Genetic analysis of an artificially produced hybrid abalone (haliotis rufescens x haliotis discus hannai) in Chile.
KEY WORDS: abalone, Haliotis rufescens, Haliotis discus hannai, hybridization, microsatellites
Currently, an alternative to conventional selective breeding methods of economically important aquaculture species is the production of intra- and interspecific hybrids, which have desirable phenotypic qualities to improve commercial traits (Chevassus 1983, Gaffney & Allen 1993, Elliott 2000). Hybridization has been successfully obtained in many species such as carp, catfish, salmonids, sparids, sunfish, oyster, and crayfish, among others, as a means of improving production traits like growth, survival, thermal tolerance, and disease resistance, as well as of manipulating sex ratios and producing sterile individual (Bartley et al. 2001, Hulata 2001). However there is not a general trend in hybridization results. Some hybrids can exhibit positive heterosis (hybrid vigor) in one or several quantitative traits, whereas others can present negative heterosis (Hulata 2001, Guo 2009). Nonetheless, even in the absence of hybrid vigor, hybridization can be used to express several trait combinations from either species or strains and improves characteristics such as texture, color, and taste (Elliott 2000). In worldwide abalone aquaculture, more than 50 crosses between simpatric and/ or allopatric species have been reported to be successfully produced; and most of the hybrid abalone evaluated have shown faster growth, high survival rate, particular adaptations to cultured conditions, and desirable market qualities (Lafarga-de la Cruz & Gallardo-Escfirate 2010). Despite the potential of hybrid abalone, currently there are only a few that are commercially produced and sold by China and Australia. These hybrid abalone are, the Dalian-I hybrid abalone, an intraspecific cross between the Chinese and Japanese stocks of Haliotis discus hannai (Guo 2009); the black abalone, hybrid of H. discus hannai x H. discus discus (Zhang et al. 2004); and the tiger abalone, hybrid of H. rubra x H. laevigata (Hamilton et al. 2009a). However, at least 10 additional hybrid crosses have been tested for its commercial production in countries like Thailand, Philippines, and Australia, being these hybrid a potential way to diversify and improve the abalone aquaculture (SEAFDEC/AQD 2008, Encena 2009).
From a genetic point of view, genetic characterization of those hybrids has rarely been done. Herein, molecular tools such as microsatellite marker, Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis has been applied to understand the genetic basis of heterosis, and to evaluate genetic diversity and distances between the parental species and their interspecific hybrids (Kim et al. 2000, Wan et al. 2001, Wan et al. 2003, Wan et al. 2004, Liu et al. 2007, Luo et al. 2009a). In regard to cytogenetic studies in hybrid abalone, there are only a few published data, revealing no differences in karyological characteristics when the parental species have the same chromosome number and their cellular DNA content is similar (Arai et al. 1982, An et al. 2007). However, karyological studies at the larva level of hybrids between H. diversicolor (2n = 32) and H. discus hannai (2n = 36) showed chromosome aneuploidy (Cai et al. 2009). On the other hand, genetic certification of hybrid status has been carried out using immunological analysis (Meyer 1967), allozymes (Fujino et al. 1980, Sasaki et al. 1980, Brown 1995, Hoshikawa et al. 1998, Ahmed et al. 2008), microsatellite analysis (Evans et al. 2000, Cruz et al. 2005, Ibarra et al. 2005, Luo et al. 2009b), and other molecular markers such as RAPD (Marin et al. 2007), sequences of DNA satellites (Muchmore et al. 1998, Hernandez-Ibarra et al. 2008), Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) of 16s and Cytochrome Oxidase I gene (COI)(Ahmed et al. 2008), and molecular cytogenetic techniques as Genomic In Situ Hybridization (GISH) (Hernandez-Ibarra et al. 2005).
Compared with other molecular markers, microsatellites provide a high level of polymorphism and allow the differentiation between populations, species, and individuals by subtle observed differences. Microsatellite DNA markers have been successfully applied for molecular identification of hybrid abalone (Evans et al. 2000, Cruz et al. 2005, Ibarra et al. 2005, Luo et al. 2009b) and to assess genetic diversity of cultured abalone (Norris et al. 1999, Was & Wenne 2002, Hara & Sekino 2005, Sekino et al. 2005, Hara & Sekino 2007,; Marchant et al. 2009; Slabbert et al. 2009). Because of their characteristics such as relatively high genome abundance, high mutation rate, polymorphism, codominant Mendelian inheritance, and high reproducibility, microsatellite markers have been applied to a broad range of studies (Liu & Cordes 2004). In contrast to the microsatellite isolation process to develop DNA markers for a single species, the conservation level of sequences that flank the microsatellite regions allows the use primer pairs among closely related species (heterologous primers) (Evans et al. 2001). Heterologous microsatellite markers involve PCR primers designed for target species that can be used to analyze polymorphism in other related species, which can reduce time and cost of analyses significantly (Zane et al. 2002).
The Chilean abalone aquaculture industry is supported by only 2 species introduced during the late 1970s: red abalone H. rufescens Swainson 1822 and Japanese abalone H. discus hannai Ino 1953 (Flores-Aguilar et al. 2007). Red abalone account for 97% (418.3 MT) of the total production because of its adaptability for full-cycle culture and faster growing than the Japanese species. To the contrary, Japanese abalone have not adapted well because of its minor resistance to the Chilean culture conditions (Enriquez & Villagran 2008). However, Japanese abalone have a better acceptance and command higher prices in Asian markets (Gordon & Cook 2004). These dualities have been merged by the successful hybridization between red and Japanese abalone, which is an exceptional opportunity to diversify the Chilean abalone aquaculture. The goal of this study was to carry out a genetic analysis on red and Japanese abalone populations and their interspecific hybrid H. rufescens x H. discus hannai using 10 microsatellite DNA markers to estimate their genetic structure and diversity. In addition, the capability of these microsatellite loci to certify the hybrid status was tested.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples and DNA Extraction
Three cultured abalone populations were sampled for DNA: red abalone (HRed; n = 66), Japanese abalone (HJap; n = 51), and their hybrids (HHyb; n = 32) produced by in vitro fertilization of red abalone female gametes with Japanese abalone male gametes. From 1-y abalone hybrids, epipodial tentacles were collected and immediately stored in 100% ethanol until DNA extraction (Slabbert & Roodt-Wilding 2006). About 30 mg preserved tissue was used for DNA extraction with the ENZA Tissue DNA kit (Omega Bio-Tek, Norcross, GA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. DNA quantity and purity was measured with a spectrophotometer (model ND1000; NanoDrop Technologies), and quality was checked running agarose 1% gel electrophoresis.
Ten heterologous primers, previously described and developed for H. corrugata (Diaz-Viloria et al. 2008), H. kamtschatkana (Miller et al. 2001), and H. discus hannai (Sekino et al. 2005) that showed successful cross-amplification in red and Japanese abalone were used. From those, microsatellite loci Hka80 and Awb062 were applied as red and Japanese positive controls. PCRs and conditions were performed as described by Perone-Millar et al. (2008). PCR products were sequence with a 400HD-standard in ABI3730xl sequencer (Applied Biosystem) by Macrogen Inc. (Korea), and the allelic score was assigned using GeneMarker (version 1.75; Softgenetics). Possible genotyping errors associated with microsatellite analysis (stutter bands, null alleles, and large allele dropout) were tested with MICRO-CHECKER (version 2.3.3) (Oosterhout et al. 2004), and the frequency of the null allele was calculated for each locus using ML-NullFreq (Kalinowski & Taper 2006).
Genetic Diversity and Differentiation
Genetic variability standard statistics, number of alleles (N), allelic frequencies, observed and expected heterozygosity ([H.sub.o], [H.sub.e]) were calculated with ARLEQUIN (version 3.11) (Excoffier et al. 2005). Allelic richness ([R.sub.S]) and F statistics ([F.sub.ST] and [F.sub.IS]) were estimated with FSTAT (version 2.9.3) (Goudet 1995). For the latter, [R.sub.ST] values ([F.sub.ST] analogous) were calculated using RSTCALC (version 2.2) (Goodman 1997). The observed genotype frequencies in each cultured population at each locus were tested for conformity to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium by the Markov chain exact test (the Markov chain parameters used were 100,000 steps and a dememorization of 1,000) in ARLEQUIN (version 3.11). Corrections of the significance level for multiple tests were performed using the sequential Bonferroni procedure (Rice 1989). Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric analysis (Statistica version 6.1; StatSoft Inc.) was performed to test differences in N, [H.sub.o], [H.sub.e], and [F.sub.IS] among hatchery populations.
Genetic Identification of Hybrid Abalone
The PCR products of all microsatellite loci were visualized through horizontal electrophoresis at 60 V for 80 min in 1.8% agarose gel (1X Tris base Boric acid EDTA buffer), staining with ethidium bromide and compared with a molecular weight marker of 50 bp (New England Biolabs). Microsatellite locus Hco97 showed clear cross-amplification and a distinctive allelic range between red and Japanese abalone. Thus, it was evaluated as a potential molecular marker for genetic certification in hybrid abalone from several batches. As controls, 2 species-specific microsatellite markers (one for each parental species) were tested to confirm the genetic contributions of both parents. In addition, allelic distributions were depicted and analyzed to evaluate the presence of species-specific allelic bands as potential molecular DNA markers.
Genetic Diversity and Differentiation
Genetic variability parameters such as number of alleles (N), allelic richness ([R.sub.s]), heterozygosity observed ([H.sub.o]) and expected ([H.sub.e]), null allele frequency (Null), and the P values for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at 10 microsatellite loci analyzed for each cultured abalone population are shown in Table 1. Allelic diversity values, such as mean N and [R.sub.s], were similar between HRed and HHyb abalone populations: a mean of 12.6 (range, 3-19) and 11.1 (range, 5-17), respectively. In contrast, the HJap population showed a significantly lower number of alleles, with only 7.8 (range, 5-12 alleles). Population mean [H.sub.o] for samples HRed, HJap, and HHyb were 0.579 (range, 0.288-0.848), 0.534 (range, 0.294-0.784), and 0.488 (range, 0.125-1.00) respectively; whereas mean [H.sub.e] values were 0.766 (range, 0.4160.889), 0.771 (range, 0.630-0.882), and 0.823 (range, 0.660-0.936). Nonsignificant differences (P [less than or equal to] 0.05) were observed among the 3 populations in either [H.sub.o] or [H.sub.e]. However, significant differences between [H.sub.o] and He for most of the population loci cases evaluated were observed (22 of 28, 78.5%; Table 1), resulting in deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium with an evident heterozygote deficit. Heterozygosity deficiency can be caused not only by biological processes (inbreeding, nonrandom mating, natural selection, and Wahlund-type effects), but also by technical problems in microsatellite amplification, such as the presence of null alleles. To discard this, null allele frequency was estimated, and allelic frequencies were corrected (Kalinowski & Taper 2006). Most of the population loci showed a low, inferred null allelic frequency (Dakin & Avise 2004). Only 1 microsatellite locus (Hka56) showed a high null allelic frequency in all populations analyzed (0.26, 0.27, 0.23) as detected also in wild red abalone populations of California (Gruenthal et al. 2007). However, no significant differences were observed between original and corrected data (not shown).
Based on 8 of the common microsatellite loci amplified in all the abalone hatchery populations, the resulting median inbreeding coefficient ([F.sub.IS]) values were 0.026, 0.269, and 0.451 for HRed, HJap, and HHyb, respectively. [F.sub.IS] values were not significantly different among populations (P [less than or equal to] 0.05). On the other hand, fixation indexes ([F.sub.ST], [R.sub.ST]) among the 3 abalone populations showed significant differences (P [less than or equal to] 0.05; Table 2). Comparisons among purebred parental species, HRed, and HJap showed the greatest genetic differences (P [less than or equal to] 0.01), with values of 0.183 and 0.253 for [F.sub.ST] and [R.sub.ST], respectively. Differences between HHyb and their parents showed that the hybrids are comparatively more similar to the HRed ([F.sub.ST] = 0.099, [R.sub.ST] = 0.113) than the HJap ([F.sub.ST] = 0.132, [R.sub.ST] = 0.170) broodstock population.
Microsatellite Markers for Genetic Identification of Hybrid Abalone
Microsatellite locus Hco97 showed species-specific bands for parental species, ranging from 76-90 bp for Japanese abalone and 200-258 bp for red abalone (Table 1 and Fig. 1). From the original hybrid sample (n = 32) for this study, 75% (n = 24) of the individuals analyzed showed clearly to be heterozygous for this locus, with an allelic range of 78-250 bp (Fig. 1), and were used to calculate the genetic parameters presented previously. Of the rest of the individuals (n = 8) shown to be homozygous for this locus, 6 presented only the characteristic band for Japanese abalone (76-90 bp) and 2 showed only the red abalone band (200-258 bp). Hence, the 2 positive parental control microsatellite markers (Hka80, Awb036) were used to identify them. In this regard, 4 individuals were identified as hybrids (positive for both controls), 2 were identified as Japanese abalone (positive for Japanese, negative for red), and 2 were identified as red abalone (positive for red, negative for Japanese). Homozygosity observed in locus Hco97 for these 4 later identified hybrids could be related to the high presence of null alleles for this locus in red abalone (0.32) and/or short allelic dominance (Wattier et al. 1998). Moreover, we had tested microsatellite locus Hco97 in other hybrid batches from our laboratory and found that usually more than 85% were heterozygotes (visualized in 1.8% agarose gels for a quick diagnosis). However, unidentified individuals need to be tested with microsatellite loci Hka80 and A wb036 to confirm genetically both parental species' genetic material contribution. Another approach undertaken to confirm hybrid status of the 8 unidentified individuals was to analyze their allelic composition. First, we compared allelic distributions among the 3 populations to recognize the number of species-specific alleles and common alleles for red-hybrid, Japanese-hybrid, and red-Japanese-hybrid for each microsatellite loci (Table 3). Results showed that 41% of the alleles found in the hybrids are common with red abalone, whereas 15% is common with Japanese abalone, and 29% with both species (not discriminating alleles). The remaining 15% were found only in hybrids (rare alleles). Second, we assigned to each allele in all loci a color tag-red, green, or black--based on whether they share with red, Japanese, or both species, respectively. This analysis corroborated the results described earlier: 4 hybrids, 2 red abalone, and 2 Japanese abalone.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Because the domestication of abalone species is a long-term process, the possibilities to increase production through appropriate hybridization will benefit the world abalone industry, as has been done in countries like Australia and China, where 50% and 90% of abalone cultures are tiger hybrids and intraspecific H. discus hannai hybrids, respectively (Guo 2009). However, as an example, in Australia, where blacklip (H. rubra Leach), greenlip (H. laevigata Donovan), and their interspecific hybrids are the principal species farmed, there is only a limited understanding of their genetic architecture (Hamilton et al. 2009a). In addition, hybrid abalone present highly variable phenotypes, because new genetic combinations occur in the hybrids, and their phenotypes can exceed the range of phenotypes in their parental species (Leighton 2000). In this scenario, the maintenance of pure lines and the establishment of a hybrid abalone breeding strategy becomes a challenge (Guo 2009, Hamilton et al. 2009b). In this study, an artificial hybrid between H. rufescens and H. discus hannai was produced in Chile, and genetic diversity and relationship with parental species were evaluated by using 10 heterologous microsatellite markers. Four culture red abalone populations in Chile have been genetically characterized before using this set of microsatellite loci to evaluate the genetic variability of intra- and interpopulations (Lafarga-de la Cruz and Gallardo-Escfirate 2010). Genetic diversity parameters were similar among these culture populations, but they have showed lower variability compared with wild red abalone populations of California. The inbreeding coefficient ([F.sub.IS]) value showed a tendency to panmixia (0.040-0.084) and a slight tendency to endogamy (0.270-0.380), perhaps as a result of differences in breeding management practices among hatchery facilities. With regard to the fixation index value ([F.sub.ST], [R.sub.ST]), results showed small genetic differences among red abalone culture populations: no evidence of geographical patterns was obtained. However, HRed genetic diversity results found in this study are within the values reported earlier. HJap results were, to some extent, different from those found by Marchant et al. (2009) for a hatchery population of H. discus hannai that is maintained under a family-based breeding program. We found reduced mean [H.sub.o] (0.536 vs. 0.716), but similar mean [H.sub.e] (0.771 vs. 0.700) values, resulting in a mean [F.sub.IS] index value of 0.259 in our study compared with -0.023 in the study by Marchant et al. (2009). This shows that the applied breeding program has been successful in controlling and maintaining heterozygosity. Differences in genetic variability and the inbreeding coefficient ([F.sub.IS]) between the red and Japanese abalone populations found here are probably the result of the comparative lower broodstock effective number and/or the matting of closely related individuals used to produce the large number of seeds for grow-out used in abalone farms. Only 2 of 25 operating abalone farms maintained Japanese abalone stocks in reduced numbers for more than 30 y (Sergio Ubillo, pers. comm.). However, microsatellite analysis showed that hybrid progeny had intermediate genetic diversity, lower heterozygosity, and a higher inbreeding coefficient when compared with parental populations of red and Japanese abalone. Contrary to these results, RAPD and AFLP analysis of hybrid abalone between H. discus hannai and H. discus discus show an increased genetic diversity, lower similarity indexes, and higher heterozygosity values in both reciprocal crosses compared with parental species (Wan et al. 2001, Wan et al. 2004). In reference to our results, 29% of the alleles were common between both parental species and hybrids, accounting for a mean allelic frequency among loci of 89 [+ or -] 10% in the hybrid population. So, inheritance of common and high-frequency alleles can be causing the high levels of homozygosity and the inbreeding coefficient (0.451) observed in the HHyb population in the current study. Rare alleles found in hybrids account just for 15% and less than 20% of the total allelic frequency. Moreover, AFLP marker segregation distortions of 30-50% have been reported for intra-and interspecific hybrids, perhaps maybe associated with the incompatibility of genes between the populations of abalone crossed (Liu et al. 2007; Luo et al. 2009b).
The fixation index ([F.sub.ST] and [R.sub.ST]) among all abalone populations showed significant differences; they were higher than those observed between red and Japanese abalone (>0.25), whereas differences between HHyb and its parents showed that hybrids are comparatively more similar to purebred H. rufescens, which is supported by the percentage of alleles shared between the hybrids and its maternal (red abalone) and paternal (Japanese abalone) parents (41% and 15%, respectively). Maternal effects were also reflected on phenotypic traits, such as hybrid growth and survival rate, shell weight-to-shell length ratio, and behavioral characteristics in cultures similar to purebred H. rufescens (Lafarga-De la Cruz and Gallardo-Escarate 2010). However, other adaptability responses to environmental conditions observed in hybrids, such as broader tolerance to higher temperatures, resemble its paternal parent, H. discus hannai (Nunez-Acuna 2009). According to Wan et al. (2001, 2004), with both RAPD and AFLP analysis, genetic distances among reciprocal hybrid abalone between H. discus discus and H. discus hannai and both parents were not equal, but were more similar to H. discus discus, regardless of the maternal and paternal material taken into account. In contrast, Kim et al. (2000) reported different results when study the phylogenetic relationship of 6 Haliotis sp. distributed in Korea with RAPD analysis, demonstrating that the hybrid H. discus discus X H. discus hannai is clustered with its parental species, and the distance coefficient is less with the paternal species H. discus hannai. However, a positive higher heterosis rate for fertilization, hatching, growth, and survival were obtained using H. discus hannai as maternal material.
The identification of interspecific hybrids among Haliotidae species has been performed by several approximations, from allozymes to microsatellite markers (Hoshikawa et al. 1998, Evans et al. 2000, Cruz et al. 2005, Ibarra et al. 2005, Ahmed et al. 2008). For example, Hoshikawa et al. (1998) identified wild hybrids between H. discus hannai and H. kamtschatkana by allozyme analysis, finding that hybrid abalone have heterozygous genotypes for allozymes AAT, GPI-2, IDH-1, MDH-1, MDH-2, and ME. Likewise, presumed wild hybrids between H.fulgens and H. rufescens were recognized with the presence of heterozygous genotypes for GPI, MDH-1, MDH-2, and SOD, and using a single microsatellite locus (Ibarra et al. 2005). Furthermore, Ibarra et al. 2005 reported that the microsatellite loci Hka28 and Hfu260 were not useful for hybrid certification because both parental abalones species share microsatellite alleles, overlapping their genotypes. Beside, the results showed overlapping in locus Hka56 with the allele 125. However, different frequencies between the parental species were estimated (0.18 for H. fulgens and 0.05 for H. rufescens). Herein, abalone hybrids were confirmed according their allele frequency. The assignment hybrids in most of the cases were identical with allozyme and microsatellite, with the exception of 2 individuals that had microsatellite alleles not found in the parental species (rare alleles). In the current study, microsatellite locus Hco97 as well as the species-specific loci for each parental species (Hka80, Awb036) allow genetic identification of hybrids in a quick diagnosis. For certain diagnoses (in particular, with regard to questionable individuals), the rest of the markers tested here can be used based on an analysis of allelic frequency and the presence or absence of alleles in the proposed color tag matrix. In addition, another molecular approach based on PCR RFLP analysis of partial sequences of the vitelline envelope receptor for lysin gene can identify reciprocal hybrids between H. rufescens and H. discus hannai (in prep.). As reported by Matin et al. (2007), the specific DNA fragments obtained by RAPD analysis can be used to differentiate both species and could be applied to molecular identification of individuals with ambiguous morphology and/or presumably abalone hybrids. In addition, phenotypic characterization could be helpful to some extent in clarifying hybrid status in juvenile and adult abalone, because red and Japanese abalone have a very characteristic shell and epipodial color and structure (Hanh 1989, Leighton 2000).
The genetic analyses performed here allowed us to characterize interspecific hybrids between H. rufescens and H. discus hannai, and also to assess relationships with their parental species. Future studies will be carried out to characterize the interspecific hybrids from other genetic points of view, such as molecular cytogenetic expression analysis and characterization of specific genes with dominance in offspring hybrids.
This work has been supported by grant FONDEF-D06i1027, CONACYT-Mexico scholarship number 117673/217652, and CONICTY-Chile funding.
Ahmed, F., Y. Koike, C. A. Strussmann, I. Yamasaki, M. Yokota & S. Watanabe. 2008. Genetic characterization and gonad development of artificially produced interspecific hybrids of the abalone, Haliotis discus discus Reeve, Haliotis gigantea Gmelin, and Haliotis madaka Habe. Aquacult. Res. 39:532-541.
An, H. S., Y. J. Jee, S. J. Han, B. L. Kim, E. M. Kim & I. S. Park. 2007. Induction of a new hybrid Haliotis gigantea Gmelin (female) and H. discus discus reeve (male). Korean J. Genet. 29:239-244.
Arai, K., H. Tsubaki, Y. Ishitani & K. Fujino. 1982. Chromosomes of Haliotis discus hannai Ino and H. discus Reeve. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 48:1689-1691.
Bartley, D. M., K. Rana & A. J. Immink. 2001. The use of inter-specific hybrids in aquaculture and fisheries. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 10:325337.
Brown, L. D. 1995. Genetic evidence for hybridisation between Haliotis rubra and H. laevigata. Mar. Biol. 123:89-93.
Cai, M., C. Ke, X. Luo & G. Wang, Z. Wang & Y. Wang. 2009. Karyological studies on the hybrid larvae of Haliotis diversicolor and H. discus discus. In: The 7th International Abalone Symposium. Pattaya, Thailand. p. 121.
Chevassus, B. 1983. Hybridization in fish. Aquaculture 33:245-262. Cruz, P., A. M. Ibarra, G. Fiore-Amaral, E. Galindo-Sanchez & G. Mendoza-Carrion. 2005. Isolation of microsatellite loci in green abalone (Haliotis fulgens) and cross-species amplification in two other North American red (Haliotis rufescens) and pink (Haliotis corrugata) abalone. Mol. Ecol. Notes 5:857-859.
Dakin, E. E. & J. C. Avise. 2004. Microsatellite null alleles in parentage analysis. Heredity 93:504-509.
Diaz-Viloria, N., R. Perez-Enriquez, G. Fiore-Amaral, R. S. Burton & P. Cruz. 2008. Isolation and cross-amplification of microsatellites in pink abalone (Haliotis corrugata). Mol. Ecol. Res. 8:701-703.
Elliott, N. G. 2000. Genetic improvement programmes in abalone: what is the future? Aquacult. Res. 31:51-59.
Encena, V. C. 2009. The Philippine abalone industry: status, research and aquaculture potential Presented at the 7th international Abalone Symposium. Pattaya, Thailand.
Enriquez, R. & R. Villagran. 2008. La experiencia del desarrollo del cultivo de abalon (Haliotis spp.) en Chile: oportunidades y desafios. Rev. Sci. Tech. 27:103-112.
Evans, B., N. Conod & N. G. Elliott. 2001. Evaluation of microsatellite primer conservation in abalone. J. Shellfish Res. 20:1065-1070.
Evans, B. S., W. G. White & N. G. Elliott. 2000. The use of microsatellite markers for parentage analysis in Australian blacklip and hybrid abalone. J. Shellfish Res. 19:511.
Excoffier, L., G. Laval & S. Schneider. 2005. ARLEQUIN ver. 3.0: an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis. Evol. Bioinform. Online 1:47-50.
Flores-Aguilar, R., A. Gutierrez, A. Ellwanger & R. Searcy-Bernal. 2007. Development and current status of abalone aquaculture in Chile. J. Shellfish Res. 26:705-711.
Fujino, K., K. Sasaki & N. P. Wilkins. 1980. Genetic studies on the Pacific abalone iii. Differences in electrophoretic patterns between Haliotis discus Reeve and H. discus hannai Ino. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 46: 543-548.
Gaffney, P. M. & S. K. Allen. 1993. Hybridization among Crassostrea species: a review. Aquaculture 116:1-13.
Goodman, S. J. 1997. RST CAEC: a collection of computer program for calculating estimates of genetic differentiation from microsatellite data and determining their significance. Mol. Ecol. 6:881-885.
Gordon, R. H. & P. A. Cook. 2004. World abalone fisheries and aquaculture update: supply and market dynamics. J. Shellfish Res. 23:935-940.
Goudet, J. 1995. Fstat (version 2.9.3): a computer program to calculate F-statistics. J. Hered. 86:485-486.
Gruenthal, K. M., L. K. Acheson & R. S. Burton. 2007. Genetic structure of natural populations of California red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) using multiple genetic markers. Mar. Biol. 152:1237-1248.
Guo, X. 2009. Use and exchange of genetic resources in molluscan aquaculture. Rev. Aquacult. 1:251-259.
Hamilton, M., P. Kube & N. G. Elliot. 2009a. What is the best breeding strategy for hybrid abalone? Presented at the 10th International Symposium on Genetics in Aquaculture (ISGA 2009). Bangkok, Thailand. p. 187.
Hamilton, M. G., P. D. Kube, N. G. Elliot, L. J. McPherson & A. Krsinich. 2009b. Development of a breeding strategy for hybrid abalone. In: 18th Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Animal Breeding and Genetics Conference. Barossa Valley, South Australia. pp. 350-353.
Hanh, K. O. 1989. Handbook of culture of abalone and other marine gastropods. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 348 pp.
Hara, M. & M. Sekino. 2005. Genetic difference between ezo-awabi Haliotis discus hannai and kuro-awabi H. discus discus populations: microsatellite-based populations analysis in Japanese abalone. Fish. Sci. 71:754-766.
Hara, M. & M. Sekino. 2007. Genetic differences between hatchery stocks and natural populations in pacific abalone (Haliotis discus) estimated using microsatellite DNA markers. Mar. Biotechnol. 9: 74-81.
Hernandez-Ibarra, N. K., A. M. Ibarra, A. R. Leitch & J. L. Ram. 2005. Allotriploid abalone Haliotis fulgens x Haliotis rufescens survival and genetic certification through GISH analysis. Presented at the World Aquaculture Society, Aquaculture America. January 12-20, New Orleans, LA.
Hernandez-Ibarra, N. K., A. R. Leitch, P. Cruz & A. M. Ibarra. 2008. Fluorescent in situ hybridization and characterization of the saii family of satellite repeats in the Haliotis L. species (abalone) of the northeast Pacific. Genome 51:570-579.
Hoshikawa, H., Y. Sakai & A. Kijima. 1998. Growth characteristics of the hybrid between pinto abalone, Haliotis kamtschatkana Jonas, and ezo abalone, H. discus hannai Ino, under high and low temperature. J. Shellfish Res. 17:673-677.
Hulata, G. 2001. Genetic manipulations in aquaculture: a review of stock improvement by classical and modern technologies. Genetica 111:155-173.
Ibarra, A. M., N. K. Hernandez-Ibarra, P. Cruz, R. Perez-Enriquez, S. Avila & J. L. Ramirez. 2005. Genetic certification of presumed hybrids of blue x red abalone (Huliotis fulgens Philippi and H. rufescens Swainson). Aquacult. Res. 36:13561368.
Kalinowski, S. T. & M. T. Taper. 2006. Maximum likelihood estimation of the frequency of null alleles at microsatellite loci. Conserv. Genet. 7:991-995.
Kim, S. K., Y. H. Jung, S. H. Ham Y. S. Oh, M. H. Ko & M. Y. Oh. 2000. Phylogenetic relationship among Haliotis spp. distributed in Korea by RAPD analysis. Korean J. Genet. 22:43-49.
Lafarga-de la Cruz, F. & C. Gallardo-Escarate. 2010. Interspecies hybrids in Haliotis: natural and experimental evidence and its impact on abalone aquaculture. Rev. Aquacult. (in press).
Leighton, D. L. 2000. The biology and culture of the California abalone. Pittsburgh, PA: Durance Publishing. 216 pp.
Liu, X., X. Liu & G. Zhang. 2007. Genetic analysis of segregation distortion of AFLP markers in an F1 population of the Pacific abalone. Mark. Sci. 31:70-76. [in Chinese].
Liu, Z. J. & J. F. Cordes. 2004. DNA marker technologies and their applications in aquaculture genetics. Aquaculture 238:1-37.
Luo, X., C. Ke, W. You, D. Wang & F. Chen. 2009a. AFLP analysis on populations of Haliotis discus hannai, Haliotis gigantea and their hybrids, ln: The 7th international Abalone Symposium Book of Abstracts, Pattaya, Thailand, p. 14.
Luo, X., C. Ke, W. You, D. Wan & F. Chen. 2009b. Molecular identification of interspecific hybrids between Haliotis discus hannai Ino and H. gigantea Gmelin using AFLP and microsatellite markers. Aquacult. Res. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2109.2010.02568.x.
Marchant, S., P. A. Hayed, S. A. Matin & F. M. Winkler. 2009. Genetic variability revealed with microsatellite markers in an introduced population of the abalone Haliotis discus hannai Ino. Aquacult. Res. 40:298-304.
Marin, S. A., P. A. Hayed, S. Marchant & F. M. Winkler. 2007. Molecular markers used analyze species-specific status in abalone with ambiguous morphology. J. Shellfish Res. 26:833-837.
Meyer, R. J. 1967. Hemocyanins and the systematics of California Haliotis. PhD diss., Stanford University. 92 pp.
Miller, K. M., K. Labored, K. H. Kekkonen, S. Li & R. E. Wither. 2001. Development of microsatellite loci in pinto abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana). Mol. Ecol. Notes 1:315-317.
Muchmore, M. E., G. W. Moy, W. J. Swanson & V. D. Acquire. 1998. Direct sequencing of genomic DNA for characterization of a satellite DNA in five species of eastern Pacific abalone. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 7:1-6.
Norris, A. T., D. G. Bradley & E. P. Cunningham. 1999. Microsatellite genetic variation between and within farmed and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations. Aquaculture 180:247-264.
Nunez-Acuna, G. I. 2009. Caracterizacion del ARNm de HSP70 en abalon rojo (Haliotis rufescens) y analisis de su expresion en hibridos de abalon (H. rufescens X H. discus hannai). In: Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanograficas, Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile. 50 pp.
Oosterhout, C. V., W. F. Hutchinson, D. P. M. Wills & P. Shipley. 2004. MICRO-CHECKER: software for identifying and correcting genotyping errors in microsatellite data. Mol. Ecol. Notes 4:535-538.
Perone-Millar, C., F. Lafarga-De la Cruz, F. Aguilera-Munoz & C. Gallardo-Escarate. 2008. Caracterizacion de loci microsatelites con amplificacion cruzada en Haliotis rufescens y H. discus hannai. Presented at the XXVIII Congreso de Ciencias del Mar. Valparaiso, Chile.
Rice, W. R. 1989. Analyzing tables of statistical test. Evolution 43:223-225. Sasaki, K., K. Kanazawa & K. Fujino. 1980. Zymogram differences among the five species of the abalone from the coasts of Japan. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 46:1169-1175.
SEAFDEC/AQD. 2008. Highlights 2008. Tigbauan Iloilo, The Philippines: Aquaculture Department, Southwest Asian Fisheries Development Center. 40 pp.
Sekino, M., T. Saido, T. Fujita, T. Kobayashi & H. Takami. 2005. Microsatellite DNA markers of ezo abalone (Huliotis discus hannai): a preliminary assessment of natural populations sampled from heavily stocked areas. Aquaculture 243:33-47.
Slabbert, R., A. E. Bester & M. E. D'Amato. 2009. Analyses of genetic diversity and parentage within a South African hatchery of the abalone Haliotis midae Linnaeus using microsatellite markers. J. Shellfish Res. 28:369-375.
Slabbert, R. & R. Roodt-Wilding. 2006. Non-destructive sampling of juvenile abalone using epipodial tentacles and mucus: method and application. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 28:719-721.
Wan, F., Z. Bao, Q. Zhang & X. Wang. 2004. Comparative studies on the molecular genetic diversities among Haliotis discus hannai, H. discus discus and their hybrids. High Tech. Lett. 10:93-96. [in Chinese].
Wan, J., Z. Bao, Q. Zhang, K. Bi & R. Wang. 2003. Estimating the genetic relationship between two subspecies abalone and their hybrids using AFLP markers. Presented at the 5th International Abalone Symposium, Qingdao, China, October 12-17.
Wan, J., X. Wang, J. Pan, B. Li, Z. Li, Z. Bao, J. Yan & J. Fang. 2001. RAPD analysis of the genetic change in parent abalone and their hybrids. Period. Ocean Univ. China 31:506-512. [in Chinese].
Was, A. & R. Wenne. 2002. Genetic differentiation in hatchery and wild sea trout (Salmo trutta) in the southern Baltic at microsatellite loci. Aquaculture 204:493-506.
Wattier, R., C. R. Angel, P. Saumitou-Laprade & M. Valero. 1998. Short allele dominance as a source of heterozygote deficiency at microsatellite loci: Experimental evidence at the dinucleotide locus Gvlct in Gracilaria gracilis (rhodophyta). Mol. Ecol. 7:1569-1573.
Zane, L., L. Bargelloni & T. Patarnello. 2002. Strategies for microsatellite isolation: a review. Mol. Ecol. 11:1-16.
Zhang, G., H. Que, X. Liu & H. Xu. 2004. Abalone mariculture in china. J. Shellfish Res. 23:947-950.
FABIOLA LAFARGA DE LA CRUZ, (1,2) GABRIEL AMAR-BASULTO, (1,2) MIGUEL ANGEL DEL RIO-PORTILLA (3) AND CRISTIAN GALLARDO-ESCARATE (1) *
(1) Laboratorio de Biotecnologia Acuicola, Departamento de Oceanografia, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanograficas, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidad de Concepcion, Casilla 160-C, Concepcion, Chile; (2) Facultad de Ciencias Agronomicas, Universidad de Chile. Santa Rosa 11315, La Pintana, Santiago, Chile; (3) Departamento de Acuicultura, Division de Oceanologia, CICESE, Carretera Tij-Eda Km 107, BC, Ensenada, Mexico
* Corresponding author. E-mail: email@example.com
TABLE 1. Number of alleles (N), allelic richness ([R.sub.s]), heterozygosity observed ([H.sub.o]), heterozygosity expected ([H.sub.e]), null allele frequency (Null) and P value for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at 10 microsatellite loci analyzed in cultured populations of Red abalone, Japanese abalone and their hybrids. Genetic Hatchery Populations Variability Locus Indices HRed HJap HHyb Hka3 N (size, bp) 17 (257-317) 5 (243-331) 13 (263-322) [R.sub.s] 17.00 4.84 13.00 [H.sub.o] 0.848 0.529 0.500 [H.sub.e] 0.846 0.630 0.876 Null 0.010 0.086 0.191 HWE 0.144 0.000 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] -0.003 0.160 0.434 Hka28 N (size, bp) 16 (176-232) 7 (156-214) 10 (176-222) [R.sub.s] 16.00 7.00 10.00 [H.sub.o] 0.636 0.608 0.667 [H.sub.e] 0.889 0.821 0.829 Null 0.138 0.065 0.079 HWE 0.000 * 0.000 * 0.007 * [F.sub.IS] 0.286 0.078 0.199 Hka40 N (size, bp) 14 (127-167) 7 (133-177) 16 (125-179) [R.sub.s] 14.00 6.98 16.00 [H.sub.o] 0.803 0.353 0.667 [H.sub.e] 0.830 0.708 0.936 Null 0.029 0.186 0.126 HWE 0.012 * 0.026 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] 0.032 0.459 0.290 Hka56 N (size, bp) 15 (97-139) 12 (93-143) 13 (97-139) [R.sub.s] 15.00 11.86 13.00 [H.sub.o] 0.379 0.333 0.417 [H.sub.e] 0.875 0.882 0.857 Null 0.259 0.266 0.226 HWE 0.000 * 0.000 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] 0.569 0.575 0.519 Hka80 N (size, bp) 14 (104-148) ND 11 (110-162) [R.sub.s] 14.00 ND 11.00 [H.sub.o] 0.500 ND 0.542 [H.sub.e] 0.888 ND 0.754 Null 0.026 ND 0.139 HWE 0.000 * ND 0.0l5 * [F.sub.IS] 0.439 ND 0.286 Awh026 N (size, bp) 7(153-193) 7(143-215) 8(153-193) [R.sub.s] 7.00 6.98 8.00 [H.sub.o] 0.530 0.294 0.417 [H.sub.e] 0.541 0.681 0.791 Null 0.015 0.208 0.196 HWE 0.392 0.000 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] 0.019 0.554 0.467 Awb033 N (size, bp) 8 (146-173) 10 (151-185) 8 (155-182) [R.sub.s] 8.00 9.74 8.00 [H.sub.o] 0.756 0.490 0.208 [H.sub.e] 0.733 0.830 0.798 Null 0.000 0.158 0.353 HWE 0.742 0.203 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] -0.034 0.378 0.797 Awb041 N (size, bp) 3 (201-210) 7 (195-219) 5 (201-219) [R.sub.s] 3.00 6.98 5.00 [H.sub.o] 0.470 0.706 0.125 [H.sub.e] 0.416 0.799 0.660 Null 0.000 0.068 0.317 HWE 0.744 0.001 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] -0.13 0.114 0.814 Awb062 N (size, bp) ND 8 (244-271) 10 (244-289) [R.sub.s] ND 8.00 10.00 [H.sub.o] ND 0.784 0.333 [H.sub.e] ND 0.820 0.827 Null ND 0.000 0.261 HWE ND 0.002 * 0.000 * [F.sub.IS] ND -0.066 0.602 Hco97 N (size, bp) 19 (200-258) 7 (76-90) 17 (78-250) [R.sub.s] 19.00 6.82 17.00 [H.sub.o] 0.288 0.706 1.000 [H.sub.e] 0.873 0.769 0.902 Null 0.322 0.053 0.000 HWE 0.000 * 0.000 * 0.279 [F.sub.IS] 0.672 0.083 -0.112 Mean N 12.56 7.78 11.10 [R.sub.s] 12.56 7.69 11.10 [H.sub.o] 0.579 0.534 0.488 [H.sub.e] 0.766 0.771 0.823 Null 0.089 0.121 0.189 * Significant statistical deviation of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (P < 0.05). ND, not data. TABLE 2. Genetic differentiation analysis between pairs of 3 kinds of hatchery abalone populations based on [F.sub.st] (below diagonal) and [R.sub.st] (above diagonal) estimations. HRed HJap HHyb HRed -- 0.253 * 0.113 * HJap 0.l83 * -- 0.170 * HHyb 0.099 * 0.132 * -- * Significant at P < 0.05. Wide significant levels were applied using the sequential Bonferroni correction. HRed, red abalone H. rufescens; HJap, Japanese abalone H. discus hannai; HHyb, hatchery hybrids abalone H. rufescens x H. discus hannai. TABLE 3. Analysis of common alleles found between hatchery population of hybrid abalone H. rufescens x H. discus hannai (HHyb) and each parental species (HRed, red abalone H. rufescens; HJap, Japanese abalone H. discus hannai), and among the 3 kinds of abalone in Chile. No. of Alleles (N) Locus HRed HJap HHyb [SIGMA] Hka3 17 7 13 24 Hka28 7 7 10 21 Hka40 8 10 16 22 Hka56 3 7 13 22 Awb026 17 5 8 13 Awb033 16 7 8 12 Awb041 14 7 5 8 Hco97 15 12 17 29 Mean 12.1 7.8 11.3 19 SD 5.4 2.2 4.2 7.1 Minimum 3 5 5 8 Maximum 17 12 17 29 Common Alleles (N) HHyb HHyb HHyb HRed Locus HRed HJap HJap [SIGMA] Hka3 7 0 2 9 Hka28 4 0 4 8 Hka40 9 3 1 13 Hka56 3 0 7 10 Awb026 4 1 2 7 Awb033 2 2 4 8 Awb041 1 2 2 5 Hco97 10 4 0 14 Mean 5.0 1.5 2.8 9.3 SD 3.3 1.5 2.2 3.0 Minimum 1 0 0 5 Maximum 10 4 7 14 Common Alleles (%) HHyb HHyb HHyb HRed Locus HRed HJap HJap [SIGMA] Hka3 54 0 15 69 Hka28 40 0 40 80 Hka40 56 19 6 81 Hka56 23 0 54 77 Awb026 50 13 25 88 Awb033 25 25 50 100 Awb041 20 40 40 100 Hco97 59 24 0 82 Mean 41 15 29 85 SD 16 15 20 11 Minimum 20 0 0 69 Maximum 59 40 54 100
|Printer friendly Cite/link Email Feedback|
|Author:||De La Cruz, Fabiola Lafarga; Amar-Basulto, Gabriel; Del Rio-Portilla, Miguel Angel; Gallardo-Escarat|
|Publication:||Journal of Shellfish Research|
|Date:||Nov 1, 2010|
|Previous Article:||Genetic variability of cultured populations of red abalone in Chile: an approach based on heterologous microsatellites.|
|Next Article:||Allogyogenetic progeny are produced from a hybrid abalone cross of female haliotis diversicolor and male haliotis discus discus.|