FranceArticle Free Pass
- Plant and animal life
- Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
- Resources and power
- Labour and taxation
- Transportation and telecommunications
- Government and society
- The constitutional framework
- Regional and local government
- Political process
- Health and welfare
- Cultural life
- Merovingian and Carolingian age
- The Merovingians
- Clovis and the unification of Gaul
- The sons of Clovis
- The grandsons of Clovis
- The failure of reunification (613–714)
- The Carolingians
- The Frankish world
- Economic life
- The church
- Merovingian literature and arts
- Carolingian literature and arts
- The emergence of France
- French society in the early Middle Ages
- The political history of France (c. 850–1180)
- France, 1180 to c. 1490
- France from 1180 to 1328
- The period of the Hundred Years’ War
- France, 1490–1715
- France in the 16th century
- France in the early 17th century
- The age of Louis XIV
- French culture in the 17th century
- France, 1715–89
- The social and political heritage
- Continuity and change
- Cultural transformation
- The political response
- The causes of the French Revolution
- The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789–1815
- The destruction of the ancien régime
- The First French Republic
- The Napoleonic era
- Napoleon and the Revolution
- France, 1815–1940
- The restoration and constitutional monarchy
- The Second Republic and Second Empire
- The Third Republic
- The Commune of Paris
- The formative years (1871–1905)
- The prewar years
- World War I
- The interwar years
- Society and culture under the Third Republic
- France since 1940
- Wartime France
- The Fourth Republic
- The Fifth Republic
- France after de Gaulle
- France under a Socialist presidency
- France under conservative presidencies
- The euro-zone crisis and the Socialist resurgence
- Society since 1940
- The cultural scene
- Major rulers of France
The role of referenda
The people may be asked to ratify, by a constituent referendum (Article 89), an amendment already passed by the two houses of the parliament. The constitution made provision for legislative referenda, by which the president of the republic has the authority to submit a proposed bill to the people relating to the general organization of the state (Article 11).
This procedure was used twice in settling the Algerian question of independence, first in January 1961, to approve self-determination in Algeria (when 75 percent voted in favour), and again in April 1962, approving the Évian Agreement, which gave Algeria its independence from France (when 91 percent voted in favour). The use of this latter procedure to amend the constitution without going through the preliminary phase of obtaining parliamentary approval is constitutionally questionable, but it led to a significant result when, in October 1962, the election of the president by universal suffrage was approved by 62 percent of those voting. In April 1969, however, in a referendum concerning the transformation of the Senate into an economic and social council and the reform of the regional structure of France, fewer than half voted in favour, and this brought about President de Gaulle’s resignation.
Through the end of the 20th century, national referenda were met with low voter turnout. The procedure was used in 1972 for the enlargement of the European Economic Community (EEC) by the proposed addition of Denmark, Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom; in 1988 for the proposed future status of the overseas territory of New Caledonia; and in 1992 for approval of the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union. In 1995, when minor modifications were made to the constitution, the use of the referendum was enlarged to include proposed legislation relating to the country’s economic and social life. In 2000 a referendum shortened the presidential term from seven to five years. A 2005 referendum on a proposed constitution for the European Union was soundly defeated, and the setback forced EU officials to consider alternative means to further European integration.
The role of the Constitutional Council
The Constitutional Council is appointed for nine years and is composed of nine members, three each appointed by the president, the National Assembly, and the Senate. It supervises the conduct of parliamentary and presidential elections, and it examines the constitutionality of organic laws (those fundamentally affecting the government) and rules of parliamentary procedure. The council is also consulted on international agreements, on disputes between the government and the parliament, and, above all, on the constitutionality of legislation. This power has increased over the years, and the council has been given a position comparable to that of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Regional and local government
The main units of local government, defined by the constitution as collectivités territoriales (“territorial collectivities”), are the régions, the départements, the communes, and the overseas territories. A small number of local governments, known as collectivités territoriales à statut particulier (“territorial collectivities with special status”), have slightly different administrative frameworks; among these are the island of Corsica and the large cities of Paris, Lyon, and Marseille.
One of the main features of decentralization in French government has evolved through the creation of the régions. These include the 21 metropolitan régions of mainland France as well as the 5 overseas régions of Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Mayotte, and Réunion. (The overseas régions are simultaneously administered as overseas départements.) Although Corsica is still commonly described as one of 22 régions of metropolitan France, its official status was changed in 1991 from région to collectivité territoriale à statut particulier; its classification, unique among France’s local governments, provides Corsica greater autonomy than the régions.
After a number of limited changes lasting two decades, a 1982 law set up directly elected regional councils with the power to elect their executive. The law also devolved to the regional authorities many functions hitherto belonging to the central government, in particular economic and social development, regional planning, education, and cultural matters. The régions have gradually come to play a larger part in the administrative and political life of the country.
The région to an extent competes with the département, which was set up in 1790 and is still regarded by some as the main intermediate level of government. With the creation in 1964 of new départements in the Paris region and the dividing in two of Corsica in 1976, the number of départements reached 100: 96 in metropolitan France and 4 overseas (Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion, which are simultaneously administered as régions). In 2009, residents of Mayotte voted overwhelmingly in favour of département status, and two years later it became France’s fifth overseas (and its 101st total) département. Each département is run by the General Council, which is elected for six years with one councillor per canton. There are between 13 and 70 cantons per département. The General Council is responsible for all the main departmental services: welfare, health, administration, and departmental employment. It also has responsibility for local regulations, manages public and private property, and votes on the local budget.
A law passed in 1982 enhanced decentralization by increasing the powers and authority of the départements. Formerly, the chief executive of the département was the government-appointed prefect (préfet), who also had strong powers over other local authorities. Since the law went into effect, however, the president of the General Council is the chief executive and the prefect is responsible only for preventing the actions of local authorities from going against national legislation.
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