the object but reflect its color exactly. Your interpretation of these values is essential to making a successful drawing. For example. Squinting your eyes is one way to reduce the number of visible values. This also applies within an object. The result will be a nine step value strategy for creating the drawing. when they are surrounded by darker values or applied to or seen against toned backgrounds. vivid colors appear to be illuminated.. Color is at its maximum on a sunny day and is disappears in moonlight. Arrangements of Light & Dark There are an infinite number of values in the visual world. Size or Size Constancy In the simplest terms. assign one of the three value categories to each spatial layer (e. tones can be grouped into three categories: light. Second. middle ground and background layers..g. divide each spatial layer into three values within its value category (e. In night scenes. 12) Color & Light Level The intensity and amount of color that is visible is directly related to the intensity and amount of light present. . Luminosity “Light colors and strong. light/light. In the process. or to glow. Size in Drawing Draw objects larger when they are closer and smaller when they are more distant. “As windows in a building become higher and more oblique to the viewer’s sight line.g. foreground is dark. medium or dark. middle ground is medium and background is light). We know that the relative size of objects indicates their relative position in space because we know the actual/experienced size of many things and treat them as constants in our visual field—we do not see a person as other than about five to six feet tall no matter how they appear. they progressively reflect more sky. divide the scene into foreground. middle ground and background—those things that are in front of the subject. 11) They change from darker and/or transparent areas reflecting their surroundings to opaque and lighter surfaces reflecting the sky. When the reflecting surface is darker than its surroundings (e.” (Doyle 1999. Third. We use these constants to estimate distances and the relative position of things in space.
Vertical location works in relationship to an assumed or perceived reference ground or overhead plane. Vertical location also operates in terms of overhead planes but it is reversed—near things on the overhead plane are higher. When both the ground and ceiling plane are active. The angle of regard refers to the angle at which we hold our head to see a figure. as we spend more time in man-made environments overhead or ceiling planes play a more important role in spatial perception. We know many basic shapes and how they appear from different angles and tend to interpret surfaces as being some basic shape turned in space. . This is especially true for circles. For example.Drawing Form 8/2007 15 Vertical Location We look down at objects that are at our feet (near) and up at objects that are far away. place objects lower to make them appear closer and higher to make them appear farther away. our brains assume that an ellipse is a circle turned in space unless specific information contradicts this position. The ground plane tends to be our focus because we must pay attention to it as we move about and it dominates our experience of the visual world. This apparent change in shape is called foreshortening. objects placed both high and low appear closer while those in the middle appear farther away. When our viewing angle (angle of regard) is downward we expect to see things that are close and when we look up we expect to see things far away. Foreshortening or Shape Constancy The only time that the true shape and proportions of a surface are visible is when it is parallel to our face—when it is at right angles to the direction in which we are looking. Vertical Location in Drawing When the ground plane is dominant. At all other times. Foreshortening in Drawing Reduce the dimensions of surfaces as they turn in space. This is so strongly ingrained in our experience that figures set low in a drawing are presumed to be closer while those set high are farther away. one or more dimensions of a surface appears shorter than it actually is in direct relationship to the angle at which it is turned away from us. However. This foreshortening of known shapes supports the perception of spatial depth. Shape constancy is when our knowledge of things overrides the actual retinal image.
a stone wall). color and transparency. rough or smooth. The scale of the texture on a surface can affect our perception of the surface. The texture presented by a surface is one of the key ways we determine its material nature because of our experience with and knowledge of the world. If we want to make the perception of surfaces primary. This is produced by a diminution of size and the foreshortening of the intervals—a densification of the texture. Texture is the primary source of gradients and often displays size constancy and foreshortening cues. The more dramatic the gradation the more the surface is angled away from the viewer. Texture also responds to the cue of size. Therefore. This causes the texture on oblique surfaces to appear roughest and most pronounced when they are closest to us and to become progressively smoother as they recede in space. A coarse or large scale texture will appear closer that one that is finer or smaller in scale as illustrated by the two brick patterns illustrated above. The scale of surface textures and patterns should not be too big and/or their contrast too strong. choose and draw textures that support the communication goals of the drawing. Textural Gradient in Drawing Draw uniform textures and values on surfaces that are parallel to your face (the picture plane) and gradations on those that are at a slant. reflectance.. draw textures at a size and scale that indicates their relative position in space. This makes it an important cue to a surface's location. if it is brick or wood). The sense of depth is strongest when a surface is deeply textured (e. based on how the material is rendered we can determine its illumination.g. etc. A surface that is oblique to our line of sigh presents a gradual increase in the density of the texture as it recedes into the distance. A small scale pattern maintains visual attention on the surface as a whole whereas a larger pattern can cause us to see the individual elements more readily than the surface. the scale and contrast of surface textures and patterns should be visually secondary to the surface..g. Furthermore. The perception of surfaces and edges is based on seeing continuous gradients and abrupt breaks in gradients respectively. The more the surface is slanted the more dramatic the gradient.16 8/2007 Drawing Form Textural Gradient Texture is the character or structure of a surface that affects its appearance and/or feel. At the next level we can determine its material (e. Therefore. At the most basic level the scale of the texture indicates if the surface is smooth or rough and course or fine. . warm or cold. A surface that is perpendicular to our line of sight (parallel to our face) projects a uniform gradient. Based on our understanding of the material we make aesthetic judgements and determine the desirability of touching or being near the surface because we know the surface is going to be hard or soft. orientation and limits.
those lines seen through the transparent material can also change value. and the other hand straight up at only half the distance of the other one. Overlap in Drawing Draw forms so that they overlap each other to greatly increase the apparent depth in a drawing. Transparency in Drawing Transparency can be best indicated with value and/or color changes. we always assume that the square is covering a portion of a circle and not that a square and three-quarters of a circle lay on the same plane. We tend to group things into three overlapping planes: the foreground or those things that are near to us and in front of that which has our attention: the background or those things that are far from us and in back of that which has our attention: and the middle ground or those things that have our attention. Visualize the relative layer of space occupied by each new mark. Depth in a drawing can be dramatically enhanced by establishing overlapping layers. Background A spatial layer is a grouping of things within our visual field that we categorize as being at a similar distance or within a given range of distance from us. form and/or continuity. color and/or graphic technique. Spatial Layers in Drawing A spatial layer is created by the first mark made on a two-dimensional surface. The degree to which we can see through a surface to surfaces beyond or behind determines its degree of transparency. weight. Move it back and it appears reduced in size. Move the near hand to partially cover the other. In architectural drawings this usually takes the form of foreground (tree). Middleground. If we recognize something we assume that the whole object is present even if a part of it is obscured by another object—we assume that objects have continuity. Transparency Transparency is overlap that is affected by the nature of the overlapping material. Things separated by large distances tend to organize on separate planes while the things we focus on tend to be assigned to a single layer. The perception of these layers is a function of the spatial relationship between the things and our attention. The effect of overlap on perceived size can be demonstrated by holding one hand straight up at the end of your arm. It instantly appears much larger. The area shared by the overlapping and overlapped form can have a unique value. It is a figure floating above the surface. middleground (cube) and background (mountains) layers as indicated in the illustration. In the illustration.Drawing Form 8/2007 17 Overlap The visual field is seldom without many instances of things covering portions of other things. In line drawings. Spatial Layers: Foreground. Overlapping is so dominant a quality of the visual world that we always assume the physical integrity of objects. .
Convergence in Drawing Make each set of parallel lines appear to converge to a common point. This cue is most pronounced in human environments because they are typically construct of things that have flat rectangular surfaces and parallel edges. Depending on the orientation of the set of lines their vanishing point can be located anywhere. The particular combination of cues chosen should dependent on time.18 8/2007 Drawing Form Convergence The essential experience of convergence is that parallel lines seem to come together in the distance. When cues contradict each other the clarity of the illusion is diminished. energy and the desired communication. The greater the number of cues that are used to reinforce the illusion the clearer the illusion will be— greater redundancy produces greater clarity. The goal is to communicate with maximum clarity and efficiency the desired quantitative and qualitative information. Summary To create the illusion of three dimensional form and space on a two-dimensional surfaces some combination of the visual cues previously described must be represented. .
you can visualize and draw a cube. The approach simultaneously introduces both one. This approach supports investigating possibilities as opposed to representing defined solutions without precluding more precise perspective construction. Looking Right Linear perspective is concerned with the appearance of things to the eye and is a system for representing what we see on a two-dimensional surface.Drawing Form 8/2007 19 PersPeCtive BasiCs Linear perspective is a drawing system based on our visual experience of the world that can systematically produce the position cues. Squares to Cubes If you can visualize and draw a square. If a drawing does not look right. Fundamental concepts will be introduced and then specific perspective construction methods will be described. You will find that this sense will help you draw perspectives correctly. photo-realistic renderings and 3-D digital modeling. . no matter how precisely the rules of perspective were followed. Approach The approach to presenting perspective concepts that will emphasize the approximate and proportional as opposed to the measured and accurate. The approach to drawing perspectives that will take advantage of our understanding of squares and cubes and ability to visually estimate and draw them with great accuracy. you can construct anything in perspective.and two-point perspective. The goal is to present basic concepts and strategies and to protect against becoming entangled in the web of linear perspective construction. It is used in quick pencil sketches. The presentation of the perspective concepts and techniques will start with those that support sketching and progress to those that support more photographic renderings—a sequence that parallels the design process. facilitates the understanding of both the parts and the whole and supports choosing from among alternative approaches. it is not right. If you can visualize and draw a cube in perspective. Train your eye to recognize when things don't look right.
It is also possible for a drawing to contain objects that are in onepoint along with objects that are in two-point perspective as illustrated. Principle 1: Things appear smaller in proportion to their distance from us and if two objects appear to be the same size. This is called foreshortening. If the person shown is six feet tall. It simply means that the primary form we are drawing is generally rectilinear and that it therefore has one or two sets of parallel horizontal lines or edges that vanish. how big are the cubes? Architecture is for people—put people in the spaces you drawings. In the illustration we assume the two cubes are the same size and therefore the smaller on is farther away.or two-point perspectives this does not mean that there are only one or two possible vanishing points in the perspective. Principle 3: Sets of parallel edges/lines appear to converge to a common Vanishing Point (VP) in the distance. It is helpful to remember that no matter how complicated or perplexing linear perspective seems to get it can be simplified by referring to one or more of these fundamental principles. Principle 2: The only time that the true shape and proportions of an edge or surface are visible is when it is parallel to our face—when it is at right angles to the direction in which we are looking. For example. �� �� ������������ �� . The greater the angle. Although we commonly speak of one. The more general form of this principle is that any set of parallel lines/ edges not parallel to the observer’s face will vanish to a common vanishing point somewhere. There can be as many sets of vanishing points as there are sets of parallel edges at different angles. The sides and top of the cubes do not appear as the squares we know they are—their dimensions are foreshortened.20 8/2007 Drawing Form Principles There are only a few fundamental principles to perspective. Surfaces not parallel to our face appear either narrower or shorter in proportion to their angle to our face. the greater the foreshortening. the horizontal edges that define the right sides of the cubes appear to vanish toward a common point to the right of the cubes. the one known to be larger must be farther away. When a surface becomes perpendicular to our face it appears as a line—we see only its edge. based on our understanding (shape constancy) we perceive them as rotated in space. Note the scale giving affect of having people in a drawing. Therefore.
proportion. The approach that will be described is based on two assumptions. This initial edge and/or plane is assumed to be on and therefore defines the picture plane for the drawing. the view being drawn starts at the picture plane and extends back into space. �� �� �� . A horizon line can be experienced at the ocean. dimension and shape. This plane is called the Picture Plane. Objects or edges below the observer’s eye level occur below the HL and objects or edges above the observer’s eye level occur above the HL. each perspective begins by drawing an edge and/or plane that is parallel to the observer’s face. ������������� Principle 5: All lines parallel to the observer’s face retain their true orientation. If you stand at the water’s edge and look out over the ocean. First. If you stand on a pier above the ocean. This approach ensures that the perspective will fit on the sheet of paper being used. In one. is parallel to the observer’s face and is established by the person drawing the perspective.Drawing Form 8/2007 21 Principle 4: The Horizon Line (HL) is an imaginary horizontal line located at the height of the observer’s eyes—the observer (the person viewing the scene) establishes the vertical location of the horizon line (HL). The exception is when we look up at very tall buildings or down into a very deep hole. exists between the observer and what is being drawn. the ocean’s surface will again create a line (HL) at your eye height as you look straight ahead. the ocean’s surface will create a line (HL) at your eye height as you look straight ahead. The location of the horizon line follows the height of the viewer’s eyes.and two-point perspectives all vertical edges/lines remain vertical because they are parallel to the observer’s face that is looking straight ahead. The sizes/proportions of all elements within a perspective are relative to those established on the picture plane. Because these lines retain their true dimensions they are used to establish measurements and proportions in perspectives and are some of the first that are draw. Principle 6: There is only one plane within a perspective on which dimensions can be entered. Second. This is not true if we tilt our heads up or down but our visual perceptual system compensates and they appear to remain vertical because we know they are.
If our finger tips represent the vanishing points and we imagine a line drawn between them then we can proportionally estimate the distance from finger tips to the center of vision for the each vanishing point. The Picture Plane (PP) is an imaginary plane upon which the perspective is projected. The intersection of the Line Of Sight and the Picture Plane defines the height of the Horizon Line (HL) and the Center of Vision (CV) which is the intersection of the Line of Sight and the Horizon Line. The assumption is that the first edge or plane drawn is on and therefore defines the Picture Plane. Concepts. ������ The Horizon Line (HL) is established by the vertical location of the viewer’s eyes. From the Station Point the viewer looks at the subject. Positions & Assumptions There are a series of terms. The Line Of Sight is a horizontal line from the viewer to the subject that establishes the views direction. I take the position that the Picture Plane is coincident with the paper on which the perspective is being drawn and the subject starts on the Picture Plane and moves back in space. In this position our fingers will be pointing at the vanishing points for the horizontal edges of the faces. If the first edge or surface drawn touches the ground. The Center of Vision (CV) is the point on the horizon line that is directly in front of the observer. This means that the portion of the subject drawn is touching the Picture Plane (e. Therefore. the bottom of the edge or surface defines the Ground Line (GL) which is the line of intersection between the Picture Plane and the ground.g. Every perspective begins with a Station Point (SP) that sets the location of the perspective’s viewer. one assumption is that the Station Point is located 5 or 6 feet above the plane on which the viewer is standing. The drawings to the left illustrate the essential elements of lineal perspective. We can estimate the relative location of the vanishing points by raising our arms so that they are approximately horizontal and parallel to the vertical faces of surfaces being drawn. It is perpendicular to the Line of Sight and parallel to the viewer’s face. the lead edge of the object is on the Picture Plane in the illustration). By transferring this proportional relationship to a sheet of paper we have the basic setup for the perspective. �� ������������� �� �� �� ������ ���� �� ������������� �� �������������������� ������������������� �� �� ����������� . concepts. The Vanishing Points (VP) for horizontal edges fall on the Horizon Line and reflect the relative angle of the edges to the observer’s face and thereby the picture plane which is parallel to the observer’s face. assumptions and positions associated with linear perspective that should be defined and stated. I take the position that the only perspectives worth drawing are eye-level perspectives. In a one-point perspectives we would be pointing straight ahead so the center of vision and vanishing point would coincide.22 8/2007 Drawing Form ������������� ������ �� ��������������� ������ �� �� Perspective Terms. The approaches and methods that will be used will not actually draw a Station Point or Line of Sight but instead will be based on assumptions about these two elements.
In one. �� �� �� ����� �� . lines parallel to the picture plane or the viewer’s face and/or oblique lines. All horizontal lines vanish to a point on a vanishing line called the Horizon Line.and two-point perspectives these include all vertical edges. They retain their true angle. The Vanishing Point for a set of oblique lines can be found by locating two points along the line and projecting the line until it intersects with the appropriate Vanishing Line. For any set of parallel horizontal and vertical lines there are two Vanishing Lines that are at right angles to each other and intersect at the Vanishing Point for the horizontal lines.Drawing Form 8/2007 23 Vanishing Lines Vanishing Lines (VL) are lines along which the vanishing point for a given set of parallel lines will fall. Oblique lines are lines that are not parallel to the Picture Plane but lay on a plane defined by two or more horizontal lines. Perspectives consist of horizontal lines. The Vanishing Line that is parallel to the set of lines can be though of as the Horizon Line for that set of lines. One of the Vanishing Lines will be parallel to the set of lines and the other will be perpendicular to the set of lines. shape and proportions. One of the Vanishing Lines will be the Horizon Line. All lines parallel to the picture plane do not vanish. For any set of parallel oblique lines there are two vanishing lines that are at right angles to each other and intersect at the Vanishing Point for the horizontal lines.
The assumption is ����������������� that if a perspective is constructed within these limits it will appear visually correct. ����ϒ Combining the limits of the Perspective Field and the half the distance rule of thumb provides an way of estimating the area within which a perspective will appear correct. the guidelines should be ignored in a particular situation. If the perspective of an object extends beyond the limits set by the guidelines you can make the object smaller relative to the existing vanishing points or you can move the vanishing points farther apart and keep the drawing the same size. When that angle becomes less than 90° it does not look right. Distortion occurs with progressively greater impact as the subject grows vertically and/or horizontally from the Center of Vision (CV). . The object that is drawn directly in front of the viewer is the most accurate in the perspective. 90° Horizontal Corner The Perspective Field can be used to control the near internal angle of horizontal rectangles to 90° or greater.24 8/2007 Drawing Form Distortion Linear perspective formalizes through geometry a system that attempts to represent three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional surface. You can also decide that the perspective looks appropriate and is communicating what you want and therefore. He found that when the cube became distorted by 25% or more it did not look right. the Perspective Field provides a guideline for establishing some limits within the lineal perspective system. The Perspective Field is defined by finding the midpoint (M) on the horizon line between a given set of vanishing points. This point is then used to construct the Perspective Field by drawing a circle whose center is at the midpoint and whose radius is the distance from the midpoint to either of the vanishing points ����ϒ �� Half the Distance ����������� �� ��� �� � �� �� ������������������ � Jay Doblin (1956) investigated the relationship between the degree of distortion produced as a cube moves away from the center of vision and its visual acceptability. Therefore. Being a finite system fitting on a sheet of paper that assumes a fixed one-eyed observer it has limitations that must be respected if the goal is for the drawing to look right. Any two lines intersecting at the circumference of the Perspective Field will create a 90° angle. Those intersecting beyond the circumference will create an angle of less than 90° while those intersecting within the Perspective Field will create an angle of more than 90°. Based on when a cube displays distortion of 25% or more he established the limits of a zone of acceptable distortion as defined by a pair of vertical lines located half way between the center of vision and the vanishing points for a particular setup.
remember that a square is just a particular rectangle and therefore. Although the techniques are individually described they can be used in many combinations. Turn the pages to help visualize the techniques operating for surfaces in different orientations. all the techniques can be used to multiply or divide any rectangle. They can be applied to any part of any existing perspective. All examples will be based on squares and cubes.Drawing Form 8/2007 25 FunDamental teChniques There are a few fundamental perspective techniques that form the foundation for all perspective drawing. The techniques may be used for vertical and horizontal planes in both one. It allows three-dimensional modeling programs to be used to create simpler and more efficient mass models that provide perspective frameworks for elaboration by hand. . They do not require additional drawing space beyond the perspective itself. They can be used to create both freehand and constructed drawings as well as to draw over perspectives generated from 3-D modeling programs. They build and reinforce an understanding of perspective and the relationships between things within it. They support the development of a perspective without adding to its constructional framework. The goal is to make choices that achieve the desired construction as quickly and easily as possible. This not only helps clarify the explanation but emphasizes the point that the techniques are applicable to all drawing systems (orthographic. axonometric and linear perspective). The fundamental techniques link sketching with the computer. The techniques have the following advantages.and two-point perspective In fact they can be used on a plane in any orientation. However. The ability to quickly and accurately sketch within and extend a computer generated perspective supports the exploration of alternatives and the development of presentation drawings. In each situation there will be more than one technique that produces the desired results. Introduction Each technique will be illustrated through both plane geometry and linear perspective.
In this case you draw horizontal lines to establish the height of the new elements. Each new location develops a new plane with its vanishing point. In one-point perspective the vertical (Z) and one of the horizontal axes (X or Y) are parallel to the picture plane. ����������������� ��������������� Moving Horizontally in Perspective When you move in perspective you are either moving parallel to or at some angle to the picture plane. Draw a vertical line through the "X" to establish the new line or element. Draw horizontal lines through either end of base line (orthographic) or lines that go to the vanishing point for the plane (perspective). Draw a line that passes through the bottom of the original line and the "X" that marks the bottom of the new line. It is somewhere on the same horizontal plane as the bottom of the original line or element. Locate where you want the second element to be positioned. The line should extend to intersect the horizon line (HL). Any vertical dimension located anywhere within a perspective can be moved through space using this technique. You can also move parallel to the picture plane. These lines will all be the same length as the original. �� �� This process may be repeated as many times as needed. Draw a line from the top of the original line to the vanishing point. The mark (X) will represent location of the bottom of the new element.26 8/2007 Drawing Form ��������������� ���������������� ���������������� Horizontal Transfer The assumption is that you have a line or element of a known or established length that you want to move through space horizontally to locate other like elements. Draw lines that have the same orientation as (are parallel to) the original line at any location between the parallel lines. Draw or identify the base line or element that is parallel to the picture plane. Draw or identify the base vertical element in relationship to the horizon line (HL). In two-point perspective only the vertical (Z) axis is parallel to the picture plane. �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� . The assumption is that you have one vertical element and want locate another of the same size on the same plane. The result could be thought of as a series of intersecting walls of the same height that all rest on a common horizontal plane. The intersection with the HL creates a vanishing point.
railroad ties. . The new element must reach between the lines from the top and bottom of the original element. trees. bottom and middle of the element. Determine the distance that the next element should be placed along the plane and draw it or its center line parallel to the original element. Once generated the Vanishing Point can then be used to distribute more elements. fence posts. crosses through the center of the new element and extends until it intersects the opposite line. cracks in sidewalks. If the elements are spaced farther apart. Extend a line from one end of the first element through the other end of the second element until it intersects with the appropriate Vanishing Line to generate the oblique Vanishing Point. This works very well for elements such as columns. As the illustrations show.Drawing Form 8/2007 27 Distribute The assumption is that you have an element that you want to distribute along a plane at an even increment. ��� ��� Draw or identify the base element that is parallel to the picture plane. Draw the new element parallel to the first and repeat the process as many times as needed. This creates a vanishing point for all lines parallel to the diagonal. etc. Draw a diagonal line that starts at one end of the original element. the diagonal can be extended to intersect a the appropriate vanishing line. there is no need to develop the half way line if you generate the oblique Vanishing Point. Divide the length of the element in half. This new intersection defines the location for the next element. Draw lines that extend from the top. You do not need to create the diagonal vanishing point to use this technique.
You do not need to create the diagonal vanishing point to use this technique. The intersection of the diagonals of a rectangle locate its center. Extend the appropriate edges of the base rectangle. A line drawn through the center of a square that is parallel to two of its sides will bisect the other two sides. In this case draw a line through the center of the side that is parallel to the extended sides. ��� ��� Draw or identify the base rectangle whose vertical edges are parallel to the picture plane. As the illustrations show. All edges are parallel in orthographic drawings. Draw a line through the intersection of the line just completed and the side of the rectangle to define the new rectangle.28 8/2007 Drawing Form Add One The assumption is that you have a visually and proportionally correct rectangle and wish to generate an additional rectangles to either side. Alternative (bottom illustration): Some times it is faster to divide a vertical edge with a scale or by visual judgement. This creates a vanishing point for all lines parallel to the diagonal. Draw a line from one corner of the rectangle through the center of an opposite side. Draw the rectangle's diagonals. . above or below. Draw a line through the center of the rectangle (the intersection of the diagonals) that is parallel to the extended sides. Extend this line until it intersects one of the extended sides. This line is now the diagonal of a rectangle that is twice as wide as the original one. the diagonal of the double wide rectangle can be further extended to intersect the appropriate vanishing line.
. etc. A diagonal line crossing a set of equally spaced parallel lines produces intersections that can be used to define another set of equally spaced parallel lines. All edges are parallel in orthographic drawings. If the diagonal is at 45° and the sets of lines perpendicular to each other a square grid is produces. As the illustrations show. You do not need to create the diagonal vanishing point to use this technique. Draw the diagonal of the original square and extend it to cross all horizontal or vanished lines. This creates a vanishing point for all lines parallel to the diagonal. etc. You can transfer dimensions vertically as many times as needed. Draw vertical lines through each intersection of the diagonal with a horizontal or vanished line to complete the additional rectangles. �������� ��������� ���������� ����� ��������� Draw or identify the base rectangle whose vertical edges are parallel to the picture plane.) or portion (1/2. the diagonal can be further extended to intersect the appropriate vanishing line.Drawing Form 8/2007 29 Multiply The assumption is that you have a visually and proportionally correct rectangle and wish to generate additional rectangles to one or more sides. This means that a dimension (4’.) established on any vertical line within a perspective can be transferred vertically along that line. Vertical lines in both one. Extend a vertical edge and transfer dimensions along it. Draw horizontal lines through these points (orthographic) or lines that go to the vanishing point for the plane (perspective).and twopoint perspectives represent edges that are parallel to the picture plane—they do dot vanish. Extend the remaining vertical edge.
etc. . Draw the rectangle's diagonals.30 8/2007 Drawing Form Subdivide It is a good strategy to draw the largest inclusive form possible as a first step in constructing a perspective and then proceed to subdivide that form to locate smaller elements. The vertical and horizontal lines have defined four smaller rectangle that have the same proportions as the original but are one-quarter the size. As the illustrations show. Each subdivision halves the rectangle. the diagonal can be further extended to intersect the appropriate vanishing line. This creates a vanishing point for all lines parallel to the diagonal. Draw or identify the base rectangle whose vertical edges are parallel to the picture plane. Therefore. eights. This process can be repeated within each progressively smaller rectangle until the desired subdivision is produced. All edges are parallel in orthographic drawings. You do not need to create the diagonal vanishing point to use this technique. Draw a vertical and a horizontal line through the intersection of the diagonals. In perspective the horizontal line vanishes to the vanishing point for horizontal lines on that surface. quarters. this technique assumes that you have a visually and proportionally correct rectangle and wish to divide it into halves.
As the illustrations show.g. .Drawing Form 8/2007 31 Diagonal Transfer The assumption is that you have a visually and proportionally correct rectangle with dimensions located on one side that you want to transfer to an adjacent side. 2’ will be transferred as 2’). The vertical or horizontal edges are parallel to the picture plane in perspective. If the rectangle is a square. Extend the dimensions across the rectangle.. Draw one of the diagonals of the rectangle. This creates a vanishing point for all lines parallel to the diagonal. Draw lines through appropriate intersections. the transferred dimensions will be the same (e. A diagonal line will transfer proportions from one side of a rectangle to another. the diagonal can be further extended to intersect the appropriate vanishing line. The diagonal you choose to draw will control the side to which a dimension is transferred. You do not need to create the diagonal vanishing point to use this technique. � � � � � � � � Draw or identify the base rectangle and the dimensions.
visually divide the line in half and then half again to locate the one quarter or 1 foot mark. Once this has occurred. With practice you can also divide a line into thirds or fifths. Visual Judgement Measurement with the eye involves making visual judgements that proportionally divide the line. axonometric and perspective drawings. .32 8/2007 Drawing Form Dimensioning Edges A common need in drawing is to establish dimensions along or proportionally subdivide an edge or line. Vanished Transfer and Parallel Transfer because of how the dimensions are located. Direct Measurement This technique can use either visual judgement or measurement with a scale. The assumption is that you have an existing line that you wish to subdivide into 1 quarter and 3 quarters (1 foot and 3 feet if the original line is actually 4 feet long). Scaling � � � � � � A scale can be used to directly measure the line and establish the proportions or dimensions. This works very well because we can accurately judge the middle of things. thirds and fifths you can easily and accurately use your eye to establish dimensions in a drawing. For example. There are three techniques that can be used that I call Direct Measurement. This only works when the line is a length that can be measured. a line that actually measures 4" or 8" is easily divided at the one quarter or one foot point. Direct measurement can be used for any line that is parallel to the picture plane including all horizontal and vertical lines in orthographic. other techniques must be used to move the dimensions within the drawing. For example. By combining judgements of halves. All three techniques are intended to give a line scale and locate specific dimensions.
through each mark until it intersects with the line you are dimensioning. Holding the scale parallel to the original line. You have proportionally dimensioned the base line and can proceed with the drawing's construction using other techniques. This technique is particularly easy to use in perspective because the vanishing point and lines often already exist as in the example shown below. Lines that intersect near the middle of the original line work best.Drawing Form 8/2007 33 Vanished Transfer The assumption is that the existing line that you want to dimension cannot easily be scaled. slide it along the vanishing lines until the distance between the lines measures a useful dimension. Extend lines from the vanishing point. � � � � � � . Mark the desired dimensions/proportions along the edge of the scale. Identify the line that is parallel to the picture plane that you want to dimension. Vanish lines form either end of the line that you want to dimension or use existing vanishing lines.
Angle the scale away from the line. Draw a line from the full length dimension along the scale to the end of the line you want to dimension. Align the zero mark on the scale to one end of the line to be dimensioned. Choose a scale that is reasonably close to the actual length of the line. The angle of this line will be used to transfer all other dimensions from the scale to the line. � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � Identify the line that is parallel to the picture plane that you want to dimension. Draw lines that are parallel to the line created in the preceding step between all dimensions along the scale and the line you are dimensioning.34 8/2007 Drawing Form Parallel Transfer The assumption is that the existing line that you want to dimension cannot easily be scaled. You have proportionally dimensioned the base line and can proceed with the drawing's construction using other techniques. � � � � � � � � � . Mark the desired dimensions along the edge of the scale including the one that corresponds to the full length of the line.
Identify the vanishing line. What you have done is create a special horizontal plane that the line you want to dimension crosses. Choose a scale that is reasonably close to the actual physical length of the line. The lead edge of this plane (the edge of the scale) is parallel to the picture plane. The auxiliary vanishing point (AVP) you have created will be used to transfer all other dimensions from the scale to the line. Remember that sets of parallel horizontal lines not parallel to the picture plane vanish to a common point on the horizon line. The scale must be held horizontally— parallel to the horizon line or the eventual vanishing line. The vanishing lines transfer the dimensions proportionally to the edge you want to dimension. The assumption is that you have an existing line that you wish to subdivide into 1 quarter and 3 quarters (2 foot and 6 feet if the original line is actually 8 feet long). If it is of known dimension you can determine specific dimensions otherwise it can be proportionally subdivided. � � � � � � � . Draw lines that vanish to the VP from all dimensions along the scale.Drawing Form 8/2007 35 Dimensioning Edges That Vanish A common need in drawing is to establish dimensions along or proportionally subdivide an edge or line. Draw a line from the full length mark through the end of the line you want to dimension and extend it until it intersects the vanishing line. Proceed with the drawing's construction using other techniques. It is most convenient if it is the end farthest from the horizon line. Mark the desired dimensions along the edge of the scale including the one that corresponds to the full length of the line. � � � � � � � � � � � �� Align the zero mark on the scale to one end of the line to be dimensioned. draw the vertical line down the face of the volume that is one foot from the left edge. For example. A variation on the parallel line technique previously discussed can also be used to dimension lines that vanish—lines that are foreshortened.
Four Points The four point technique locates the points of tangency between the circle and square.36 8/2007 Drawing Form Circles Drawing circles is a special application of dividing and transferring techniques introduced earlier. as accuracy requirements and circle size increase so does the need to construct additional points of reference to assist in constructing the circle. eight and twelve point techniques for constructing circles. However. The following will describe the four. Draw the diagonals of the square to locate its center. Draw vertical and horizontal lines through the center point of the square. Major Axis When circles are drawn in perspective. To draw a circle or a portion of a circle accurately in perspective requires that you first draw its circumscribing square. Visually adjust the circle until it looks correct. With experience and practice the square will provide all the reference that is needed for quick sketches. their widest point is not at their diameter but at their major axis which is located at the midpoint of the ����� ����� �������� ����������� ������������ �������������� . The intersection of these lines with the sides of the square will locate the mid points of the respective sides that are also the tangent points for the circle and square. Draw a smooth curve that connects the four points to create a circle in perspective. Draw or identify the square that circumscribes the circle.
Drawing Form 8/2007 37 Eight Points The eight point technique builds directly on the four point system with a visual approximation that provides four more points. Transfer point D to the diagonals using a combination of lines that are parallel to the respective sides (orthographic) or vanishing lines (perspective). This locates the point that the circle will intersection the diagonal. Divide the near half of one of the diagonals into thirds to locate the 2/3rds point as shown. This locates the other four points on the diagonals giving you eight to guide your circle construction. Transfer this point to the other diagonals with lines that are parallel to the respective sides (orthographic) or that vanish (perspective). This technique will not work on edges that vanish." Draw line AB equal to BC at right angles to the side of the square. If you use the square's side you must transfer the 2/3rds mark to the diagonal. . Follow the four point procedure to locate the first four points. � � Follow the four point procedure to locate the first four points. The diagonals used in this process will now be divided to locate the additional points. ��� ��� �� �� �� �� � �� � �� � � � ��� ��� Eight Point Alternative Another approach to constructing the second four points uses a vertical or horizontal edge of the square that is parallel to the picture plane as shown in the illustration. This can be done either directly along the diagonal or along the corresponding half of the square's side. Mark a point just beyond the 2/3rds point of the diagonal. Draw an arc with the radius AC whose center is at C so that it intersects the side of the square creating point D. Divide the distance from the midpoint of the side to a corner in half to locate point "B.
Follow the four point procedure to locate the first four points. you can follow the preceding process for all four quadrants of the original square. The intersection of these lines with the nearest horizontal or vertical one quarter lines define two new points on the circle. Draw lines from the corner of the original square to the one quarter points on the opposite sides as shown. Use transfer techniques to create the other vertical and horizontal lines and then transfer the location of the two new points on the circle to the appropriate lines. As an alternative to transferring.38 8/2007 Drawing Form Twelve Points The twelve point technique builds directly on the four point system with the construction of eight more points. This provides twelve points to guide circle construction. . Draw vertical and horizontal lines through this point. Draw a diagonal through a near quarter of the original square to find its center.
Construction next requires the location of two points through which the diagonal or oblique line passes. However. . The accuracy of many of the techniques can be improved by generating diagonal or oblique vanishing points that allow the use of longer lines and common reference points. These Vanishing Points can then be used to generate other parallel oblique lines and develop the perspective. All rectangular forms have three inherent sets of parallel lines (those parallel to the X. Y and Z axes) that define three sets of parallel planes (one horizontal and two vertical).and two-point perspective cubes have been extended to define their Vanishing Points that have then been used to add another cube.Drawing Form 8/2007 39 Diagonal/Oblique Lines The fundamental techniques can be used with and without the creation of diagonal or oblique vanishing points. In the illustrations. Once two points that the diagonal or oblique line pass through have been located. Constructing Diagonal/Oblique Vanishing Points To construct diagonal or oblique Vanishing Points requires that a basic perspective structure be established that includes a set of horizontal lines that vanish to a Vanishing Point on the Horizon Line. it requires that a Vanishing Line be generated through the Vanishing Point for the horizontal lines that is perpendicular to the Horizon Line. This means we are finding the vanishing points for sets of 45° lines on each of the faces of the cube. Note in the two-point perspective illustration that there is a diagonal Vanishing Point that falls on the Horizon Line for the horizontal faces of the cube. the diagonals of the faces of one. the line can be drawn and extended until it intersects with the appropriate Vanishing Line to define the Vanishing Points. Finally. Diagonals of rectangles on each of these sets of parallel planes create additional sets of parallel lines. When the rectangular volume is a cube the diagonals are at 45° to the lines defining their respective squares. each time two points are joined with a line there is an opportunity for error and the shorter the line the greater the opportunity. These diagonals are oblique lines (lines that are not horizontal or vertical) that lay on the three basic planes of the rectangle.
40 8/2007 Drawing Form .
two-point perspective configurations.Drawing Form 8/2007 41 three DireCt PersPeCtive setuPs There are three perspective setups that can be constructed directly without using an existing plan or elevation drawing. Introduction The three setups include a one-point and two. If you reproduce these relationships in a 3-D modeling program you will find that the setups use rules of thumb that closely match accurate linear perspective construction. 68/22° and 60/30° for the two vertical faces of a rectangular volume. . Picture Plane and Station Point. The first two setups are most often used for interior while the third is used for exterior views. All three setups assume that you have a given sheet of paper upon which you want the perspective to fit. In terms of angles they reflect an orientation of 90/0°. The description for each perspective setup will start by defining the relationship between the subject. Therefore. It is my firm conviction that the only reason for drawing a perspective is to show the experiential quality of a form or space. each setup starts with the assumption that the Picture Plane and the piece of paper are coincident and the perspective will extend back from the Picture Plane into the paper. They provide a variety of points of view and support the use of perspective as a design tool. All perspective setups will be introduced as eye-level perspectives although they can be used to create points of view from other levels.
This section will identify the relationships and geometry of linear perspective that can be used to setup and construct eye level perspectives. The relationships will be investigated in terms of one-point perspectives that start at the Picture Plane (PP) and extend back in space. The essential elements of linear perspective are indicated in the drawings that include a Front Elevation (what is seen from the Station Point) and a Plan and Right Side Elevation that share the same Station Point. The subject (e.g., Cube) is viewed from the Station Point (SP) that is five to six feet above the assumed Ground Plane. The intersection of the Picture Plane and the ground plane defines the Ground Line (GL). ������������� The Line of Sight is horizontal, perpendicular to the Picture Plane (PP) and its height establishes the Horizon Line (HL) and Center of Vision (CV) at the point it intersects the Picture Plane. The Center of Vision is always directly in front of the viewer (SP) and in one-point perspectives it is also the Vanishing Point (VP) for all horizontal edges parallel to the Line of Sight. The Horizon Line lays on the Picture Plane and passes through the Center of Vision. Linear perspective is a geometric system that attempts to represent visual reality— the world—on a very finite piece of paper and therefore, it can produce representations that do not look right. A Cone of Vision centered on the Line of Sight is a mechanism for limiting the subject area of a linear perspective. Convention and experience sets the standard Cone of Vision at 60°—if the subject of the perspective is kept within the 60° Cone of Vision it will generally look right.
Rule Of Thumb 1: The distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane is equal to the width of the subject.
The width of the subject, the width of the Cone of Vision at the Picture Plane and the distance between the Station Point and the Picture Plane are approximately equal—they equal X. To draw a one-point perspective of a subject that is 40 feet wide, the Station Point will be located 40 feet in front of the Picture Plane with the Vanishing Point centered within the subject’s width. To draw a one-point perspective with the Vanishing Point off center, the width of the subject (X) must be set at twice the greatest distance from the CV to the edge of the subject. For example, if the CV is 25’ from one side of a 40’ wide subject (the CV is 5’ off center), the width of the subject must be set at 50’.
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Rule Of Thumb 2: If the subject is taller than it is wide, use the height of the subject to set the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane. Rule Of Thumb 3: A horizontal line drawn half way between the Horizon Line and the Ground Line on the Picture Plane will mark a distance back into the perspective equal to the distance the Station Point is in front of the Picture Plane.
If a mark on the Ground Plane is the same distance from the Picture Plane as the Station Point, its projection on the Picture Plane falls half way between the Horizon Line and the Ground Line. The diagonal of a rectangle must cross a line bisecting the rectangle at its middle. Note: The half way system works between any subject edge parallel to and drawn on the Picture Plane and the Vanishing Point. If you divide the remaining distance between the Horizon Line and the previous half way line in half the distance back into the perspective is equal to 3X.
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Rule Of Thumb 4: Use 20 feet as the minimum distance between the Station Point and the Picture Plane.
The human eye's cone of visual acuity has a 28° vertical limit. Given an eye height (SP) of 5', the 28° Cone of Visual Acuity intersects the ground plane 20' in front of the Station Point (20.0539 to be exact (Dines 1990)).
Rule Of Thumb 5: In one-point perspectives, the vanishing points for 45° lines are located a distance equal to the width of the subject to the left, right, above and below the Center of Vision/Vanishing Point.
The vanishing point for any horizontal edge in a subject is found by drawing a line in plan that starts at the Station Point and extends parallel to the edge. The intersection of this line and the Horizon Line/Picture Plane locates the VP for the edge. Given that the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane is equal to the width of the subject, the distance from the Center of Vision/Vanishing Point to the 45° Vanishing Point is equal to the width of the subject.
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Half Way One-Point Perspective
The assumption is some plane that is part of or within the subject lays on the Picture Plane. The perspective structure and the elements of the subject touching the Picture Plane can be drawn to scale and/or in proportion using orthographic techniques. The perspective will be projected back from the Picture Plane (into the paper). The overall width and height of the subject must be known or estimated. The subject can include a single continuous element or a set of elements. When it is a set of elements, the width includes all elements.
Draw those portions of the subject that fall on the Picture Plane at an appropriate scale (e.g., the near face of the cube). Establish the Center of Vision/Vanishing Point (e.g., 5 to 6 feet above the Ground Line) and draw the Horizon Line. Vanish appropriate horizontal edges to the Vanishing Point (e.g., the four edges of the cube in the example). These edges are perpendicular to the Picture Plane. One approach is to draw the limits of the volume that will contain the subject on the Picture Plane and vanish its edges to the Vanishing Point. This approach is supportive of generating a perspective grid that can then be used to draw the subject. Note: If the VP is off center, the width of the subject will be set at twice the greatest distance from the CV/VP to the edge of the subject or volume. Draw a horizontal line half way between the Horizon Line and the Ground Line. The intersection of this horizontal line with the vanishing lines define points in space that are a distance back into the perspective equal to the width of the subject and the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane (Refer to Rule Of Thumb (ROT) 3). If you have drawn and vanished lines that define the limits of the overall volume, the intersection of the vanished lines that define the width of the volume on the ground and the depth line defines a square on the ground in perspective. The corners of the square can then be projected vertically to create the overall volume of space that will contain the subject.
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Once a depth dimension has been established, any of the perspective techniques previously described can be used to subdivide and/or extend the dimension. If the overall volume has been drawn, a perspective grid can be created on its surfaces to assist in sketching the subject.
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Use the Diagonal Vanishing points to transfer dimensions back into the perspective. In the example they complete the construction of the cube. At this point.g. The perspective structure and the elements of the subject touching the Picture Plane can be drawn on the paper to scale and/or in proportion using orthographic techniques. �� ��� �� �� ��� ��� ������������� ���� �� �� ��� ��� �� �� ��� Dimensions can be entered on the picture plane and transferred using the Diagonal Vanishing Points. In the example.g. Note: These are 45° vanishing points. The overall width and height of the subject must be known or estimated. any of the perspective techniques previously described can be used in conjunction with the Diagonal Vanishing points to complete the perspective. Measuring Points will be further discussed under 68/22° and 60/30° perspective setups that follow. the width includes all elements. These edges are perpendicular to the Picture Plane... When it is a set of elements. the four edges of the cube are vanished. Locate the desired number of Diagonal Vanishing Points on the Horizon line and/or Vanishing Line.Drawing Form 8/2007 45 ������������� ���� � ��� Diagonal One-Point Perspective � �� ��� �� �� �� ��� The assumption is that some plane that is part of or within the subject lays on the Picture Plane. From previous discussion (refer to page 43) we know that the DVPs for the vertical planes will be on a VL that passes through the VP for horizontal lines on that same plane. the near face of the cube). Vanish the desired horizontal edges of the subject to the Vanishing Point. Draw a vertical Vanishing Line (VL) through the Vanishing Point. The distance from the Vanishing Point to any of the Diagonal Vanishing Points is equal to the width of the subject (Refer to ROT 5). It is not necessary to find all the DVPs—one will often do the job. The subject can include a single continuous element or a set of elements. ��� ������������� ���� ��� �� ��� �� �� ��� ��� . � ��� ������������� ���� �� ��� Process Draw those portions of the subject that fall on the Picture Plane at an appropriate scale (e. Establish the Center of Vision/Vanishing Point (e. Note: The Diagonal (45°) Vanishing Points in a one-point perspective are the Measuring Points for the perspective. 5 to 6 feet above the Ground Line) and draw the Horizon Line. The perspective will be projected back from the picture plane (into the paper).
� ���� �� ������������� � ���� �� ��� ��� ��� � �� Process The first step in setting up any direct perspective is determining the width of the subject.. ������ �� ���������� ����������� �� �� ������ �� Draw the diagonals of the square at the near side of the perspective. 2’ for a 20’ wide subject). My investigation found that a 68/22° perspective setup (shown to the left) was similar to Kirby Lockard’s and manifest geometric relationships that could be used in directly create a perspective structure. etc. Subdivide the outside edge of the square that will be the near side (Side A) of the distant vanishing perspective plane into one foot increments based on the width of the subject (e. Draw them as large as desired or the paper will allow.. Divide the distance between top and bottom of the far edge (Side B) of the vanishing perspective plane into one foot increments based on the width of the subject (e. The intersection of the diagonals and the top and bottom of the vanishing plane establishes the foreshortened width of a square on the plane (e. In the illustrations.g.. The dimensions of the squares are equal to half the width of the subject (e. Draw the vertical line that defines the width of the foreshortened square. � ���� �� �� ������ ������ �� �� ϒ�� � Draw lines connecting the top and bottom of one edge (Side A) with the points measured up and down on the opposite edge (Side B) of the two squares to define the plane that vanishes to the distant vanishing point—the one off the paper. The relationship between the Station Point. Note that there is some room to extend the perspective within the 60° cone-of -vision.. 20’).g.. The goal was to develope a way to setting up a similar perspective structure that minimized judgement and incorporated concepts associated with the one. The vertical scale for the perspective has now been established.g. Measure down from the top and up from the bottom of the outside edge of the opposite square (Side B) a distance equal to the width of the subject divided by 10 (e. The two squares together equal the width of the subject (e. Picture Plane and the Width of the subject maintains the one to one proportion established for one-point perspectives (Rule Of Thumb 1.46 8/2007 Drawing Form 68/22° Perspective Kirby Lockard introduced a direct perspective method that inspired the development of following process. Draw two adjacent squares. This will be the Horizon Line (HL) for the perspective.g.). page 50). 10’ for a 20’ wide subject. .g. 10 subdivisions).. a 5” square is easily divided into ten increments). the subject is assumed to be 20’ wide and therefore the Station Point is located 20’ in front of the Picture Plane (PP).and two-point perspective processes described in this publication. Draw a horizontal line through the middle of the squares. 30’ for a 60’ wide subject. It is convenient to draw the squares at a dimension that is easily divided into one foot increments (e. 10’).g.. 10 subdivisions).g.
Vanish the four corners of the subject area to the Vanishing Point within the perspective (e. This creates a tube of space extending to infinity. Note: For wider subjects. page 51). The Vanishing GL (Ground Line) of the sloping plane.g.. You can also draw a set of vanishing lines on the vanishing plane as described on the next page to support perspective construction. Refer to the fundamental technique called “Add One” (page 32). The next task is to establish a depth measurement.Drawing Form 8/2007 47 The intersection of the diagonals and the Horizon Line defines a Measuring Point (MP). 20’ wide by 10’ high). the Vanishing GL will not pass through a corner of an original square. The intersection of the half way lines and the lines vanished from the four corners of the subject area define a plane a distance back into space equal to the width of the subject.g. �� �� �� �� �� �� . Once an initial foreshortened square is created on the vanishing plane. the volume has been defined and you can construct lines on its surfaces to create a perspective grid that supports drawing the desired subject. Depth can be established using a variation of the approach previously introduced in one-point perspective that uses the half way point between the GL and HL concept to establish depth. Note that the vertical line between the two original squares intersect the half way line and vanishing line at one side. �� �� �� Draw a half way line between the top of the vanishing plane and the HL to locate the top of the wall. Draw the rectangle that defines the face of the space on the sloping plane. Refer to the fundamental technique called “Dimensioning Edges That Vanish” (page 42) and “Using Measuring Points” (page 52). an additional foreshortened square can be generated on the plane as show to the left to set the width of the subject (e. At this point. This sets a distance back into the perspective equal to the width of the subject—equal to the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane. This is the Vanishing Point for horizontal lines perpendicular to the sloping plane. If the subject is taller than it is wide. �� �� �� �� �� �� ������������ �� �� �� ������������ Draw a vanishing line located half way between the Vanishing GL and the Horizon Line.. Along with the distant vanishing point for lines parallel to the sloping plane they are the two essential vanishing points for this two-point perspective setup. it can also be used to define the depth.g.. use its height as the width in the perspective setup (ROF 2. 20’). The difference is that the half way line vanishes. �� �� �� ������������������ ��������������� Subdivide the original square to the near side of the perspective to find where its quarter point hits the Horizon Line. 5’). Therefore. is below the Horizon Line a distance equal to the eye height of the perspective (e. For an eye-level perspective it starts at the Vanishing GL and extends vertically a distance not to exceed the width of the subject.
To use a measuring point a horizontal Measuring Line and a vanishing line must meet on the picture plane. The dimension can then be transferred vertically with a vertical line or back into the perspective using a Vanishing Point. �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� . Note: The dimensions that set the slope of the converging lines at either side of the perspective can be transferred vertically to increase the height of the perspective. The intersection of this line with the appropriate vanishing line transfers the dimension into the perspective—it foreshortens the dimension.. a distance of 11 feet is measured along the horizontal Measuring Line.48 8/2007 Drawing Form �� �� �� Draw lines that connect corresponding one foot marks along the two sides of the perspective plane that have previously been created. A line from the 11’ mark to the Measuring Point is drawn. When the vertical line hits an appropriate vanishing line (e. A Measuring Point is a vanishing point for a set of parallel lines used to transfer dimensions from a Measuring Line on the Picture Plane to a line in perspective.g. �� �� �� �� �� �� Measuring Points A Measuring Point is a specific case of the type of vanishing point described earlier in “Dimensioning Edges That Vanish” (page 42). In two-point perspectives there are two MPs that can be used to transfer dimensions from horizontal Measuring Lines on the Picture Plane to lines that vanish to the two Vanishing Points for the perspective. the one that coincides with the floor plane) it can be vanished back in space using the appropriate Vanishing Point. The dimension to be transferred is scaled from the point of intersection. For example. This establishes a plane of converging lines that can be used to guide the direction of all lines vanishing to the distant vanishing point.
Drawing Form 8/2007 49 60/30 Perspective The geometric relationships of the 60/30° perspective setup were described by Jay Doblin in Perspective: A New System for Designers (Doblin1956) and provide the basis for the following. Once the Subject.” Rule Of Thumb 2: If the subject is taller than it is wide. The Midpoint is located half way between the Vanishing Points and is the center of the Perspective Field. use the height of the subject to set the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane and Rule Of Thumb 4: Use 20 feet as the minimum distance between the Station Point and the Picture Plane continue to apply. The relationships to notice are that the width of the subject and the distance between the Picture Plane and the Station Point are equal (distance X) when the subject fits within a 60° cone of vision. As with the One-point and 68/22° perspective setups. This matches Rule Of Thumb 1: The distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane is equal to the width of the subject. The assumption is that the Station Point is directly in front of the near corner of the subject or the volume containing the subject. ��� ��� ��� ��� ���� � � The geometric setup is illustrated to the left. Station Point and Picture Plane locations are established. Their location is set by transferring the distance from the Vanishing Points to the Station Point to the Horizon Line. They are located along the Horizon Line. the 60/30° method allows the establishment of a perspective structure without needing a plan. �� �� ������������� ������������� �������� �� ��� �� �� � ��� �� �� Measuring Points The location of depth dimensions within a perspective is facilitated with the use of Measuring Points (MP). parallel to each side of the subject or volume until they intersect with the Picture Plane. Refer to the arcs in the illustration at the top of the next page. ��� �� �� ��� �� ��� �� � � ���� �� ��� � ��� ��� �� . there are two measuring points for transferring dimensions from horizontal lines on the Picture Plane to horizontal lines vanishing to the two vanishing points. Vanishing Points are located by extending lines through the Station Point. Measuring Points are special cases of the perspective technique described earlier under “Dimensioning Edges That Vanish. noted earlier under “One-Point Perspective Geometry.” In two-point perspective. A Measuring Point is a vanishing point for a specific set of parallel lines in perspective that can be used to transfer dimensions entered on the Picture Plane to one of the vanishing lines.
60° and 90° respectively. 20 feet) is proportionally divided to produce the desired dimension (e. Center Of Vision and the Vanishing Points.50 8/2007 Drawing Form ��� ��� ��� ��� Setup Proportions The key to setting up a 60/30° perspective are the relationships between the Measuring Points. This line is assumed to be on the Picture Plane and therefore is a Measuring Line in the perspective. � Setting Scale �� �� �� ������������� �� ������� �������� �� � ��� �� �� ��� �� ��� �� ��� ��� ��� �� If Rule Of Thumb 1 states that the distance from the Station Point to the Picture Plane is equal to the width of the subject and the hypotenuse proportionally relates the legs of a right triangle then. �� �� �� �� ��� �� �� ������� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� ��� ��� �� �� ��� �� �� ��� ���� ��� � �� ��� ��� ��� In the middle illustration.. Therefore.g. a 30/60° shortcut setup has been created and vertical line drawn through the CV.. CV and VP define two right triangles. The distance from VP to CV (e.g. The hypotenuse of a right triangle establishes a proportional relationship between the two legs of the triangle. if a line parallel to the hypotenuse is drawn through the center point of one leg it will pass through the center of the other leg as illustrated. The Center Of Vision is located at the 3/4 point and the other Measuring point is at the 1/8th point. In a 60/30° perspective the internal angles of the two triangles will be 30°. the points identified as SP. In the bottom illustration. In the illustration. Therefore. a five foot distance is being transferred to locate the Ground Line (GL) and establish the eye-level of the perspective. � . if you make the distance from VP to CV equal to the width of the subject or the volume containing the subject then that distance can be proportionally transferred to a line passing through CV using a line at either 60° or 30° as appropriate. the distance from VP to CV is proportional to the distance from SP to CV. Note that for a 60/30° perspective one Measuring Point coincides with the Midpoint—it is located half way between the two Vanishing Points. The dimension is transferred to the Measuring Line passing through the Center of Vision by drawing a line parallel to the hypotenuse through the known dimension so that it intersects the ML. 5 feet). The width of the object is assumed to be 20 feet and the desired eye height is 5 feet. For a 30/60° perspective the hypotenuse will be at either 30° or 60° (the 60° angle is being used in the example).
The dimension transferred to the vertical Measuring Line establishes a scale for the drawing. if it is going to be dimensioned it must lay on the Picture Plane and the subject should stay between the two Measuring Points for the perspective to look right. ���������������������� ��������������� �� �� �� �� �� �� ������� �� Proportionally subdivide the distance between VP and CV to arrive at the eye-height for the perspective. ��� ��� ��� �� �� ��� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� �� ��� ��� �� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� ������� �� Note: The vertical line that represents the lead edge of the subject does not have to pass through the Center of Vision. Locate the Measuring Points and Center of Vision by dividing the distance between the Vanishing Points into successfully smaller halves—divide distance between the Vanishing Points in half. Assume the distance from the VP to the CV on the 60° side of the setup is equal to the width of the subject. Once the dimensions have been established the perspective can be developed using the Vanishing Points and the Measuring Points. Draw a vertical line through the CV to create a vertical Measuring Line. This dimension can then be transferred along the vertical Measuring Line and Ground Line or horizontal Measuring Line to locate the needed dimensions. Draw a line at 60° as shown to proportionally transfer the eye-height from the HL to the vertical ML and establish the location of the Ground Line.Drawing Form 8/2007 51 60/30° Shortcut Setup ������������������������������������������ ��� ��� �� �� �� �� ��� �� ��� �� Drawing the Horizon Line and locate the Vanishing Points to fit on the sheet of paper being used. However. Determine the width of the subject or the volume that contains the subject. MPs and a CV as illustrated. Determine the eye-height for the perspective. then a half into half and then the remaining quarter into half. ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� �� �� �� ������� ��� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� �� . The result is a line (Horizon Line) with VPs. For eye-level perspectives use 5 or 6 feet.
The transferred point can be used to draw vertical lines and/or vanish edges to appropriate Vanishing Points. draw a line from the desired dimension on the Measuring Line to the opposite Measuring Point. �� �� �� �� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� �� �� Note: When transferring a dimension back into the perspective—when making it smaller— you use the Measuring Point farthest from the corresponding Vanishing Point. the distance can be halved and the corresponding distance between the MP and VP can be halved. When transferring it forward—making it bigger—you use the Measuring Point closest to the corresponding Vanishing Point. This intersection may occur anywhere on the Picture Plane. The are not vanishing points for lines within the perspective. To transfer a dimension. In the example. Note: If there is not room to measure the distance on the horizontal line. ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� The point of intersection becomes the zero point for entering dimensions along the Measuring Line. The intersection of this line and the line vanishing in perspective transfers the dimension to the vanishing line. It is important to remember that the Measuring Points are only used to transfer dimensions.52 8/2007 Drawing Form Using Measuring Points Measuring Points require an intersection between a horizontal Measuring Line on the Picture Plane and a horizontal line vanishing to one of the two Vanishing Points. ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� ��� ��� ��� �� �� �� �� �� �� . the 20’ marks are transferred to the corresponding vanishing lines.
Transfer the distances from the Vanishing Point to the Station Point to the corresponding vertical lines passing through the respective Vanishing Point.g. 30°).. a vertical line must be drawn through the Vanishing Point for the horizontal lines on the same plane. ������������� �� ������� ��� �� ��� ������� ������� ������� ������� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� ��� �� �� �� �� �� �� ������ ������� ��� �� ������� �� �� �� �� �� . The construction of the Measuring Points is necessary before this technique can be employed. The concept works for any set of oblique (sloped) lines that lay on planes parallel to the X or Y axes. To construct the Vanishing Points for oblique lines. ������� �� �� �� �� �� �� � �� ��� �� If you examine the construction process for determining the location of the 45° oblique vanishing points you will realize that a 45° line will connect the corresponding MPs and DVPs. This process creates two 45° Diagonal Vanishing Points for each plane—one will be above and one below the respective Vanishing Points. The vanishing point for oblique lines can be found by drawing a line at the corresponding slope/angle through the appropriate measuring point until it intersects with the corresponding vertical line (e. This means that if the location of the Measuring Points are known you can construct the 45° diagonal vanishing point by drawing the vertical lines and then extending 45° lines through the Measuring Points until they intersect their respective vertical lines as shown below. In the 60/30° setup. the vertical lines must be drawn through the two Vanishing points.Drawing Form 8/2007 53 ������� Oblique Vanishing Points There are times when oblique vanishing points may be helpful in constructing a perspective. This can be done with a compass as shown in the illustration or with a scale.
Together. measuring points and the fundamental techniques in any perspective construction. There is a link between diagonal vanishing points ���� and the measuring points— they are both established with the same dimension. The choice as to which to use should depend on the strategy that will produce the desired results with the greatest efficiency. the DVPs and the MPs create the two ways that dimensions can be entered into a perspective and are the heart of the measuring point system of perspective construction. ��� � � ����������� ����������������� �� ���� � ���� . ��� ���� �� ��� ������������� ��� �� ��� �� ���� � �� ������� ��� You can employ the diagonal vanishing points.54 8/2007 Drawing Form The Complete System The illustration on the facing page brings together all the elements of perspective construction that we have been discussing into what is called the Measuring Point System. The arc used to transfer the distance from a vanishing point to the station point to a vertical line through the Vanishing Points to establish a diagonal vanishing point can also be used to intersect the picture plane and establish the location of the Measuring Points.
Any point in space can be described by its Cartesian coordinates (X. Because we are working on the ceiling we know that the point we are interested in is somewhere directly below the one that we have located on the ceiling. We know that the final point will be located along this line. This should be done on the surface that most directly faces the viewer. This liability can be overcome by being efficient in how you develop the grids and keeping them to use again and again. Once the volume is developed it can be subdivided to produce a perspective grid—a volume whose surfaces are girded. Using Grids Once a grid is constructed the creation of a perspective is simply a matter of counting units and working within the perspective structure of the grid. Horizontal Location It usually makes sense to locate the point horizontally in space as the first step. any point is some dimension back. Grids can be tailored to support the unique dimensions and proportions of the subject being explored. Draw a vertical line through the point on the ceiling. The grid shown below will be used to describe the most fundamental way that grids are used to find points in space. That is. Y. Their liability is the time required to develop the grids. In the example it is the ceiling plane. to the right or left and up or down. Grids can be developed on the exterior or interior surfaces of a volume as shown in the illustrations to the left.Drawing Form 8/2007 55 Perspective Grids Developing a perspective grid begins with the construction of the desired volume of space using one of the three direct perspective setups previously described. . The major advantage of grids is that they provide a spatial framework within which design ideas can be developed. Z). The point in the circle is five modules in from the right wall and four modules back from the near right face.
Landscape Perspective Drawing. 1980. 1993. Inc. Wallschlaeger. Color Drawing. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Mark a point on the vertical line representing the desired distance down. a line is drawn from the point on the ceiling to one of the vertical surfaces. Los Altos. Perspective Drawing Handbook.56 8/2007 Drawing Form Vertical Location Vertical dimensions are recorded on the vertical surfaces of the perspective grid. Lou. The plane vanishes to a point on the horizon line. Doblin. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hanks. Inc. Vanish a line through this point on the surface back to the vertical line through the point on the ceiling. Michael E. Second edition. Draw a vertical line through the intersection of the previous line with the vertical surface. Originally published in 1950 by Houghton Mifflin. In the example. New York: McGraw-Hill. Tucson. 1980. Lockard. Fort Worth: Holt. James J. Basic Visual Concepts and Principles. Therefore. Charles & Cynthia Busic-Snyder. In this case it is the right hand vanishing point for the perspective grid. The Perception of the Visual World. Helms. Michael E. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Englewood Cliffs. Revised Edition. . Presenting Architectural Designs: Three-Dimensional Visualization Techniques. Second edition. William Kirby. Perspective Drawing: A Step-by-Step Handbook. We have defined a plane in space that connects the original point on the ceiling with a vertical surface. Dubuque: Wm. Bibliography D'Amelio. Joseph. 1974. Forseth. John. Rinehart and Winston. In most cases it will be one of the vanishing points for the perspective grid as it is in the example. Design Drawing. 1999. 1982. The Language of Visual Art: Perception as a Basis for Design. Myers. the final point will be four units below the point on the ceiling. 1964. 1990. Light: The Shape of Space. Kurt & Larry Belliston. 1956. Perspective: A New System for Designers. Doyle. Eissen. Arizona: Pepper Publishing. New York: Whitney Library of Design. Inc. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Basic Perspective Drawing: A Visual Approach. Graphics for Architecture. Montague. Dines. Rapid Viz: A Method for the Rapid Visualization of Ideas. 1996. 1990. Michel. Boston. Kevin. 1992. Brown Publishers. Westport: Greenwood Press. C. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. The intersection of these two lines defines the location of the final point in space. NJ: Prentice Hall. California: William Kaufmann. The line vanishes to a point on the horizon line. Nicholas T. Inc. Jay. 1989. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1988. Gibson. Koos. Jack Fredrick. using the perspective structure. The plane's height is equal to the vertical distance we wanted to find.
Content. Designers use graphic communications to communicate ideas to themselves." Tufte 1983. clarity and quality—the desired information must be clearly communicated with appropriate quality in the shortest time. Ignore the coordinates and respond to the proportions of what you see just as you would in a pencil sketch. It means that the primary goal is efficient communication. For example. fake. colleagues and clients. The way a tool is used can also affect efficiency. diagrams. Another source of inefficiency is the choice of technique in relationship to the communication goals. alternative generation. Keep focused on communication goals. Just because the computer can do something doesn't mean it should be done given the communication goals. The surface may be a piece of paper or a computer screen and the information may be visual and/or verbal. for this discussion. choose simpler versus more complex functions and be willing to approximate. The key issues in graphic communications are efficiency. Designers create graphics to communicate and not as ends in themselves. Design process communications include those used in the analysis. In creating a graphic communication there are four issues that must addressed: Efficiency. However. Becoming focused on any tool will sooner or later cause problems. For example. . just because the computer pushes us to be precise does not mean that it cannot be used for sketching. This does not mean that their drawings cannot be appreciated in and of themselves. the computer can be inefficient if used to produce what Communication Arts calls "Chrome Robots. suggest. The focus will be on communications that support the design process as opposed to those that support production. Introduction Graphic communication. Use media and technique decisions to save rather than waste time. This makes developing capabilities in a wide range of media and techniques an important goal for any designer. guess and experiment with digital tools. if the goal of the drawing is to communicate a sense of spatial definition then drawing every brick on a surface when simple shading will do is a waste of time." These are drawings that result from spending too mush time caught up in the "sex appeal" of the computer. the majority of the ideas presented apply to all graphic communications. If the only tool that we have is a hammer then we see every problem as a nail. Efficiency "Graphical excellence is that which gives the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest space. content. You must learn to use the tools at your disposal in the proportions and combinations that are efficient for you. For example. This chapter will explore these four issues as a way of establishing the value system and priorities for design communication.Drawing Form 8/2007 57 gooD graPhiC CommuniCations Graphic communications include some combination of drawings. 51 The essence of efficiency is achieving the most with the least— the most information with the least expenditure of time. For example. text and other visual elements that are related through a layout and graphic decisions. Just as you can sketch or draft with a pencil you should be able to use all the tools available in a variety of ways. They are the kinds of graphic communications that you will be using in school. Drawing Media & Techniques A key part of efficiency is choosing the appropriate media and techniques. visualization and development of design solutions. images. Working smart means seeing the problem for what it is and choosing the most efficient tools and techniques for its solution. Clarity and Quality. is defined as the display of quantitative and/or qualitative information on a twodimensional surface.
models. Is this helping me meet a goal? Does it address a priority? Meet primary goals and priorities before secondary ones are addressed. Your Capabilities When do you try something new and when do you use your existing capabilities? As students. if you could." This may not improve a drawing's impact and certainly does not add information. Procrastination is the greatest enemy of design and communication efficiency. Drawing the idea now has a very positive impact on efficiency. The priorities for a design communication acknowledge the relative importance of the ideas being presented and provide a guide for the sequence in which the parts of the communication should be executed and the relative time that they should be allotted. Draw it in whatever form you can. control or affect the greatest number of other ideas. Use them to test decisions. If the drawing does not do this. Plan for the learning time and mistakes that will inevitably occur and keep your sights on the communication goals. The main purpose of any drawing is to communicate information about an idea. it would not be a design presentation. Therefore. Draw New Information A communication is most efficient if each piece presents new information—if there is minimal redundancy. A design presentation provides the qualitative and quantitative framework for future development. These are the ideas that set the context for and shape. They are easily lost in the intensity of the moment and current problems and possibilities. Goals must be defined for the communication as a whole and for each part in terms of both quantitative and qualitative (thinking and feeling. Another type of redundancy is redrawing the same image. analytical and intuitive) information. this is a difficult decision because one of your goals is to learn new tools to expand your capabilities. The "Big Picture" or "Big Idea" drawings usually top the list. it is a wasted or nonproductive use of time. This is not to say that you never redraw something from the same point of view. You cannot fully understand an idea if you do not make it visible to yourself. Record Goals & Priorities Do not assume that you can keep your goals and priorities in your head. All to often students redraw things only to be "neater" or "more precise. As beginning students this is very difficult because you do not have the experience. Redundancy expends valuable time and resources and gains nothing. The sharing of preliminary ideas also allows inappropriate directions to be caught before time is wasted on their development. If the most important ideas are not understood the less important ideas do not make sense or seem like so many unrelated pieces. The result of setting goals is that every drawing in a communication has a specific purpose—it meets some goal. intellectual and emotional. This begins with defining what you want to communicate because you cannot hope to communicate anything without first understanding the message you intend to send. Drawing an idea is a way of noting it so that you can clear your mind for a new idea. Keep them in front of you at all times to maintain your focus. You cannot simultaneously hold two ideas in your mind and therefore you cannot compare ideas in your head. It does propose that this should not be undertaken unless significant new information can be added. Therefore. In the profession. fellow students and teachers to receive valuable perceptions and reactions. every related task can be a source of knowledge if you keep track of your time—always note how long it takes you to complete a drawing or presentation. Draw the idea now. If you want to make a new drawing choose a point of view that teaches you something new about the design and helps others to understand it more fully. Drawing allows comparison and supports evaluation and the synthesis of ideas. draw now and draw often and show your in-progress drawings to yourself. . Draw ideas so they can be evaluated and combined. the first step in defining the content of a graphic communication is to prioritize design ideas to determine which ideas are drawn first and given the most time and attention." (Communication Arts 1996) This is a very important concept. For example. However. Content Being efficient—working smart—requires thinking and planning before you begin to create a drawing or presentation. always consider what inclusion of the original drawing could add to the overall presentation. bird's-eye perspectives and plan oblique drawings can all show the overall organization of a design and therefore are redundant if that is there primary role in the communication. "Do not redraw something unless it adds significant new information or value to the presentation. it would be a construction document. Draw an idea so that you can generate another. It communicates your approach to the significant problem issues.58 8/2007 Drawing Form Draw It Now An idea that is not made visible does not exist. What is in your head takes form because your hand and eye provide information needed for its understanding and development. designers should show clients preliminary ideas to involve them early in the design process and build a sense of involvement and ownership of the ideas. Time Making good decisions concerning media and techniques requires that you know how long it takes you to do things. Set Priorities There is never enough time to communicate everything in a design presentation and. Write them down and reinforce them with sketches or diagrams. We can only hold a few ideas in our short term memory so drawing an idea makes room for another. Also.
graphic hyperbole and the use of multiple channels of communication. By modulating contrast from subtle variation or gradation to complete opposition a clear visual hierarchy can be created. While pattern creates a sense of whole and knits all elements together." coloring things different colors when they are part of the same group. graphic design. If they are not. Hierarchy provides a means for gradually breaking down larger ideas or concepts into its constituent parts. presence in a design most directly control its perceived complexity and aesthetic impact. Pattern is most easily perceived at a distance when the whole presentation or subject can be seen and produces a sense of overall structure. at best. hierarchy and contrast has the most fundamental and powerful impact on the clarity of a drawing. If a message is expressed through size. Pattern. presentation or anything that is designed. you can recognize if something is missing or would know where to put a new piece. hierarchy and contrast in a drawing or presentation to support communication priorities and goals and reflect the structure of the information being presented. For example. Hierarchy is the relative importance of things. Not the complication of the simple. at worst. A presentation's clarity can be further clarified by redundancy. the messages that receive the greatest visual reinforcement will be perceived as the most important. It is the most fundamental quality needed for clarity. they should be eliminated to reduce confusion. Noncontributing clues are. If pattern holds elements together and hierarchy differentiates the element's relative inclusiveness and importance then contrast is the most powerful tool for creating hierarchy. drawing four circles when two will communicate the information. Recognizing a pattern is understanding the underlying rules. hierarchy and contrast. results from an appropriate response to the concepts of pattern. rather the task of the designer is to give visual access to the subtle and the difficult—that is. If they possess a clear hierarchy they can communicate a more complex message. Context Versus Message All drawings include both elements that function as background or context and elements that are the focus and carry new meaning. Decisions concerning their Visual Noise "Graphical displays should induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about the methodology. Its visual effect is to direct the viewer's eye from the most to the least important. Avoid the use of conflicting visual clues that send confusing and contradictory messages. not design variation. All patterns are the result of following some rules for the choice and placement of elements. Visual noise includes such things as a fancy boarder that is added to the presentation because it "looks bare. or the clarity of any visual communication. hierarchy and contrast in a presentation directs the viewer's attention and gives order to the information. the technology of graphic production. senders of confusing signals. distraction and the sending of unintended messages. 154 "What is to be sought in designs for the display of information is the clear portrayal of complexity. It allows the presentation of fine detail within its context. or something else. the elimination of visual noise. If a clear pattern exists. Contrast is created by the unexpected or a change in amplitude.Drawing Form 8/2007 59 Clarity "Central to maintaining clarity in the face of the complex are graphical methods that organize and order the flow of graphical information presented to the eye. using shapes that are visually interesting but not related to the qualitative or quantitative information and changing something because you are tired of it. The breaking of a pattern creates a focal point. All the elements of any drawing and presentation must be studied closely to determine if they are truly contributing to the communication of intended meanings. It denotes difference between things. The manipulation of pattern. 13 "Show data variation. The manipulation of pattern. 191 Graphic clarity. Hierarchy & Contrast Create pattern. It is the surprise or change that catches the eye. You cannot afford to incorporate visual clues into presentations or drawings that don't contribute to the clear communication of the intended message." Tufte 1983. differentiating between essential and referential information. It is the creation of primary and secondary focal points. A pattern is a predictable relationship between things. If they are in competition they confuse the message. Visual clues should all express the same meaning. hierarchy differentiates groupings or elements within the whole. In addition. Make all graphic decisions work together to meet the priorities and goals that have been set. Differentiation of the context . the revelation of the complex. 77 Visual noise is any graphic decision or element that does not contribute to the communication of the intended qualitative and quantitative information. proximity and shape could say that some things are important while color and size indicate that others are important. dead weight in the drawing and. Reinforcement/Redundancy Use as many visual clues as possible to reinforce a communication. Which are which in a given drawing is established by the priorities and goals for the particular drawing." Tufte 1983." Tufte 1983. shape and color it will be more likely to be read correctly than if it is only expressed through size—redundancy increases clarity and the probability that the message will be understood. The more pronounced the break the stronger the focal point—the more the eye is drawn to it." Tufte 1983.
Find the right photo or image to combine with a drawing to help explain a concept or idea. Use them in concert to test and clarify each other and to produce the richest communication in the least time. January 1966. All drawings are interpretations of what is seen or what will be seen—they edit existing or proposed reality in some way. University of Arizona. Projects should exhibit the best craftsmanship and design that you are capable of achieving. Connecticut: Graphics Press. The focus on one channel of communication—original drawings—reduces the potential richness of the communication and efficiency. quality addresses the ability of a presentation as a whole and in its parts to add a sense of value to a communication. being able to create an even gradation with a fat 6B pencil or draft a line that is . Tufte. expand ideas. Physically associate text and drawings so that they work together. Graphic hyperbole suggests that this can be done to strengthen the communication value of a drawing. consistent in thickness and density with an HB mechanical pencil. Bring the ideas presented in this chapter up for discussion and debate. techniques and design approach employed. Closing Good graphic communications efficiently communicate intended content with clarity and quality—they present the "greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest space. strengthen and clarify the information. A direction or intention can be effectively illustrated by a photo of some existing thing that has the qualities being sought. References Communication Arts. For example. Control Control is the ability to use the media.60 8/2007 Drawing Form and message can be enhanced to focus on. You should be proud of your work and conclude each project with no regrets and no excuses. photos. The effect is always for the more precise technique to be negated by the quality of that which is done poorly. Value Added Finally. It is the ability to make the media do what you intend. Another way of describing this is to say that every drawing has essential components that are critical to the visual expression of intended meaning and referential components that serve as background or context for the essential components. Do not undercut high quality work by rushing at the end. Appropriateness Appropriateness addresses the fit between the message and the skills. Quality Quality does not mean drafted or photographic. Consider the image research time part of your design education. Essential components are always visually emphasized (heavier lines. Adding information in the form of notes or general text can focus attention. size and graphic weight. Handout that supported a presentation made at the 7th Conference of the Design Communication Association. 1983. they support many possible interpretations and allow the viewer to focus on their interests. A presentation is not done until every part is completed. Edward R. The best designers are those that have a rich visual reference library of ideas in their heads." (Tufte 1983. text. Design presentations have traditionally been dominated by original drawings supported by a limited quantity of text and photos. For example. 51) This chapter has described the qualities that will be valued in presentations made for the Design & Communication studio series. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. consistency and appropriateness and the addition of value. Drawings are not self explanatory. Consistency Constancy is the maintenance of a given kind and level of technique or skill throughout a drawing or presentation. It is when the presentation puts the viewer in a positive frame of mind relative to whatever the information might be. Cheshire. A quick sketch and a detailed rendering can be of equal quality. skilled and creative. identify implications and describe things not visible or only suggested. It says that this person or firm is professional. They identify a key area of exploration and learning. Adding value also includes the testing and adjustment of the drawings on simply a visual design basis. Multiple Channels Include drawings. You are searching for opportunities to drive the messages home with more force and focus by adjusting the relative intensity of the visual elements. It makes you look forward to what is to come. a precisely drafted drawing with uneven and misaligned lettering or some lines that are consistent in width while and others vary. subject and place in the design process can all affect the appropriateness of presentation decisions. lighter tones. It involves making decisions concerning what is included and excluded. Ensuring good composition. Knowing the audience. movies and anything else that helps you communicate your ideas. Graphic Hyperbole Exaggerate aspects of a drawing or communication for emphasis and a stronger clearer expression of meaning. The issues are control.) This visual inflection is important to the clear expression of meaning. rhythm and style are some of the concerns that affect the design of the presentation. darker tones) and referential components are always de-emphasized (lighter lines. figure-ground. proportion. College of Architecture. Streamlining the Sketchpak. diagrams. Strive to develop an understanding of the principles and their implications.
Contour drawings grow out of slow and accurate observation and offer a means to intense inspection of the parts. careful. The qualities are made visible by light which creates variations in value. connected. etc. It improves our ability to see and leads to a more detailed understanding of how the parts relate to the whole. impulsive. In drawing we can move in a free or control manner. Contour drawing combines the senses of touch and sight. subtle. The qualities associated with gesture drawings are: intuitive. Seeing Freehand drawing is intimately tied to the process of perception. A faceted surface deforms movement abruptly at corners or edges. slow inspection of the subject. is an intense. Drawing is a direct extension of this movement and the empathy we have with the world through our haptic sensory system. The qualities associated with contour drawings are: analytical. All drawings can be discussed and approached in terms of these qualities.). approaches can range from contour to gesture. Your eye on the subject and your implement on the paper become one. These two establish the poles of a drawing continuum. intended audience. Content can vary from simple abstract representations of an idea to near photographic simulations of completed designs. all-encompassing overview of forms in their wholeness. Contour & Gesture The terms “contour” and “gesture” identify the ends of a continuum of drawing speeds. attitudes and goals. Contour. A round surface deforms movement smoothly. Contour Drawing Contour drawings describe the shape and qualities of an object’s surfaces as they wrap or bend to define it. . quick. These are associated with contour and gesture drawings respectively. We move our bodies or make gestures to point. Freehand drawing is a category of drawing that includes those images created without the aid of drafting instruments (triangle. The contour seeks the specific while the gesture senses the essence. This chapter describes the two basic types of freehand drawing (gesture and contour) and introduces some fundamental strategies for translating what you see to a sheet of paper. assertive. nervy. Media can range from the traditional pencil and paper to a pressure sensitive pen. give direction. visually punctuate a statement and describe shapes or movements. Contour drawings respond to and record the movement encountered at edges and surface textures and irregularities. You should spend as much or more time looking at the subject as you do making marks. Introduction The category of freehand drawing includes a wide range of drawings in terms of content. scale. precise. A contour drawing is a record of what you see as though you were tracing the object with the drawing implement. and loose. As your eye moves along an edge it provides a stream of both visual and tactile information. Gesture. evaluative. Because contour drawings are representative of both sight and touch they must respond to the irregularities of a form as they are seen and would be felt. Drawing is the application of a few simple concepts and strategies in the service of perception. is a quick.Drawing Form 8/2007 61 FreehanD Drawing: Contour & gesture Everyone can learn to draw and experience the joy and magic of making form come alive—of creating personal visions. A flat surface does not deform movement. The goal of all freehand drawing is to communicate what your perceive and not what you know about something based on its name. sketchy. An empathy for what it would be like to touch the path the eye is tracing enriches the drawing. graphics tablet and computer screen. slow. sweeping. a careful examination of its parts. And finally. patient and deliberate. Audiences can range form the person making the drawing to lay people with no previous knowledge. The shape of a surface is perceived as you move across the surface. media and approach.
A drawing starts with a single line or shape and builds gradually through a series of simple decisions. It encourages empathy with the subject and seeks the essential underlying structure of the whole. Draw each form as a whole even though other forms or objects overlap it—draw all forms as though they were transparent. search for details. Your eyes should spend as much time on the subject as on the drawing. its arrangement in space. lighter lines and tones may describe the less important forms. 4. 6. Gesture drawing should involve large arm movements. 2. Do some small study sketches to investigate form. 7. 2nd ed. C. Draw slowly. 2. Rinehart and Winston. The first line starts you on the path but is unlikely to be the perfect line. and so on. proportion. Gesture Drawing Suggestions 1. A gesture drawing captures the weight. The strategies that will be described provide approaches to making those decisions.62 8/2007 Drawing Form Contour drawings do not appear at once. relationship between parts. and T. Sale. Do not let your eyes move more quickly than you can draw. What we see we can trace . These quick movements of the arm and hand can capture the form. Betti & Sale 1986. Time is an essential issue. Draw only lines and tones that communicate some intended quality. A gesture drawing suggests rather that documents. Do some small technique and media studies. draw one that is better. Drawing is a process that uses the preceding marks to build toward the desired result. References Betti. shape. Finally. drawing is a process of refinement. with our arm and finger in space and we can empathize with each shape through our kinesthetic experience. movement and weight of the subject. Keep your eyes and hand coordinated. Look at the drawing only to establish relationships. value. 1986. If the first light line is not satisfactory. New York: Holt. Vary the weight of the line or the value of a tone to relay information about space and light and to offer contrast. This empathy allows us to translate the form we see into a drawing motion. 25 A gesture drawing is a record of the energy that went into making the marks—it is a visual connection between artist and subject. Start with light lines that establish the structure of the drawing. Do not draw their edges but capture the sense of shape. direction and weight. 6. 7.. The hand duplicates the motion of the eyes. Drawing: A Contemporary Approach. Contour Drawing Suggestions 1. 8. It employes marks aimed not so much at what the subject is but what it is doing. Use the whole sheet of paper. 9. 4. 3. near forms and/or brightly illuminated surfaces or edges. Let the lines correspond to the movement of your eyes and their weight relate to the sense of energy and mass that the eyes perceive. 10. How would it move as it traces over a surface or along an edge? What would my finger feel as it moved over the surface? Amplify those shapes and values that represent important qualities and contrasts within the subject. 3. 5. Do not erase for correction. Gesture drawings should be done quickly and timed (15 seconds to a few minutes maximum). darker lines and tones may mark changes of direction and/ or shade or shadow. Incorporate construction lines into the final. Make the drawing as large as possible. Enjoy the process. point of view and composition. Keep your eyes on the subject and your drawing tool in contact with the paper and moving. 5. The hand and arm should be free to move and the whole body should respond. making a gesture that quickly defines the general characteristics of the subject—placement. Gesture Drawing The gesture drawing strives to capture the essence of the subject in the quickest and most economical way. movement or energy of a form. A standing position is recommended when beginning. Imagine that the drawing tool is in actual contact with the subject. Look at the subject you are drawing. Do not make meaningless lines and tones. Look for the longest lines or dominant forms in the subject. Heavier.
Marks are figures that are perceived as entities within the drawing and Prepositions: Graphic Relators A relator indicates some interconnection between elements. Graphic Vocabulary In a graphic language the lines. We see surfaces and edges and draw lines and values. Nouns: Graphic Elements An identify is any graphic element that affords the perception of an element (dot. values and marks is used to identify elements and describe and modify relationships. The symbols of verbal language are its words while those of a graphic language are the marks we make on a surface. etc.Drawing Form 8/2007 63 graPhiC languages Perception and drawing are interdependent processes— they affect and inform each other. In a graphic vocabulary the choice and combination of lines. We can modify the size. Any language requires a set of symbols and a set of rules that control the relationships between the symbols. being contained within a common boundary or being perceived as part of a larger organization. The graphic element is a component part of a drawing like a word is a component part of a sentence.). substance and relationship to communicate hierarchy. Values are the richness of our visual experience—they present surface—texture. substance). etc. Lines are the outline of our experience of the visual world—they condense and emphasize the cues of spatial perception by representing edges. is sequential and information and relationships must be presented lineally—one at a time. placed higher or lower. being connected by another element. line. being close to each other. It is important that it appear as a element smaller than and contained within the communication's field of reference. This could include elements being of different size. surface. shape. letter. Being part of a larger organization can be communicated . The perception of the whole provides an opportunity for the internal consistency to make evident the language. Verbal language. number. The choice of marks and the rules we establish for their usage constitutes a drawing's graphic language. face. It is simultaneous and multidimensional—all information and relationships are presented at once. An affect of the simultaneity of graphic language is that its marks and rules are relative and must be adjusted in relationship to each other and the context created by each drawing. color. etc. importance or quality of an element. on the other hand. Modifiers often communicate the hierarchical relationship between elements. The rules for a verbal language are its grammar or syntax—the culturally accepted sequences that relate the words. square. a word or a one inch long line within the context of this page. car. Graphic language has one great advantage over verbal. Meaning is communicated because the grammar or patterns are respected and the symbols and relationships have some connection to a shared reality—we do things consistently and the way we do them corresponds our experience and knowledge. For example. may be composed of lines and/or values. This relationship can be indicated by the elements having the same attributes (size. surface. consisting of fat versus thin lines. The rules for a graphic language are the patterns of usage established for the marks and the relationship of the marks to the perceived world. A verbal vocabulary has nouns that identify things. circle. shape. values and marks create the vocabulary. value. Introduction A graphic language brings together what we perceive and how we draw. adjectives that qualify or modify things and prepositions that make connections between things. Adjectives: Graphic Modifiers A modifier is any graphic element that indicates the relative quantity.
values and marks) be put on a surface that evoke images and associations with direct experience—the thing represented. The disruptions or exceptions in a grammar permit growth and evolution and response to new contexts and communications. Furthermore. Drawing as a visual language requires that elements (lines. will communicate the intended meaning—the graphic language is selected to fit the communication. The observer is looking at the symbol that stands for the referent. face. Perspective Drawing A graphic language that is used to communicate the form of a cube might establish the basic identity as a line. The size of the identity (its modification) would indicate the relative square footage of the room. For meaning to be communicated the observer must associate the symbol with the intended referent. One of the patterns that a grammar must establish is the relationship between a symbol and the aspect of the referent it will represent. the word “tree” will evoke images of real trees just as will a vertical line with a circle on top. The grammar must establish the patterns (the normal and predictable ways that elements are to relate) and hierarchies (the ways that relationships of relative importance will be encoded). Graphic Grammar A language must have a grammar that is understandable and consistently followed for communication to occur. what is representing the thing (the symbol) and the person that is interpreting the representation. In these cases we perceive the relationship because we recognize the line. For a language to function there must be a relationship between what is being referenced (the thing). The relationships could be modified through the thickness of lines—the thicker the line the greater the relationship. In addition. It establishes the basic identity for a room as a circle. A line would be used to represent the edges of a plane. circle. For example. grid. There is no reason to draw all the leaves on a tree if a line with a circle on top . it must allow for the disruption of the system or the introduction of contrasting elements to communicate the unique or unexpected. circle. The choice of elements (graphic symbols) will result in the drawing being more abstract or representational. A chosen set of graphic elements (a vocabulary) and the rules for their use (a grammar) constitute a graphic language. In drawing we are creating a representation of something and not the thing itself. This can be modeled by a triangle which connects the three components. As the symbol takes on a form that is more like the referent the clearer and more specific the communication becomes until the symbol and referent are one—the communication becomes direct experience. Below is illustrated a abstract to representational continuum for a tree and two common graphic languages to clarify the ideas that have been discussed. that the elements are forming. a two-point perspective system is used to control the orientation of the lines. etc. the information that is to be communicated and the clarity of its communication. The lines are related because together they are perceived as representing the cube—there is a recognition by the observer of a relationship between the drawing and the referent. Relationship between rooms could be indicated by connecting lines. These lines are modified in length and orientation to correspond to the relative lengths and orientations of the edges of the cube given the observer's point of view. No matter how detailed the drawing or great our skills we are making some symbolic mark on a surface that is intended to represent some aspect of the thing we see. face etc. sequence. The choice and appropriateness of the symbols—the level of abstraction—is related to the time it takes to make the drawing. Bubble Diagram A graphic language that is used to communicate abstractly about rooms in a building is called a bubble diagram.64 8/2007 Drawing Form by the elements forming a line.
. ink or pixels. These include vertical location. Contour lines can further be differentiated by the aspect of the thing that they are representing—they can be classified as primary. The lines used in drawings can be classified as either contour or regulating lines. light-to-dark (varying in density or value) and broken (a line may be intermittent or composed of overlapping segments). The examples employ several spatial cues in addition to the isometric drawing system and the contour cues being illustrated. In this way the edges of surfaces and their irregularities are translated into contour lines. Illustrations The examples will use simple cubes to illustrate the concepts. thick-to-thin (varying in width). When removed they are implied by the surfaces they relate and their presence can be felt. Furthermore. offsets and diagonal and tangential relationships between the important points and surfaces of things. overlap and aerial perspective in terms of detail. The middle cube has horizontal lines on its vertical faces that are recorded by lines in the drawing. The goal is to represent their contours and surfaces. secondary and tertiary. Each line type has an expressive content and role in drawing. They describe and establish the size. They can be removed but often remain part of the finished drawing. it is often desirable to represent as many surface qualities and spatial cues as possible with lines.Drawing Form 8/2007 65 Basic Line Types Lines occur in many forms and can be categorized as even-weighted (having a consistent width and density). The most basic line language uses a single line weight to represent all contours—all edges. The vertical sides of the near cube contain black and white squares in a checkerboard pattern that are recorded with a grid of lines. lines are efficient—they communicate with a minimum of graphite. They indicate alignments. In the above example contour lines are used to record the edges of the faces of the cubes and irregularities on the surfaces. Therefore. They are usually drawn lightly and represent visual judgements that will be confirmed or adjusted. Regulating Lines Regulating lines (construction lines) record the more abstract underlying structures of things and are usually draw first. scale and proportional relationships of both forms and spaces. In this section each of these line types will be defined and their use in languages described and illustrated. They establish a framework for the remainder of the drawing. Contour Lines Contour lines are those lines that define the edges of surfaces and/or perceived irregularities within surfaces.
Drawing only the profile of an object tends to flatten the object. Note: The use of line weights indicates whether the cubes are sitting on the ground or floating in the air. Are the three cubes sitting on the ground or floating in the air and why? Primary Contours Primary contours (occluding edges) are those which define the outermost extremities of a form—they record the outline or profile of an object. Secondary Contours Secondary contours describe the edges of surfaces when both surfaces are visible. Tertiary Contours Tertiary contours describe changes in the uniformity of a surface or plane.66 8/2007 Drawing Form Contour Types: The Basic Language There are three types of contour lines that correspond to the three edge conditions found in things. The relating of the contour types to the edge conditions constitutes the basic contour language. . The contour types use a vocabulary of three line weights—primary contours are heavy. textures and colors. Tertiary contours disclose the volume of an object. They respond to and record linear markings on a surface and the edges of values. They respond to and record edge irregularities. They are edges formed by the meeting of two surfaces when only one surface can be seen. secondary contours are medium and tertiary contours are light. They are plastic and emphasize the three-dimensionality of the object as they move across a surface. They respond to and record edge irregularities. shadows.
.e. to one side of the contour is the surface that the contour is defining and to the other there is some distance or depth through space until another surface is encountered. Lines of varying distance can taper. Therefore. The illustration simply categorizes all the lines of a cube as the same but the language can be much subtler by further varying the line weights within each cube. depth and focus.Drawing Form 8/2007 67 Contour Language Variations The basic contour language provides a starting point for locating lines and assigning weight. To do this you can adjust the graphic language to control the focus. In a contour drawing this means employing the heaviest line weights and/or lines of greatest contrast in the area that is to be the focus. A thin black line appears as lighter in value than a thick black line because it has less surface area with which to communicate its value. However. if the subject has a primary contour it must be a heavy line). This language is a development of the spatial profiling cues. Contours & Focus To this point the subject has controlled the grammar (i. Contours & Depth Primary contours record edges where only one of its defining surfaces can be seen. the language can be modified to respond to additional considerations including distance. . From these cues we can establish a language that says the closest contours are the heaviest and weight decreases with distance. Contours & Distance A heavy black line on a white sheet of paper reads as closer than a light line due to its size and our experience with the affect of aerial perspective on contrast. The greater the depth the heavier the contour line. one of your responsibilities is to establish the visual focus of the drawing. However.
The differences between drafted and freehand. They further have the capability of imparting subtle and complex information about the subject—edge conditions. uniform weight and varying weight. However. These include axonometric perspective. distance. However. movement. continuous and broken. vertical location. textures. Compare the effect of the last sketch and the previous drafted illustrations. depth and focus are the fundamental ones driving most line weight decisions. Keep in mind that the examples employ spatial cues in addition to those communicated by the contours. the maximum line weight and contrast also occurs in the middle ground. They have very different feelings. and overlap. It is more likely that the cubes would be viewed as all being in the middle ground which would require the addition of foreground and background elements—a more typical architectural situation. The aerial cue of detail has been adjusted to reinforce the desired focus by placing maximum detail in the middle ground. Form & Distance The language uses form (heavy line for primary contours. In addition.68 8/2007 Drawing Form Composite Contour Languages The preceding contour languages can be used by themselves or in combination. Distance & Focus In the example the focus is controlled both through detail and line weight. In the example the graphic languages classify the near cube as being in the foreground with the middle in the middle ground and the far in the background. etc. Two typical combinations are illustrated but many more are possible and the ones illustrated can be treated with greater subtlety. Choose or create a mood that is appropriate for a given communication. support a different interpretations. Form. the cubes present so close a grouping that this classification is an exaggeration to make the point. In different combinations they can create more sophisticated graphic languages that begin to communicate the many subtleties of form. .. etc. the four issues of primary/ secondary/tertiary. Line & Expression The line quality used in a drawing can support different expressions or styles. a medium line for secondary contours and a light line for tertiary contours) and distance (the closer the line is to the viewer the heavier) These two syntactic structures can work in coordination as indicated in the illustration.
The isometric drawing system establishes the rules for the construction and dimensioning of the drawing. Illustrations The examples will again use simple geometric forms to illustrate the concepts. chroma) that a surface possesses is represented in the drawing. The classification of a value as one or the other is dependent on the media and application technique employed. The liability of this language is that it tends to flatten and disguise form. A value created by lines is one whose texture is significant in scale and composed of individual marks that retain their identity within the value. form. The goal is to represent their surfaces. uniformity. What ever color (value. coarseness. reflectance. color. small in scale and fine in implied texture.Drawing Form 8/2007 69 Basic Value Types & Languages A value is created by any technique that directly describes a surface rather that its edges. These include vertical location and overlap. However. Value & Color In the simplest value language directly represents the color of the surface. transparency. hue. form. A value (sometimes called a tonal value or tone in drawing) can be continuous or created by lines. . scrubbing over texture and scribbling. Value Languages Value can be associated with many of the properties of things including color. orientation. the gradations produced by surface's texture. In representing these qualities the scale. The examples employ several spatial cues in addition to the isometric drawing system and contour cues being illustrated. If the surface is dark red the surface is drawn dark red. etc. It establishes the location size and shape of each value. The edges are made visible by the limits of and/or a sharp change in the value. Value & Form Value can delineate form by defining and differentiating surfaces. texture. As in the value and color language. The roles of value in a drawing includes describing the area of a surface. shadow. These marks include stippling. lines. A continuous value is even. lightness and hue of the value can be manipulated. it also takes longer to create and therefore should be used efficiently. The simplest value and form language represents flat surfaces with uniform values and curved surfaces with tonal gradations. Value can represent more surface qualities than line and therefore is a powerful component of any drawing. cross hatching. the orientation of the surface to the light source and the surface’s attributes—materiality. texture. Issues of relative illumination and orientation of the surface are not considered. distance and focus. scrubbing. issues of relative illumination and orientation of the surface are not considered and the liability of the language is that it can flatten forms composed of planes.
Value & Orientation Using value to represent orientation requires the assumption of a light source. Furthermore. Once the orientation is established shadows are cast and values adjusted for reflected light. . In this example flat surfaces are represented by uniform values. Surfaces with the same orientation receive the same value no matter where they are within the drawing. The surfaces most directly facing the source are the lightest and the surface facing most directly away from the source is darkest. bounced light modifies the values. The cubes closest will have the greatest contrast within themselves and with the environment while those farther away will have less. A textured surface will also appear darker as it turns away from the observer—as it moves from perpendicular to parallel to the observer's line of sight.70 8/2007 Drawing Form Value & Texture If a surface has some perceivable textural qualities then value can represent the surface's textural gradients. A surface that is oblique to the observer has a varying textural gradient and is represented by a gradation that goes from light to dark as it moves away from the observer. Value & Shadow This language builds on the orientation language. A surfaces' value corresponds to its orientation to the light source. The values are then adjusted to represent the surface's orientation to the assumed light source. Value & Distance Value will also be affected by the aerial cues of contrast and blueness. as the cubes get farther away they move toward a middle gray because of the intervening atmosphere as illustrated below. The example shows all values as flat or even. In reality. A surface that is facing directly at the observer has a uniform textural gradient and is represented by a uniform value. The orientation of the surfaces to the light source must be established before shadows can be cast.
However.g. The preceding examples for distance and focus are such composite languages in that they also employ orientation and shadow grammars. Color & Orientation In this combination the color language has been modified by adding surface orientation to the light source. The goal here would be to retain the general sense of light and dark forms while creating the illusion of three-dimensions. Composite Tonal Languages The preceding value languages can be used by themselves or in any combination. It establishes the shapes of the values. the examples employ several spatial cues in addition to those communicated by the values. In different combinations they can create more sophisticated graphic languages that begin to communicate the many subtleties of form. To do this you can adjust the graphic language to control the focus. white) will create a strong contrast and thereby become a focal point. one of your responsibilities is to establish the visual focus of the drawing. Shadow & Texture In this combination the orientation and shadow languages have been enriched to include gradations created by the surface's textures.. The textural gradations cause the surfaces to get darker as they move away from the viewer. In a drawing that is dominated by similar values (e. all dark) a dramatically different value (e.Drawing Form 8/2007 71 Value & Focus Language To this point the subject has controlled the grammar (i..g. This is a good example of creating a language that communicates what you intend to say without including unwanted information. Vertical location places near objects lower and far objects higher within the frame of reference while overlap requires that near objects cover portions of farther objects. This is true for all surfaces not parallel to the face of the viewer.e. Orientation. The greater the angle the more dramatic the gradation. As stated earlier. In a value drawing this means employing the darkest values and/or values of greatest contrast in the area that is to be the focus. The axonometric (parallel line) perspective establishes the rules for the construction and dimensioning of the drawing. if the subject is near it has greater contrast). These include axonometric perspective. . The result is that the black cube is given surfaces that are varying shades of the darkest values to retain its darkness while addressing its surface's orientation to the light source. Focus is often a function of contrast. vertical location and overlap..
high key is different than low key and variegated is different from uniform. Each combination will create a different mood. The technique used. Therefore. The scale and shape of the marks—the style or techniques used to create the values—also influence the expression of the drawing as well as communicate additional meaning. The example below feels very different from the previous drawings. media.72 8/2007 Drawing Form Value & Expression All the examples have used a similar technique for the creation of the values. key (value or tonal range) and distribution of values within a drawing can support different moods—freehand is different from drafted. Line & Value Languages The preceding line and value languages can be used by themselves or in any combination. the drawings have a consistent style and similar feeling—they are stiff and mechanical. In different combinations they can create more sophisticated graphic languages that begin to communicate the many subtleties of form. . pen is different from pencil.
Shadow languages can easily be combined with other value as well as line languages to create as complex and subtle a language as desired. Light. A nine step value scale will support most drawing. The values within each category can then be gradually darkened to create differentiation and enhance the illusion of three-dimensional form. ����� The Languages & Process The languages can provide a strategy for developing a drawing. The products range from abstract to representational depending on the degree to which they simplify or faithfully delineate the subject's detail and subtlety. The two and three value languages can be used in creating preliminary studies that examine composition. Surfaces that receive direct illumination (Light). The Light. HLS (L: Lightness) and Apple (B: Brightness) color specification systems. Shadow languages vary in the degree to which they require the simplification of the thing being represented. Their sequence from abstract to representational can be used in developing a drawing. This allows you to establish the three lighting conditions without precluding subtlety within them. They create a continuum from two to nine values and although the languages presented will only demonstrate those using two. Shade. ����� Value Scale When we make a drawing one of the fundamental decisions is the number of values that will be used because it controls the level of abstraction and the time it will take to complete the drawing. The nine step scale works very well for the three lighting conditions in that each can have three values. surfaces that face away from the light (Shade) and surfaces that would be in direct light but the light is being blocked (Shadow). There are three basic surface lighting conditions that must be represented with values. form and value distribution. Given that there are only three possible orientations for surfaces within any one lighting condition when representing rectilinear forms the nine step scale provides a different value for each possibility. The languages will be presented from the one using the fewest values to the one that uses the most. �������� ������� ����� ���� Value Settings The values are numbered 1 (White) through 9 (Black). when applying values to a drawing begin by applying the lightest value in each category (1:Light.Drawing Form 8/2007 73 �������� ����� ������� �������� � ������ ������ �������� � ������ ������ �������� � ������ ������ �������� � ������ ������ �������� � ������ ������ �������� � ������ ������ �������� Light. ������ � ������ ������ ������� . The three value language can be used to establish initial values. The number of values that can be created and seen in a drawing is not infinite. The percentages and numbers that follow give the corresponding settings for the CMYK (K: Black). Shade. Shadow Languages The most common value languages are those that address the affect of light on surfaces. These languages use the orientation and shadow languages previously discussed as their base that is then modified by the number of values to be used. Shade. For example. three and nine any number can be used based on the subject and the intended communication. 4:Shade. 7:Shadow).
all shade surfaces are represented in black. The vocabulary usually employs values of high contrast consisting of #1 White: 0% and #9 Black: 100%. In the examples the positive areas (things) are white and the negative areas (spaces) are black. The grammar or rules for their use can take two forms. The contrast between the values can be subtle or dramatic.74 8/2007 Drawing Form Two Values The minimum number of values is two. . The first (top left) is to use them to differentiate between positive and negative areas. The second approach (the other three illustrations) is to make all light surfaces #1 White: 0% and all shadow surfaces #9 Black: 100% and then make some judgement as to which shade values in a scene will be represented by black and which by white. In the examples. This language flattens three-dimensional form. creates the highest contrast and the strongest graphic images. These drawings can be very intriguing when there is an ambiguity as to which of the values (white or black) is representing the subject of the drawing.
. 5 and 9). those in shade are to be #5: 50% gray and those in shadow are to be #9: 100% black. It is useful in compositional and massing studies. This language also tends to abstract reality and create strong graphic images with sharp contrast. values that maximize contrast are usually chosen (1. As with the two value language. The grammar is that surfaces in direct sunlight are to be #1: White.Drawing Form 8/2007 75 Three Values The vocabulary consists of three continuous values that can be chosen to minimize or maximize contrast.
The number chosen to be used will depend on the number and orientation of the subject's surfaces. The values were chosen to maximize the contrast between light.76 8/2007 Drawing Form � � � � � Nine Values This language can use any number of values between four and nine. shade and shadow and the steps within. . With nine values you can show a great deal more variation and suggest more detail as in the tree drawing. what is needed to create appropriate differentiation and the desired communication.
An example of extending the value range would be to use a #7 to #3 gradation for a shaded surface instead of #6 to #4. .Drawing Form 8/2007 77 Gradations Gradations are a way of extending the value range and representing reflected light. This would be a way of representing reflected light while maximizing contrast with adjacent surfaces.
value can be increased or decreased by varying the number and direction of layers of hatching as shown below across the middle row. The matrix below identifies the variables that can be combined and manipulated to create values with lines. Line quality can indicate the texture and uniformity of a surface. However. Line Quality The quality of the lines used in hatching can affect value to some extent however. Lines used in hatching can vary in their straitness. It is one of the most basic drawing techniques for creating values. value can be increased or decreased by varying the line weight as shown below across the top row. Line Layering Given a constant line weight and spacing.78 8/2007 Drawing Form Creating Values In the illustrations for the languages presented so far all values have been shown as continuous (smooth) tones. Line Weight Given a constant line spacing. The marks creating the values have been invisible or small enough not to be noticed. The variables include line spacing. the most important contribution that line quality makes is in communicating something about the nature of the surface itself. continuity and weight as shown below across the bottom row. the communication of surface qualities and the illusion of threedimensional form and depth. Hatching The use of straight lines that cross the entire surface to create a value is called hatching. value can be increased or decreased by varying the spacing of the lines as shown below down the left hand column. The four factors of line spacing. . Line Spacing Given a constant line weight. Values created using marks can be categorized as hatching. textures or stippling. weight. given that textural gradation is a key visual cue in perceiving the orientation of a surface and that contour lines can describe the form and quality of a surface it is desirable to create values with marks that are visible. layering and quality can be combined in many combinations to support the creation of values. line weight. line layers and line quality.
The right hand example on the bottom row below feels bolder and closer than the other examples. Line Weight Line weight strongly affect the visual weight and scale of a texture. . weight and organization) can communicate feelings of relative freedom. The values created by texturing are affected by line spacing. Line Quality As described under hatching. weight and layering as described under hatching. Make copies of the textures that you find and build a reference library that you can choose from to meet time and expression constraints of a given presentation.Drawing Form 8/2007 79 Texturing The use of lines that do not cross the entire surface will be called texturing. The examples touch on only a few of the possible textures that can be created using lines. hardness. etc. For example. the quality or form of the line can strongly affect the feel of the texture. weight. Line Organization Given constant weight lines their organization can range for rows of parallel lines to overlapping lines with random orientations as shown below across the top row. the smooth flowing line used in the continuous scribble has a very different feel when compared with the rows of lines above. Texture's most dramatic impact is in the area of expression. Remember that decisions must always be made in relationship to the drawing as a whole and the creation of the illusion of threedimensional form and depth. Decisions concerning the technique used (line quality. Look for other possibilities in drawing books and publications. Line Length Given constant weight lines they can range from short to continuous as shown below down the left column. length. in the left column. It is important to consider the scale implications of line weight when making graphic decisions.
80 8/2007 Drawing Form Stippling The use of dots to create a value is called stippling. Dot Size Given a constant dot spacing. The illustration below identifies the variables of spacing and size that can be combined and manipulated to create values with dots. Dot Spacing Given a constant dot size. value can be increased or decreased by varying the spacing of the dots as shown below across the top row. They can also be combined with hatching and textures to further extend the possibilities. . The factors of dot spacing and size can be combined to support the creation of values. It and lines are the most basic drawing techniques for creating values. the communication of surface qualities and the illusion of three-dimensional form and depth. value can be increased or decreased by varying the dot size as shown below down the left column.
furnishings. participation and involvement. The degree of detail that the people exhibit should be at the same level as the remainder of the drawing. looking at or examining things or leaning against things. trees.Drawing Form 8/2007 81 entourage The inclusion of entourage in a drawing is important because it gives the drawing scale and moves it toward a more realistic representation of the design proposal. . Place people so that they demonstrate (occupy) the different kinds of spaces and places in the design. This gives you drawing practice and presentations do not suffer from poorly executed people. Evolve the figures in a series of steps as you evolve your sketch. Show people interacting with the environment. Do not place them so that they hide space-defining intersections. The angle of the head can indicate this but you should avoid the profile in favor of a three-quarter view. However. people are the most important scale giving elements in a drawing. They should be drawn with a minimum of detail. In fact. Avoid abrupt change in the scale of figures. This section gives you a brief introduction and provides a few examples of people and trees. People People are an important part of any architectural drawing— architecture's essential function is to support human activity. Show both back and front views of people. etc. Use the examples to practice drawing and as a tracing file. have the people relating to something within the sketch or attention will be diverted out of the drawing. cars. There are many good books that provide examples of these for you to trace. The human figure should seldom be drawn symmetrically. our shoulders sloped to one side and our arms in different positions. they suggest action. Also. Have seated people with their elbows on a table or over the back of the chair. Show people with gestures such as waving hands or hands in their pockets. Have figures gradually get smaller and thereby draw your eye into the space of the sketch. Show background people in groups. We tend to stand with our weight distributed off center. Outline figures are very appropriate. Show both sexes and kids but make sure the average person predominates. Show people in groups interacting (talking) with each other. Entourage includes people. the activity should not be exaggerated or it will call attention away form the idea you are presenting. For example. As you begin learning to include people it is efficient to trace them into your drawings. General Recommendations The following is a list of the most common guidelines that appear in texts on drawing people in architectural sketches. they demonstrate spatial qualities and most important they give scale. Their inclusion in a drawing indicates how a space is to be used. Show people doing something. Show people carrying things in their hands. sitting on chairs or walls. With time you will be able to construct figures from scratch. They should remain secondary to the architecture or design idea that you are presenting. Keep the drawings of people simple with authentic characteristics.
Wester .82 8/2007 Drawing Form People by Lari M.
Drawing Form 8/2007 83 People by Edward T. White .
1991 .84 8/2007 Drawing Form People by Porter & Goodman.
Drawing Form 8/2007 85 .
86 8/2007 Drawing Form People by Porter & Goodman. 1991 .
Drawing Form 8/2007 87 People by Porter & Goodman. 1991 .
Drawings by Segedin & Associates
Drawings by Segedin & Associates
Drawings by Segedin & Associates
Drawing Form 8/2007 91 Drawings by Segedin & Associates .
92 8/2007 Drawing Form Drawings by Segedin & Associates .
Drawing Form 8/2007 93 Drawings by Segedin & Associates .
. Following are examples of trees in plan and elevation. middleground and background planes. The goal is to clearly and efficiently suggest the qualities of a tree.94 8/2007 Drawing Form Trees Trees are second only to people in establishing scale and are a primary element in creating context in a drawing. Photo realism is not necessarily the goal. They are also an essential element in establishing the foreground. Notice the scale that is indicated by the line quality— the suggestion of small leaves. You are not drawing a specific tree but a symbol for some future tree.
Drawing Form 8/2007 95 References Wester. White. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Graphic Designers. Porter. Tucson: Architectural Media. . Design Drawing Techniques for Architects. Tom & Sue Goodman. A Graphic Vocabulary for Architectural Presentation. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Design Communication for landscape Architects. Edward T. Lari M. & Artists. 1991. 1972. 1990.
96 8/2007 Drawing Form .