When my family first moved to the United States 8 years ago I really didn’t know what to expect from my new homeland, and though I met many children from families with working mothers, I must admit I did look enviously on at the children who were being picked up from school by their homemaker mothers, expecting to go home to a family dinner...
Poor children who survived infancy were often put to work at an early age. In the 1830s and 40s, many children labored in textile mills and coal mines, where working conditions often proved deadly. Girls as young as five went into domestic service as nurses or maids to wealthy families. Rural children worked on farms or in cottage industries, while thousands of urban children worked as street hawkers, selling matches or sweeping crossings (see ). Child labor was not new, but as industrialization continued it became more visible, as masses of ragged, stunted children crowded the city streets.
Growing up involved acquaintance with religion, but there was little structured education of children in this respect until the Reformation. Parents and godparents were expected to teach them basic prayers in Latin (Lord’s Prayer, Apostles’ Creed, and later Hail Mary), and how to behave in church. Church law after the twelfth century asked little of children in terms of duties. Only when they reached puberty did they acquire the adult obligations of confessing to a priest at least once a year, receiving the eucharist at Easter, attending church, and paying church dues.
Childhood required special clothes, from infant wrappings to miniature versions of adult dress. In wealthier families there were cradles, walking frames, and specially made toys. The metal toys already mentioned were only a small part of the stock of toys in use. Dolls, known as “poppets,” must have been widespread, but they have not survived since they were made of cloth or wood. Children are mentioned making their own toys: boats from pieces of bread, spears from sticks, and small houses from stones. Many games were played, from games of skill with cherry stones or tops to activities such as archery, football, and dancing. The oral culture of children is not recorded until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when scraps of verse and songs are noted in books, especially school notebooks. These point to the existence of nursery rhymes similar to (but not identical with) those of later times, as well as to children knowing and sharing in the songs and phrases of adults.
The education of children in England can be traced from the seventh century. Initially it centred on the training of boys as monks, girls as nuns, and other boys as “secular clergy”—those clergy who lived in the everyday world and eventually ministered in parish churches. This education was based on the learning of Latin and was usually provided in monasteries and nunneries. Education spread to some of the laity as early as the seventh century, and by the end of the ninth century it often took the form of learning to read and write in English rather than Latin. Schools of a modern kind, free-standing and open to the public, first appear in records in the 1070s and became very numerous thereafter, although monasteries and nunneries continued to do some educational work. Boys were usually sent to school, while girls were taught at home. We cannot say how many children were educated, but the number was substantial and probably grew considerably after about 1200. Education began by learning the Latin alphabet, and many boys and girls proceeded no further, using the skill chiefly to read in their own language, either English or, between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries, French. Only a minority of boys went on to learn Latin grammar and to become proficient in the language. Women (even nuns) rarely learnt Latin grammar after 1200, and their abilities in the language were chiefly restricted to being able to pronounce texts from Latin prayer-books in a devout manner, without a full understanding of the meaning.
Most children began to do serious work once they reached puberty, at around 12-14. Sometimes this was done at home, assisting in agricultural work or a craft, but it was common to send children away from home at about the age of puberty to be servants to other people. This was reckoned to train and discipline them, give them patrons who could assist their careers, and relieve their parents of expense. Places as servants varied widely, from working on farms or in domestic service to apprenticeships in which one learnt a skilled craft or trade. Apprenticeship tended to exclude the very poor. Boys of the wealthier classes often continued their schooling during their adolescence, especially if they were envisaged as having careers in the Church, law, or administration. Other boys were employed in churches as choristers or clerks. The wealthiest children of all—those of the nobility and more important gentry—were often received into the great households of other nobility or leading churchmen, where they acted as pages or retainers, learnt aristocratic manners, and in some cases underwent training in military skills. Although some aristocracy married in the teens, the population as a whole did not do so until the mid twenties. Entry to Church careers also tended to be late, ranging from the mid teens in some religious houses up to twenty-four, the age of ordination as a priest. It followed that from puberty until the mid twenties there was a long period in which children were partly yet not fully independent, away from home but not in households of their own. Like modern adolescents they bonded with others of their own gender, leading in towns to the formation of gangs of youths, and gradually made links with the opposite sex.
Physician Neurologist, a contributor to the World Health Organization Author of over three hundred publications in international scientific journals, Andrea Martinuzzi works on disabilities and genetic diseases, taking particular care of children with congenital or acquired neurological disorders.
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Public awareness will find more support for these programs, which allow children who are hospitalized to deal with their illnesses and also learn, grow, and succeed along with their peers.
David Hartley, the famous philosopher and early theorist of neurology, summed up the attitudes towards childhood’s difference from adulthood that characterized the age. In his Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations (1749), Hartley lumped together the insane, idiots, drunkards, criminals, and children as subjects all prone to “Erroneousness of Judgment,” and all deficient in “the Perfection of Reasoning natural to Adult.” The difference between children and the other groups on this list was, of course, that children could eventually be brought to the state of reasoning perfection. The cultivation of regular habits, epitomized by a more systematic approach to learning and by the various physical regimens advocated by medical experts, became not just personal concerns but social ones. The formation of new subjects for a changing society demanded a pedagogy of both the mind and the body for children.
The new children’s literature industry reinforced this sense of class stratification. Since much of the reading material relegated to the nursery had perennially been for plebeian tastes—chapbooks, folk tales, and jestbooks, for example, which were short, simple and usually illustrated—a considerable overhaul of children’s literature became necessary in the eighteenth century to accommodate and promote middle-class interests. While the fantastic narratives of Valentine and Orson, Fortunatus, Cinderella, and Jack-the-Giant-Killer remained popular, the trend in the second half of the century was to try either to weed out or sanitize what many saw as potentially dangerous plebeian narratives in the nursery. Such stories risked inflaming superstition in the young of the middle classes, and threatened to give the children of the poor false ideas about success through luck or beauty, rather than hard work. The new books for children not only imagined the “rational sports” described above, but mapped out proper class relations, depicting children engaged in small acts of charity toward the deserving poor, and receiving humble gratitude in return.
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