In theology and Biblical studies, the word "covenant" principally refers to any of a number of solemn agreements made between God and the Israelites in the Hebrew Bible, as well as to the New Covenant, which Christians consider to be the final fulfillment of these. Christians typically use the term "Old Covenant" to collectively refer to the covenants described in the Old Testament.
God's covenants with the Israelites are foundational to the Torah, as well as to the Tanakh in general, and form the grounds for the claim that the Israelites are God's "chosen people." According to the terms of these covenants, the Israelites were told that they must worship God and obey His Commandments in order to receive spiritual and temporal blessing and avoid exposure to the effects of the curse. When the word "covenant" is used in this sense, the agreement is essentially unilateral, since while the covenant's outworkings are dependent upon human response, its terms are dictated by God. By contrast, at many points in the Hebrew Scripture, human covenants are made - in such covenants, the terms are agreed upon mutually.
The Noahic Covenant, found in Genesis , applies to the whole of humankind. In this covenant, God:
The Abrahamic covenant is found in . In this covenant, God promises:
Traditional Jewish interpretation, and that of most Christian commentators, define Abraham's descendants only as Abraham's seed through his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Johann Friedrich Karl Keil is less clear, as he states that the covenant is through Isaac, but notes that Ishmael's descendants have held much of that land through time.
Paul of Tarsus believed that the promise was further defined, for example writing in : "Now to Abraham and his Seed were the promises made. He does not say, “And to seeds,” as of many, but as of one, “And to your Seed,” who is Christ."
As part of the terms of this covenant, God gives Moses the Ten Commandments. These will later be elaborated in the rest of the Pentateuch. The fullest account of the Mosaic Covenant is given in the book of Deuteronomy, the form of which resembles an Ancient Near Eastern suzerainty treaty . Many Christians believe that the Sermon on the Mount is a form of commentary on the Ten Commandments. See also Biblical law in Christianity.
In later history, texts such as these have been used to justify political alliances such as that between the Scottishl Covenanters and the English Parliamentarians, memorialized in the Solemn League and Covenant.
The New Covenant has never been a significant feature of Jewish eschatology, other than the belief that eventually all Jews will know and follow the Torah without the need to study (). For example, the article Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament states: "The idea of the new covenant is based chiefly upon Jer. xxxi. 31-34 (comp. x. 16). That the prophet's words do not imply an abrogation of the Law is evidenced by his emphatic declaration of the immutability of the covenant with Israel (comp. ); he obviously looked for a renewal of the Law through a regeneration of the hearts of the people."
Christians claim that they are God's New Covenant people, on the basis of prophecies such as Jeremiah 31:31-34 and Isaiah 49:8 At the Last Supper, Jesus alludes to these prophecies, saying that the cup of the Passover meal is "the cup of the New Covenant in [his] blood" This is an eschatological claim, since he is implicitly asserting that the Old Testament rituals of atonement are fulfilled in him .
The Epistle to the Hebrews, of the books of the New Testament, is the most explicit about how the Death and Resurrection of Jesus inaugurates the New Covenant. Throughout the book, the covenants prior to Christ's coming, and their associated rituals and sacrifices, are contrasted with the state of affairs promised in passages such as Jer. 31:31-34 . Christ's death and resurrection is portrayed as a priestly work which puts an end to sacrifice , thus bringing permanent peace whereas previous covenants could not eliminate bloodguilt . Most Christians believe the era of permanent peace (see also Messianic Age) will be initiated with Jesus' Second Coming.
The Apostle Paul, in his letters, also considers Christ's death to mark the beginning of a new covenant era. In this era, he claims, the traditional barriers between Jew and Gentile are broken down. Both are approved by God on the basis of faith . However, he also warns Gentile believers in Jesus (whom he views as the Jewish Messiah) not to boast in their newfound acceptance by God, for they have been "grafted in" to the covenantal tree whose root is in the promises to national Israel .
Sometimes the New Covenant is referred to as the New Testament, on the basis of passages such as Heb. 9:16, in its traditional translation. This usage reflects the Vulgate, in which the word "covenant" was translated testamentum. Biblical scholars, such as O. Palmer Robertson, have argued against this translation, however, since the word testamentum, in Latin, expresses the concept of a "last will," not an agreement between two parties sealed with a self-maledictory oath See also Jewish Encyclopedia: Covenant: The Old and the New Covenant