This collections story draws on an exhibition held at RAMM in 2016, ‘Flower Power: botanical illustrations from India’ and subsequent research by academics and curators at RAMM. It features watercolour drawings of Indian medicinal plants by Indian artists as well as other prints and drawings in the collection at RAMM.
Expand the sections below to read more or view all the individual object records online.
We have relied on plants to treat diseases and aliments for many thousands of years. Plants still play an important role in medicine today. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries English doctors working for the East India Company studied India’s native flora. They hoped to find profitable commodities to export and exploit. Many were used in the Ayurvedic medicinal system which originated over 3,000 years ago. The East India Company set up a number of botanical gardens. They commissioned Indian artists to paint the most important plants they grew.
England controlled a tiny proportion of world trade when the East India Company received its Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1600. The Charter spurred the Company, a small group of Englishmen, to set sail for the East Indies in 1601 to compete with the very active Portuguese and Dutch traders. This was not a success as the price of pepper was very high and there was little demand in the East Indies for the heavy woollen cloth they brought with them.
The voyages were long and a round trip from England to the East Indies and Spice Islands, stopping off at India in both directions, could take up to three years. Death from disease was high and scurvy (a deficiency in vitamin C) was common.
In 1612, the Company founded its first trading post or ‘factory’ on the Indian subcontinent at Surat, where it traded cloth from places such as Exeter for indigo and pepper. Over the next hundred years the Company consolidated its power and expanded its trade throughout India, seeking new commodities that could be sold profitably in Europe. The company became a very powerful commercial and political organisation
Doctors, surgeons and botanists
The East India Company employed doctors and surgeons, all trained in botany, to treat its employees. Even so, only around one-in-ten survived to make the voyage home.
The Company set up botanic gardens to study and grow commercially valuable and medicinal plants. They were run by the Company’s doctors. Scotsman William Roxburgh joined the Company as an Assistant Surgeon onboard ship and his expert knowledge of botany led to his appointment as superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1793. He became known as the Founding Father of Indian Botany.
Image: William Roxburgh (1751–1815), botanist, engraved by Charles Turner Warren. Wikimedia Commons.
The doctors supervised Indian artists who produced and copied illustrations of plants to use for reference. These botanical paintings, as well as paintings of animals and scenes of Indian life, became known as ‘Company School’ paintings.
Plants of the coast of Coromandel
Roxburgh published a number of beautifully illustrated books for the Company. His ‘Plants of the coast of Coromandel: selected from drawings and descriptions presented to the hon. court of directors of the East India Company’ included hand-coloured engravings, copied from illustrations painted by Indian artists. It was published in London in three parts between 1795 and 1818. The names of the Indian artists remain unknown. RAMM has eight plates from these volumes, three are coloured.
Plate 275 from volume 3 of William Roxburgh’s ‘Plants of the coast of Coromandel’.
Roxburgh writes, ‘The varieties of the Banana cultivated over India are very numerous; but fewer of the Plantain, as I have hitherto obtained knowledge of only three [plantain], whereas, I may safely say, not less than ten times that number of the former [banana] have come under my inspection. Their duration, culture, habit, and natural character, are already well known.’
Plate 240 from volume 3 of William Roxburgh’s ‘Plants of the coast of Coromandel’.
The text describes how Roxburgh introduced it into the Botanic Garden at Calcutta where it thrived ‘luxuriantly’ and blossomed in April. The fibres produced by the plant were found to be far stronger than plants traditionally used for ropes.
Indian artists employed by the East India Company drew the plants from life. The artists often trained in miniature painting, developed a new style , mixing Indian and European traditions. They worked at botanic gardens under the supervision of European botanists who directed them as to exactly how they wanted the plants to be depicted. The plants are usually life size with magnified images of flowers and seeds to the side. Such drawings became fashionable and Company employees commissioned sets of drawings of Indian flora and fauna for themselves.
While this collaboration was creative and produced beautiful artworks, it was unequal. These paintings are highly sought after and found in museums and private collections around the world. The names of the artists are rarely recorded by their British patrons. Yet on the back of 17 of the works at RAMM are attributions in Bengali with an English transliteration. However, the English did not immediately lead us to the artists behind the works.
By tracing the names through various cultural frontiers Professor Nandini Chatterjee, University of Exeter, revealed the works were by a trio of celebrated artists from Patna: Sheikh Zain al-Din, Ram Das and Bhawani Das. Therefore they date to around 1790.
Lady Mary Impey’s artists
These three artists worked for Lady Mary Impey, wife of Sir Elijah Impey the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Calcutta. There is also evidence that they worked for Anna Maria Jones, the wife Sir William Jones, after the Impeys returned to Britain.
Mary Impey, pictured here, employed the artists to paint the animals in her private menagerie. Often reffered to as the ‘Impey Album’ the works include attributions to the aritists in Persian.
Image: Johann Zoffany (1733-1810), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Original painting in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Spain.
We cannot be sure how Richard Cresswell came by this collection. He might have bought them as a lot at an auction or been given to him by one of his botanical friends. Yet it is also plausible they came to him via his wife’s family.
Frances Creighton was born in Bengal where her father, Robert, was a judge. Research suggests that his father was Henry Creighton (1764-1807). Charles Grant, a senior Company official, appointed Henry manager of an indigo. He is best known for his research and paintings on the ruins at Gaur. It is possible Henry commissioned the botanical drawings and passed them down through the family. However, research has not yet uncovered any evidence for this connection.
Image: Gateway to the tomb of Husain Shah at Gaur, West Bengal. Etching by James Moffat after Henry Creighton, ca. 1808, Wellcome Collection. CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
The East India Company employed British and Indian doctors to care for its employees. English treatments were often ineffective against Indian diseases so the Company turned to Indian medicines.
Ayurvedic medicine (also called Ayurveda meaning science of life) is one of the world’s oldest whole-body medicinal systems. It originated in India more than 3,000 years ago and remains one of the country’s traditional health care systems. In good health the three humours (air, fire and water) are in equilibrium.
Disease results from their imbalance. This is similar to the biologic humours of the ancient Greek system which the Company’s surgeons would have been familiar with. Ayurveda promotes good health through the use of herbal compounds, diet, exercise, and lifestyle recommendations. When disease occurs specific treatments can be recommended to return the balance.
Native plants are an important part of the recommended diet and are used in many traditional treatments. Classical Indian texts give list up to 500 medicinal herbs and other substances. Many plants can be toxic. If used incorrectly they cause serious illness.
All parts of this plant are very poisonous. It contains colchicine which interferes with the way cells divide and can cause abnormalities. In southern India it is used in Ayurvedic medicine for treating gout and worms, as a laxative or to produce abortion.
Colchicine derived from the autumn-flowering meadow saffron (colchicum speciosum) is used in modern pharmaceuticals to treat gout.
This beautiful hibiscus-like herb is well known in warm parts of India and China for its medicinal uses, and is related to okra (Abelmoschus esculentus).
Seeds, roots and leaves are used medicinally, both in Ayurvedic and herbal medicine. A sticky mixture of the leaves and roots can be used for venereal diseases and an infusion of the seeds has a calming effect.
The blackberry lily is thought to have originated in China where it has long been used medicinally. Slices of the rhizome are commonly used for clearing phlegm from the throat, as well as for genitourinary disorders and troubles in the digestive system. In the Malabar region of India it is known as an antidote to the bite of the cobra.
The English name, blackberry lily, refers to the seeds which are black and shiny, developing in a clump outside the capsule.
The leaves of this water-plant are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. In Ayurvedic medicine they are used for the treatment of pimples and wounds, and as a diuretic. It is found wild growing in the shallows of lakes and slow rivers and in paddy fields from Nepal, India and Sri Lanka to Malaysia and southern China.
Cleome gynandra, Sheikh Zain al-din সেখ জইনিদ্দী
Cat’s whiskers’ leaves are used for relieving sinus headaches and chest congestion. In Ayurvedic medicine it is also used for treating tapeworms. The young shoots and leaves are eaten and contain valuable vitamins and minerals.
Butterfly pea is frequently used in Ayurvedic medicine, as a memory enhancer, antidepressant and tranquilliser. Different parts of the plant have been shown to have different properties, but an infusion of the roots appears to be most effective. In traditional Chinese medicine it was used to treat infertility and ailments of the female reproductive system. In other traditional medicines it was used to encourage menstruation.
Fever nut is a climbing shrub, commonly found scrambling over hedges near villages in many parts of India. In Ayurvedic medicine powdered leaves are used in the treatment of malaria, liver disorders, and intestinal worms and to promote bleeding or abortion. Seed extracts are used for coughs, diabetes, piles or gout.
is a beautiful hibiscus-like herb well-known in warm parts of India and China for its medicinal uses. Seeds, roots and leaves are used in Ayurvedic and herbal medicine. A mucilaginous concoction of the leaves and roots can be used for venereal diseases and an infusion of the seeds has a calming effect.
All parts of the plant are very poisonous, but the root and powdered bark is used medicinally as a laxative or to stimulate the appetite, and in larger quantities can cause abortion or death from respiratory failure. An extract from the plants has been found to kill mosquito larvae.
Syzygium cumini, Bhawani Das ভবানি দাস
Jambolan has long been valued medicinally; the fruits contain vitamin C, anthocyanins and flavonoids; the leaves contain many different aromatic oils and the stems and bark are also rich in active compounds. The various parts of the plant have different uses (mainly anti-fungal and antibacterial) in traditional and Ayurvedic medicine. Recent studies have shown the seeds to be of potential use as a treatment for diabetes.
Diet is an important element of Ayurvedic medicine. Certain fruits, vegetables and herbs promote general health and wellness in addition to treating specific complaints.
Tea was well known for its restorative properties and was used all over India to cleanse the stomach and balance the body’s humours. Pepper was valued for its cooling properties and tamarind was regarded as an excellent ingredient in curries.
Fruit and vegetables were easily available and medically recommended. Melon and mangoes were thought particularly beneficial but if eaten in excess could cause illness. The Company’s English employees would have been wise to avoid eating too many dates as it was believed that, if unaccustomed to them, they could cause ulcers and weaken eyesight.
Many plants used in Ayurveda are toxic and if used incorrectly or eaten in too great a quantity can cause serious illness.
Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum
Taro is said to be the world’s oldest crop plant, cultivated for its edible tubers, leaf stalks and leaves; it is very easily grown in warm, moist conditions.
The tubers are usually eaten cooked to destroy poisonous calcium oxalate crystals. Although they contain more starch than potatoes the starch grains are smaller, which results in a slimy texture. The leaves can be eaten when boiled.
The horseradish tree’s roots smell like horseradish. The leaves and young seedpods are particularly nutritious, containing large amounts of vitamins, calcium, protein and potassium. Leaves are generally cooked and used like spinach. Seedpods, around 30cm long and known as drumsticks, are rich in oil and added to curries and soups.
In Indian traditional medicine, the horseradish tree has been used to treat many diseases, from malaria and typhoid to skin infections and diabetes.
The leaves, flowers and developing fruit are shown here. The mature fruit are translucent, deeply ridged, pale orange when ripe and often served sliced across to form a star. The taste is sour or sweet depending on the ripeness and the variety.
Starfruit are rich in vitamin C, antioxidants and potassium, as well as having anti-bacterial properties. However, the fruits also contain oxalic acid which can cause or worsen kidney stones, as well as caramboxin, a neurotoxin which can affect the brain. Fresh starfruit should be avoided by those taking statins.
Tamarindus indica, Ram Das রাম দাস
The seeds, which are carried in brown, knobbly pods up to 15cm long, are surrounded by a sharp-tasting, sugary pulp which is used candied, in chutneys and in drinks. The fresh pulp is rich in vitamin C, niacin and riboflavin.
Tamarind is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a mild laxative and burnt bark is sometimes mixed with salt to relieve stomach ache. An infusion of the leaves is also used as an antiseptic on burns and external sores.
The roots and flower buds are edible, and were eaten particularly in times of famine. Other parts of the plant were used medicinally for a variety of complaints. They contain active chemicals which are said to have psychedelic and aphrodisiac effects.
This is a true waterlily, not to be confused with the sacred lotus. They can be told apart by their leaves: in Egyptian lotus and all true waterlilies, the leaves are split to the stalk, whereas in the sacred lotus there is no split.
Malabar spinach is often grown as a substitute for real spinach. It tastes like spinach but with a slimy texture. This plant is an excellent source of vitamins A and C and also contains useful amounts of minerals. Because these are soluble, it is better to add the leaves to stews or curries, than to boil them and discard the water.
Its leaves are also used as a mild laxative, but like true spinach they contain calcium oxalate which can form kidney stones in some people.
The East India Company exported commodities that could be sold profitably in Europe. One of the most important was natural indigo – a deep blue dye made from plants (Indigofera tinctoria). Until a synthetic dye was developed in the late 1800s natural indigo was so profitable it was called ‘blue gold’.
Natural dyes, printed cotton (chintz), sugar cane, tea and spices were all important articles of trade for the East India Company. Plant fibres to make ropes for the navy and timber were exported from Bengal and Madras.
The monkey fruit tree is valued for its hard, termite-resistant timber that is used for everything from firewood to heavy construction. The wood and roots yield a useful dye and the sticky latex sap has a variety of uses. In Nepal the leaves are fed to lactating animals due to their high protein content.
Lawsonia inermis, Sheikh Zain al-din সেখ জইনিদ্দী
An orange-red dye is produced when the leaves and young shoots of the henna plant are crushed to a powder and mixed with tea and lemon juice. The resulting paste is used as a hair dye and for decorating hands, nails and feet with intricate patterns. Natural or ‘red’ henna is not the same as the black henna used in many temporary tattoos. Black henna contains
numerous chemicals and can burn the skin.
True cochineal is a very valuable product. Cochineal is a red dye formed by crushing insects that feed on the Mexican prickly pear cactus. In a similar way, the eggs of the lac insects (Laccifer lacca) or (Kerria lacca) that feed on the ruby-coloured gum of the dhak tree can be crushed to make a dye. In the 1790s the East India Company hoped that this might be used as a substitute for cochineal but it was not a profitable venture.
An old Tamil saying suggests that this 30m high palm has 801 uses. The trunks are used as rafters, the leaves for thatch or for weaving mats and baskets and the fibre around the leaf bases is woven or used for brushes.
The developing seeds and sprouting seedlings are edible and the young shoots can be roasted and ground into flour. In addition, the clusters of flowers can be tapped for its sugary sap, which can be drunk fresh or fermented to make toddy. If boiled to remove the water it forms blocks of well-flavoured sugar.
Sunhemp is grown for its fibre which is stronger than hemp, especially when wet. After being treated with a local vegetable oil, the fibre was commonly used by Indian fisherman for lines and nets.
It was one of the fibre plants investigated by William Roxburgh for the East India Company in the 1790s as a possible substitute for Russian hemp. He reported that it was as strong as hemp, ‘but would not bear tar’, so it proved useless for making rope for the Navy.
The seeds, leaves and roots are used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine, against hair loss, to treat anaemia and to purify the blood. The plant is also used as a green manure.
The fruit are of the candlenut is almost round, with two nut-like seeds about 2.5cm long. The seeds are very oily, and can be lit and burn like candles or the oil can be extracted and either used for lamps or in cooking.
In Ayurvedic medicine the nuts are used in the treatment of skin diseases.
Terminalia catappa, Bhawani Das ভবানি দাস
This tree is not related to the true almond. The timber is good and of a rich reddish colour and the leaves can be used to feed silkworms. Tannins from the leaves and bark are used medicinally in many different cultures; they are thought to have potential for the treatment of some cancers and for the alleviation of sickle-cell anaemia.
Some of the plants used in Ayurvedic medicine are still used to treat the same illnesses today. The way the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is grown and harvested to make pain relieving drugs such as morphine has changed very little over time.
Modern medicine is increasingly looking to plants and animals to provide new cures for the world’s most important diseases including cancer, HIV and diabetes. Many of the plants depicted in the Company School drawings show antibacterial activity and could help tackle antibiotic resistance.
Modern medicine often uses highly-refined extracts to make pharmaceutical drugs instead of whole parts of the plants. Sometimes the active compounds can be made synthetically.
In Ayurvedic medicine the Ceylon caper is used as a Rasayana – a herb which has multiple beneficial
effects on the whole body. The bark of the roots is most often used. It has recently been investigated as an antidiarrhoeal herb, useful in the treatment of cholera and diseases with similar effects.
Crêpe ginger has recently been recommended as a possible remedy for diabetes. The leaves, seeds and creeping rhizomes contain diosgenin which helps
lower blood sugar levels. This compound also affects the production of oestrogen and has been used to manufacture contraceptive pills.
Nerium odorum, Bhawani Das ভবানি দাস
All parts of the oleander plant are very poisonous and if eaten it can cause heart failure. Like foxglove (Digitalis) juice it can be used in very small doses to slow the heart rate.
Recently oleander has been used in a widely promoted skincare treatment, NeriumAD rejuvenating cream.
Senna occidentalis, Sheikh Zain al-din সেখ জইনিদ্দী
All plants in this genus have laxative effects. Senna extract is used in modern pharmaceuticals such as Senakot. It has also been tested in rats as a possible treatment for diabetes. The seeds are sometimes used as a coffee substitute.
The plants are drawn life-size in watercolour and sometimes heightened with gum Arabic or embellished with gold leaf. White and yellow pigments often contain lead. They can absorb sulphur from the atmosphere over time to form black lead sulphide. This was particularly noticeable where lead white gouache has been used for flowers and highlights. In some cases the flowers had become entirely black. Over time, many suffered surface soiling, creasing, and tears.
A grant from Arts Council England’s Preservation of Industrial and Scientific Material (PRISM) Fund allowed all of Cresswell’s Company School drawings to be conserved. The work restored these pigments to their original colours by converting the black lead sulphide to converted to white lead sulphate which is stable and close to the original colour.
The physical exhibition was made possible with support from The Finnis Scott Foundation and Arts Council England’s PRISM fund.
Content for this collections story was created with assistance from Dr Martyn Rix, Professor Nandini Chatterjee, Dr Henry Noltie, and Dr Andrew Rudd.