Mohammed Salim Abdullah Al-Mashakhi
El-Hag Bakhit Ahmed Koll
The Sultanate of Oman is on the south eastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula,
along the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea, from the Strait of Hormuz
in the North to the borders of Yemen
in the South. The Sultanate shares borders with the Republic of Yemen,
the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Figure1).
It covers an area of approximately 309 500 km2 and includes
several islands: the U.A.E separates Madha and Mussandam form the mainland.
Two-thirds are desert ranging from Al-Sharkiya to A'Dhahira in the North,
through Jadat Elharasees up to Dhofar in the far South.
Figure 1. Map of Oman
The Sultanate comprises five administrative divisions or regions (see
Al-Dakhiliya, Al-Batinah, Al-Wasta, Al-Sharkia, Al-Dhahira, and three
governorates: Musandam, Dhofar and Muscat. The country is divided into
According to the 2003 census the population is 2 340 815, of
whom 76.1% are Omani citizens and 23.9% expatriates (according to the
Factbook the July 2006
estimated population was 3 102 229 [with 577 293 non-nationals] with a
growth rate of 3.28%). Al-Batinah is the most populous area (27.9%), followed
by Muscat Governorate with 27%, Al-Sharkia with 13%, Al-Dakhiliya with
11.27% and Dhofar Governorate with 9.19%. The Middle Region has a very
low population density (0.98%). Overall population density in the Sultanate
is estimated at 11 individuals/km2. The annual rate of population
increase has reached 1.84%.
The most developed urban regions are in the south and the north due to
favourable economic and environmental circumstances, especially the availability
of water and job opportunities. Other factors: the existence of inhabitants
along the coast, oases, valleys and nearby chains of mountains influence
this situation. There are no accurate statistics about the urban and rural
populations but estimates in 1993 put the urban inhabitants at 40%. According
to the 1997 census the category of ages under 14 years represents about
46% of the population; 25-65 years olds represent 51%, and over 65 years
old 3%. This frame of age categories is expected to have an effect on
the type of preferred careers: traditional ones ‑ farming, herding
and fishing are expected to decline. The huge availability of services
in urban centres has motivated emigration from rural areas. The internal
emigration net rate is estimated at 1.42 per 1 000 citizens. There
is random rural emigration in response to drought, environmental deterioration
and declining soil productivity, raising urban population density and
putting more pressure on resources.
The Sultanate of Oman is arid; annual rainfall averages about 100 mm,
of which 80% is lost to evaporation, 5% flows to the sea and about 15%
infiltrates into the soil. There are no perennial rivers, with the exception
of Dhaiga wadi (70 km south of Muscat). Seasonal watercourses (wadis)
flow after heavy rains. Pools along wadis hold water for variable periods;
some may last the whole year. Springs at the bottom of wadis and the edges
of mountains flow into other permanent ponds.
The Sultanate depends on groundwater from springs and wells. Aquifers
are replenished by occasional rainfall. Renewable groundwater supplies
are estimated at about 1 239.8 million m3 annually
(JICA, 1990). Groundwater varies in quantity, quality and distribution.
The quantity of groundwater drawn in 1990 was 850 million m3.
JICA also estimated that water lost in torrential floods is about 230.5
million m3. The agricultural sector is the main user of water
(94% of the total) and its demand for water has constantly increased.
The increase in human and livestock populations and their rising food
and feed demands, expansions in cultivated area, extensive use of the
deep wells with modern pumps, and changing cropping systems from seasonal
to permanent trees and perennial grasses, have led to a deficit in water
balance. The result is wider gap between supply and demand for water reflected
by the critical shortage in water resources in most regions of the country.
The sum of adverse effects is a decrease in quantity of groundwater and
deterioration of its quality, drying of many wells and springs, intrusion
of sea water and its mixing with groundwater in coastal sites. A study
by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources
indicated that the annual water shortage exceeds 300 million cubic metres.
In spite of its dry climate most of the country enjoys a high degree
of biodiversity, especially in less arid areas such as Dhofar Governorate,
where seasonal rainfall induces diverse and dense vegetation. The biological
environments (fauna and flora) in the north of the country are similar
to those in Iran and Pakistan,
while the African types are encountered in the south. [Typical vegetation
for various regions is shown in photos 1-8].
Typical vegetation for various regions
[Click on thumbnails to view full pictures]
Photo 1. Dense woodland in
Photo 2. Eillop coastal plain
Photo 3. Ficus vasta
Photo 4. Densely vegetated sea-facing slopes
Photo 5. Summit grasslands
Photo 6. Typical escarpment woodland
Photo 7. Wadi Darbat pools
Photo 8. Typical local cattle
There is a wide range of crops, especially in Dhofar. Diversity is not
confined to food crops such as sorghum, wheat and barley, but extends
to horticultural products, such as bananas, citrus, mangoes, jak fruit,
and native forage plants such as: Themeda quadrivalvis, Ziziphus
spina-christi, Acacia tortilis, Grewia spp. and Anogeissus
dhofarica, irrigated forage (lucerne), vegetables (cucumis)
Solanum spp, Corchorus olitorius, Basella rubra,
Allium, Nannorrhops sp. Cassia, Capparis spp, Ocimum
forskolei and perfume sources such as Lavandula spp, and Boswellia
sacra. Many other genera grow on Dhofar Mountains, such as Tamrindus,
Olea sp. and Moringa oleifera. The flora of Oman,
is estimated at 1 208 genera 87 of them endemic.
Range, forest and woodland are natural reserves and suitable habitats
for many mammals, birds and other types of wildlife. Mammals include Arabian
deer, wolf, striped hyena, Arabian tiger, Nubian ibex, Musairah rabbit,
Arabian Oryx, Arabian ibex. There are 451 species of bird, some resident
and others passage migrants. This biodiversity is being adversely affected,
through human interference, over-exploitation and degradation of resources,
especially over-grazing, deforestation and overall ecosystem fragmentation.
The scarcity of renewable resources, which are jeopardized and deteriorating
and accelerating development programmes, indicates an urgent need for
an action plan not limited to protecting biodiversity, but giving attention
to rehabilitating threatened ecosystems, to maintain resources for sustainable
development to assure livelihoods and to ensure social welfare for current
and future generations.
Most livestock is owned by herders and small farmers. According to the
2004/2005 agricultural survey the number of livestock reached 2.4 millions
(Table 1). Table 2 shows data from the FAO database which gives slightly
lower livestock numbers (1.9 M in 2005, mainly due to lower goat numbers)
as well as live sheep and goat imports and meat and milk imports. The
value of imports of livestock and their products recorded an increase,
estimated at 125% between 1968-1997 (Table 3). FAO data indicate that
in 2004 the value of meat and milk imports were respectively 93.5 M US$
and 188.3 M US$. The system of animal rearing is related to the style
of living and prevalent grazing systems. The main systems are: nomadic
based on camels and goats on the dry rangelands; transhumance where cattle,
camels and goats are raised under partial or full dependence on natural
pastures; supplementary feed is provided by irrigated forages, concentrates,
and dried sardines. The third system is sedentary, characterized by fattening
livestock for the local market as well as relatively large and small scale
dairy farms. Here production depends upon irrigated fodders in addition
to supplementary feeding utilizing farm by-products and purchased concentrates.
Table 1: Cattle, camels, goats and
sheep by region (head)
Al- Dakhiliya Region
1 543 707
2 326 213
Source: * 2004/2005 agricultural census,
|Table 2. Oman: livestock numbers (‘000 head), live
animal and meat and milk imports (1996-2005) according to FAO database.
Live sheep imports (‘000 head)
Live goat imports (‘000 head)
Total meat imports (‘000 tonnes)
Whole dried milk imports (‘000 tonnes)
| Whole evaporated milk imports (‘000 tonnes)
|Source: FAO database 2007; n.r. no record
Table 3: Imports of live animals and livestock
products in Omani Riyals
|| % increase over this period
Meats & meat products
Source: Annual Statistical Book (1989)- Development
Council – Technical Secretariat
Annual Statistical Book (Aug. 1998) Ministry of National Economy,
One Oman Riyal = US$ 2.6
Land tenure systems in the Sultanate vary from freehold to communal ownership.
In centres with more enlightened groups, land tenure is based on leasehold.
Holdings are small and their areas range from 2 – 8.5 hectares.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
The Oman Soil Atlas, prepared in 1992 by UNDP/FAO Project-OMA/87/011 Soil
Survey and Land Classification, showed that 93% of land is unsuitable
for cultivation; most is arid, rocky, or sandy and unproductive. Currently,
a small part (about 1.4 million ha) is used for grazing. Most of the population
and resources are in northern Oman.
Agricultural soils are situated on flat alluvial plains, coastal and alluvial
plains, watercourses and mountain terraces.
Soil surveys in 1990 indicated that 2.223 million ha of land are suitable
for agriculture (MAF, 1990), of which 791 651 ha are highly suitable and
1 431 406 ha are moderately suitable. According to a JICA 1990 study based
on satellite imagery (Landsat MSS) analysis in 1982, only 269 000 ha are
suitable for cultivation.
The landscape of the Sultanate is varied and has multiforms with similar
soil variability [see Figures 2 and 3]. The following features are encountered:
- Island of Mussandam in the far north has a deeply fissured
- North Oman, is surrounded by the Hajar Mountains that stretch
from the northwest up to the southeast (600 km) along the northern coast.
The western part of the Hajar Mountains (El-Jebel El-Akhdar 3 009
metres) is higher than the eastern part. Due to the calcareous, alluvial
nature of the material from which these mountains were formed, water
flows freely through deep ravines to the wadis.
- Al-Batinah coast, which is the most important agricultural
region, is characterized by relatively fertile soils. Its width ranges
from 10 to 50 km, extending 400 km between the western Hajar Mountains
and the Gulf of Oman. In the north and the west soils are alluvial,
including sandy silt Yermosols, among the most suitable soils for agriculture.
- Ga'alan: south of the eastern Hajar Mountains, is the homeland
of Wahiba sand which extends 200 km to the Indian Ocean. Here, the soil
is basically formed as a result of alluvial cumulating processes and
aeolian sand deposits. Most of the suitable agricultural lands are Yermosols.
Interfluvial plains, which are covered by Arenosols have high potential
agricultural productivity. (JICA, 1990).
- Nejd: wide flat arid plains in the middle of the country,
which extend 800 km from the Hajar Mountains to the chain of Dhofar
Mountains, cover the western part of the country. Yermosols in the north,
which represent the agricultural soil in the area, were derived from
the calcareous Hajar Mountains. Flood water moves silty materials to
the wadis, forming fine textured soils.
- Dhofar: the home of frankincense trees and
most of the relatively productive rangelands and woodlands covers 100 000
km2 of diverse land systems, which include the high sand
dunes of the Empty Quarter, the dry moist plateau, the steep mountain
escarpments, the deep wadis, foothills and coastal plains. Salalah coastal
plain of yermosols derived from the Dhofar Mountains is the most important
agricultural area in the Governorate. Silt and clay are basic elements
that form mountain soil. Yermosols are the main soils in the Nejd desert.
Figure 2. Physiographic regions of Oman
[Click to view full picture]
Figure 3. Satellite image of the main physical
features of Oman
[Click to view full picture]
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL
The climate of Oman varies according
to the prevalent wind, the upwelling of coastal cold water and cyclones.
The country is characterized by a desert sub-tropical climate, except
in the Dhofar Mountains which enjoy an arid and semi-arid tropical climate;
the area receives seasonal rainfall as a result of the monsoon winds from
the Indian Ocean saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog. The monsoon
season starts late June and extends to late September. It stays dry during
the rest of the year, however, occasional rains fall out of season causing
floods and influencing watersheds and the coastal plain. It is hot and
humid in summer, but in winter it is cool in coastal areas and relatively
cold on the mountains.
The interior parts (Nejd) are hot and dry in summer and relatively cool
in winter. Rains along the coast and the interior plains, fluctuate between
20 - 150 mm/year and occur during mid and end of winter. There is more
rain in mountainous areas, especially in El-Jebel El-Akhdar, where it
may reach 700 mm annually. The calcareous nature of the mountains facilitates
infiltration of water to form a rich aquifer that replenishes springs
and supplies water to users in low areas.
In Dhofar rainfall varies from 100 mm in the coastal plain, to 200 -
350 mm in Dhofar Mountains; in addition to moisture derived from mist,
which ranges between 50 - 300 mm. This latter quantity varies according
to altitude, aspect, topography and woody species crown configuration.
Major agro-ecological zones
Most of the land is desert, arid or semi-arid plains and mountains. In
addition to the mainland which is estimated at about 309 500 km2,
there are many small islands, the most important of which Maseira Island,
which, with the Musandam Peninsula guards the strait of Hormuz. There
are three major ecological zones with profound impact on the country's
agricultural and pastoral activities; the coastal zones of the north and
south constitute 3% of the total area covering 9000 km2, the
mountain zones of north and south cover 45 000 km2 being
15% of the total area, and the dry lands and deserts of the centre that
covers most of Oman and approximates to 246 000 km2 ,
82% of the country (as well as approximately 9 500 km2 covering
numerous islands, among which Masirah and Hallaniyat are the largest).
Major agricultural activities
A large sector of the population depends on, and derives its living from,
agriculture: irrigated farming, pastoral activities and fishing. Estimates
put those involved in these activities at about 85 000, 60 000
and 18 500 households and fishermen, respectively. Much farming is
at a subsistence level, the rest of Oman’s
inhabitants depend on imported and commercially grown foods. Although
the contribution of the agriculture and fisheries sectors has increased
from 14.3 million Omani Riyal in 1967 to 111.7 million in 1989, as a percentage
of the National Domestic Product their contribution has dropped notably
from 34.6 - 3.6% in the same period (JICA 1990). Nevertheless the government
realizes the importance of these sectors and pays special attention to
their development to improve food security and in order to check excessive
emigration from rural to urban areas.
In the southern part of the Sultanate most livestock feed is derived
from grazing lands. In the north grazing lands only yield feed immediately
after the rains. Studies in 2000 indicated that the dry matter requirements
of the herd in Dhofar are met by natural pastures (75%), hay and green
grasses (7.5%), concentrates (15%), and sardines, crop residues, and other
residues and by-products (2.5%). In the North, 40% of livestock feed is
from natural pastures; concentrates provide most of the rest. Woodlands
and shrubs are the only feed source during drought and times of forage
scarcity. Pastoral resources support other rural income generating activities
including beekeeping, ecotourism, and rural handicrafts.
The status of cultivable lands in Oman
is not clear despite studies and surveys, perhaps because of the various
definitions of agricultural lands and lack of comprehensive detailed surveys.
The north-western coast, known as Batinah, is the most important agricultural
area in the country and in the Arabian Gulf. The 2004/5 agricultural census
showed that the country’s agricultural area is about 84 000 hectares
47.4% in the Batinah area, 48.5% in the Northern area and about 4.2% in
Dhofar Governorate. Half of the cultivated area is under date palms which
number about 10 million, producing some 238 611 tons of dates. Fodder
crops occupied 20 000 hectares, with 42 000 hectares of fruit,
19 000 of vegetables and field crops about 3 000 hectares.
Groundwater resources in the Batinah helped to create an important agricultural
area (dates, vegetables, fodders, livestock and fruit trees) irrigated
from wells which supports about 28% of Oman’s
The interior foothills of the Northern Mountains, and in Dhakilya, Sharquia
and Dhahira areas are inhabited by Shawawi (a goat raising tribe) and
date farmers who form together about 20% of the country's inhabitants.
In Dhofar Governorate there is irrigated farming on the coastal plains
near Salalah. The total cultivable land is estimated at about 4 000 ha
of which 3 482 ha are cropped annually. Coconuts, bananas, vegetables,
maize, papayas, fodders [mainly Lucerne (Medicago sativa), and
Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana)] are the main crops. Groups of fishermen
are distributed along the coast between Mirbat and Jazir. This area is
increasing in importance for the national economy. Dhofari herders, specifically
cattle raising groups who occupy the flat plateau of Dhofar Mountains,
practice rainfed cultivation, which used to occupy a larger area and more
households; they grow cowpea, mung, sorghum, small grains, local cucumber,
and recently, maize.
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
production evolved under subsistence systems, which are shifting gradually
and at various levels towards a market economy. Local trade varies from
sales of a few small ruminants and cattle in the north, to selling at
a larger scale in Dhofar Governorate. Animal production systems and livestock
keeping are related to and affected by, community’s ways of life and grazing
opportunities. Animal production systems can broadly be divided into:
The nomadic system:
In this system grazing lands are the main source of livestock feed and
groups adopt a mobile strategy following availability of grazing within
national borders. It prevails in the Nejd (desert) where Bedouin groups
move with their livestock within their traditional tribal boundaries as
well as in other sites within their region or governorate. These nomadic
groups depend on camels and goats for subsistence and income.
The transhumance system:
Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists’ herds and flocks depend fully or partially
on grazing lands. This system is adopted by semi-sedentary groups who
have permanent houses but practice seasonal movement from one area to
another within their home lands. Previously these groups followed an orderly
movement with their animals to give the range vegetation a chance for
growth and renewal. After the end of the rainy season they return to their
bases in what is known as Al-Zuhair movement in Dhofar Governorate. Here
herders depend on their livestock (mainly cattle but also goats and camels)
beside some agricultural products from traditional cultivation plots (Mishdidas).
Currently cattle herders in the Dhofar Mountains practice a semi-sedentary
system of animal production which depends on grazing and crop residues
(part of it produced locally) in addition to Rhodes grass hay, concentrates
The nomadic and semi-sedentary pastoral communities are thinly spread
over the entire central desert region, as well as other areas. In the
north, along the Batinah coast, in the nearby valleys of the Hajar Mountains
Range and El-Jebel El-Akhdar and the interior foothills are the "Shawawi"
goat breeders (nearly 10 000 people). In the south, are the Dhofari livestock
(cattle, camel and goats) herders. The Mahra tribe (around 6 000 individuals)
in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the Nejd in Dhofar Governorate;
also, the Beit Kathir tribe (around 6 000 individuals), which inhabits
the central, northern and the western parts of Dhofar Governorate, raise
camels and goats. The nomadic tribes which move along the northern and
the southern range of mountains with herders in the Dhofar Mountains,
are estimated at about 7 - 10% of the country 's population.
The central region, stretching for more than 600 km from near Adam to
Thumrait, is inhabited by close to 30 000 goat- and camel-keeping pastoralists
of the main northern nomadic herder tribes, such as Duru, Wahiba, Janeba
and Harasis. The total nomadic pastoral population of Oman
is estimated at 60 000 to 70 000 (there are no data). Although this
number represents only about 7% of the Omani population, they occupy over
80% of the country's land and hold most of the country's livestock wealth.
Table 1 shows livestock numbers in the country, according to the agricultural
census of 2004-2005.
This production system is based on the integrated use of fodder crops
and agricultural residues on farms, including processed and non-processed
concentrates such as cereal and date residues. This system is used in
villages, urban and sub-urban centres and includes:
(a) Small irrigated holdings which raise commercial herds of
goats, sheep and cattle with cut and carry fodder crops. Livestock are
stall fed. Surplus forage produced is sold locally. Weeds that grow along
irrigation channels and fields, with some grains, dates unsuitable for
human consumption and concentrates are also fed to livestock.
(b) Commercial Fattening Units: these are established near cities,
they buy young stock from traditional systems, fatten and sell them.
They use fodder crops and concentrates, including dry and green Rhodes
grass, lucerne and Messibly (bulrush millet), cereals such as sorghum
and barley, date residues, dried sardines and concentrates.
Most livestock in the Sultanate graze on natural pastures, where forage
is plentiful in the growing season, by the end of which animals are in
good condition. The quantity and quality of forage begin to decrease early
in the dry season and becomes insufficient to meet animals’ requirements.
Nutrient deficiencies and diseases associated with feed shortage adversely
affect animal health and impair productivity. This is more pronounced
in traditional grazing systems, in which grazing is the main source of
feed. The impact is greater in settled, non-mobile herds where animals
may experience a negative protein balance due to its shortage in the dry
over-mature forage. Cattle, except in the Dhofar Mountains, depend on
cultivated fodders, crop and orchard residues and some concentrates such
as dates unsuitable for human consumption, dried sardines and barley.
Sheep, goats and camels depend on roughages from natural pasture. The
cattle grazing system, which is currently adopted in Dhofar, is a semi-settled
one that depends on production under full utilization of grazing lands,
agricultural residues and by-products, besides baled Rhodes grass hay,
concentrates and dried sardines.
Camels herders have to move at the beginning of the monsoon, out of the
mountains south to the plains and to the north of the Qatan. This movement
is triggered by the fear that their animals would slip on mud during the
rainy season. Recent years witnessed increasing use of different materials
as supplementary dry season feed including native grass stored as hay,
crop residues, by-products of food processing such as dates, and green
forages. Browse is an important source of feed during the dry season;
halophytic shrubs contribute browse in appreciable quantities in coastal
areas, Acacia tortilis and Prosopis cineraria in the interior
plains and wadis, Anogeissus dhofarica and Acacia senegal
in the Dhofar Mountains and Olea europaea in the El-Jebel El-Akhdar
Small producers, who keep commercial herds of goats, sheep and cattle,
use a cut and carry system for feeding irrigated fodders (Rhodes, lucerne
and bulrush millet). Weeds are also collected and fed to livestock with
some concentrates (grains, dates and processed feeds). Large-scale commercial
farms depend on irrigated fodders including Rhodes and buffel grasses
(Cenchrus ciliaris), which are harvested mechanically. Part of
the forage is fed green, and the rest is made into hay. Maize and sorghum
silage is used to feed fattening animals and dairy cattle, while locally
formulated or processed concentrates, unmarketable dates, grains such
as sorghum and barley are used to feed dairy cows.
Appreciable quantities of crop and horticultural residues are available
and are a strategic source of livestock feed during the dry season. They
include tree leaves, fruit remains, crop residues, such as wheat and barley
straw, and vegetable crop residues. Usually, some of these residues are
utilized in the field, while the rest are collected, transported and stored
for later use or sale.
Constraints and threats
There are many informational, biological, climatic or economic threats
and limitations, which halt the development of animal production in the
Sultanate; some of these are listed in the following points:
- The absence of precise, up-to-date data and statistics, for planning,
monitoring and development.
- The current systems of livestock management and production are inefficient,
uneconomic, and unsustainable.
- Grazing and animal resources have been subjected to major changes
through attempts to restructure the sector. These changes were coupled
with a weakening role, reduced efficiency and limited budgets devoted
to the sector. Legislation pertinent to protection, management and development
of rangeland resources has not been implemented.
- Nutrition is the most important constraint to increasing livestock
production, especially during the dry season, when both quality and
quantity of natural forage are reduced; the seasonality of natural forage
- The difficulty of using some good grazing areas due to limited accessibility,
as in El-Jebel El-Akhdar in northern Oman
or Jebel Al-Qamar in Dhofar Governorate.
- The occurrence of successive long periods of drought in some important
- The lack of additional feeds at suitable prices to meet the demand
during the dry season.
- Expansion of fodder production would require use of irrigation on
fertile land and would have to compete economically with cash crops.
The high returns per unit area of vegetables in some areas such as Dhofar
Governorate makes this activity more competitive than fodder crop based
- Scarcity and high cost of labour requires a high degree of mechanization.
This is likely to increase the capital investments to any production
- Predators (wolves, foxes, stray dogs, mongooses) which attack livestock
in farms and mountainous areas cause large losses. There are many insects
which may cause health problems and bother livestock affecting their
efficiency and production. These include scorpions, red hornets, ants
and biting flies (Stomoxis). They are serious in mountainous
areas like El-Jebel El-Akhdar, the Eastern Region and the Dhofar Mountains.
- Several diseases (foot and mouth, CBPP, brucellosis) of economic
importance affect livestock. Internal and external parasites have adverse
effects on performance and productivity. Some diseases result from malnutrition
and nutrient deficiencies.
- The problem of animal diseases is getting more complicated due to
imports of live animals for local consumption. The Sultanate shares
borders with three countries; the region has been invaded by epidemic
diseases, hence the possibility of animals transferring diseases to
others inside the country exists. To safeguard the country’s livestock,
quarantines were established in strategic border sites, along with enforcing
laws and regulations to control introduction of livestock into the country.
These steps are supported by special measures undertaken during times
of epidemic disease outbreak.
- Formerly animal health services were fully supported by the government
and used to meet the national herd requirements. In the mid nineteen-nineties
free veterinary services ceased to be provided and these services became
private, provided at market price.
- Drinking water is a problem for man and livestock during the dry
season, especially in areas with a scarcity of groundwater, as in the
western region of Dhofar Governorate. Water supplies depend on winter
rains in the north and summer rains in the south. Areas characterized
by water scarcity are important grazing sites. Herders transport water
from other areas. The government has drilled deep boreholes and established
a system of pipes to meet the needs of human and animals in rural areas
suffering from water shortage.
- Among limitations to animal production are: the absence of credit
facilities, low productivity of animal breeds, limited research in the
fields of animal production, nutrition and housing. Artificial insemination
services associated with dairy cattle and other livestock are limited.
- Many of the basic services provided to herders, including research,
extension, supplies of water, veterinary drugs and marketing are insufficient
and are not of the quality needed. Stopping subsidized veterinary services
and drugs increased the burden on herders and livestock owners.
- The diminishing role of traditional institutions and the abolition
of their role in regulating and controlling the utilization of local
resources (water, range and forests) has had a negative impact resulting
in their open use, increased grazing pressure and accelerated the rate
of resources degradation and desertification.
- An increasing number of herders have low incomes and can hardly meet
their basic needs.
- Absence of marketing specialists and insufficient marketing infrastructure
and surveillance of livestock marketing. This is coupled with a lack
of ability to cope with the internal and external socio-economic changes.
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
Grazing lands are a major source of animal feed, especially on some plains,
in wadis, Dhofar Mountains and El-Jebel El-Akhdar. The main objective
of grazing management in the country is to provide grazing during the
dry season. Beekeeping and checking land degradation are also valid goals.
In the Dhofar Mountains Ziziphus spina-christi and Anogeissus
dhofarica, and areas in the north Ziziphus and Prosopis
cineraria are important to achieve these goals. In Dhofar some
Boswellia tree stands are managed for Frankincense production,
but the decline of the Luban trade has changed the situation. Environmental
benefits (soil improvement, water resources conservation, fog water collection,
recharge of groundwater aquifers, desertification control, provision of
wildlife habitats, conservation of biodiversity, ecotourism encouragement)
are considered as integral parts of the management strategy. The Sultanate
grazing lands are estimated at about 1.4 million ha, 0.9 million ha in
the north and 0.5 million in Dhofar Governorate. In this latter region
grasslands cover about 400 000 ha, and woodlands and shrub lands 100 000
Three areas of rangelands of the Sultanate of Oman and are described
The Batinah rangelands
Agricultural land occupies a large proportion of the narrow flat coastal
strip of the Al-Batinah plain. Desert and semi-desert rangelands with
low rainfall (not exceeding 100-150 mm/annum) cover most of the unused
area. On coastal sand dunes many halophytic bushes such as Calligonum
comosum and other species of Zygophyllum spp., Aeluropus
littoralis and Sporobolus arabicus are found. On less saline
soils and along watercourses leguminous herbs such as Indigofera
spp. and grasses such as Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus pennisetiformis
and Pennisetum dichotomum are encountered. Open woodlands with
Acacia tortilis, Prosopis cineraria and Salvadora persica
occur in the interior.
Oman Interior and El- Jebel El-Akhdar rangelands:
(A) Oman Interior Rangelands:
They include mountains, plateaux and foothills which expand from south
to north in the Batinah area, beside the lower elevation areas at Dhahira,
Sharquia and Dakhylia. These receive more rainfall, in their higher parts,
than is encountered along the coast and less amounts towards the south.
In view of the rocky nature of the plateaux in most of the interior areas,
rainfall causes torrential floods that run as sporadic wadi flows, to
low lying areas, where agricultural lands concentrate. Due to moisture
limitations the dominant natural vegetation consists of some shrubs and
perennial herbaceous species of low density, especially on the slopes.
Some important species in this area are: Acacia tortilis, Tamarix aphylla,
Panicum turgidum and Dactyloctenium aegyptium.
(B) El-Jebel El-Akhdar rangelands:
The El-Jebel El-Akhdar is estimated to cover some 312 500 hectares
of undulating rocky and stony rugged topography. The nature of their vegetation
indicates that the rainfall is not less than 200-300 mm annually, which
gives a vegetation cover with a higher proportion of grasses compared
to that in other Northern areas. Also the growth season is longer than
that in neighbouring hills. The tree cover in El-Jebel El-Akhdar is open
forest of Reptonia and Reptonia-Olea europea Association
and Shiraz shrubs (Dodonea viscosa), with understorey cover dominated
by annual grasses such as Eragrostis barrelieri and Tetrapogon
spathaceus, and perennials such as Hyparrhenia hirta.
Rangelands of Dhofar Governorate and the Nejd:
Dhofar Mountains grasslands and woodlands cover about 500 000 ha. Flora
wise they are one of richest areas of the Sultanate. They receive annual
precipitation of 500 to 700 mm as rainfall and fog due to monsoon winds
that blow from the end of June to the end of September.
The natural vegetation of the grasslands comprises mainly annual grasses
with few perennials which become scarce in over-grazed sites near dwellings
and perennial watering stations. Broadleaf and undesirable annual herbaceous
species such as Impatiens sp. increase as an indicator of range
deterioration. The period of vegetation growth is limited to the monsoon
season, after which annual grasses dry out and few perennial grasses remain
green into early dry season.
Mountain grasslands are grazed by cattle. Camels and goats utilize a
wider range of habitats varying from the coast, the foothills, slopes,
wadis and the dry plateau north of the grasslands proper. Some important
annual grasses characteristic of the Mountain area are: Themeda quadrivalvis,
Apluda mutica, Aristida spp. and Setaria, while the perennials
are mainly species of Dichanthium. Trees and shrubs include
Ficus sycomorus, F. vasta and F. lutea, Acacia tortilis, Tamarix
aphylla, Cadaba spp., Commiphora spp., Blepharispermum hirtum,
Jatropha dhofarcia, Croton confertus, Grewia spp., and Ziziphus
In the Nejd (beginning of the true desert) the dominant trees are the
Frankincense tree and Acacia etbaica. A vast area of the Nejd is
absolutely devoid of vegetation, but some low areas contain a few hard
Orph trees and some shrubs such as Euphorbia schimperi, in addition
to some herbaceous woody species along the edges of wadis. Ghaf (Prosopis
cineraria) exists as isolated trees in some wadis. In the vicinity
of mountains Samor (Acacia tortilis) and Thor (A. senegal)
trees can be encountered. Types of Thamreet (Acacia laeta), Hidid
(Ziziphus leucodermis), Ihrik (Salvadora persica)
and Arak (Salvadora spp.)are observed sporadically, and are utilized
by camels and goats.
Problems of rangelands
- The scarcity of perennial grasses, herbaceous and tree forage legumes
and insufficiency of protein for animals, which negatively affects animal
growth and fertility.
- The seasonality of forage production where growth season and forage
availability period extend from May to the end of September, after which
feeding is dependent on dry vegetation of low nutritive value, as for
instance in the case of the Dhofar rangelands.
- The high cost of supplementary feed used to bridge the gap between
animal requirements and available grazing during the dry season and
before and after calving.
- Inaccessibility of some good pastures such as the case of El-Jebel
- Shortage in stock water.
- Limited veterinary services especially for nomadic herds.
Roughage availability from natural pastures
Most livestock in the northern parts of the Sultanate depend on green
or irrigated fodders or field and horticultural crop residues, in addition
to some concentrates such as dates, dried sardines and barley. Rangelands
in the northern and central regions are very poor and are of very low
productivity, except after rains. In the south most of the feed comes
from range. This resource has reached a critical status due to both low
quantity and quality of the produced forage, as a result of increased
animal numbers and the lack of suitable grazing management. Table 4 shows
that natural pastures in the north provide only 4.4% of animal feeding
requirements, while in the south this contribution approaches 53% of animal
feed requirements. This figure has been based on estimation of available
roughage from range resources as compared to the feed requirements of
the existing animal units according to the 2004/2005 agricultural census.
In the north the deficit is met by irrigated fodder from private farms
in addition to purchased concentrates. In Dhofar Governorate herders provide
supplementary feed as irrigated fodder and baled hay, concentrates and
dried sardines from the local market, to meet nutritional requirements.
Table 4. Roughage from natural pastures
Total livestock units* (000)
Roughage from natural pastures (000 tons DM)
(000 tons DM)
Annual deficit (000 tons DM)
Annual deficit as a percentage of demand
South Oman (Dhofar)
Source: Alhag Bakhit Ahmed, 2006
*According to 2004/2005 census
**Including South and North of Al-Batinah, Al-Dakhiliya as well
as Al-Wosta, Al-Sharkya and Al-Dhahira
***Animal unit demand in tropical areas (TLU) 2.2 tons of DM for
In view of the mostly arid climate and low productivity of grazing lands
of the Sultanate livestock owners have to use additional sources, basically
baled hay and irrigated fodder, crop residues, concentrates and dried
Fodder crops in Dhofar Governorate occupy 1 183 ha. Most of the land
devoted to fodder crops is under perennial and annual grasses, which include
Rhodes grass, sorghum and some perennial legumes such as lucerne. The
forage is used for feeding dairy cattle and on fattening farms, and cattle,
sheep, camels and goats on grazing. Much of the production is sold in
local markets and neighbouring cities as hay and green forage. Some small-scale
farms also grow fodders between date palms, coconut palms and citrus trees.
Dhofar Governorate produces 33 000 tons of forage dry matter annually,
to which are added 26 900 tons imported from outside the Governorate.
Appreciable quantities of field crops and horticultural residues are available
and are important during the dry season. They include: tree leaves, discarded
fruits, particularly dates, field crop (such as wheat, barley) straws
and stubbles and vegetable residues. Usually, part of the residues is
grazed and the rest is collected, transported and stored for latter use
or for sale. About 0.5, 0.2 and 1.0 ton residues are produced by one feddan
(1 feddan = 0.42 ha) of vegetables, fruits or wheat and barley, respectively.
In Dhofar Governorate annual production of agricultural residues from
farms and horticultural plots is estimated at a thousand tons of dry matter.
The residues provide the equivalent of 330 tons of energy and 16.7 tons
of crude digestible protein.
These comprise processed and non-processed concentrates of plant origin
such as discarded dates, sorghum, barley and dried sardines. Statistics
of locally produced and imported concentrated feeds: quantities and types,
their distribution among the governorates and districts are not available.
But the total of both local and imported concentrates to Dhofar Governorate
in 2001 is estimated at 86 000 tons, which provides 54 600 tons of
total digestible nutrients and 9 360 tons of digestible crude protein.
Cattle in Dhofar consume an estimated 9 730 tons of dried sardines
of which 670 tons are brought from the north of Oman (particularly from
the Batinah coast), and 4 000 tons are imported from Yemen, while
the rest (equivalent to 5 060 tons) are dried local sardines caught
in Dhofar Governorate; this is equivalent to 38% of fresh weight and contains
78% of dry matter. This quantity is equivalent to 8 470 tons of DM
that produces 6 350 tons of energy and 3 800 tons of digestible
crude protein (using values of 75% energy and 45% digestible crude protein).
Forage seed production
Some farmers produce their own seed requirements and the surplus is sold
locally; there are no specialized seed-producers. No institution is devoted
to seed control and certification. There is no private or governmental
institution designated for commercial production of forage seeds. Demands
are met through agricultural import and export companies. There are no
precise statistics of the types and quantities of seed imported. Local
seed production is very limited; it is practiced to meet the demand of
some private farms which specialize in fodder crop production. As seed
yields are very low prices are very high (5-10 fold) when compared to
prices of imported seeds. The government is involved in fodder seed production
through the activities of research centres in the major agricultural zones
e.g. Rumais and Salalah.
Rumais centre is engaged in pasture and forage research. Seed of some
fodders is produced for experimental and demonstration purposes and distribution
to some farmers.
The former Range and Forestry Department in Dhofar Governorate was involved
in collection, multiplication and dissemination of natural pastures seeds
and targeted the rehabilitation of deteriorated areas, by producing seed
and vegetative materials of herbaceous and woody species for range reseeding
and establishment of multipurpose trees and shrubs; and for distribution
to local institutions.
Constraints and threats
There is a wide variability in statistical data related to livestock production
and reproduction parameters, imports of livestock and their products and
feeds provided by different sources.
- Information and data about forage resources are rare, and in many
instances out of date. Essential data: the distribution and characteristics
of natural pastures, fodder trees and shrubs and the areas they cover,
estimation of available biomass, browse volume stock, annually produced
fodder crops in various parts of the Sultanate is lacking. This is also
true about imported feeds.
- The shift in plant and land cover following pastoral deterioration,
forest clearance, allocation of rangelands and forestland to other land
uses is difficult to estimate as supporting data is lacking.
- Land use maps and areas cultivated with forages and the other thematic
maps rarely exist or are out of date. The slow development of the digital
geo-spatial databases is due to the lack of developing the ability to
perform comprehensive surveys. This partially explains the lack of facilities
and training opportunities in this field.
- There is no recent comprehensive survey to document rangeland condition
except for the descriptive studies carried out in Al-Sharkiya Region
and Dhofar Governorate.
- Settlement, establishment of new watering points, provision of veterinary
services and the fast increase in livestock population coupled with
abolition of tribal control and management of rangeland resources has
led to the rapid deterioration of rangelands. Free grazing and uncontrolled
utilization of range and woodlands triggered their degradation at an
alarming rate. Some areas (such the coastal plain in Dhofar Governorate)
are suffering from scarcity of tree cover. In the Batinah area woodlands
and natural tree cover has declined due to urban and agricultural expansion.
The Dhofar Mountains range, which was covered with dense woodlands and
large trees two decades ago, is not an exception. Presently, stunted
isolated trees cover many sites e.g. Ficus spp, Anogeissus
dhofarica and Olea europaea.
- In other areas of Dhofar Mountains, deteriorated range and woodlands
have been invaded by undesirable plants such as Dodonea viscosa,
Calotropis procera and Solanum spp. Regeneration of desirable
trees is rare, due to consumption and trampling of young seedlings by
an increasing livestock population, and because of interruption of seed
production capacity. The density of Boswellia sacra trees, which
characterize Dhofar deserts and dry wadis, has decreased to 0.01%.
- The scarcity and high price of seed of high productivity and quality
fodder crops is a major constraint of increasing forage production from
- Lack of proper understanding of the economical value of forage resources,
insufficient budgets, variable and unpredictable climate, and the instability
of the institutional framework through which forage resources are managed
are considered the main limitations that retard the development of these
resources and increasing livestock production. Despite the humble efforts
made to improve the institutional framework and programmes the chances
to bring about a favourable change exist.
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES
Grazing control is the most important measure for the management and improvement
of grazing lands and watershed conservation. Vegetation should be allowed
periodic rest by closing some sites for grazing. This will improve growth
and vigour and will enhance spread of desirable forage species. Such measures
and effects cannot be achieved under open grazing conditions. Trials of
deferred grazing and resting of the range vegetation during the monsoon
season in collaboration with herders communities (713 households owning
31 000 head of cattle) in Dhofar Mountains have been successful. As a
result of deferment, forage from the site continued to provide livestock
with roughage for six months compared to three months in open grazing
Local communities participation
Local community participation in planning and implementation of activities
on the rehabilitation and development of grazing resources is vital for
the success of any intervention in this area. The presence of local communities,
including pastoral women, and their contribution to the identification
of constraints and choosing solutions and participation in implementation,
management and monitoring and evaluation is essential. Local communities
can provide and employ their traditional knowledge and accumulated conservation
and management experience to the benefit of such interventions.
Techniques are known for the treatment of deteriorated range by control
of undesirable plants and increasing the proportion of the vegetation
cover made of desirable forage species. This could be achieved through:
reseeding, periodic resting to assist regeneration, watershed management
and conservation of plant genetic resources.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Resources established forest
nurseries in different governorates and regions. The Forest Nursery in
Dhofar Governorate is capable of producing half a million seedlings per
year which have been used to rehabilitate 22 sites, after fencing then
planting them with seedlings of local trees. An arboretum with 58 species
and 928 trees was established in the area to conserve the genetic resources
of local trees and shrubs.
Various techniques have been tried to rehabilitate deteriorated natural
pastures, but they met limited success due to lack of sufficient knowledge
and experience about the natural environment, biological and climatic
conditions of the targeted range ecosystems. The techniques applied in
the eighties to improve rangelands in the region, included the following:
a) Broadcasting tropical pasture perennial grass and legumes seed on
180 000 hectares in Dhofar Mountains. Some multipurpose shrubs
were also planted. This intervention failed due to soil compaction,
high competition from local plants, seed of the broadcast species collected
by black ants and a late start of the monsoon rains.
b) Fencing of selected sites with a total area of 190 hectares on the
mountain, near dwellings to be used for demonstration of range improvement
to herders. Also to be used as a source of forage in cases of emergencies.
Tree planting was attempted as a measure to intensify fog water collection.
c) A site of 100 km2 was selected on Salalah plain, between
Rizat and Taqa, to be planted with different types of fodder shrubs,
to combat desertification, and specifically, to provide camels with
additional browse. This project concentrated on planting Prosopis
juliflora which proved to be a big problem since it threatens to
invade the Mountains grasslands and woodlands and destroy their unique
These interventions clearly demonstrate the need to understand local
environmental conditions, socio-economic factors and potentials of resources
prior to embarking on expensive time and effort consuming interventions.
Efforts should be made to establish shelterbelts and windbreaks around
agricultural lands and on strategic sites on rangelands. This is especially
important for lands reclaimed for agricultural activities in the desert
areas. Use should be made of trees proven successful in one of these areas
(Hailat Al-Rakah) which include Ziziphus sp. and Prosopis cineraria,
with the possibility of using Phoenix dactylifera in
shelterbelts as well as a cash crop.
Foreign assistance and international co-operation have played a considerable
role in developing range and forest resources in some areas of the Sultanate.
The UNDP/FAO Range Management Project (OMA/87/013) launched in 1988 in
Dhofar Governorate assisted in creating a Department for Range and Forestry
in Dhofar. This project focused on training of national cadres, range
monitoring, techniques of range improvement, nursery techniques, local
tree planting and extension and training programmes.
An agreement for technical co-operation with FAO through Project: Range
Resource Information Monitoring and Evaluation in Dhofar Region (TCP/OMA/3001)
is still continuing.
Forage resource development
Fodder crop development in Nejd
Confronting the current deficit in irrigated fodder and expansion of livestock
production in the foreseeable future is dependent on the development of
new irrigated sites equivalent to the current areas under fodder crops
which are intended to be cut out from Salalah and Al-Batinah plains, in
accordance with the ministerial Decree No. (35\2005). This requires approving
a plan to produce fodder in these areas according to type of crop preferred
and irrigation water requirements. Irrigation cost is estimated to be
about 40-50% of the total cost of production. Therefore reducing water
use means reducing the per unit price of the produced forage. Studies,
carried out by foreign consultant firms and the specialized U.N. agencies
(FAO), in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
Resources in 1990, have drawn attention to the possibilities of agricultural
expansion in Nejd area. This is conditioned by the safe regular pumping
from groundwater. These studies also indicated the existence of limited
areas of land with medium suitability for agriculture expansion.
Seed technology development
Opportunities and conditions conducive to developing seed technology,
including the establishment of a specialized institution to be in charge,
exist for performing the following:
- maintaining purity and uniformity of original seed, ensuring stability
of hybrids with high performance,
- propagating seed of species produced in research stations,
- carrying out seed certification and activate seed legislation to
control their quality,
- developing techniques for seed processing, handling and storage,
- enhancing partnership with small-scale seed producers.
Planting leguminous and fodder trees
Fodder trees and shrubs, such as Anogeissus dhofarica, Acacia
senegal and Prosopis cineraria, provide a large part of goat
and camel feed especially during the dry season. These trees have been
subjected to overgrazing and irrational use during the past three decades.
A programme, utilizing non-traditional sources of water should be launched
to establish stands of these species.
The former Range and Forestry Department, in collaboration with local
communities, assisted the production and distribution of seedlings of
multi-purpose trees to rehabilitate deteriorated range and woodlands sites,
provide shade trees and establish windbreaks.
Any tree-planting project could include the planting of Boswellia
sacra and tree planting for fog water collection. A study conducted
by the Planning Committee for Development and Environment in 1992 indicated
that a tree with a 12 square metre crown and vertical to the wind direction
can collect from 50 000 to 70 000 litres of water during the
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL
The Sultanate of Oman Government recognizes the importance of agricultural
research to meet National Food Policy Objectives, which, at a minimum,
aim at self-sufficiency in food production. Agricultural Research Stations
were established in different areas of the Sultanate with a specific mission
The Directorate General of Agricultural Research (DGAR), under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Fisheries, has its headquarters in Muscat and several
Research Stations or Farms (RSF). DGAR addresses research problems of
commodities or factors of production, while the sub RSF focus on identification
and diagnosis of production problems in various agro-ecological zones
and adapt technologies for increased production at the farm level.
Pasture and animal production research is carried out at several RSFs
including those dealing specifically with range research and arid land
improvement. While most pasture research is undertaken by DGAR, some limited
work is carried out collaboratively with international and regional organizations,
the universities and NGOs interested in pastures and livestock development.
Donors and technical agencies, such as FAO, UNDP, World Bank and ACSA,
fund research and development programmes targeting improvement of Oman's
MAF is responsible for transfer of technologies to the farmers. Oman
has a well-organized agricultural extension system that operates at national,
provincial, area, Wilayat, Neiabat, and farm level. There are many Agricultural
Development Centres (ADC) throughout Oman,
where farmers are trained on various aspects of farming, including improvement
of forage resources. There are agricultural colleges and specialized agricultural
cadres working on technologies related to forage production. Most research
and extension personnel have been exposed to the Farming Systems Approach
adopted by MAF.
All collaborators (donors) supporting research programmes are in agreement
with MAF regarding the need to improve research activities and methodologies.
Al-Rumais Agricultural Research Station is well connected with a number
of regional and international research organizations as shown by the large
number of collaborative research activities, including seed technology
and biodiversity of pasture plants.
Technologies for the improvement of pasture resources have been developed
and are available for small-scale farmers. Promising pasture grasses,
legumes and fodder seeds are available for intensive and extensive pasture
improvement in various agro-ecological zones. Various management and utilization
packages have been developed. Notable break throughs have also been made
in the fields of animal nutrition, livestock management, disease control,
artificial insemination practices and animal breeding. A large number
of pasture grasses, legumes and fodders have been collected in Oman
and stored in the National Gene Bank at Al-Rumais Agricultural Research
Oman has keen and receptive
farmers demanding new ideas and technology. The willingness of farmers
to participate in on-farm trials and to learn, demonstrates their interest
to contribute to the development and dissemination of new technologies
on pasture. There is opportunity to further improve forage species seed
Some pasture research work is being undertaken by the technical staff
of the Seeds and Genetic Resources Laboratory in Oman
in collaboration with ICARDA. The Union of Agricultural Research Institutions
in the Near East and North Africa (ARINENA) has participated in printing
and distribution of research results.
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Tel: 968 23293512
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This pasture profile study was prepared by Mohammed Abd Allah Al Mishakhi,
who is currently the Director of the Range Resources Department at MAF
and El-Hag Bakhit Ahmed Koll, the Range Surveys Management Specialist
at MAF. The authors will be responsible for updating this pasture profile.
For further information, please contact the authors as below:
Mohammed Salim Abdullah Al Mishakhi
Tel: + 968 23295312
Mobile: + 968 99492117
Fax: + 968 2329831
El-Hag Bakhit Ahmed Koll
Tel: + 968 23295312
Fax: + 968 2329831
[This profile was initiated in 2006 and completed by the authors in January
- April 2007 and was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in March/April