The ideas and principles discussed so far may be illustrated by a selective survey of the history of land reform.
The recorded history of reform begins with the Greeks and Romans of the 6th and 2nd centuries bce, respectively. Land in ancient Athens was held in perpetuity by the tribe or clan, with individual holdings periodically reallocated according to family size and soil fertility. Population increase, expansion of trade, growth of a money economy, and the opening up of business opportunities eventually made financial transactions in land an economic necessity. Land itself continued to be inalienable, but the right to use the land could be mortgaged. Thus, peasants could secure loans by surrendering their rights to the product of the land, as “sale with the option of redemption.” Lacking other employment, the debtor continued to cultivate the land as hektēmor, or sixth partner, delivering five-sixths of the product to the creditor and retaining the rest for himself. Mortgaged land was marked by horoi, or mortgage stones, which served as symbols of land enserfment. When Solon was elected archon, or chief magistrate, c. 594 bce, his main objective was to free the land and destroy the horoi. His reform law, known as the seisachtheia, or “shaking-off the burdens,” cancelled all debts, freed the hektēmoroi, destroyed the horoi, and restored land to its constitutional holders. Solon also prohibited the mortgaging of land or of personal freedom on account of debt.
The impact of the reform was extensive but of short duration. The hektēmoroi were freed, but since no alternative sources of support or credit were provided and creditors were uncompensated, dissatisfaction and instability persisted. Two decades of anarchy were followed by a revolution, c. 561 bce, that brought Peisistratus to power. He enforced the reform and distributed lands of his adversaries (who were killed or exiled) among the small holders. He also extended loans to aid cultivation and prevent migration to the city and expanded silver mining to create employment. Although the amount of land redistributed is unknown, Peisistratus was apparently able to satisfy the peasantry, secure their loyalty, and stay in power for life, but the economic effects are too vague to evaluate.
The Roman reform by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus came between 133 and 121 bce. The land reform law, or lex agraria, of Tiberius was passed by popular support against serious resistance by the nobility. It applied only to former public land, ager publicus, which had been usurped and concentrated in the hands of large landholders. Land concentration reduced the number of owners and hence the number of citizens and those eligible to serve in the army. In addition, such concentration was accompanied by a shift from cultivation to grazing, which reduced employment and increased the poverty of the peasants, producing a crisis. The motives of the reformers continue to be debated, but it would appear that concern for the poor and political stability were major factors.
The lex agraria specified minimum and maximum individual landholdings, with an allowance for male children of the family. Excess land would be expropriated and compensation paid for improvements. A standing collegium, or commission, was to enforce the law, but implementation was delayed because Tiberius was killed in the year of its passage. When Gaius was elected tribune about a decade later, he revived the reform and went even further. He colonized new land and abolished rent on small holdings since rent on large holdings had been suspended as compensation for expropriation. Gaius was killed in 121 bce, however, and within a decade the reform was reversed: private acquisition of public land was legalized, the land commission was dissolved, rent on public land was abolished, all holdings were declared private property, and squatting on public land was prohibited. Even colonization was ended, and colonies established by Gaius were broken up. Another period of land concentration was inaugurated.
Modern European reforms
The French Revolution brought a new era in the history of land reform. Reform meant dealing with survivals of the medieval tenures that had left a common heritage in most European countries and, through them, in the colonies. The measures and approaches varied from place to place and period to period.
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On the eve of the Revolution, French society was polarized, with the nobility and clergy on one side and the rising business class on the other. The middle class was relatively small, especially in the rural areas. The majority of the peasants were hereditary tenants, either censiers, who paid a fixed money rent, or mainmortables, or serfs, who paid rent in the form of labour services, corvée, of about three days a week. The peasants paid various other feudal dues and taxes, from which the nobility and clergy were exempted. The Revolution overthrew the ancien régime and the feudal order and introduced land reform.
The reform repealed feudal tenures, freed all persons from serfdom, abolished feudal courts, and cancelled all payments not based on real property, including tithes. Rents based on real property were redeemable. Once the law had been passed, however, the peasants seized the land and refused to pay any rents or redemption fees; in 1792 all payments were finally cancelled. Land of the clergy and political emigrants was confiscated and sold at auction, together with common land. The terms of sale, however, often favoured the wealthy, which may explain the rise of a new class of large landowners among the supporters of Napoleon.
The social and political objectives of the reformers were fully realized. The censiers and serfs became owners. Feudalism was destroyed, and the new regime won peasant support. The economic effects, however, were limited. Incentives could not be increased substantially since the peasants already had full security of tenure prior to the reform. The scale of operations was not changed; and no facilities for credit, marketing, or capital formation were created. The major achievements were the reinforcement of private, individual ownership and perpetuation of the small family farm as a basis of democracy. The small family farm has characterized French agriculture ever since.
There were other reforms in most European countries. England resolved its land problems by the enclosure movement, which drove the small peasants into the towns, consolidated landholdings, and promoted large-scale operation and private ownership. Sweden and Denmark pioneered between 1827 and 1830 by peacefully abolishing village compulsion, or imposed labour service, and the strip system of cultivation, by consolidating the land, and by dividing the commons among the peasants. Though influenced by the French Revolution, only after the 1848 revolutions did Germany, Italy, and Spain free the peasants and redistribute the land. Reform in Ireland took a whole century before substantive results were achieved, in the mid-1930s, after Ireland was divided into Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State. The tenants were converted into owners by subsidized purchase of the land.
The first major Russian reform was the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. At the time of emancipation about 45 percent of the land was private property and the remainder was held as allotment land, cultivated in units averaging 9.5 acres (3.8 hectares) by the peasant serfs against rent in kind and labour, payable to feudal lords. In contrast, fewer than 1,000 noble families owned about 175,000,000 acres (70,000,000 hectares) and received rent therefrom. Conflict between such extremes of poverty and wealth caused restlessness among the peasants and rendered reform inevitable. As Tsar Alexander II put it: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to await the day when it will begin to abolish itself from below.”
The Emancipation Act of 1861 abolished serfdom and distributed allotment land among the peasants. The homestead became hereditary property of the individual, but the field land was vested in the village mir as a whole. The peasant paid redemption through the village authority, while the landlord received state bonds as compensation equal to 75 to 80 percent of the land market value. Though legally freed, the private serf had to ransom his freedom by surrendering a part of the allotment land. In contrast, serfs belonging to the imperial family were emancipated in 1863 and received the maximum amount of land fixed by law. Serfs of the state were emancipated in 1866 and allowed to keep the land they occupied against money rent. The Cossacks received two-thirds of the land, to be held in common, but in lieu of redemption payments they had to serve 20 years in the army. The serfs in mines and households were freed but received no economic assets.
Redemption payments, however, soon proved too burdensome, village restrictions were tight, and the allotment land area declined, all of which led to renewed restlessness and disturbances. Following the revolt of 1905, the government, under Pyotr Stolypin, tried to create middle-class, independent farmers by replacing the village tenure with private ownership, consolidating holdings, and encouraging land purchase by individuals; but the time was too short for effective implementation. The Soviet Revolution overthrew the tsarist regime and introduced the concepts of public ownership and collectivization.
By decree in 1918, the Soviets abolished private ownership of land, made farming the sole basis of landholding, and declared collectivization a major objective of policy. Marketing of agricultural products became a state monopoly. In 1929 Stalin embarked on a full course of collectivization, and by 1938 collective farms occupied 85.6 percent of the land and state farms 9.1 percent. Credit facilities and tractor stations supplemented collectivization, while agricultural production was integrated in the national plan for industrialization and development.
The costs of Soviet reform included the destruction of capital and the death of large numbers of kulaks, or rich peasants. Total output and productivity increased, however, and capital formation was made possible through forced saving, taxes, and regulated prices. The peasant received extensive social services such as health care, and education and better working conditions. The objectives of the decree of 1918 have been fully realized.
Reform in eastern Europe was complicated by the fact that most of the eastern European countries remained under foreign rule until the middle of the 19th century or later. In Hungary, the Decree of 1853 abolished the robot, or forced labour and feudal dues, freed the serfs, liberalized land transaction, and encouraged consolidation. The Romanian reform of 1864 freed the serfs and distributed both the land and the redemption payments in proportion to the number of cows or oxen each peasant had. Formal emancipation in Bulgaria was introduced by the Turkish government in the 1850s, but actual reform came in 1880, after independence. Each peasant, including sharecroppers and wage workers, who had worked the land for 10 years without interruption, was entitled to the land he had cultivated. With the exception of Bulgaria, the distribution of ownership throughout most of eastern Europe remained highly uneven. Political instability reached a dangerous point between the two world wars. From the end of World War II to 1989–90, eastern European countries ruled by communist governments displayed a strong tendency toward collective, cooperative, and mechanized agriculture.