Presentation on theme: "Evolution of genes & proteins"— Presentation transcript:
1Evolution of genes & proteins Course code: ZOO560 Week 2Evolution of genes & proteinsAdvanced molecular biology (ZOO560) by Rania M. H. Baleela is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
2This week lectures content Evolution of duplicate genes (paralogs)Evolution of PseudogenesMathematical models of substitutionModels of mutation:IAMISMSMMWright-FisherCoalescence
3Genome Evolution Genome changes due to Mutation Recombination TranspositionGene transferDeletion and duplicationmajor mechanism for the expansion in the size of genomes as organisms evolved from simple to more complex is duplication of whole genomes as well as duplication of specific sequences
4Gene duplication is an important source of phenotypic change and adaptive evolution (Dennis et al., 2012)
5Fates of duplicate genes 1.Subfunctionalization2.Neofunctionalization3.Nonfunctionalization (psuedogene)4.Evolve in concert
6DefinitionsSubfunctionalization: a pair of duplicate genes are said to be subfuctionalized if each of the 2 copies of the gene performs only a subset of the functions of the ancestral single copy gene.Neofunctionalization: a pair of duplicate genes in a population are said to be neofunctionalized if one of the 2 genes possesses a new selectively beneficial function that was absent in the population before the duplication (e.g. hepatocyte growth factor vs. plasminogen)
8A duplicated gene is unlikely to be fixed unless it acquires a novel & useful function
9Sub/neo-functionalization Evolution of paralogsSub/neo-functionalization
10Gene duplication: history Time= 1936,Scientist= BridgesFinding= gene duplication of a chromosomal band in a mutant of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster,Observed result= extreme reduction in eye sizeGene duplicates= paralogs
11X-linked duplication The Bar gene duplication = chromosomal duplication or gene amplificationIs any duplication of a region of DNA that contains a gene.
12Gene duplication May occur due to: an error in homologous recombination,a retrotransposition event,duplication of an entire chromosome.
13Which genes undergo duplication? Features that might allow or prohibit the fixation of a duplicate copy of a gene in the population:Functional biases in the types of genes that survive in duplicate (e.g. in: yeast, humans, insects & bacteria).Belong to certain categories: such as genes encoding transcription factors, kinases and particular enzymes & transporters have unexpectedly high numbers of duplicates
14Duplications can be advantageous, deleterious or neutral If an organism is exposed to a toxic environment, there may be an advantage in overproduction of detoxifying enzymesDisadvantage will result of overproduction of a protein that upsets the regulatory balanceMost duplications are neutral=> their fate is determined by selection and drift
15Transition from Australopithecus to Homo, why Transition from Australopithecus to Homo, why? and the beginning of neocortex expansion, how?The cortical development gene Slit-Robo Rho GTPase-activating protein 2 (SRGAP2) duplicated 3 times exclusively in humans: from (SRGAP2A) to (SRGAP2B), 2 larger duplications later copied SRGAP2B to (SRGAP2C) and to proximal (SRGAP2D). SRGAP2C is the most likely duplicate to encode a functional protein (one of the most fixed human-specific duplicate genes). Incomplete duplication created a novel gene function at birth 2–3 mya,Gene duplication is an important source of phenotypic change and adaptive evolution. We leverage a haploid hydatidiform mole to identify highly identical sequences missing from the reference genome, confirming that the cortical development gene Slit-Robo Rho GTPase-activating protein 2 (SRGAP2) duplicated three times exclusively in humans. We show that the promoter and first nine exons of SRGAP2 duplicated from 1q32.1 (SRGAP2A) to 1q21.1 (SRGAP2B) ∼3.4 million years ago (mya). Two larger duplications later copied SRGAP2B to chromosome 1p12 (SRGAP2C) and to proximal 1q21.1 (SRGAP2D) ∼2.4 and ∼1 mya, respectively. Sequence and expression analyses show that SRGAP2C is the most likely duplicate to encode a functional protein and is among the most fixed human-specific duplicate genes. Our data suggest a mechanism where incomplete duplication created a novel gene function—antagonizing parental SRGAP2 function—immediately “at birth” 2–3 mya, which is a time corresponding to the transition from Australopithecus to Homo and the beginning of neocortex expansionDennis et al., 2012
16Evolution of (paralogs) Pseudogenes “fossil records” Nonfunctionalization
17PseudogenesA pseudogene is a DNA sequence that is nearly identical to that of a functional gene, but contains one or more mutations, making it non-functional.First recognized and named pseudogenes during thelate 1970s
18Regulatory role has been observed for human pseudogenes. 2 types of pseudogenes1. Unprocessed (duplicated):From genome duplication.Subsequently lost its function .Rapid degeneration observed in prokaryotes.2. Processed (retrotransposed):From reverse transcription (no intron).Regulatory role has been observed for human pseudogenes.
19Many changes have occurred in a beta-globin gene since it became a pseudogene
20Pseudogene descendants of human ribosomal protein gene (RPL21)
21Pseudogenes may represent reservoirs of genetic information that participate in the evolution of new genes, not only relics of inactivated genes whose fate is genomic extinction.
2221-hydroxylase (cytP21) gene One of the cytochrome P450 gene family.cytP21 is located on chromosome 6 in humans.Has a paralogous pseudogene in the vicinity.100s of mutations in the 21-hydroxylase gene have been described.75% of them are due to gene conversion.
23ξ-globin duplicationThe equine ξ-globin locus consists of a gene and a pseudogene. The duplication of the ξ -globin genes predates placental mammals radiation.Because of repeated GC events, the gene and the pseudogene are identical in their align-able part.
24“Natural selection merely modified, while redundancy created” Evolution by Gene DuplicationSusumu Ohno, 1970“Natural selection merely modified, while redundancy created”
26Mutation Mutation is any heritable change in the genetic material. Is the ultimate source of genetic variation.Include:Changes of DNA sequence (e.g. substitution)Chromosomal rearrangements (e.g. inversion)
27Mutation rate= probability of mutation. Most wild type (wt) genes mutate at a very low rateTypical mutation rate= to new mutations/gene/generation.In a population of size N diploid organisms, there are 2N copies of each gene, each of which can mutate in any generation.Mutation rate= probability of mutation.
29Types of point mutations In DNA sequences:Transitions: Point mutations substituting a purine (A or G) for a purine (A or G) or a pyrimidine (T or C) for a pyrimidine (T or C) .Transversions: substituting a purine (A or G) by a pyrimidine (T or C).Transitions are more common than transversions.
30Mathematical models of substitution Are essential to study the dynamics of nucleotides substitutions:Jukes & Cantor one-parameter model (JC) (1969),Kimura‘s two-parameters model (K2P) (1980),Felsenstein model (F81) (1981),Hasegawa, Kishino & Yano model (HKY85) (1985),A general reversible model (REV) (Rodríguez et al., 1990).
31Jukes & Cantor model (JC) assumes no bias in the direction of change so that substitutions occur randomly among the four types of nucleotides with equal probability.
32Kimura‘s two-parameters model (K2P) incorporate the observation that the transition rate per site (α) may differ from that of transversion (β).
33allows the frequencies of the 4 nucleotides to be different Felsenstein model (F81)allows the frequencies of the 4 nucleotides to be differentButassumes that they are approximately the same over all the sequences.
381. The infinite-alleles model (IAM) assumes that every new mutation that arises in a population creates a new allele that had not existed previously (Kimura & Crow, 1964).
392. The infinite-sites model (ISM) assumes that a new mutation alters sites (i.e. nucleotides) in sequences or alleles instead of creating an entire new allele and that it makes all polymorphic sites segregating for just two nucleotides if the mutation rate is sufficiently low (Kimura, 1969).
403. The stepwise-mutation model (SMM) initially developed for allozyme variation and then adopted for microsatellites mutations;assumes that mutation only occurs to adjacent states (Ohta and Kimura, 1973);in the case of microsatellites, different alleles have different number of repeats that mutation occurs only by adding or deleting one repeat.Unlike IAM, in the SMM mutation may produce alleles that are already present in the population (Hedrick, 2005).
414. The Wright-Fisher model is a simple representation of a population that Sewall Wright (1931) and Ronald Fisher (1930) used in developing the principles of population genetics (Hedrick, 2005).Assumes non-overlapping generations of individuals, random mating and a constant population size of N diploid individuals resulting in a Poisson distribution (Hey and Machado, 2003).
42Non-overlapping generations mathematical model (adopted from Hartl and Clark, 1997, with modifications)In this model, all organisms from one generation die before the members of the next generation mature. It applies literally only to organisms with a very simple life history such as short-lived insects, but this model can be used in population genetics as a first approximation to populations with more complex life histories.
435. The coalescent approach Credited to Kingman (1982),in brief this theory depends on the Wright-Fisher model and works by tracing alleles back to their ancestors and calculating the times to the common ancestry allele.The point at which the ancestor allele is detected is called coalescence (Hedrick, 2005).
44It takes almost half of the The coalescentThe most recentcommon ancestorMRCATn =2NeTime isrunningbackwardsTime ofcoalescencefor n lineagescoalescentcoalescentn(n-1)Tn=4NeDCBAIt takes almost half of thetime for the last twolineages to coalesceSequences