- Congenital heart disease
- Abnormalities of individual heart chambers
- Abnormalities of the atrial septum
- Abnormalities of the ventricular septum
- Abnormal origins of the great arteries
- Abnormalities of the valves
- Abnormalities of the myocardium and endocardium
- Abnormalities of the coronary arteries
- Abnormalities of the aorta
- Anomalous pulmonary venous return
- Anomalies of the venae cavae
- Acquired heart disease
- Disturbances in rhythm and conduction
- Heart failure
- Treatment of the heart
- Diseases of the arteries
- Diseases of the veins
- Diseases of the capillaries
- Hemodynamic disorders
- Physiological shock
Treatment of chronic occlusive disease is aimed at opening or bypassing the occluded vessel; however, vessels can also be replaced surgically via several techniques. In the carotid circulation, atherosclerotic plaques can be directly removed from vessels to reestablish open blood flow via a procedure called atherectomy, in which a tiny knife inserted into a vessel through a catheter is used to shave fatty deposits off the vessel wall. Occlusion of the coronary arteries is treated using coronary artery bypass surgery. This procedure relocates native vessels, such as the saphenous vein (from the leg) or the internal mammary artery (in the chest), to the heart, where they serve to bypass the flow of blood around the occlusion. Replacement of the large arteries and the aorta with Dacron™ (synthetic fibre tubing) grafts is quite common.
Noninvasive methods have been developed to open chronic atherosclerotic occlusions using a catheter in a procedure called angioplasty. A balloon near the end of the catheter is inflated, thereby dilating the vessel and allowing blood to flow around the obstruction. This procedure is often followed by the insertion of an expandable stent (a wire mesh tube) that becomes permanently embedded in the wall of the artery to be sure that the vessel stays open. Today many stents have special coatings that gradually release drugs to prevent reclosure of the vessel (restenosis).
Acute closure of vessels in the coronary circulation is treated in several ways. Proteolytic enzymes (enzymes that break down proteins) or drugs that activate the proteolytic process are often used for clot dissolution. The most commonly used therapeutic agent is tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), which is given intravenously and acts rapidly to dissolve clots. Acute coronary thrombosis can also be treated by angioplasty, almost always accompanied by insertion of a stent and resulting in rapid and complete restoration of blood flow. However, since the blood clotting mechanism is compromised by the use of thrombolytic agents, such as t-PA, there is a substantial incidence of bleeding during and following stent implantation that can be fatal. This complication has led to a relative reluctance to utilize these procedures in older patients because of the possibility of producing hemorrhagic stroke. Regardless of the method, time is a critical factor in the success of restoring proper blood flow, and early recognition of symptoms has become a major health education goal.
In patients at risk for thrombotic events, antiplatelet or anticoagulant drugs can be used to decrease platelet aggregation and to prevent the formation of thrombi. Statins can also reduce the incidence of acute arterial events through an anti-inflammatory mechanism, although this is not well understood. In addition, several dietary habits have been associated with lower incidence of acute thrombotic events, including high intake of vitamin E and fish oil and drinking red wine; however, extensive studies are needed to confirm these effects.
Polyarteritis nodosa, also called periarteritis nodosa, is an uncommon disease of unknown cause; hypersensitivity may play an important role. It is more common in males and may occur at any age. Small arteries and veins in various parts of the body are affected, producing effects as a result of occlusion or bleeding or a combination of the two. The course may be rapid, involving only weeks or months, or it may be highly prolonged. The involvement of the blood vessels may affect blood flow to the skin, the gastrointestinal tract, the kidneys, and the heart. There may be associated symptoms of arthritis, and involvement of almost all organs has been noted. There is an associated fever in most instances, an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood, and evidence of inflammation. No recognized specific mode of therapy is available, although patients have responded to a number of anti-inflammatory therapies.
Arteritis is an inflammation in localized segments of arteries. One particularly notable type is cranial arteritis (temporal arteritis), a disease of variable duration and unknown cause that is accompanied by fever and involves the temporal and occasionally other arteries of the skull. In general, older persons are affected. Excision of the involved artery may be carried out, but the general symptoms may remain.
Frostbite may occur after exposure to subfreezing temperature momentarily or to less severe temperature for a longer period. It occurs more readily if blood vessels are diseased. Several degrees of frostbite produce thrombosis of the arteries and arterioles and also may involve veins. Symptoms may vary from a mild stage of reddening to gangrene and eventual loss of the extremity.