Egyptian revolution of 2011
|2011 Egyptian Revolution|
ثورة 25 يناير
|Part of the Egyptian Crisis and the Arab Spring|
Demonstrators in Cairo's Tahrir Square on 8 February 2011
|Date||25 January 2011 – 11 February 2011|
(2 weeks and 3 days)
|Parties to the civil conflict|
|2,000,000 at Cairo's Tahrir Square|
See: Regions section below.
|Part of a series on the|
The Egyptian revolution of 2011, also known as the 25 January Revolution (Arabic: ثورة 25 يناير; Thawrat khamsa wa-ʿišrūn yanāyir), started on 25 January 2011 and spread across Egypt. The date was set by various youth groups to coincide with the annual Egyptian "Police holiday" as a statement against increasing police brutality during the last few years of Mubarak's presidency. It consisted of demonstrations, marches, occupations of plazas, non-violent civil resistance, acts of civil disobedience and strikes. Millions of protesters from a range of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Violent clashes between security forces and protesters resulted in at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured. Protesters retaliated by burning over 90 police stations across the country.
The Egyptian protesters' grievances focused on legal and political issues, including police brutality, state-of-emergency laws, lack of political freedom, civil liberty, freedom of speech, corruption, high unemployment, food-price inflation and low wages. The protesters' primary demands were the end of the Mubarak regime. Strikes by labour unions added to the pressure on government officials. During the uprising, the capital, Cairo, was described as "a war zone" and the port city of Suez saw frequent violent clashes. Protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, which was impossible to enforce by the police and military. Egypt's Central Security Forces, loyal to Mubarak, were gradually replaced by military troops. In the chaos, there was looting by rioters which was instigated (according to opposition sources) by plainclothes police officers. In response, watch groups were organized by civilian vigilantes to protect their neighborhoods.
On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak resigned as president, turning power over to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF). The military junta, headed by effective head of state Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, announced on 13 February that the constitution is suspended, both houses of parliament dissolved and the military would govern for six months (until elections could be held). The previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve as a caretaker government until a new one was formed.
After the revolution against Mubarak and a period of rule by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, the Muslim Brotherhood took power in Egypt through a series of popular elections, with Egyptians electing Islamist Mohamed Morsi to the presidency in June 2012, after winning the election over Ahmed Shafik. However, the Morsi government encountered fierce opposition after his attempt to pass an Islamic-leaning constitution. Morsi also issued a temporary presidential decree that raised his decisions over judicial review to enable the passing of the constitution. It sparked general outrage from secularists and members of the military, and mass protests broke out against his rule on 28 June 2013. On 3 July 2013, Morsi was deposed by a coup d'état led by the minister of defense, General Abdel Fattah El-Sisi, as millions of Egyptians took to the streets in support of early elections. El-Sisi went on to become Egypt's president by popular election in 2014.
In Egypt and other parts of the Arab world, the protests and governmental changes are also known as the 25 January Revolution (ثورة 25 يناير Thawrat 25 Yanāyir), Freedom Revolution (ثورة حرية Thawrat Horeya) or Rage Revolution (ثورة الغضب Thawrat al-Ġaḍab), and (less frequently) the Youth Revolution (ثورة الشباب Thawrat al-Shabāb), Lotus Revolution (ثورة اللوتس) or White Revolution (الثورة البيضاء al-Thawrah al-bayḍāʾ).
Hosni Mubarak became President of Egypt after the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981. Mubarak's National Democratic Party (NDS) maintained one-party rule. His government received support from the West and aid from the United States by its suppression of Islamic militants and peace with Israel. Mubarak was often compared to an Egyptian pharaoh by the media and some critics, due to his authoritarian rule. He was in the 30th year of his reign when the Revolution of 2011 began.
Inheritance of power
Mubarak's younger son was expected to succeed his father as the next president of Egypt in 2000. Gamal began receiving attention from the Egyptian media, since there were apparently no other heirs to the presidency. Bashar al-Assad's rise to power in Syria in June 2000, hours after Hafez al-Assad's death, sparked debate in the Egyptian press about the prospects for a similar scenario in Cairo.
During the years after Mubarak's 2005 re-election, several left- and right-wing (primarily unofficial) political groups expressed opposition to the inheritance of power, demanded reforms and asked for a multi-candidate election. In 2006, with opposition increasing, Daily News Egypt reported an online campaign initiative (the National Initiative against Power Inheritance) demanding that Gamal reduce his power. The campaign said, "President Mubarak and his son constantly denied even the possibility of [succession]. However, in reality they did the opposite, including amending the constitution to make sure that Gamal will be the only unchallenged candidate."
During the decade, public perception grew that Gamal would succeed his father. He wielded increasing power as NDP deputy secretary general and chair of the party's policy committee. Analysts described Mubarak's last decade in power as "the age of Gamal Mubarak". With his father's health declining and no appointed vice-president, Gamal was considered Egypt's de facto president by some. Although Gamal and Hosni Mubarak denied an inheritance of power, Gamal could be elected; with Hosni Mubarak's presidential term set to expire in 2010, speculation existed that Gamal would run as the NDP candidate in 2011. However, after the January–February 2011 protest Gamal Mubarak said that he would not run for president in the 2011 elections.
Emergency law (Law No. 162 of 1958) was enacted in the country after the 1967 Six-Day War. Although it was suspended for 18 months during the early 1980s, it has otherwise continuously been in effect since Anwar Sadat's 1981 assassination. Emergency law extended police powers, suspended constitutional rights, legalised censorship and abolished habeas corpus. It limits non-governmental political activity, including demonstrations, unapproved political organizations and unregistered financial donations. The Mubarak government has cited the threat of terrorism in extending emergency law, claiming that opposition groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood could gain power in Egypt if the government did not forgo parliamentary elections and suppress the group through emergency law. This has led to the imprisonment of activists without trial, illegal, undocumented and hidden detention facilities and the rejection of university, mosque and newspaper staff based on their political affiliation. A December 2010 parliamentary election was preceded by a media crackdown, arrests, candidate bans (particularly Muslim Brotherhood candidates) and allegations of fraud due to the near-unanimous victory by the NDP in parliament. Human-rights organizations estimate that in 2010, between 5,000 and 10,000 people were in long-term detention without charge or trial.
According to a U.S. Embassy report, police brutality has been widespread in Egypt. In the five years before the revolution, the Mubarak regime denied the existence of torture or abuse by police. However, claims by domestic and international groups provided cellphone videos or first-hand accounts of hundreds of cases of police brutality. According to the 2009 Human Rights Report from the U.S. State Department, "Domestic and international human rights groups reported that the Ministry of Interior (MOI) State Security Investigative Service (SSIS), police, and other government entities continued to employ torture to extract information or force confessions. The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights documented 30 cases of torture during the year 2009. In numerous trials defendants alleged that police tortured them during questioning. During the year activists and observers circulated some amateur cellphone videos documenting the alleged abuse of citizens by security officials. For example, on 8 February, a blogger posted a video of two police officers, identified by their first names and last initials, sodomizing a bound naked man named Ahmed Abdel Fattah Ali with a bottle. On 12 August, the same blogger posted two videos of alleged police torture of a man in a Port Said police station by the head of investigations, Mohammed Abu Ghazala. There was no indication that the government investigated either case."
The deployment of Baltageya (Arabic: بلطجية)—plainclothes police—by the NDP has been a hallmark of the Mubarak government. The Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights has documented 567 cases of torture, including 167 deaths, by police from 1993 to 2007. Excessive force was often used by law-enforcement agencies against popular uprisings. On 6 June 2010 Khaled Mohamed Saeed died under disputed circumstances in the Sidi Gaber area of Alexandria, with witnesses testifying that he was beaten to death by police – an event which galvanized Egyptians around the issue of police brutality. Authorities stated that Khaled died choking on hashish while being chased by police officers. However, pictures of Khaled's disfigured corpse from the morgue showed signs of torture. A Facebook page, "We are all Khaled Said", helped attract nationwide attention to the case. Mohamed ElBaradei, former head of the International Atomic Energy Agency, led a 2010 rally in Alexandria against police abuse, and visited Saeed's family to offer condolences.
During the January–February 2011 protests, police brutality was common. Jack Shenker, a reporter for The Guardian, was arrested during the Cairo protests on 26 January. He witnessed fellow Egyptian protesters being tortured, assaulted, and taken to undisclosed locations by police officers. Shenker and other detainees were released after covert intervention by Ayman Nour, the father of a fellow detainee.
Corruption, coercion not to vote and manipulation of election results occurred during many elections over Mubarak's 30-year rule. Until 2005, Mubarak was the only presidential candidate (with a yes-or-no vote). Mubarak won five consecutive presidential elections with a sweeping majority. Although opposition groups and international election-monitoring agencies charged that the elections were rigged, those agencies were not allowed to monitor elections. The only opposition presidential candidate in recent Egyptian history, Ayman Nour, was imprisoned before the 2005 elections. According to a 2007 UN survey, voter turnout was extremely low (about 25 percent) because of a lack of trust in the political system.
Demographic and economic challenges
Unemployment and reliance on subsidized goods
The population of Egypt grew from 30,083,419 in 1966 to roughly 79,000,000 by 2008. The vast majority of Egyptians live near the banks of the Nile, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi) where the only arable land is found. In late 2010, about 40 percent of Egypt's population lived on the equivalent of roughly US$2 per day, with a large portion relying on subsidized goods.
According to the Peterson Institute for International Economics and other proponents of demographic structural approach (cliodynamics), a basic problem in Egypt is unemployment driven by a demographic youth bulge; with the number of new people entering the workforce at about four percent a year, unemployment in Egypt is almost 10 times as high for college graduates as for those who finished elementary school (particularly educated urban youth—the people who were in the streets during the revolution).
Economy and poor living conditions
Egypt's economy was highly centralised during the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, becoming more market-driven under Anwar Sadat and Mubarak. From 2004 to 2008 the Mubarak government pursued economic reform to attract foreign investment and increase GDP, later postponing further reforms because of the Great Recession. The international economic downturn slowed Egypt's GDP growth to 4.5 percent in 2009. In 2010, analysts said that the government of Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif would need to resume economic reform to attract foreign investment, increase growth and improve economic conditions. Despite recent high national economic growth, living conditions for the average Egyptian remained relatively poor (albeit better than other African nations with no significant social upheavals).
Political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Interior Ministry rose dramatically, due to increased control of the system necessary to sustain his presidency. The rise to power of powerful businessmen in the NDP, the government and the House of Representatives led to public anger during the Ahmed Nazif government. Ahmed Ezz monopolised the steel industry, with more than 60 percent of market share. Aladdin Elaasar, an Egyptian biographer and American professor, estimated that the Mubarak family was worth from $50 to $70 billion.
The wealth of former NDP secretary Ezz was estimated at 18 billion Egyptian pounds; the wealth of former housing minister Ahmed al-Maghraby was estimated at more than 11 billion Egyptian pounds; that of former tourism minister Zuhair Garrana is estimated at 13 billion Egyptian pounds; former minister of trade and industry Rashid Mohamed Rashid is estimated to be worth 12 billion Egyptian pounds, and former interior minister Habib al-Adly was estimated to be worth eight billion Egyptian pounds. The perception among Egyptians was that the only people benefiting from the nation's wealth were businessmen with ties to the National Democratic Party: "Wealth fuels political power and political power buys wealth."
During the 2010 elections, opposition groups complained about government harassment and fraud. Opposition and citizen activists called for changes to a number of legal and constitutional provisions affecting elections. In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) gave Egypt a score of 3.1 based on perceptions by business people and analysts of the degree of corruption (with 10 being clean, and 0 totally corrupt).
To prepare for the possible overthrow of Mubarak, opposition groups studied Gene Sharp's work on nonviolent action and worked with leaders of Otpor!, the student-led Serbian organisation. Copies of Sharp's list of 198 non-violent "weapons", translated into Arabic and not always attributed to him, were circulated in Tahrir Square during its occupation.
Following the ousting of Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali after mass protests, many analysts (including former European Commission President Romano Prodi) saw Egypt as the next country where such a revolution might occur. According to The Washington Post, "The Jasmine Revolution [...] should serve as a stark warning to Arab leaders – beginning with Egypt's 83-year-old Hosni Mubarak – that their refusal to allow more economic and political opportunity is dangerous and untenable." Others believed that Egypt was not ready for revolution, citing little aspiration by the Egyptian people, low educational levels and a strong government with military support. The BBC said, "The simple fact is that most Egyptians do not see any way that they can change their country or their lives through political action, be it voting, activism, or going out on the streets to demonstrate."
After the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia on 17 December, a man set himself afire on 18 January in front of the Egyptian parliament and five more attempts followed. On 17 January, Abdou Abdel Monaam, a baker, also set himself on fire to protest a law that prevented restaurant owners from buying subsidized bread, leading him to buy bread at the regular price – which is five times higher than the subsidized. Mohammed Farouq Mohammed, who is a lawyer, also set himself afire in front of the parliament to protest his ex-wife, who did not allow him to see his daughters. In Alexandria, an unemployed man by the name of Ahmed Hashem Sayed was also a victim of self-immolation.
National Police Day protests
Opposition groups planned a day of revolt for 25 January, coinciding with National Police Day, to protest police brutality in front of the Ministry of Interior. Protesters also demanded the resignation of the Minister of Interior, an end to State corruption, the end of emergency law and presidential term limits for the president.
Many political movements, opposition parties and public figures supported the day of revolt, including Youth for Justice and Freedom, the Coalition of the Youth of the Revolution, the Popular Democratic Movement for Change, the Revolutionary Socialists and the National Association for Change. The April 6 Youth Movement was a major supporter of the protest, distributing 20,000 leaflets saying "I will protest on 25 January for my rights". The Ghad El-Thawra Party, Karama, Wafd and Democratic Front supported the protests. The Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt's largest opposition group, confirmed on 23 January that it would participate. Public figures, including novelist Alaa Al Aswany, writer Belal Fadl and actors Amr Waked and Khaled Aboul Naga, announced that they would participate. The leftist National Progressive Unionist Party (the Tagammu) said that it would not participate, and the Coptic Church urged Christians not to participate in the protests.
Twenty-six-year-old Asmaa Mahfouz was instrumental in sparking the protests. In a video blog posted a week before National Police Day, she urged the Egyptian people to join her on 25 January in Tahrir Square to bring down the Mubarak regime. Mahfouz's use of video blogging and social media went viral and urged people not to be afraid. The Facebook group for the event attracted 80,000 people.
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Farouk to Mubarak
Most causes of the 2011 Egyptian revolution against Mubarak also existed in 1952, when the Free Officers ousted King Farouk: inherited power, corruption, under-development, unemployment, unfair distribution of wealth and the presence of Israel. A new cause of the Arab Spring is the increase in population, which increased unemployment. The first sign along the road to Mubarak was the 1967 war between Egypt and Israel. Gamal Abdel Nasser's defeat brought Anwar Sadat to power after Nasser's death in 1970. Sadat undid Nasser's social reforms and dependence on the Soviet Union, predicting its collapse nearly two decades before it occurred.
Sadat neglected the modernization of Egypt, and his cronyism cost the country infrastructure industries which could generate new jobs. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak after Sadat's 1981 death. With no academic or governmental experience, Mubarak implemented emergency rule throughout his 30 years in office, not appointing a vice president until he was pressured to resign. Communications media such as the internet, cell phones and satellite TV channels augmented mosques and Friday prayers, traditional means of mass communications. The mosques brought the Muslim Brotherhood to power, and the Brotherhood has pressured all governments from 1928 through 2011 (as it also does in neighboring countries).
25 January 2011 ("Day of Revolt"): Protests erupted throughout Egypt, with tens of thousands gathering in Cairo and thousands more in other Egyptian cities. The protests targeted the Mubarak government; while mostly non-violent, there were some reports of civilian and police casualties.
26 January 2011: Civil unrest in Suez and other areas throughout the country. Police arrested many activists.
28 January 2011: The "Friday of Anger" protests began, with hundreds of thousands demonstrating in Cairo and other Egyptian cities after Friday prayers. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei arrived in Cairo amid reports of looting. Prisons were opened and burned down, allegedly on orders from Interior Minister Habib El Adly. Prison inmates escaped en masse, in what was believed to be an attempt to terrorise protesters. Police were withdrawn from the streets, and the military was deployed. International fears of violence grew, but no major casualties were reported. Mubarak made his first address to the nation, pledging to form a new government. Later that night clashes broke out in Tahrir Square between revolutionaries and pro-Mubarak demonstrators, leading to casualties. No fatalities have been reported in Cairo, however, 11 people were killed in Suez and another 170 were injured.1,030 people were reported injured nationwide.
29 January 2011: The military presence in Cairo increased. A curfew was imposed, which was widely ignored as the flow of protesters into Tahrir Square continued through the night. The military reportedly refused to follow orders to fire live ammunition, exercising overall restraint; there were no reports of major casualties. On 31 January, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd, and 7th Divisions of the Egyptian Army had been ordered into Cairo to help restore order.
1 February 2011: Mubarak made another televised address, offering several concessions. He pledged political reforms and said he would not run in the elections planned for September, but would remain in office to oversee a peaceful transition. Small-but-violent clashes began that night between pro- and anti-Mubarak groups.
2 February 2011 (Camel Incident): Violence escalated as waves of Mubarak supporters met anti-government protesters; some Mubarak supporters rode camels and horses into Tahrir Square, reportedly wielding sticks. The attack resulted in 3 deaths and 600 injuries. Mubarak repeated his refusal to resign in interviews with several news agencies. Violence toward journalists and reporters escalated, amid speculation that it was encouraged by Mubarak to bring the protests to an end. The camel and horse riders later claimed that they were "good men", and they opposed the protests because they wanted tourists to come back to keep their jobs and feed their animals. The horse and camel riders deny that they were paid by anyone, though they said that they were told about the protests from a ruling party MP. Three hundred people were reported dead by the Human Rights Watch the following day, since 25 January. Wael Ghonim, Google executive and creator of the page We are all Khaled Said, was reported missing and the company asked the public to help find him.
6 February 2011: An interfaith service was held with Egyptian Christians and Muslims in Tahrir Square. Negotiations by Egyptian Vice President Omar Suleiman and opposition representatives began during continuing protests throughout the country. The Egyptian army assumed greater security responsibilities, maintaining order and guarding The Egyptian Museum of Antiquity. Suleiman offered reforms, while others in Mubarak's regime accused foreign nations (including the U.S.) of interfering in Egypt's affairs.
10 February 2011: Mubarak addressed the Egyptian people amid speculation of a military coup. Instead of resigning (which was widely expected), he said he would delegate some powers to Vice President Suleiman while remaining Egypt's head of state. Mubarak's statement was met with anger, frustration and disappointment, and in a number of cities there was an escalation in the number and intensity of demonstrations.
11 February 2011 ("Friday of Departure"): Large protests continued in many cities, as Egyptians refused to accept Mubarak's concessions. At 6:00 pm Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation, entrusting the Supreme Council of Egyptian Armed Forces with the leadership of the country.
Under the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces
13 February 2011: The Supreme Council dissolved Egypt's parliament and suspended the constitution in response to demands by demonstrators. The council declared that it would wield power for six months, or until elections could be held. Calls were made for the council to provide details and more-specific timetables and deadlines. Major protests subsided, but did not end. In a gesture to a new beginning, protesters cleaned up and renovated Tahrir Square (the epicenter of the demonstrations); however, many pledged to continue protesting until all demands had been met.
17 February: The army said that it would not field a candidate in the upcoming presidential elections. Four important figures in the former regime were arrested that day: former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former minister of housing Ahmed Maghrabi, former tourism minister H.E. Zuheir Garana and steel tycoon Ahmed Ezz.
5 March: Several State Security Intelligence (SSI) buildings across Egypt were raided by protesters, including the headquarters for the Alexandria Governorate and the national headquarters in Nasr City, Cairo. Protesters said that they raided the buildings to secure documents they believed prove crimes by the SSI against the people of Egypt during Mubarak's rule.
6 March: From the Nasr City headquarters, protesters acquired evidence of mass surveillance and vote-rigging, noting rooms full of videotapes, piles of shredded and burned documents and cells in which activists recounted their experiences of detention and torture.
19 March: The constitutional referendum passed with 77.27 percent of the vote.
22 March: Portions of the Interior Ministry building caught fire during police demonstrations outside.
23 March: The Egyptian Cabinet ordered a law criminalising protests and strikes which hamper work at private or public establishments. Under the new law, anyone organising such protests will be subject to imprisonment or a fine of EGP500,000 (about US$100,000).
1 April ("Save the Revolution Day"): About 4,000 demonstrators filled Tahrir Square for the largest protest in weeks, demanding that the ruling military council more quickly dismantle lingering aspects of the old regime; protestors also demanded trials for Hosni Mubarak, Gamal Mubarak, Ahmad Fathi Sorour, Safwat El-Sherif and Zakaria Azmi.
8 April ("Cleansing Friday"): Tens of thousands of demonstrators again filled Tahrir Square, criticizing the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces for not following through on their demands: the resignation of remaining regime figures and the removal of Egypt's public prosecutor, due to the slow pace of investigations of corrupt former officials.
27 May ("Second Friday of Anger", "Second Revolution of Anger" or "The Second Revolution"): Tens of thousands of demonstrators filled Tahrir Square, in addition to demonstrations in Alexandria, Suez, Ismailia and Gharbeya, in the largest demonstrations since the ouster of the Mubarak regime. Protestors demanded no military trials for civilians, restoration of the Egyptian Constitution before parliament elections and for all members of the old regime (and those who killed protestors in January and February) to stand trial.
1 July ("Friday of Retribution"): Thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and Tahrir Square to voice frustration with the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces for what they called the slow pace of change, five months after the revolution, some also feared that the military is to rule Egypt indefinitely.
8 July ("Friday of Determination"): Hundreds of thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and Tahrir Square, demanding immediate reform and swifter prosecution of former officials from the ousted government.
15 July: Tahrir Square protests continued.
23 July: Thousands of protesters attempted to march to the defense ministry after a speech by Mohammed Tantawi commemorating the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but are met with counter-insurgents with sticks, stones and Molotov cocktails.
1 August: Egyptian soldiers clashed with protesters, tearing down tents. Sixty-six people were arrested.
6 August: Hundreds of protesters gathered and prayed in Tahrir Square before they were attacked by soldiers.
9 September (2011 Israeli embassy attack; the "Friday of Correcting the Path"): Tens of thousands of people protested in Suez, Alexandria and Cairo; however, Islamist protesters were absent.
9 October (Maspero demonstrations): Late in the evening of 9 October, during a protest in the Maspiro television building, peaceful Egyptian protesters calling for the dissolution the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, the resignation of Chairman Field Marshal Mohamed Tantawi and the dismissal of the governor of Aswan province were attacked by military police. At least 25 people were killed, and more than 200 wounded.
20 November: Police attempted to forcibly clear the square, but protesters returned in more than double their original numbers. Fighting continued through the night, with police using tear gas, beating and shooting demonstrators.
21 November: Demonstrators returned to the square, with Coptic Christians standing guard as Muslims protesting the regime pause for prayers. The Health Ministry said that at least 23 died and over 1,500 were injured since 19 November. Solidarity protests were held in Alexandria and Suez. Dissident journalist Hossam el-Hamalawy told Al Jazeera that Egyptians would begin a general strike because they "had enough" of the SCAF.
28 November 2011 – 11 January 2012: Parliamentary elections
17 December 2011: The Institute d'Egypte caught fire during clashes between protesters and Egyptian military; thousands of rare documents burned.
23 January 2012: Democratically elected representatives of the People's Assembly met for the first time since Egypt's revolution, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces gave them legislative authority.
23–24 May: First round of voting in the first presidential election since Hosni Mubarak was deposed.
2 June: Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were sentenced to life in prison because of their failure to stop the killing during the first six days of the revolution. The former president, his two sons and a business tycoon were acquitted of corruption charges because the statute of limitations had expired. Six senior police officials were also acquitted for their role in the killing of demonstrators, due to lack of evidence.
8 June: Political factions tentatively agreed to a deal to form a new constitutional assembly, consisting of 100 members who will draft the new constitution.
12 June: When the Egyptian parliament met to vote for members of a constitutional assembly dozens of secular MPs walked out, accusing Islamist parties of trying to dominate the panel.
13 June: After Egypt's military government imposed de facto martial law (extending the arrest powers of security forces), the Justice Ministry issued a decree giving military officers authority to arrest civilians and try them in military courts. The provision remains in effect until a new constitution is introduced, and could mean those detained could remain in jail for that long according to state-run Egy News.
14 June: The Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that a law passed by Parliament in May, banning former regime figures from running for office, was unconstitutional; this ended a threat to Ahmed Shafik's candidacy for president during Egypt's 2012 presidential election. The court ruled that all articles making up the law regulating the 2011 parliamentary elections were invalid, upholding a lower-court ruling which found that candidates running on party slates were allowed to contest the one-third of parliamentary seats reserved for independents. The Egyptian parliament was dissolved, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces resumed legislative authority. The SCAF said that it would announce a 100-person assembly to write the country's new constitution.
16–17 June: Second round of voting in the Egyptian presidential election. The SCAF issued an interim constitution, giving itself the power to control the prime minister, legislation, the national budget and declarations of war without oversight, and chose a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution. Presidential powers include the power to choose his vice president and cabinet, to propose the state budget and laws and to issue pardons. The interim constitution removed the military and the defense minister from presidential authority and oversight. According to the interim constitution, a permanent constitution must be written within three months and be subject to a referendum 15 days later. When a permanent constitution is approved, a parliamentary election will be held within a month to replace the dissolved parliament.
18 June: The SCAF said that it picked a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution if a court strikes down the parliament-picked assembly, planning a celebration at the end of June to mark the transfer of power to the new president. Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi declared himself the winner of the presidential election.
19–24 June: Crowds gathered in Tahrir Square to protest the SCAF's dissolution of an elected, Islamist parliament and await the outcome of the presidential election.
24 June: Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi, the first Islamist elected head of an Arab state, is declared the winner of the presidential election by the Egyptian electoral commission.
26 June: The Supreme Administrative Court revoked Decree No. 4991/2012 from the Minister of Justice, which granted military intelligence and police the power to arrest civilians (a right previously reserved for civilian police officers).
27–28 June: After the first Constituent Assembly of Egypt was declared unconstitutional and dissolved in April by Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, the second constituent assembly met to establish a framework for drafting a post-Mubarak constitution.
30 June: Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically elected president before the Supreme Constitutional Court at the podium used by U.S. President Barack Obama to reach out to the Islamic world in 2009 in his A New Beginning speech.
Under President Mohamed Morsi
For a chronological summary of the major events which took place after the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution under President Mohamed Morsi, see Timeline of the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution (Post-revolution timeline).
November 2012 declaration
On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and attempting to protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution. The declaration required a retrial of those acquitted of killing protesters, and extended the constituent assembly's mandate by two months. The declaration also authorized Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamism, while the Muslim Brotherhood supported Morsi.
Morsi's declaration was criticized by Constitution Party leader Mohamed ElBaradei (who said that he had "usurped all state powers and appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh"), and led to violent protests throughout the country. Protesters again erected tents in Tahrir Square, demanding a reversal of the declaration and the dissolving of the constituent assembly. A "huge protest" was planned for Tuesday, 27 November, with clashes reported between protesters and police. The declaration was also condemned by Amnesty International UK.
In April 2013 a youth group was created opposing Morsi and attempting to collect 22 million signatures by 30 June 2013 (the first anniversary of his presidency) on a petition demanding early presidential elections. This triggered the June 2013 protests. Although protests were scheduled for 30 June, opponents began gathering on the 28th. Morsi supporters (primarily from Islamic parties) also protested that day. On 30 June the group organized large protests in Tahrir Square and the presidential palace demanding early presidential elections, which later spread to other governorates.
June—July 2013 protests and overthrow
On 30 June 2013, marking the first anniversary of Morsi's inauguration as president, millions of Egyptians protested against him, demanding he step down from office. Morsi refused to resign. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued to him, demanding that he respond to the demands of the Egyptians, and on 3 July 2013, the President of Egypt was overthrown. Unlike the imposition of martial law which followed the 2011 resignation of Hosni Mubarak, on 4 July 2013, a civilian senior jurist Adly Mansour was appointed interim president and was sworn in over the new government following Morsi's removal. Mansour had the right to issue constitutional declarations and vested executive power in the Supreme Constitutional Court, giving him executive, judicial and constitutional power. Morsi refused to accept his removal from office, and many supporters vowed to reinstate him. They originally intended their sit-ins to celebrate Morsi's first anniversary, but they quickly became opposed to the new authorities. Their sit-ins were dispersed on 14 August that year by security forces, leading to at least 904 civilian deaths and 8 police officers killed.
On 18 January 2014, the interim government institutionalised a new constitution following a referendum in which 98.2% of voters were supportive. Participation was low with only 38.6% of registered voters participating although this was higher than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure. On 26 March 2014 Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election. The poll, which had a 47% turnout, and was held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a resounding victory for el-Sisi. Sisi sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014.
Protests by city
Cairo has been at the centre of the revolution; the largest protests were held in downtown Tahrir Square, considered the "protest movement's beating heart and most effective symbol". During the first three days of the protests there were clashes between the central security police and demonstrators, but on 28 January the police withdrew from all of Cairo. Citizens formed neighbourhood-watch groups to maintain order, and widespread looting was reported. Traffic police were reintroduced to Cairo the morning of 31 January. An estimated two million people protested at Tahrir Square. During the protests, reporters Natasha Smith, Lara Logan and Mona Eltahawy were sexually assaulted while covering the events.
Alexandria, home of Khaled Saeed, experienced major protests and clashes with police. There were few confrontations between demonstrators, since there were few Mubarak supporters (except for a few police-escorted convoys). The breakdown of law and order, including the general absence of police from the streets, continued until the evening of 3 February. Alexandria's protests were notable for the joint presence of Christians and Muslims in the events following the church bombing on 1 January, which sparked protests against the Mubarak regime.
In the northern city of Mansoura, there were daily protests against the Mubarak regime beginning on 25 January; two days later, the city was called a "war zone". On 28 January, 13 were reported dead in violent clashes; on 9 February, 18 more protesters died. One protest, on 1 February, had an estimated attendance of one million. The remote city of Siwa had been relatively calm, but local sheikhs reportedly in control put the community under lockdown after a nearby town was burned.
Suez also saw violent protests. Eyewitness reports suggested that the death toll was high, although confirmation was difficult due to a ban on media coverage in the area. Some online activists called Suez Egypt's Sidi Bouzid (the Tunisian city where protests began). On 3 February, 4,000 protesters took to the streets to demand Mubarak's resignation. A labour strike took place on 8 February, and large protests were held on 11 February. The MENA news agency reported the death of two protestors and one police officers on 26 January.
There were protests in Luxor. On 11 February police opened fire on protesters in Dairut, tens of thousands of protesters took to the streets of Shebin el-Kom, thousands protested in El-Arish on the Sinai Peninsula, large protests took place in the southern cities of Sohag and Minya and nearly 100,000 people protested in and around local-government headquarters in Ismaïlia. Over 100,000 protesters gathered on 27 January in front of the city council in Zagazig. Bedouins in the Sinai Peninsula fought security forces for several weeks. As a result of the decreased military border presence, Bedouin groups protected the borders and pledged their support of the revolution. However, despite mounting tension among tourists no protests or civil unrest occurred in Sharm-El-Sheikh.
Before the protests six cases of self-immolation were reported, including a man arrested while trying to set himself afire in downtown Cairo. The cases were inspired by (and began one month after) the acts of self-immolation in Tunisia which triggered the Tunisian revolution. The self-immolators included Abdou Abdel-Moneim Jaafar, Mohammed Farouk Hassan, Mohammed Ashour Sorour and Ahmed Hashim al-Sayyed, who later died from his injuries.
As of 30 January, Al Jazeera reported as many as 150 deaths in the protests.
By 29 January, 2,000 people were confirmed injured. That day, an employee of the Azerbaijani embassy in Cairo was killed on their way home from work; the following day, Azerbaijan sent a plane to evacuate citizens and opened a criminal investigation into the killing.
Funerals for those killed during the "Friday of Anger" were held on 30 January. Hundreds of mourners gathered, calling for Mubarak's removal. By 1 February the protests left at least 125 people dead, although Human Rights Watch said that UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay claimed that as many as 300 might have died in the unrest. The unconfirmed tally included 80 Human-Rights-Watch-verified deaths at two Cairo hospitals, 36 in Alexandria and 13 in Suez; over 3,000 people were reported injured.
An Egyptian governmental fact-finding commission about the revolution announced on 19 April that at least 846 Egyptians died in the nearly three-week-long uprising. One prominent Egyptian who was killed was Emad Effat, a senior cleric at the Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah school of Al-Azhar University. He died 16 December 2011, after he was shot in front of the cabinet building. At Effat's funeral the following day, hundreds of mourners chanted "Down with military rule".
International response to the protests was initially mixed, although most governments called for peaceful action on both sides and a move towards reform. Most Western nations expressed concern about the situation, and many governments issued travel advisories and attempted to evacuate their citizens from Egypt.
The European Union Foreign Affairs Chief said, "I also reiterate my call upon the Egyptian authorities to urgently establish a constructive and peaceful way to respond to the legitimate aspirations of Egyptian citizens for democratic and socioeconomic reforms." The United States, the United Kingdom, France and Germany issued similar statements calling for reform and an end to violence against peaceful protesters. Many states in the region expressed concern and supported Mubarak; Saudi Arabia issued a statement "strongly condemn[ing]" the protests, while Tunisia and Iran supported them. Israel was cautious, with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asking his government ministers to maintain silence and urging Israel's allies to curb their criticism of President Mubarak; however, an Arab-Israeli parliamentarian supported the protests. Solidarity demonstrations for the protesters were held worldwide.
Non-governmental organizations expressed concern about the protests and the heavy-handed state response, with Amnesty International describing attempts to discourage the protests as "unacceptable". Many countries (including the U.S., Israel, the UK and Japan) issued travel warnings or began evacuating their citizens, and multinational corporations began evacuating expatriate employees. Many university students were also evacuated.
Many nations, leaders and organizations hailed the end of the Mubarak regime, and celebrations were held in Tunisia and Lebanon. World leaders, including German Chancellor Angela Merkel and UK Prime Minister David Cameron, joined in praising the revolution. U.S. President Barack Obama praised the achievement of the Egyptian people and encouraged other activists, saying "Let's look at Egypt's example". Amid growing concern for the country, David Cameron was the first world leader to visit Egypt (10 days after Mubarak's resignation). A news blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover, hastily added to the beginning of a planned tour of the Middle East. On 15 March, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Egypt; she was the highest-ranking U.S. official to visit the country since the handover of power from Mubarak to the military. Clinton urged military leaders to begin the process of a democratic transition, offering support to protesters and reaffirming ties between the two nations.
On 29 January Mubarak indicated that he would change the government because, despite the crossing of a "point of no return", national stability and law and order must prevail. He asked the government, formed only months ago, to step down and promised that a new government would be formed. Mubarak appointed Omar Suleiman, head of Egyptian Intelligence, vice president and Ahmed Shafik prime minister. On 1 February, he said he would stay in office until the next election in September, and then leave. Mubarak promised political reform, but made no offer to resign.
The Muslim Brotherhood joined the revolution on 30 January, calling on the military to intervene and all opposition groups to unite against Mubarak. It joined other opposition groups in electing Mohamed el Baradei to lead an interim government.
Many of the Al-Azhar imams joined protesters throughout the country on 30 January. Christian leaders asked their congregations not to participate in the demonstrations, although a number of young Christian activists joined protests led by New Wafd Party member Raymond Lakah.
On 31 January, Mubarak swore in his new cabinet in the hope that the unrest would fade. Protesters in Tahrir Square continued demanding his ouster, since a vice-president and prime minister were already appointed. He told the new government to preserve subsidies, control inflation and provide more jobs.
On 1 February Mubarak said that although his candidacy had been announced by high-ranking members of his National Democratic Party, he never intended to run for reelection in September. He asked parliament for reforms:
According to my constitutional powers, I call on parliament in both its houses to discuss amending article 76 and 77 of the constitution concerning the conditions on running for presidency of the republic and it sets specific a period for the presidential term. In order for the current parliament in both houses to be able to discuss these constitutional amendments and the legislative amendments linked to it for laws that complement the constitution and to ensure the participation of all the political forces in these discussions, I demand parliament to adhere to the word of the judiciary and its verdicts concerning the latest cases which have been legally challenged.— Hosni Mubarak, 1 February 2011
Opposition groups, including the Muslim Brotherhood (MB), repeated their demand that Mubarak resign; after the protests turned violent, the MB said that it was time for military intervention. Mohamed ElBaradei, who said he was ready to lead a transitional government, was a consensus candidate from a unified opposition, which included the 6 April Youth Movement, the We Are All Khaled Said Movement, the National Association for Change, the 25 January Movement, Kefaya and the Muslim Brotherhood. ElBaradei formed a "steering committee". On 5 February, talks began between the government and opposition groups for a transitional period before elections.
The government cracked down on the media, halting internet access (a primary means of opposition communication) with the help of London-based Vodafone. Journalists were harassed by supporters of the regime, eliciting condemnation from the Committee to Protect Journalists, European countries and the United States. Narus, a subsidiary of Boeing, sold the Mubarak government surveillance equipment to help identify dissidents.
The revolution's primary demands, chanted at every protest, were bread (jobs), freedom, social justice and human dignity. The fulfillment of these demands has been uneven and debatable. Demands stemming from the main four include the following:
|1. Resignation of President Mubarak||Met||11 February 2011|
|2. New minimum and maximum wages||Met||The basic minimum wage rose from EGP 246 to EGP 870 on 22 March 2015|
|3. Canceling emergency law||Met||31 May 2012|
|4. Dismantling the State Security Investigations Service||Claimed met; reneged in 2013||31 May 2012|
|5. Announcement by vice-president Omar Suleiman that he would not run for president|| Claimed met;
reneged in April 2012
|3 February 2011|
|6. Dissolving Parliament||Met||13 February 2011|
|7. Release of those imprisoned since 25 January||Ongoing; More have been arrested and faced military trials under the SCAF|
|8. Ending the curfew||Met||15 June 2011|
|9. Removing the SSI-controlled university police||Claimed met||3 March 2011|
|10. Investigation of officials responsible for violence against protesters||Ongoing|
|11. Firing Minister of Information Anas el-Fiqqi and halting media propaganda||Not met; minister fired, ministry still exists and propaganda ongoing|
|12. Reimbursing shop owners for losses during the curfew||Announced; Not met||7 February 2011|
|13. Announcing demands on government television and radio||Claimed met||11–18 February 2011|
|14. Dissolving the NDP||Met||16 April 2011|
|15. Arrest, interrogation and trial of Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and Alaa||Met||24 May 2011|
|16. Transfer of power from SCAF to civilian council||Met||30 June 2012|
|17. Removal of Mohamed Morsi in a military coup, after protests in Tahrir Square and throughout Egypt||Met||3 July 2013|
On 17 February, an Egyptian prosecutor ordered the detention of three former ministers (interior minister Habib el-Adli, tourism minister Zuhair Garana and housing minister Ahmed el-Maghrabi) and steel magnate Ahmed Ezz pending trial for wasting public funds. The public prosecutor froze the bank accounts of Adli and his family following accusations that over 4 million Egyptian pounds ($680,000) were transferred to his personal account by a businessman. The foreign minister was requested to contact European countries to freeze the other defendants' accounts.
That day, the United States announced that it would give Egypt $150 million in aid to help it transition towards democracy. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said that William Burns (undersecretary of state for political affairs) and David Lipton (a senior White House adviser on international economics) would travel to Egypt the following week.
On 19 February a moderate Islamic party which had been banned for 15 years, Al-Wasat Al-Jadid (Arabic: حزب الوسط الجديد, New Center Party), was finally recognised by an Egyptian court. The party was founded in 1996 by activists who split from the Muslim Brotherhood and sought to create a tolerant, liberal Islamic movement, but its four attempts to register as an official party were rejected. That day, Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq also said that 222 political prisoners would be released. Shafiq said that only a few were detained during the uprising; he put the number of remaining political prisoners at 487, but did not say when they would be released. On 20 February Yehia El Gamal [ar], an activist and law professor, accepted on television the position of deputy prime minister. The next day, the Muslim Brotherhood announced that it would form a political party, the Freedom and Justice Party led by Saad Ketatni, for the upcoming parliamentary election. A spokesperson said, "When we talk about the slogans of the revolution – freedom, social justice, equality – all of these are in the Sharia (Islamic law)."
On 3 March, Prime Minister Shafiq submitted his resignation to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The SCAF appointed Essam Sharaf, a former transportation minister and a vocal critic of the regime following his resignation after the 2006 Qalyoub rail accident, to replace Shafik and form a new government. Sharaf's appointment was seen as a concession to protesters, since he was actively involved in the events in Tahrir Square. Sharaf appointed former International Court of Justice judge Nabil Elaraby foreign minister and Mansour El Essawi as interior minister.
On 16 April the Higher Administrative Court dissolved the former ruling National Democratic Party (NDP), ordering its funds and property to be transferred to the government. On 24 May it was announced that Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and Alaa, would be for over the deaths of anti-government protesters during the revolution.
Mubarak's resignation was followed by a series of arrests of, and travel bans on, high-profile figures on charges of causing the deaths of 300–500 demonstrators, injuring 5,000 more, embezzlement, profiteering, money laundering and human rights abuses. Among those charged were Mubarak, his wife Suzanne, his sons Gamal and Alaa, former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former housing minister Ahmed El-Maghrabi, former tourism minister Zoheir Garana and former secretary for organizational affairs of the National Democratic Party Ahmed Ezz. Mubarak's ouster was followed by allegations of corruption against other government officials and senior politicians. On 28 February 2011, Egypt's top prosecutor ordered an assets freeze on Mubarak and his family. This was followed by arrest warrants, travel bans and asset freezes for other public figures, including former parliament speaker Fathi Sorour and former Shura Council speaker Safwat El Sherif. Arrest warrants were issued for financial misappropriations by public figures who left the country at the outbreak of the revolution, including former trade and industry minister Rachid Mohamed Rachid and businessman Hussein Salem; Salem was believed to have fled to Dubai. Trials of the accused officials began on 5 March 2011, when former interior minister Habib el-Adli appeared at the Giza Criminal Court in Cairo.
In March 2011 Abbud al-Zumar, one of Egypt's best-known political prisoners, was freed after 30 years. Founder and first emir of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, he was implicated on 6 October 1981 assassination of Anwar Sadat.
On 24 May, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during the revolution; if convicted, he could face the death penalty. The list of charges, released by the public prosecutor, was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence and deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".
The Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions sparked a wave of uprisings, with demonstrations spreading across the Middle East and North Africa. Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Yemen and Syria witnessed major protests, and minor demonstrations occurred in Iraq, Kuwait, Mauritania, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Sudan.
The Egyptian protests in Egypt were not centred around religion-based politics, but nationalism and social consciousness. Before the uprising, the best-organised and most-prominent opposition movements in the Arab world usually came from Islamist organisations with members who were motivated and ready to sacrifice. However, secular forces emerged from the revolution espousing principles shared with religious groups: freedom, social justice and dignity. Islamist organisations emerged with a greater freedom to operate. Although the cooperative, inter-faith revolution was no guarantee that partisan politics would not re-emerge in its wake, its success represented a change from the intellectual stagnation (created by decades of repression) which pitted modernity and Islamism against one another. Islamists and secularists are faced with new opportunities for dialogue on subjects such as the role of Islam and Sharia in society, freedom of speech and the impact of secularism on a predominantly Muslim population.
Despite the optimism surrounding the revolution, commentators expressed concern about the risk of increased power and influence for Islamist forces in the country and region and the difficulty of integrating different groups, ideologies and visions for the country. Journalist Caroline Glick wrote that the Egyptian revolution foreshadowed a rise in religious radicalism and support for terrorism, citing a 2010 Pew Opinion poll which found that Egyptians supported Islamists over modernizers by an over two-to-one margin. Another journalist, Shlomo Ben-Ami, said that Egypt's most formidable task was to refute the old paradigm of the Arab world which sees the only choices for regimes repressive, secular dictatorships or repressive theocracies. Ben-Ami noted that with Islam a central part of the society, any emergent regime was bound to be attuned to religion. In his view, a democracy which excluded all religion from public life (as in France) could succeed in Egypt but no genuine Arab democracy could disallow the participation of political Islam.
Since the revolution Islamist parties (such as the Muslim Brotherhood) have strengthened in the democratic landscape, leading constitutional change, voter mobilization and protests. This was a concern of the secular and youth movements, who wanted elections to be held later so they could catch up to the already-well-organized groups. Elections were held in September 2011, with Liberty and Justice (the Muslim Brotherhood party) winning 48.5 percent of the vote. In 2014 in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that Upper Egypt wanted to secede from the rest of the country to improve its standard of living.
Alexandria church bombing
Early on New Year's Day 2011 a bomb exploded in front of an Alexandria church, killing 23 Coptic Christians. Egyptian officials said that "foreign elements" were behind the attack. Other sources claim that the bomb killed 21 people only and injured more than 70. Some Copts accused the Egyptian government of negligence; after the attack, many Christians protested in the streets (with Muslims joining later). After clashing with police, protesters in Alexandria and Cairo shouted slogans denouncing Mubarak's rule in support of unity between Christians and Muslims. Their sense of being let down by national security forces was cited as one of the first grievances sparking 25 January uprising. On 7 February a complaint was filed against Habib al-Adly (interior minister until Mubarak dissolved the government during the protests' early days), accusing him of directing the attack.
Role of women
Egyptian women have been participating actively in the revolution, in the same way that they played an active role in the strike movement in the few last years, in several cases pressurizing the men to join the strikes. In earlier protests in Egypt, women only accounted for about 10 per cent of the protesters, but on Tahrir Square they accounted for about 40 to 50 per cent in the days leading up to the fall of Mubarak. Women, with and without veils, participated in the defence of the square, set up barricades, led debates, shouted slogans and, together with the men, risked their lives. Some participated in the protests, were present in news clips and on Facebook forums and were part of the revolution's leadership during the Egyptian revolution. In Tahrir Square, female protesters (some with children) supported the protests. The diversity of the protesters in Tahrir Square was visible in the women who participated; many wore head scarves and other signs of religious conservatism, while others felt free to kiss a friend or smoke a cigarette in public. Women organised protests and reported events; female bloggers, such as Leil Zahra Mortada, risked abuse or imprisonment by keeping the world informed of events in Tahrir Square and elsewhere. Among those who died was Sally Zahran, who was beaten to death during one of the demonstrations. NASA reportedly planned to name one of its Mars exploration spacecraft in Zahran's honour.
The participation and contributions by Egyptian women to the protests were attributed to the fact that many (especially younger women) were better educated than previous generations and represent more than half of Egyptian university students. This is an empowering factor for women, who have become more present and active publicly. The advent of social media also provided a tool for women to become protest leaders.
Role of the military
The Egyptian Armed Forces initially enjoyed a better public reputation than the police did; the former was seen as a professional body protecting the country, and the latter was accused of systemic corruption and lawless violence. However, when the SCAF cracked down on protesters after becoming the de facto ruler of Egypt the military's popularity decreased. All four Egyptian presidents since the 1950s have a military background. Key Egyptian military personnel include defense minister Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and armed forces chief of staff Sami Hafez Enan. The Egyptian military numbers about 468,500 active personnel, plus a reserve of 479,000.
As head of Egypt's armed forces, Tantawi has been described as "aged and change-resistant" and is attached to the old regime. He has used his position as defense minister to oppose economic and political reform he saw as weakening central authority. Other key figures (Sami Hafez Anan chief among them) are younger, with closer connections to the U.S. and the Muslim Brotherhood. An important aspect of the relationship between the Egyptian and American military establishments is the $1.3 billion in annual military aid provided to Egypt, which pays for American-made military equipment and allows Egyptian officers to train in the U.S. Guaranteed this aid package, the ruling SCAF is resistant to reform. One analyst, conceding the military's conservatism, says it has no option but to facilitate democratisation. It will have to limit its political role to continue good relations with the West, and cannot restrict Islamist participation in a genuine democracy.
The military has led a violent crackdown on the Egyptian revolution since the fall of Mubarak. On 9 March 2011 military police violently dispersed a sit-in in Tahrir Square, arresting and torturing protesters. Seven female protesters were forcibly subjected to virginity tests. During the night of 8 April 2011 military police attacked a sit-in in Tahrir Square by protesters and sympathetic military officers, killing at least one. On 9 October the Egyptian military crushed protesters under armed personnel carriers and shot live ammunition at a demonstration in front of the Maspero television building, killing at least 24. On 19 November the military and police engaged in a continuous six-day battle with protestors in the streets of downtown Cairo and Alexandria, killing nearly 40 and injuring over 2,000. On 16 December 2011 military forces dispersed a sit-in at the Cabinet of Ministers building, killing 17. Soldiers fired live ammunition and attacked from the rooftop with Molotov cocktails, rocks and other missiles.
Impact on foreign relations
Foreign governments in the West (including the U.S.) regarded Mubarak as an important ally and supporter in the Israeli–Palestinian peace negotiations. After wars with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, Egypt signed a peace treaty in 1979 (provoking controversy in the Arab world). According to the 1978 Camp David Accords (which led to the peace treaty), Israel and Egypt receive billions of dollars in aid annually from the United States; Egypt received over US$1.3 billion in military aid each year, in addition to economic and development assistance. According to Juan Cole many Egyptian youth felt ignored by Mubarak, feeling that he put the interests of the West ahead of theirs. The cooperation of the Egyptian regime in enforcing the blockade of the Gaza Strip was deeply unpopular with the Egyptian public.
The 6 April Youth Movement (Arabic: حركة شباب 6 أبريل) is an Egyptian Facebook group begun in spring 2008 to support workers in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, an industrial town, who were planning to strike on 6 April. Activists called on participants to wear black and stay home the day of the strike. Bloggers and citizen journalists used Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, blogs and other media tools to report on the strike, alert their networks about police activity, organize legal protection and draw attention to their efforts. The New York Times has called it the political Facebook group in Egypt with the most dynamic debates. In March 2012 it had 325,000 predominantly young and members, most previously inactive politically, whose concerns included free speech, nepotism in government and the country's stagnant economy. Their Facebook forum features intense and heated discussions, and is frequently updated.
We are all Khaled Said is a Facebook group which formed in the aftermath of Said's beating and death. The group attracted hundreds of thousands of members worldwide, playing a prominent role in spreading (and drawing attention to) the growing discontent. As the protests began, Google executive Wael Ghonim revealed that he was behind the account. He was later detained for a few days until the government was able to get a hold of certain information that they needed. Many questions were left around that subject, no one really understood what had actually happened or what has had been said. In a TV interview with SCAF members after the revolution, Abdul Rahman Mansour (an underground activist and media expert) was disclosed as sharing the account with Ghonim. Another online contribution was made by Asmaa Mahfouz, an activist who posted a video challenging people to publicly protest. Facebook had previously suspended the group because some administrators were using pseudonyms, a violation of the company's terms of service.
Social media has been used extensively. As one Egyptian activist tweeted during the protests, "We use Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world." Internet censorship has also been extensive, in some cases to the extent of taking entire nations virtually offline.
Facebook, Twitter and blogging helped spread the uprising. Egyptian businessman Khaled Said was beaten to death by police in June 2010, reportedly in retaliation for a video he posted showing Egyptian police sharing the spoils of a drug bust. Wael Ghonim's memorial Facebook page to Said grew to over 400,000 followers, creating an online arena where protestors and those discontented with the government could gather and organise. The page called for protests on 25 January, later known as the "Day of Wrath". Hundreds of thousands of protestors flooded the streets to show their discontent with murder and corruption in their country. Ghonim was jailed on 28 January, and released 12 days later.
Egyptian activist and 6 April Youth Movement member Asmaa Mahfouz posted a video urging the Egyptian people to meet her at Tahrir Square, rise up against the government and demand democracy. In the video, she spoke about four protesters who had immolated themselves in protest of 30 years of poverty and degradation. On 24 January Mahfouz posted another video relating efforts made in support of the protest, from printing posters to creating flyers. The videos were posted on Facebook and then YouTube. The day after her last video post, hundreds of thousands of Egyptians poured into the streets in protest.
Since 25 January 2011, videos (including those of a badly beaten Khaled Said, disproving police claims that he had choked to death), tweets and Facebook comments have kept the world abreast of the situation in Egypt. Amir Ali documents the ways in which social media was used by Egyptian activists, Egyptian celebrities and political figures abroad to fan the protests.
Democracy Now! journalist Sharif Abdel Kouddous provided live coverage and tweets from Tahrir Square during the protests, and was credited with using social media to increase awareness of the protests. The role of social media in the Egyptian uprising was debated in the first edition of the Dubai Debates: "Mark Zuckerberg – the new hero of the Arab people?" Amir Ali has argued that, based in part on the Egyptian revolution, social media may be an effective tool in developing nations.
Critics who downplay the influence of social networking on the Arab Spring cite several points:
- Fewer than 20 percent of Egyptians had internet access, and the internet reached less than 40 percent of the country
- Social-networking sites were generally unpopular in the Middle East,
- Such sites were not sufficiently private to evade authorities
- Many people did not trust social networking as a news source
- Social-networking sites were promoted by the media
- Social-networking sites did not involve non-activists in the revolution
Some protesters discouraged the use of social media. A widely circulated pamphlet by an anonymous activist group titled "How to Protest Intelligently" (Arabic: كيف للاحتجاج بذكاء؟), asked readers "not to use Twitter or Facebook or other websites because they are all being monitored by the Ministry of the Interior".
Television, particularly live coverage by Al Jazeera English and BBC News, was important to the revolution; the cameras provided exposure, preventing mass violence by the government in Tahir Square (in contrast to the lack of live coverage and more-widespread violence in Libya). Its use was important in order to portray the violence of the Egyptian government, as well as, building support for the revolution through several different mediums. On one front was social media giving minute by minute updates via YouTube, Facebook and Twitter, and in the other hand was the use of the mainstream media to report to a wider audience about the overall developments occurring in Egypt. The ability of protesters to focus their demonstrations on a single area (with live coverage) was fundamental in Egypt but impossible in Libya, Bahrain and Syria, irrespective of social-media use. A social-media expert launched a network of messages with the hashtag #jan25 on 11 February 2011, when Mubarak's resignation was announced.
Social media helped secure solidarity for the revolutionaries from people outside of Egypt. This is evident through movements like the "March of Millions", "Voice of Egypt Abroad", "Egyptians Abroad in Support of Egypt" and "New United Arab States", who had their inception during the revolution inside the realms of Twitter and Facebook.
Journalism scholar Heather Ford studied the use of infoboxes and cleanup templates in the Wikipedia article regarding the revolution. Ford claims that infoboxes and cleanup tags were used as objects of "bespoken-code" by Wikipedia editors. By using these elements, editors shaped the news narrative in the first 18 days of the revolution. Ford used the discussion page and the history of edits to the page. She shows how political cartoons were removed, and how the number of casualties became a source of heated debate. Her research exemplifies how editors coordinated and prioritized work on the article, but also how political events are represented through collaborative journalism.
Role of media disruption on 28 January 2011
During the early morning hours of 28 January the Mubarak regime shut down internet and cell phone networks in the whole country. This media shutdown was likely one of the reasons why the numbers of protestors exploded on 28 January.
While the regime disrupted the media, people needed to engage in face-to-face communication on a local level, which the regime could not monitor or control. In such a situation it is more likely that radicals will influence their neighbors, who are not able to see the public opinion displayed in social media, therefore these people are then more likely to also engage in civil unrest.
This vicious circle can be explained through a threshold model of collective behavior, which states that people are more likely to engage in risky actions if other people inside their networks (neighbors, friends, etc.) have taken action. Radicals have a small threshold and are more likely to form new networks during an information blackout, influencing the people.
Disrupting the media and communication had 2 main results: it increased the local mobilization of people and empowered radicals who influenced their surroundings, which resulted in an increase in protests.
During 28 January the increased local mobilization pushed a large amount of apolitical Egyptians into action, either to look after their friends and family in the absence of mobile communication or to complain about the shutdown, resulting in large protests not only in Cairo. Meanwhile, the Mubarak regime was unable to communicate a possible threat to the protestors via social media and was therefore unable to dissuade the crowds through this mean, which spread the protests further.
The 25 January Revolution and the fall of Hosni Mubarak the following month ushered in a new artistic era reflecting a changed social and political environment; "the revolution triggered a new public culture". Since its beginning, artists played a significant role in the protests; street art and music (electro or techno sha'bi) were used to craft a public culture. Artists documented and captured the essence of the revolution, distributing their art through online and face-to-face social networks.
- Lebanese Civil War
- Syrian Civil War
- Democracy in the Middle East
- Muslim Brotherhood in post-Mubarak electoral politics of Egypt
- Mohamed Mahmoud graffiti
- Freedom in the World
- List of freedom indices
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
- List of modern conflicts in North Africa
- 2007–08 world food price crisis
- Asmaa Mahfouz – political activist
- Ahmed Seada – political activist
- 2019 Egyptian protests
- 2016-2017 Egyptian protests
- "Egypt braces for nationwide protests". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 25 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- "Egypt activists plan biggest protest yet on Friday". Al Arabiya. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- "Egypt protests a ticking time bomb: Analysts". The New Age. South Africa. Agence France-Presse. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- Korotayev, A.; Zinkina, J. (2011). "Egyptian Revolution: A Demographic Structural Analysis". Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar. 13: 139–169.
- "Egypt's prime minister quits, new govt soon-army". Forexyard.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- Egypt's Mubarak Steps Down; Military Takes Over, The Wall Street Journal, 11 February 2011.
- "Egypt's military moves to dissolve parliament, suspend constitution". Haaretz. Reuters. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
- "Egyptian state security disbanded". 15 March 2011. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
- Egypt dissolves former ruling party http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011416125051889315.html
- "How the mighty have fallen". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- Kirkpatrick, David D.; Stack, Liam (13 March 2011). "Prosecutors Order Mubarak and Sons Held". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- "Mubarak to be tried for murder of protesters". Reuters. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
- "Egypt's state of emergency ends after 31 years". The Daily Telegraph. London. 31 May 2012.
- "Mohammed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president". CBS News. 30 June 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- "Estimated 2 Million People Protest in _ Around Tahrir Square in Cairo Egypt.mp4 | Current News World Web Source for News and Information". Cnewsworld.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- "846 killed in Egypt uprising". 20 April 2011. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- "924 killed in Egyptian Revolution". 31 December 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- "Activists on Facebook: the military killed 99 and wounded 2702 in 10 months". Tahrirnews.com. 30 December 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- "Egypt's revolution death toll rises to 384". Al Masry Al Youm. 22 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
- Faisal Al Yafai (12 November 2012). "Egypt's army fails to grasp the post-Mubarak realities – The National". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Egyptian-American leaders call for U.S. support of 'Lotus Revolution' – CNN.com. Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
- "شيحة: مكاتب الصحة وثقت سقوط 840 شهيداً خلال ثورة 25 يناير". Almasry-alyoum.com. 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
- "Egypt: Cairo's Tahrir Square fills with protesters". BBC. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- "Was the Egyptian revolution really non-violent?". Egypt Independent. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- "Q&A: What's Behind the Unrest?". SBS. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- "Trade unions: the revolutionary social network at play in Egypt and Tunisia". Defenddemocracy.org. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- Siddique, Haroon; Owen, Paul; Gabbatt, Adam (25 January 2011). "Protests in Egypt and unrest in Middle East – as it happened". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 26 January 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
- Fleishman, Jeffrey and Edmund Sanders (Los Angeles Times) (29 January 2011). "Unease in Egypt as police replaced by army, neighbors band against looters". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Looting spreads in Egyptian cities". Al Jazeera. 29 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- Hauslohner, Abigail (29 January 2011). "The Army's OK with the Protesters, for now". Time. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Mubarak plays last card, the army; Police vanish". World Tribune (online). 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- Stirewalt, Chris (31 January 2011). "Egypt: From Police State to Military Rule". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Hosni Mubarak resigns as president". Al Jazeera. 11 February 2011.
- el-Malawani, Hania (13 February 2011). "Egypt's military dismantles Mubarak regime". The Sydney Morning Herald.
- "Muslim Brotherhood's Mohamed Morsi declared president of Egypt". The Guardian. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- Kirkpatrick, David D.; Sheikh, Mayy El (22 November 2012). "President Morsi in Egypt Seizes New Powers". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
- Taylor, Alan. "Millions March in Egyptian Protests". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
- "Morsi ousted, under house arrest, as crowds celebrate in Cairo". NBC News. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- "The Simplest Explanation of Egypt's Revolution You'll Ever Read". TakePart. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
- "Sisi elected Egypt president by landslide". Al Jazeera. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- "Egypt: The Bread and Freedom Revolution |A Global Revolution". Aglobalrevolution.wordpress.com. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- "The 25 January Revolution (Special issue)". Al-Ahram Weekly. 10–16 February 2011. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- "Egyptian-American leaders call for U.S. support of 'Lotus Revolution'". CNN. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- "Business News » Investors See White Revolution in Egypt". 3 News NZ. 13 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- Slackman, Michael (8 March 2010). "Hosni Mubarak". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- "History's crossroads". The Indian Express. India. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
- "Egypt: A Nation in Waiting". 12 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- Aziz, Muhammad Abdul and Hussein, Youssef (2002) "The President, the Son, and the Military: Succession in Egypt" Arab Studies Journal 9/10: pp. 73–88
- Bee, Jason (2008) "The Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak" Archived 4 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Arab Studies Journal pp. 36–56
- Sobelman, Daniel (2001) "Gamal Mubarak, President of Egypt?" Middle East Quarterly 8(2): pp. 31–40
- Al-A'sar, Marwa (3 October 2006). "Egyptians abroad speak out against inheritance of power". Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- Gamal Essam El-Din (15 April 2011). "How Gamal brought down the whole Mubarak house". Middle East Online. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- Michael Slackman; Mona el-Naggar (20 September 2006). "Mubarak's Son Proposes Nuclear Program". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- BBC (3 February 2011). "Egypt unrest: Anti-Mubarak protesters fight back". British Broadcasting Company.
- "Law 1958/162 (Emergency Law)". Edinburgh Middle East Report. Retrieved 2 April 2010.(registration required)
- Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights (28 May 2008). "Egypt and The Impact of 27 years of Emergency on Human Rights". Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- Shehata, Samer (26 March 2004). "Egypt After 9/11: Perceptions of the United States". Contemporary Conflicts. Archived from the original on 15 July 2006. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- Caraley, Demetrios (April 2004). American Hegemony: Preventive War, Iraq, and Imposing Democracy. Academy of Political Science. ISBN 1-884853-04-8.
- Choney, Suzanne (27 January 2011). "Egyptian bloggers brave police intimidation". NBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Mayer, Jane (30 October 2006). "The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Shenker, Jack (22 November 2010). "Egyptian Elections: Independents Fight for Hearts and Minds in 'Fixed Ballot'". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- "Egypt: Keep Promise to Free Detainees by End of June: Joint Statement" (Press release). Amnesty International. 29 June 2010. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- Holder, R. Clemente (July–August 1994). "Egyptian Lawyer's Death Triggers Cairo Protests". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- Harding, Luke (28 January 2011). "US reported 'routine' police brutality in Egypt, WikiLeaks cables show". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- U.S. Embassy in Cairo (28 January 2011). "US embassy cables: Police brutality in Egypt". The Guardian. London.
- U.S. Department of State. "2009 Human Rights Report: Egypt". Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
- Kirkpatrick, David; Fahim, Kareem (3 February 2011). "Gunfire Rings Out as Protesters Clash". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- "Egyptian Police Sued for Boy's Death". BBC News. 13 August 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- "Arab countries' secret police forces have a reputation for torture and arbitrary arrests". D+C 2011/03 – International Journal. March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "EGYPT: Police brutality focuses minds". Gulf Daily News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- Khalil, Ashraf (25 June 2010). "Anger in Alexandria: 'We're Afraid of Our Own Government'". Egypt Independent. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011.
- "Two Witnesses Affirm Alexandria Victim Beaten by Police". Almasry Alyoum. 19 June 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
- Levinson, Charles (2 February 2011). "How Cairo, U.S. Were Blindsided by Revolution". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "ElBaradei Leads Anti-Torture Rally". Al Jazeera. 26 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
- Shenker, Jack (27 January 2011). "Bloody and Bruised: The Journalist Caught in Egypt Unrest". The Guardian. London.
- BBC (24 December 2005). "Profile: Ayman Nour". British Broadcasting Company.
- "Profile of Ayman Nour". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 9 September 2009. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011.
- U.S. Department of State, Embassy of Egypt (28 January 2011). "Subject: Struggling to Address Police Brutality". The Guardian. London.
- Democracy Reporting International and Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (2007). "Final Report: Assessment of the Electoral Framework in the Arab Republic of Egypt" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- Sharp, Jeremy (2009). "Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations" (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
- The British Oxford Economic Atlas of the World, 4th edition. ISBN 0-19-894107-2
- "Central Agency for Population Mobilisation and Statistics — Population Clock (July 2008)". Msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg. Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Korotayev, A.; Zinkina, J. (2011). "Egyptian Revolution: A Demographic Structural Analysis". Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar. 13: 139–169.
- "The long-term economic challenges Egypt must overcome". Marketplace. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Egypt Economy 2011". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- Rutherford, Bruce (November 2008). Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the Arab World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13665-3.
- The Report: Egypt 2007. Oxford Business Group. January 2007. ISBN 978-1-902339-57-3.
- Elaasar, Aladdin (28 January 2011). "Egyptians Rise Against Their Pharoah". The Huffington Post. USA. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- "Egypt's Mubarak Likely to Retain Vast Wealth". ABC News. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- "Obama optimistic about Egypt as negotiators make concessions". AHN. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- "How did Egypt become so corrupt? – Inside Story". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- "CPI 2010 table". Transparency International. Archived from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- Kirkpatrick, David D.; David E. Sanger (13 February 2011). "A Tunisian-Egyptian link that shook Arab history". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
- "Gene Sharp: Author of the nonviolent revolution rulebook". BBC News. 21 February 2011.
- Remondini, Chiara (16 January 2011). "Prodi Says Egypt to Be Monitored After Tunisia, Messaggero Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- "Tunisia's revolution should be a wake-up call to Mideast autocrats". The Washington Post. 15 January 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- Hauslohner, Abigail (20 January 2011). "After Tunisia: Why Egypt Isn't Ready to Have Its Own Revolution". Time. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- Leyne, Jon (17 January 2011). "No sign Egypt will take the Tunisian road". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- Zayed, Dina (16 January 2011). "Egyptians set themselves ablaze after Tunisia unrest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- Staff, By the CNN Wire. "2 in Egypt torch themselves; 1 dead". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- Staff, By the CNN Wire. "2 in Egypt torch themselves; 1 dead". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- "Muslim Brotherhood To Participate in 25 January Protest". Almasry Alyoum. 23 January 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- Afify, Heba (24 January 2011). "Activists Hope 25 January Protest Will Be Start of 'Something Big'". Almasry Alyoum. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- "بوابة الوفد الالكترونية". Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- Mekay, Emad (11 February 2011). "Arab Women Lead the Charge". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- Unveiling the Revolutionaries: Cyberactivism and the Role of Women in the Arab Uprisings (Report). 17 May 2012. SSRN 2252556.
- "Women Play Vital Role in Egypt's Uprising". Tell Me More. NPR. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- Asmaa Mahfouz & the YouTube Video that Helped Spark the Egyptian Uprising Democracy Now!, 8 February 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- . The New York Times.
- Jardin, Xeni (2 February 2011). "Egypt: The Viral Vlog of Asmaa Mahfouz That Helped Spark an Uprising". Boing Boing. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- Staff writer (5 February 2011). "Asmaaa Mahfouz, a Woman Behind Egypt's Pro-Democracy Revolution". The Canadian Charger. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- El-Hewie, Mohamed F. (2011). Chain Reaction: Egypt's Revolt 2011 Illustrated. Shaymaa. pp. 1–120. ISBN 978-1461093954.
- El-Hewie, Mohamed F. (2013). A Matter of Faith: The Islamic Spring. Shaymaa. p. 162. ISBN 978-1481997683.
- Singel, Ryan (28 January 2011). "Egypt Shut Down Its Net With a Series of Phone Calls". Wired. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
- Van Beijnum, Iljitsch (30 January 2011). "How Egypt did (and your government could) shut down the Internet". Ars Technica. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
- Ehud Yaari (30 January 2011). "צפו: סיור וירטואלי במוקדי המהפכה" [Watch: Virtual Tour revolution centers] (in Hebrew). Israeli News Company. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
- "Violence Erupts in Cairo; Army Mostly Stands By". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- Witzel, Annika. This is what they tell US: The US Printing Press on the 2011 Revolution in Egypt.
- "Egypt protests: camel and horse riders who invaded Tahrir Square say they are 'good men'". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- Guynn, Jessica (2 February 2011). "Google's Wael Ghonim is missing in Egypt; company asks public for help finding him". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- "Egypt army says won't field presidential candidate". Reuters.
- "Egypt after Mubarak: Three ex-ministers arrested". BBC. 15 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- "Egypt sets constitutional referendum date". Financial Times. 1 March 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "Egypt's prime minister quits, new govt soon-army". Reuters. 3 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "Egypt security building stormed". Al Jazeera. 5 March 2011. Archived from the original on 6 March 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- Leithead, Alastair (8 March 2011). "Egyptians demand secret police give up torture secrets". BBC News. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- Carlstrom, Gregg (6 March 2011). "A first step towards prosecutions?". Al Jazeera.
- الأرقام الفعلية للتصويت (in Arabic). اللجنة القضائية العليا للإشراف علي استفتاء تعديل الدستور المصري. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2011.
- "Fire sweeps Egypt's Interior Ministry building as police protest outside to demand higher pay". The Washington Post. 22 March 2011.
- "New Egyptian law criminalizes protests". Al Masri Al Youm. 23 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011.
- "Protesters Scold Egypt's Military Council". Neil MacFarquhar. 1 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
- "Tens of thousands in Tahrir as some threaten to extend protests | Al-Masry Al-Youm: Today's News from Egypt". Al-Masry Al-Youm. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- Sami Aboudi (7 May 2011). "Egypt Sectarian Clash Leads To Multiple Deaths". The Huffington Post. Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- NRC Handelsblad (Dutch), 28 May 2011.
- "Thousands of Egyptians protest against police brutality". WireUpdate. Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
- "Hundreds of thousands revitalise Egypt'sEgypt's revolution on Determination Friday". Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- "Military police's latest Tahrir clampdown reignites popular anger". english.ahram.org.eg.
- Gaber, Yassin (1 November 2011). "Reconstructing Maspero's Bloody Sunday: An Ahram Online investigation". Al-Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
- Nada Hussein Rashwan (2 November 2011). "Reconstructing Maspero's Bloody Sunday: An Ahram Online investigation – Part 2". Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
- "BBC News — Cairo clashes leave 24 dead after Coptic church protest". BBC. 9 October 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
- "Death toll rises in Egypt Christian clashes as tension continues — CNN.com". CNN. 11 October 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (21 November 2011). "Egypt Clashes Enter 3rd Day as Military Faces Pressure". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- "Mon, 21 Nov 2011, 13:27 GMT+3 – Egypt". Al Jazeera Blogs. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011.
- "Mon, 21 Nov 2011, 14:46 GMT+3 – Egypt". Al Jazeera Blogs. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011.
- "Thousands of rare documents burned in Egypt clash". Associated Press. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
- "Statement by the Press Secretary on Egypt's Transition to Democracy". Government News from the White House and Congress – Senate/House of Representatives. 24 January 2012. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- Markon, Jerry (24 January 2012). "US lauds Egypt's steps toward democracy ahead of anniversary of mass protests". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- "U.S. praises Egypt's decision to lift state of emergency". Calgary Herald. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.[dead link]
- "Egypt's ruling generals to partially lift emergency law". BBC News. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- Chick, Kristen (25 January 2012). "Egypt's military lifts emergency law – with one big loophole". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- "Egypt's military leader lifts emergency law". globalpost. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- El-shenawi, Eman (24 January 2012). "Egypt's army chief lifts emergency law on eve of revolution anniversary". Al Arabiya. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- Laura Smith-Spark (12 April 2012). "Egypt's ruling generals to partially lift emergency law". CNN. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- David D. Kirkpatrick (10 April 2012). "Court Flips Egypt's Timetable: Election, Then Constitution". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- Tom Perry (12 April 2012). "Analysis: Egypt in tough final leg of transition". CNN. Reuters. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- Othman, Dalia (31 May 2012). "State of emergency ends, military council says will not renew". Egypt Independent. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- "Egypt lifts unpopular emergency law". CNN. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, Patrick D. (2 June 2012). "New Turmoil in Egypt Greets Mixed Verdict for Mubarak". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- Leila Fadel; Ernesto Londoño (2 June 2012). "Hosni Mubarak sentenced to life for complicity in killing of protesters". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- "Protesters rally after Egypt's Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to life in prison". CNN. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- Smith-Spark, Laura (2 June 2012). "For Mubarak, once Egypt's strongman, a long fall from grace". CNN. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- "Tentative deal on Egypt constituent assembly". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- "Egypt's liberals stage walkout". Al Jazeera. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (14 June 2012). "Egypt Reimposes Martial Law, Ahead of Closely Watched Ruling". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- "Egypt decree grants arrest powers to military". Al Jazeera. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (18 June 2012). "Egypt's Ruling Generals Soften Tone as Islamist Wins Presidency". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- Londoño, Ernesto (13 June 2012). "Egypt's military given power to detain civilians days before presidential vote". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- Mohamed Fadel Fahmy and Josh Levs (14 June 2012). "Some cry 'coup' as Egypt's highest court annuls parliament, military extends power". CNN. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (14 June 2012). "New Political Showdown in Egypt as Court Invalidates Parliament". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Ernesto Londoño; Leila Fadel (14 June 2012). "Egypt's high court calls for dissolution of parliament, raising new transition fears". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- "Egypt court orders dissolving of parliament". Al Jazeera. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Hill, Evan (14 June 2012). "Court throws Egypt transition into disarray". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (17 June 2012). "On Eve of Vote, Egypt's Military Extends Its Power". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (17 June 2012). "Egypt's Military Cements Its Powers as Voting Ends". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "The Constitutional Declaration (with 17 June 2012 Annex)". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
- Ernesto Londoño; Leila Fadel (18 June 2012). "Egypt's presidential candidates declare victory, but military generals assert vast power". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "Egyptian military holds on to power despite presidential vote". CNN. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- Hill, Evan (18 June 2012). "Background: SCAF's last-minute power grab". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "English text of SCAF amended Egypt Constitutional Declaration". Ahram Online. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "Egypt's army vows to hand power to elected president". BBC News. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- Urban, Mark (18 June 2012). "Regional impact of Egypt military's declaration". BBC. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (18 June 2012). "After Victory, Egypt Islamists Seek to Challenge Military". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- Randa Ali (26 June 2012). "Egypt Supreme Court blocks arrest powers for military, hailed by experts". Ahram Online. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "Political uncertainty deepens in Egypt". Al Jazeera. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "Egypt Elections: Key Events Timeline in Egyptian Uprising And Transition". The Huffington Post. Agence France-Presse. 24 June 2012. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Jeffrey Fleishman; Reem Abdellatif (21 June 2012). "Protesters again mass in Egypt's Tahrir Square". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "Egypt anti-military protesters fill Tahrir Square". BBC News. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Dina Zayed; Patrick Werr (22 June 2012). "Tahrir Square protests as Egypt awaits result". IOL News. Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "Egyptians crowd Tahrir Square calling for end of military rule". Haaretz. Reuters. 23 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "Egyptians hold their breath until Sunday". Middle East Online. 23 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Tamim Elyan; Alastair Macdonald (23 June 2012). "Egypt's nervous wait for president ending". Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Ernesto Londoño; Karin Brulliard (24 June 2012). "Mohamed Morsi named new Egyptian president". The Washington Post. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (24 June 2012). "For Islamists in Egypt, Morsi Victory Is a Symbolic Win". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "Muslim Brotherhood's Morsi urges 'unity' in first speech as Egypt's president-elect". CNN News. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Levs, Josh (24 June 2012). "Egypt's new president: U.S.-educated Islamist". CNN News. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "Muslim Brotherhood's Mursi declared Egypt president". BBC News. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- Maggie Michael; Sarah El Deeb (24 June 2012). "Mohammed Morsi, New Egyptian President, Says He Wants Unity, Peace". Agence France-Presse (AFP). Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- "In Egypt, the Court revoked the right of military arrest civil". European news in English. 26 June 2012. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "Administrative Court Rules in Favor of Appeal Presented by Human Rights NGOs, Revokes Decree Enabling Military Intelligence and Military Police to Arrest Civilians". Nazra for Feminist Studies. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "Administrative Court Rules in Favor of Appeal Presented by Human Rights NGOs, Revokes Decree Enabling Military Intelligence and Military Police to Arrest Civilians". allAfrica. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Nada Hussein Rashwan (27 June 2012). "Egypt's constituent assembly convenes Tuesday with future still in doubt". Ahram Online. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Ahmed Aboul Enein (28 June 2012). "Constituent Assembly carries on". Daily News Egypt. Archived from the original on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Ernesto Londoño; Haitham Mohamed (29 June 2012). "Egyptian President-elect Mohamed Morsi defiant on eve of taking office". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (29 June 2012). "Morsi Says He Will Work for Release of Sheik Jailed in U.S." The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Aswat Masriya (29 June 2012). "Egypt: Morsi Takes Symbolic Oath in Tahrir Square". Cairo: allAfrica. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "New president: Egypt turns page to new era". CNN. 30 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Londoño, Ernesto (30 June 2012). "Islamist Morsi is sworn in as president of Egypt". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "Update: Egypt won't reverse says Morsi, vowing to support Palestinians, Syrians". Egypt News English. 30 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Alistair Lyon; Yasmine Saleh (30 June 2012). "Army hands over power to Egypt's first Islamist president". Reuters. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (30 June 2012). "Morsi Is Sworn In, Marking a New Stage in Egypt Struggle". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- "Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers". BBC News. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- "Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers". Associated Press. 23 November 2012.
- Story of the Egyptian Revolution 2011–2013 (Documentary) (in English and Arabic). Internet Archive. 15 November 2013. 10 minutes in.
- Birnbaum, Michael (22 November 2012). "Egypt's President Morsi takes sweeping new powers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- Spencer, Richard (23 November 2012). "Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohamed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- "Egypt activists vow further anti-Mursi protests". BBC News. 24 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- "Clashes Break Out After Morsi Seizes New Power in Egypt". The New York Times. 23 November 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
- "Press Releases". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012.
- "Anti-Morsi protesters occupy Tahrir in preparation for 30 June – Daily News Egypt". Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- [UPDATE] Morsi supporters rally in Cairo; opponents plan sit-in. UPI (28 June 2013). Retrieved on 2013-08-14.
- Egypt opposition calls for early elections – Middle East. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved on 2013-08-14.
- "Egyptian army issues 48-hour ultimatum". Al-Jazeera English. 1 July 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- "Special Report: Mursi's downfall". Reuters. 6 July 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- Hubbard, Ben (6 July 2013). "Mayhem in Cairo as Morsi Backers Fight for Return". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- "Egypt: Rabaa Killings Likely Crimes against Humanity". Human Rights Watch. 12 August 2014. Archived from the original on 16 August 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
- Mohsen, Manar (16 August 2013). "Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638". Daily News Egypt. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
- "Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'". Al Jazeera English. 18 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
- Patrick Kingsley. "Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- "Egypt's El-Sisi bids military farewell, says he will run for presidency". Ahram Online. 26 March 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
- "Former army chief scores landslide victory in Egypt presidential polls". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
- "The different shades of Tahrir – Anger in Egypt". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- "Egypt Unrest and Protests Continue as Police Return to Cairo Streets". The Washington Post. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- Dan Rivers (27 June 2012). "Student journalist assaulted in Tahrir Square". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- Melissa Maerz (2 May 2011). "Lara Logan breaks her silence on '60 Minutes': 'They raped me with their hands'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- "Journalists sexually assaulted in Cairo protests". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- Noam Cohen (25 November 2011). "Arrests and Attacks on Women Covering Protests in Cairo". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- Sterling, Joe (4 February 2011). "Across dusty Egypt, anxiety has filled the air". CNN. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- Mistry, Manisha (31 January 2011). "Mother from St. Albans Speaks to the Review from Egypt". St. Albans Review (part of Newsquest). Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- Tencer, Daniel (14 January 2011). "Reports of 'Massacre' in Suez as Protests in Egypt Move into Third day". The Raw Story. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Dziadosz, Alexander (27 January 2011). "Could Suez be Egypt's Sidi Bouzid?". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- "TIMELINE-Protests in Egypt | Reuters". Reuters. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (8 February 2011). "As Egypt Protest Swells, U.S. Sends Specific Demands". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
- Schemm, Paul; Michael, Maggie (5 February 2011). "Mubarak leaves Cairo for Sinai as protests spread". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- Ben Wedeman; Amir Ahmed. "3 dead after thousands protest in rare Egypt outpouring". CNN. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- "Egypt Travel Advice". Fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- eljazeera77 (9 February 2011). "مظاهرات مدينه الزقازيق محافظه الشرقيه 28 يناير". YouTube. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (8 February 2011). "Protests Swell in Rejection of Egypt"s Limited Reforms". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
- "Sinai Bedouins support the #Jan25 Revolution بدو سيناء يعلنون تأييدهم للثورة المصرية " 3arabawy". Arabawy.org. Archived from the original on 28 March 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- Stevenson, Rachel (31 January 2011). "Sharm El-Sheikh's Tourists Talking About a Revolution". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- Rosenberg, David (24 January 2011). "Self-Immolation Spreads Across the Mideast, Inspiring Protest, Controversy". The Media Line. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- مصري يحرق نفسه أمام البرلمان (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- Zayed, Dina (18 January 2011). "Egyptians Set Themselves Ablaze After Tunisia Unrest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- موظف بـ'مصر للطيران' يهدد بحرق نفسه أمام نقابة الصحفيين. El-Aosboa (newspaper) (in Arabic). 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- "Mother of Ahmed Hashim al-Sayyed". Reuters (via Yahoo! News). 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- Tomasevic, Goran (30 January 2011). "Curfew Hours Extended in Egypt as Turmoil Continues". RIA Novosti. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- "Update 1-Death Toll in Egypt's Protests Tops 100 – Sources". Reuters. 29 January 2009. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- Agayev, Zulfugar (30 January 2011). "Azerbaijani Embassy Worker Shot Dead in Egypt, Ministry Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "Ambassador: Embassy will continue providing necessary help to Azerbaijanis in Egypt". En.trend.az. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- "Prosecutor General's Office Files Lawsuit on Murder of Accountant of Azerbaijani Embassy in Egypt". 31 January 2011.
- Nolan, Dan (29 January 2011). "Hundreds Mourn the Dead in Egypt". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "Egypt Crisis: Country Braced for 'March of a Million'". The Daily Telegraph. UK. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- Carol J. Williams (1 February 2011). "Egypt: Rights Advocates Report Protest Death Toll as High as 300". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "Egypt Unrest Claimed About 300 Lives – UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay". Allvoices.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "UN Human Rights Chief: 300 Reported Dead in Egypt Protests". Haaretz. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Fact-Finding National Commission About 25 Jan Revolution Final Report" (PDF). 19 April 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- "Egypt: At least 846 killed in protests". Associated Press. 19 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- "At least 846 killed in Egypt's revolution". Al-Masry Al-Youm. 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- Senior al-Azhar Sheikh Emad Effat shot dead during Cairo protests Reuters 18 December 2011
- Egypt: The Mayhem, Yasmine El Rashidi, The New York Review of Books
- "Regional Reaction Mixed For Egypt Protests". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- "Travel warning issued, evacuation to start as protests continue in Egypt". English People's Daily Online. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- Ashton, Catherine (29 January 2011). "Factbox: International Reaction to Egyptian Protests". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- "Egypt Protests Draw Mixed Reaction in Region". 15 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- "Israel's Big Fears over a Post-Mubarak Egypt". Euronews. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- "Israel Urges World To Curb Criticism of Egypt's Mubarak". Haaretz. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- Trimel, Suzanne. "Amnesty International Rebukes Egyptian Leaders for "Failed" Response to Protest Demands Organization Says Leaders' Efforts to Discourage Protests are "Unacceptable"". Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- "Foreign governments, businesses begin evacuations from Egypt". CNN. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- Baird-Remba, Rebecca. "Mubarak Steps Down: Reactions From Around the World". Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- Obama, Barack. "Follow Egypt's Example, Obama Tells Mideast". Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- Watt, Nicholas (21 February 2011). "David Cameron visits Egypt". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
- Thomson (15 March 2011). "Hillary Clinton Egypt Trip Marks Highest Level Visit Since Mubarak's Ouster". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- "Protesters Return to Cairo's Main Square – Egyptian President Fires His Cabinet But Refuses To Step Down". NBC News. 29 January 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- Slackman, Michael (29 January 2011). "Choice of Suleiman Likely to Please the Military, Not the Crowds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- Weaver, Matthew; Bowcott, Owen (30 January 2011). "Egypt protests – as they happened". The Guardian. London.
- خالد الصاوي يقود مظاهرة في ميدان التحرير. Elaph (in Arabic). 30 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- الكنيسة بمنأى عن مظاهرات مصر (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- "Mubarak Swears in New Cabinet – Egypt's President Appoints New Cabinet in an Attempt To Quell Ongoing Mass Street Protests Against His Rule". Al Jazeera. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Mubarak Orders State Subsidies – Hosni Mubarak Ordered His New PM To Preserve Subsidies, Control Inflation and Provide More Jobs". Al Jazeera. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- El-Ghatrify, Alaa (21 October 2010). "NDP Official: President To Run for 6th Term; Gamal Mubarak Candidacy 'Delusory'". Almasry Alyoum. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- "Defiant Mubarak Vows To Finish Term – Violence Erupts in Alexandria Shortly After Egyptian President's Announcement That He Will Not Seek Another Term". Al Jazeera. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- "Hosni Mubarak's Speech: Full Text – Egypt President Delivers TV Address to the Nation – and Pledges To Step Down at the Next Election and Pave Way for New Leader". The Guardian. UK. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "Live: Egypt Unrest". BBC News. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
Mubarak must step down. It is time for the military to intervene and save the country
- Memmott, Mark (27 January 2011). "ElBaradei Back in Egypt; Says It's Time for a New Government: The Two-Way". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- الجيش يدفع بتعزيزات اضافية وطائرات حربية تحلق فوق المتظاهرين في القاهرة (in Arabic). BBC Arabic. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- لجنة وطنية لمفاوضة نظام مبارك (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- Cowie, James (27 January 2011). "Egypt Leaves the Internet". Renesys. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- Richtel, Matt (28 January 2011). "Egypt Cuts Off Most Internet and Cell Service". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- Webster, Stephen C. (28 January 2011). "Vodafone confirms role in Egypt's cellular, Internet blackout". The Raw Story. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- Singel, Ryan (28 January 2011). "Egypt Shut Down Its Net With a Series of Phone Calls". Wired. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- Goodman, Amy (1 February 2011). "Digital Darkness: U.S., U.K. Companies Help Egyptian Regime Shut Down Telecommunications and Identify Dissident Voices". Democracy Now!. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- "Egypt: A List of Demands from Tahrir Square". Global Voices. 10 February 2011.
- "Basic minimum wage jumps from EGP 250 to EGP 870", Daily News Egypt.
- "Egypt state of emergency lifted after 31 years". BBC News. 31 May 2012.
- Egypt dissolves notorious internal security agency, BBC News, 31 May 2012
- Patrick Kingsley (29 July 2013). "Egypt restores feared secret police units". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 July 2013.
- "Egypt's Suleiman says will not run for president". Reuters Africa. 3 February 2011.
- "Egypt's military council lifts nightly curfew". Al Jazeera News. 15 June 2011.
- Abigail Hauslohner (29 February 2012). "The Most Powerful Weapon of Egypt's Ruling Generals: State TV". Time.
- "Mubarak sentenced to jail for life over protest deaths". BBC News. 2 June 2012.
- "Brotherhood's Mursi sworn in as Egyptian president". BBC News. 30 June 2012.
- "Egypt detains ex-ministers". Al Jazeera. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
- "Egypt recognizes moderate Islamic party, promises to release political prisoners". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. 19 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- "Muslim Brotherhood to establish 'Freedom and Justice Party'". Al-Masry Al-Youm. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011.
- "The Muslim Brotherhood Official English Website". Ikhwanweb. 23 February 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- Gordon, Evelyn (23 February 2011). "Muslim Brotherhood sits at Egypt's new democratic table". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- "Muslim Brothers see corruption-free Egypt flourishing". Al Arabiya. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- "Egypt's Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq resigns". BBC News. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- "Egypte: le Premier ministre remplacé, satisfaction des opposants" (in French). Euronews. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- "Meet Essam Sharaf: Egypt's first post-revolution Prime Minister". Ahram Online. 3 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- "Egypt's Elaraby accepts foreign minister post". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- "Egypt PM appoints new key ministers". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- "Egypt dissolves former ruling party". 16 April 2011. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- "Egypt: Hosni Mubarak and sons to be tried over deaths and should be killed for their crimes". BBC News. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
- "How the mighty have fallen". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- Inman, Phillip (4 February 2011). "Mubarak family fortune could reach $70bn, say experts". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "مصطفى الفقى: شخصية كبيرة فى الرئاسة أكدت لى أن "مبارك" لن يترشح وابنه سيكون البديل" [Mustafa Fiki: a big figure in the presidency confirmed that 'Mubarak' will not run, his son would be the alternative] (in Arabic). Almasry-alyoum.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "Egypt Issues Travel Ban, Asset Freeze on Mubarak". Voice of America. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "NDP fires Mubarak – then what?". Ahram Online. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "الشريف ينفي امتلاكه حسابات خاصة خارج مصر". Masrawy.com. 6 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "Hussein Salem caught in Dubai with $500m". Globes. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- "5 مارس.. بدء محاكمة العادلي أمام الجنايات". Masrawy.com. 27 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- Atkins, Stephen E. (31 May 2011). The 9/11 Encyclopædia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 456–. ISBN 978-1-59884-921-9. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- "Secularism is what the Arab world needs – Blog Post". Palestinenote.com. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- "An upside of Arab revolts: Islamists talk democracy". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- Glick, Caroline. "Our World: Clueless in Washington". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
- "Saving the Egyptian Revolution". Project Syndicate. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- MacFarquhar, Neil (20 March 2011). "Egyptian Voters Approve Constitutional Changes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
- Bradley, Matt (3 February 2011). "Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood to Rejoin Protests". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- Gratowski, J. Thomas (17 February 2014). "Is Egypt Breaking Apart?". International Affairs Review. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
- "Egypt Church Blast Death Toll Rises to 23". Reuters. 4 January 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- "Egypt bomb kills 21 at Alexandria Coptic church". BBC News. 1 January 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- Fahim, Kareem; Stack, Liam (1 January 2011). "Coptic Church in Egypt Is Hit by Fatal Bomb Attack". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- Slackman, Michael (4 January 2011). "Clashes Grow as Egyptians Remain Angry After an Attack". The New York Times.
- "Egypt Media Warn of Civil War after Bombing". Agence France-Presse. 2 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Stack, Liam; Kirkpatrick, David D. (2 January 2011). "Egypt Orders Tighter Security After Church Bombing". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Jouini, Hassen (8 January 2011). "Muslims Protect Churches". National Post. Canada. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- Interview. "Vivian Ibrahim of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London". BBC News 3 February 2011; 12:55 UTC.
- Heba Helmy (8 February 2011). "Tuesday's papers: Funeral for martyr journalist, Ghoneim release, al-Adli under investigation". Al Masry Al Youm. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011.
- Fatma Naib (19 February 2011). "Women of the revolution – Features". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- Niklas Albin Svensson. "The key role of women in the Egyptian revolution". In Defence of Marxism. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- Wolf, Naomi (28 February 2011). "The Middle East's Feminist Revolution". Project Syndicate. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
- "NASA rocket to bear name of Egyptian woman killed in protests". NDTV. 12 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- "Key members of Egypt Armed Forces Supreme Council". Apnews.myway.com. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
- Black, Ian (30 January 2011). "All Eyes on Egypt's Military as Hosni Mubarak Fortifies Position". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- "Factbox – Egypt's Powerful Military". Reuters. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- Kotb, Amrou (31 October 2013). "In Egypt, Inclusive Democracy is no Longer just a Suggestion". Masr or Egypt. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
- Borger, Julian; Ball, James (14 February 2011). "WikiLeaks cables: Egyptian military head is 'old and resistant to change'". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- Chatterjee, Pratap (4 February 2011). "Egypt's military-industrial complex". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- "Egypt: Admission of forced 'virginity tests' must lead to justice – Amnesty International". Amnesty International. 31 May 2011.
- "Video: Tahrir Square Egypt Army Attack Protesters 8/9 April 2011 (Youtube)". Newsblogged.com. 9 April 2011. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- The "Maspero Crime": Accounts Against the Counter-Revolution Archived 9 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Jadaliyya
- Chulov, Martin; Shenker, Jack (25 November 2011). "Egypt's generals defy Tahrir protests over elections". The Guardian. London.
- "Tahrir Square rally denounces violence against protesters". The Guardian. London. 23 December 2011.
- Manshy007 (19 December 2011). "SCAF Crimes – جرائم العسكر". Scaf-crimes.blogspot.com. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- "Background Note: Egypt". United States Department of State. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
- Cole, Juan (30 January 2011). "Why Egypt's Class Conflict Is Boiling Over – Juan Cole: How Decades of Economic Stumbles Set the Stage for Egypt's Current Political Turmoil". CBS News. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- "Mubarak under pressure". The Guardian. UK. 25 January 2008. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- "Revolution, Facebook-style". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
- "6 April Youth Movement – حركة شباب 6 إبريل". Facebook. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- "Who is Wael Ghonim?". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- "تقرير خاص- من داخل الثورة المصرية" (transcript). Reuters. 13 April 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- "Women play vital role in Egypt's uprising" (transcript). NPR. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- "Can Egypt's Internet Movement Be Exported?". The Nation. 18 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
- "Social media, cellphone video fuel Arab protests". The Independent. UK. 27 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- "The Realist Prism: Politics vs. Social Media in the Arab Uprising". World Politics Review. 25 January 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- "History of the Revolution on Facebook". Daily Kos. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
- "Mubarak Shut Down The Internet, And The Internet Paid Him in Kind". TechCrunch. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- "The Arab Uprising's Cascading Effects". Miller-McCune. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- "Craig Labovitz's Blog". Monkey.org. Archived from the original on 8 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- Ali, Amir. "The Power of Social Media in Developing Nations: New Tools for Closing the Global Digital Divide and Beyond" (PDF). Harvard Human Rights Journal. 24 (1): 185–189, 208–210. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- "Sharif Abdel Kouddous Transitions from Democracy Now! Senior Producer to Middle East Correspondent". Democracy Now. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- "Sharif Abdel Kouddous". Pulitzer Center. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- "Previous Debate". DubaiDebates.com. 22 February 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Ali, Amir. "The Power of Social Media in Developing Nations: New Tools for Closing the Global Digital Divide and Beyond" (PDF). Harvard Human Rights Journal. 24 (1): 205–208. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- Africa Internet Usage, Facebook and Population Statistics. Internetworldstats.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
- "A Look at Twitter in Iran « Sysomos Blog". Blog.sysomos.com. 21 June 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Weaver, Matthew (9 June 2010). "Iran's 'Twitter revolution' was exaggerated, says editor". The Guardian. London.
- Fassihi, Farnaz (3 December 2009). "Iranian Crackdown Goes Global". The Wall Street Journal.
- "Businessweek – Business News, Stock market & Financial Advice". Businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011.
- "Tunisia: Can We Please Stop Talking About 'Twitter Revolutions'?". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Rebekah Heacock (15 April 2011). "Egypt: Gene Sharp Taught Us How To Revolt!". Global Voices. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- Madrigal, Alexis C. "Egyptian Activists' Action Plan: Translated". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
- Hearns-Branaman, Jesse Owen (2012), 'The Egyptian Revolution did not take place: On live television coverage by Al Jazeera English', International Journal of Baudrillard Studies Vol 9, no 1 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
- Eltantawy, Nahed; Wiest, Julie B. (2 September 2011). "The Arab Spring| Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory". International Journal of Communication. 5: 18. ISSN 1932-8036.
- Panisson, André. "The Egyptian Revolution on Twitter". Archived from the original on 25 December 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- 'Ford, Heather. "Infoboxes and cleanup tags: Artifacts of Wikipedia newsmaking". Journalism (2014): 1464884914545739.
- Hassanpour, Navid (2014). "Media Disruption and Revolutionary Unrest:Evidence From Mubarak's Quasi-Experiment". Political Communication. 31: 1–24. doi:10.1080/10584609.2012.737439.
- Hassanpour, Navid (2014). "Media Disruption and Revolutionary Unrest: Evidence From Mubarak's Quasi-Experiment". Political Communication. 31: 5–6. doi:10.1080/10584609.2012.737439.
- Smith, Amelia. "Revolution Graffiti: Street Art of the new Egypt". Middle East Monitor. Archived from the original on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- Abaza, Mona (9 October 2012). "Walls, Segregating Downtown Cairo and the Mohammed Mahmud Street Graffiti". Theory, Culture & Society. 30 (1).
- Parshley, Lois. "For Egypt's Graffiti Artists Revolution Brings Inspiration and Uncertainty". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- Kholeif, Omar. "The Social Impulse: Politics, Meida and Art After the Arab Uprisings". Art & Education. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- Bradley, John R. (2008). Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8477-7.
- El-Mahdi, Rabab; Marfleet, Philip, eds. (2009). Egypt: The Moment of Change. London: Zed. ISBN 978-1-84813-021-0.
- Faris, David (2010). Revolutions Without Revolutionaries? Social Media Networks and Regime Response in Egypt. Publicly accessible Penn Dissertations. Paper 116.
- Maurushat, Alana, Chawki, Mohammed, Al-Alosi, Hadeel, and el Shazly, Yassin (2014), "The Impact of Social Networks and Mobile Technologies on the Revolutions in the Arab World—A Study of Egypt and Tunisia", MDPI
- Radsch, Courtney C. (2008). "Core to Commonplace: The Evolution of Egypt's Blogosphere". Arab Media and Society. American University of Cairo (6, Fall).
- Rutherford, Bruce K. (2008). Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the Arab World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13665-3.
- Albrecht, Holger (2014). "The Myth of Coup-proofing Risk and Instances of Military Coups d’état in the Middle East and North Africa, 1950–2013" Armed Forces & Society Available Online
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian Revolution of 2011.|
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: 2011 Egyptian protests|
|Wikinews has news related to:|
- Egypt Resources from Google Crisis Response
- Egyptian revolution of 2011 at the Best of the Web Directory
- Media library documenting Egypt's 25 Jan revolution with thousands of videos & photos
- Digital Library includes photos, videos, visual art, and oral histories contributed by student activists, academics, security officers, and demonstrators in and around Cairo.
- Web Archive includes archived versions of blogs, Twitter feeds, local and regional media coverage, and other sites related to the 25 January Revolution.
- Middle East and North Africa in turmoil – Tracking the Protests. Chart provided by The Washington Post to keep up day by day with all of the anti-government protests which as off May 2011 are spreading rapidly through the Middle East and North Africa.
- Timeline: Transition in Egypt. Key events leading up to the first presidential election since the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak and subsequent developments as provided by The Washington Post
- Egypt Elections: Key Events Timeline In Egyptian Uprising And Transition as provided by Agence France-Presse
- Egypt's revolution: Interactive map as provided by BBC News Middle East
- Vox Populi: ongoing project by Lara Baladi which includes a series of media initiatives, art projects, publications and a portal into web based archives
- "Egypt's new era". BBC News. UK. 26 March 2011.
- "Egypt protests live". The Guardian. UK. 1 February 2011.
- "Egyptian Revolution – One Year On". Thomson Reuters Foundation. UK. 25 January 2012.
- "Unrest in Egypt". UK. Reuters.
- Egypt Real Time Video Stream at Frequency
- "Egypt's Revolution". Qatar: Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011.
- Emergency Law and Police Brutality in Egypt at CrowdVoice
- Citizen Media coverage on Egypt Protests by Global Voices Online
- Testimonials From Egyptians at The Real News
- "Egyptian elections". UK: Thomson Reuters Foundation.
- "University on the Square: Documenting Egypt's 21st Century Revolution". Egypt: American University in Cairo. Archived from the original on 26 November 2012.
- Interview with Wael Ghonim, Google mideast manager: Guardian via Dream TV, subtitled; Full translation
- "Egypt's 21st Century Revolution Oral Histories". Egypt: American University in Cairo. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012.
- Egypt: A Nation in Waiting (Al Jazeera documentary focusing on past trends in Egypt's political history and the events which led to the revolution.)
- Revolution in Cairo (PBS Frontline documentary about the role of the 6 April youth movement, cyberactivism and the Muslim Brotherhood in the revolution)
- How to Start a Revolution (A multi-award winning British documentary on nonviolent action and the Arab Spring focusing on Gene Sharp.)
- Uprising (2012 film)
- The Square (2013 film)
- Tickling Giants
Analysis and criticism
- Norman Finkelstein: An important analysis of the Egyptian revolution and counter-revolution.
- "Isqat Al-Nizam". Egypt: American University in Cairo.
- "Egyptian and Arab Revolution Scholarly Works". Egypt: American University in Cairo.
- Demonstrations in Tahrir Square: Two Years Later, What has Changed?: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Middle East and North Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, 26 February 2013
- "Tahrir Documents". University of California, Los Angeles.
Collected from demonstrations in Cairo's Tahrir Square2011–present