Maharashtra, Art Resource, New Yorkstate of India, occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan plateau in the western peninsular part of the subcontinent. Its shape roughly resembles a triangle, with the 450-mile (725-km) western coastline forming the base and its interior narrowing to a blunt apex some 500 miles (800 km) to the east. Maharashtra is bounded by the Indian states of Gujarat to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, Karnataka to the south, and Goa to the southwest and by the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and the Arabian Sea to the west.
Photodisc/ThinkstockMaharashtra’s capital, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), is an island city on the western coast, connected to the mainland by roads and railways. Aptly called the gateway of India, Maharashtra is one of India’s biggest commercial and industrial centres, and it has played a significant role in the country’s social and political life.
Maharashtra is a leader among Indian states in terms of agricultural and industrial production, trade and transport, and education. Its ancient culture, at one stage considerably obscured by British dominance, survives largely through the medium of a strong literary heritage. A common literature in Marathi, the predominant language of the state, has in fact played an important role in nurturing a sense of unity among the Maharashtrians. Area 118,800 square miles (307,690 square km). Pop. (2011) 112,372,972.
© Ann & Bury Peerless Slide Resources & Picture LibraryMaharashtra presents an interesting range of physical diversity. To the west is the narrow Konkan coastal lowland, which reaches its widest extent near Mumbai. Numerous minor hills dominate the relief. There are many small, swift, west-flowing streams, most of them less than 50 miles (80 km) long. The biggest, Ulhas, rising in the Bhor Ghat, joins the sea after an 80-mile (130-km) course.
The Western Ghats (a mountain range at the western edge of the Deccan plateau; ghat means “pass” in Marathi) run almost continuously for 400 miles (640 km) north-south, with the foothills reaching to within 4 miles (6.4 km) of the Arabian Sea. Elevations increase northward to peaks of some 4,720 feet (1,440 metres). There are a few passes through which roads and railroads link the coast with the interior. The eastern slopes of the Ghats descend gently to the Deccan plateau and are sculptured by the wide mature valleys of the Krishna, Bhima, and Godavari rivers.
© Satish Parashar/Dinodia Photo LibraryBetween the Narmada valley in the north, the Krishna basin in the south, and the western coast to as far east as the city of Nagpur, the Ghats and the triangular plateau inland are covered with extensive lava outpourings called traps. They reach a maximum thickness of 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) near Mumbai. The differential erosion of lava has resulted in characteristic steppelike slopes, uniform crest lines, and a table-top appearance of many hills in Maharashtra.
Around Nagpur, the Deccan trap gives way to undulating uplands (about 890 to 1,080 feet [270 to 330 metres] high) underlain by ancient crystalline rocks. The Wardha-Wainganga valley, part of the larger Godavari basin, trends southward and has many lakes.
A major part of Maharashtra is covered in black soils derived from decomposed lava rocks that are commonly called “black cotton soils” (because cotton often is grown in them). Drifts along the slopes have eroded into medium brown and light-coloured sandy soils. Saline soils in the river valleys are the results of impeded soil drainage followed by intense evaporation.
The climate is characteristically monsoonal (i.e., wet-dry), with local variations. India’s southwest monsoonal rains break on the Mumbai coast usually in the first week of June and last until September, during which period they account for about four-fifths of the annual rainfall. Four seasons are normal: March–May (hot and dry); June–September (hot and wet); October–November (warm and dry); and December–February (cool and dry).
The Western Ghats and the ranges on the northern borders greatly influence the climate and separate the wet Konkan Coast from the dry interior upland, an area called the Desh. Rainfall is extremely heavy in Konkan, averaging about 100 inches (2,540 mm), with some of the wettest spots receiving up to 250 inches (6,350 mm) but rapidly diminishing to one-fifth of that amount east of the Ghats. Rainfall increases again in the eastern areas, reaching about 40 to 80 inches (1,000 to 2,000 mm) in the extreme east.
The coastal regions enjoy equable temperatures; monthly averages at Mumbai are in the low 80s F (about 27–28 °C). A change of more than about 13 °F (7 °C) between day and night temperatures is unusual. Pune (Poona), higher up on the plateau, benefits from cooler temperatures throughout the year. In the interior, average summer temperatures reach into the low 100s F (about 38–41 °C), and winter temperatures average in the low 70s F (about 21–23 °C).
Forests cover less than one-fifth of the state and are confined to the Western Ghats, mainly their transverse ranges, the Satpura Range in the north, and the Chandrapur region in the east. On the coast and adjoining slopes, plant forms are rich with lofty trees, variegated shrubs, and mango and coconut trees. The forests yield teak, bamboo, myrobalan (for dyeing), and other woods.
Thorny savanna-like vegetation occurs in areas of lesser rainfall, notably in upland Maharashtra. Subtropical vegetation is found on higher plateaus that receive heavy rain and have milder temperatures. Bamboo, chestnut, and magnolia are common. In the semiarid tracts, wild dates are found. Mangrove vegetation occurs in marshes and estuaries along the coast.
Wild animals include tigers, leopards, bison, and several species of antelope. The striped hyena, wild hog, and sloth bear are common. Monkeys and snakes occur in great variety, as do ducks and other game birds. The peacock is indigenous. Many of these animals can be viewed at the state’s national parks at Tadoba, Chikhaldara, and Borivli. The state’s abundant marine life in the waters off the western coast remains largely unexploited.
Frederick M. AsherMaharashtrians are ethnically heterogeneous. Marathas and Kunbis (descendants of settlers who arrived from the north about the beginning of the 1st century ce) make up the majority of the remainder of the state population. The Bhil, Warli, Gond, Korku, Govari, and other tribal communities live on the slopes of the Western Ghats and the Satpura Range.
Marathi, the official state language, is spoken by more than four-fifths of the population. Other languages spoken in the state are Gujarati, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Sindhi, Urdu, Bengali, Malayalam, and English. There are also many local languages, including Konkani on the west coast and Gondi, Varhadi, and Mundari in the eastern and northern forests.
Maharashtra’s religious diversity reflects that of India as a whole. Hindus predominate, followed by Muslims and Buddhists. There are many Christians in the metropolitan areas. Jewish and Parsi (a religious minority adhering to Zoroastrianism) groups have settled mostly in urban areas; Parsis live mainly in Mumbai and its environs. Other religious minorities include Jainas and Sikhs, whose small communities are widespread.
Alain Evrard—Impact Photos/Heritage-ImagesAbout two-thirds of the population is rural and lives in villages. Mumbai, the largest city in the state, is also the most populous metropolis in India. Nagpur, Pune, and Solapur are other major cities. Of particular historical interest is the Mughal city of Aurangabad in the northwest-central part of the state, which contains several monuments and other historic buildings.
The national and state governments have promoted both improved agricultural techniques and increased industrialization of the economy. As a result, Maharashtra has become one of the most developed and prosperous Indian states. Mumbai, India’s best-equipped port, handles an enormous foreign trade. It is a hub of manufacturing, finance, and administration but also a national centre for motion-picture production. Pune has developed many industries because of its proximity to Mumbai. Nagpur and Solapur have textile and other agriculturally based industries.
B. Bhansali/Shostal AssociatesInsufficient rainfall in much of Maharashtra constitutes the main obstacle to agriculture in the state. Measures to combat food deficits have included the electrification of irrigation pumps, the use of hybrid seeds, more efficient cultivation, and incentives offered to farmers. Maharashtra is the largest producer of sugarcane in India. Jowar (grain sorghum), millet, and pulses (legumes) dominate the cropped area. Rice grows where rainfall exceeds 40 inches (1,000 mm), and wheat is a winter crop in fields that retain moisture. Cotton, tobacco, and peanuts (groundnuts) are major crops in areas with heavy rainfall. Mangoes, cashew nuts, bananas, and oranges are popular orchard crops.
Most of Maharashtra’s known mineral resources—including manganese, coal, iron ore, limestone, copper, bauxite, silica sand, and common salt—occur in the eastern districts, with some deposits in the west. The Bhandara, Nagpur, and Chandrapur regions are particularly rich in bituminous coal. Undersea oil deposits were discovered near Mumbai in the 1970s and have since been exploited, enhancing the city’s economic importance nationally. The mountainous areas of the state possess significant timber reserves.
Hydroelectric and thermal stations provide most of the state’s power. Large thermal power plants, which burn coal, are located near Nagpur and Chandrapur. The nuclear power facility at Tarapur, 70 miles (113 km) north of Mumbai, was India’s first nuclear power plant.
The manufacture of cotton textiles is the oldest and largest industry in Maharashtra. Mumbai, Nagpur, Solapur, Akola, and Amravati are the main factory centres; woolen goods are produced especially in and around Nagpur and Solapur. Other hubs of traditional agriculturally based industry include Jalgaon and Dhule (edible oils processing) and Kolhapur, Ahmadnagar, and the Sangli-Miraj industrial complex (sugar refining). Fruit canning and preservation are important in Nagpur, Bhusawal, Ratnagiri, and Mumbai. Manufactured forest products include timber, bamboo, sandalwood, and tendu leaves—the latter used for rolling bidi (Indian cigarettes). Small-scale agroprocessing of food grains and other crops is virtually ubiquitous in the state.
The Mumbai-Pune complex boasts the state’s greatest concentration of heavy industry and high technology. The petrochemical industry has developed rapidly since the installation of India’s first offshore oil wells near Mumbai in 1976. Oil refining and the manufacture of agricultural implements, transport equipment, rubber products, electric and oil pumps, lathes, compressors, sugar-mill machinery, typewriters, refrigerators, electronic equipment, and television and radio sets are important. Automobiles are also assembled there.
The eastern area around Nagpur, Chandrapur, and Bhandara supports major coal-based industries, along with plants that process ferroalloys, manganese and iron ores, and cement. Aurangabad and Thane are also important industrial hubs.
The state’s rail network is vital to Maharashtra’s transport system. The Konkan Railway links Mumbai with settlements in the coastal plain. Wardha and Nagpur are important junctions on the rail routes.
Daily air services connect Mumbai with Pune, Nagpur, Aurangabad, and Nashik. The international airport at Mumbai is one of India’s busiest and largest hubs, and Nagpur is the centre of India’s domestic air service. Inland water transport plays a limited role in Maharashtra, and other than Mumbai there are only minor ports on the western coast.
The structure of the government of Maharashtra, like that of most other states of India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, who is appointed by the president of India. The governor is aided and advised by the Council of Ministers (led by a chief minister) and is responsible to the legislature, which consists of two houses: the Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council) and the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly). Both bodies meet for regular sessions in Mumbai and once annually in Nagpur. Seats are reserved for members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and for women. Maharashtra is represented in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha (which are, respectively, the lower and upper houses of the Indian Parliament).
Executive authority in the state is exercised by the cabinet in the name of the governor. The district collector and chief executive officer—responsible for the collection of land revenue and special taxes and for coordinating the work of other departments—are the key figures within the local administrative areas.
The judiciary, a High Court headed by the chief justice and a panel of judges, is based in Mumbai. There are branches of this court at Nagpur and at Aurangabad.
Maharashtra comprises three conventional regions: western Maharashtra, Vidarbha, and Marathwada. Each is divided administratively into districts, which are further divided into talukas (townships). Local administrations consist of zilla parishads (district councils), panchayat samiti (township councils), and gram panchayats (village councils). Cities and towns have corporations and municipal councils as elected bodies.
The Public Service Commission and a State Selection Board select candidates for appointment to all state services. This process is carried out largely by means of competitive examinations.
Scores of hospitals and clinics, including general hospitals, women’s hospitals, and mental health institutes, are in Maharashtra. Medical personnel mainly consist of allopathic (traditional Western) and Ayurvedic (ancient Indian) practitioners. Unanī (traditional Muslim) and homeopathic systems of medicine are also popular. The state is a leader in the prevention and control of malaria and parasites such as guinea worms and the nematodes that cause filariasis, in the immunization of children and expectant mothers, and in the treatment of tuberculosis, goitre, leprosy, cancer, and HIV/AIDS. Regional blood banks are in Mumbai, Pune, Aurangabad, and Nagpur, and emergency centres are found in all districts. The state has repeatedly received national recognition for its family-planning program. In Mumbai the Haffkine Institute, a leading bacteriologic research centre specializing in tropical diseases, and the Indian Cancer Research Centre (located in the Tata Memorial Hospital) are well known.
At the beginning of the 21st century, Maharashtra’s literacy rate was one of the highest of all the Indian states, with about three-fourths of the population aged 15 and over able to read and write. The state provides free compulsory education for children between ages 6 and 14. Vocational and multipurpose high schools also have grown in importance.
Larger institutions for higher education include the University of Mumbai (1857) and Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women’s University (1916) in Mumbai, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Mahara Nagpur University (1923) in Nagpur, the University of Pune (1949) in Pune, Shivaji University (1962) in Kolhapur, and Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra University (1989) in Nashik. There are other universities in Aurangabad, Ahmadnagar, Akola, Amravati, Jalgaon, and Kolhapur. Some prominent institutions in the state include the Central Institute of Fisheries Education, the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, the International Institute for Population Sciences, and the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in Mumbai and the Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute and the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics in Pune.
Several medical, dental, and Ayurvedic colleges are in Mumbai, Nagpur, and Pune. Most district hospitals maintain nursing schools. Technical education is provided by engineering colleges and polytechnic and industrial institutes. Almost every taluka (township) has a technical school.
An important adjunct to education in the state is training courses run by the country’s security establishment. The National Defence Academy near Pune is a premier institution that provides cadet training for India’s defense forces. The College of Military Engineering at Pune is run by the Indian Army Corps of Engineers. Sainik schools (competitive secondary schools that prepare students to serve in the National Defence Academy) and the voluntary National Cadet Corps provide military training. There are also institutes in Maharashtra for research and development in explosives, armament technology, vehicle research, and naval, chemical, and metallurgical laboratories.
© Brad Pict/Fotolia© 1997; AISA, Archivo Iconográfico, Barcelona, EspañaMaharashtra is a distinct cultural region. Its long artistic tradition is manifested in the ancient cave paintings found at Ajanta and Ellora just north of Aurangabad, both which were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1983, in a number of medieval architectural masterpieces, in its classical and devotional music, and in its theatre. Pune, where numerous organizations sustain these great traditions, is the state’s undisputed cultural capital.
Music in Maharashtra, like Marathi literature, has an ancient tradition. It became allied with Hindustani music about the 14th century. In more recent times Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayana Bhatkhande greatly influenced Indian classical music. Contemporary vocalists include Bhimsen Joshi and Lata Mangeshkar.
In rural Maharashtra the foremost diversion is tamasha, a performance form that combined music, drama, and dance. The typical tamasha troupe comprises seven artists, including a female dancer for featured roles and a bawdy clown.
Yash Raj Films/The Kobal CollectionThe theatre and the cinema are popular in urban areas of Maharashtra. Leading playwrights V. Khadilkar and Vijay Tendulkar and actor Bal Gandharva raised the status of the Marathi drama as an art form. The Indian movie industry, known as Bollywood, began in Mumbai in the 1930s, and by the early 21st century its films had gained popularity among international audiences. Prabhat Film Company in Pune is one of the country’s leaders in cinema; some of its best-known productions are Sant Tukaram (1936) and Sant Dnyaneshwar (1940). Maharashtrian film pioneers are Dadasaheb Phalke and Baburao Painter, and artists of Hindi cinema include Nana Patekar and Madhuri Dixit.
Many festivals are held throughout the year in Maharashtra. Holi and Ranga Panchami are spring festivals. Dussehra (also spelled Dashahara) is an autumn event celebrating the triumph of good over evil. During Pola in August, farmers bathe, decorate, and parade their bulls through the streets, signifying the start of the sowing season. The Ganesha festival, celebrating the birth of Hindu deity Ganesha, is held during the rainy season and is by far the most popular in Maharashtra. Its public celebration was first sponsored by the nationalist political leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1893. Clay idols of Ganesha are sold throughout the state. Unique to Maharashtra is the Hurda party, in which a farmer invites neighbouring villagers to partake of fresh ears of jowar (grain sorghum). ʿĀshūrāʾ, observed on the 10th day of Muḥarram (the first month of the Islamic calendar), honours the martyrs of Islam, although Hindus also participate. Folk songs and traditional dances accompany all these celebrations.
The name Maharashtra, denoting the western upland of the Deccan plateau, first appeared in a 7th-century inscription and in the account of Xuanzang, a Chinese traveler at that time. According to one interpretation, the name derives from the word maharathi (great chariot driver), which refers to a skillful northern fighting force that migrated southward into the area. The group’s language, intermingled with the speech of the earlier Naga settlers, became Maharastri, which by the 8th century had developed into Marathi. There was also a continuous influx of people from remote Greece and Central Asia.
During this early period the territory constituting the modern state of Maharashtra was divided between several Hindu kingdoms: Satavahana, Vakataka, Kalacuri, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Yadava. After 1307 there was a succession of Muslim dynasties. Persian, the court language of the Muslims, had a far-reaching effect on Marathi. By the middle of the 16th century, Maharashtra was again fragmented between several independent Muslim rulers, who fought each other endlessly. It was in the midst of this chaos that a great leader, Shivaji, was born in 1627. Shivaji showed astonishing prowess by founding a large Maratha empire that shook Delhi-based Mughal rule to its foundations.
During the 18th century almost all of western and central India, as well as large segments of the north and east, was brought under Maratha suzerainty. It was this empire that succumbed to the British from the early 19th century onward. When India became independent in 1947, the province, long known as the Bombay Presidency, became Bombay state. The following year a number of former princely states (notably Baroda [now Vadodara]) were merged into the new state, and on Nov. 1, 1956, a major linguistic and political reorganization of the states of peninsular India resulted in the addition of large parts of Madhya Pradesh and the erstwhile Hyderabad to Bombay state. The outcome of this reorganization was a state in which most of the Gujarati-speaking peoples lived in the north and most of the Marathi-speaking peoples lived in the south. As a result of the demands of the two language groups, the state was divided into two parts on May 1, 1960, thus creating Gujarat in the north and Maharashtra in the south. Bombay, remaining part of Maharashtra, became the new state’s capital. The city’s name was changed to Mumbai in the mid-1990s.