Synthesis of transuranium elements
The most abundant isotope of neptunium is neptunium-237. Neptunium-237 has a half-life of 2.1 x 106 years and decays by the emission of alpha particles. (Alpha particles are composed of two neutrons and two protons and are actually the very stable nucleus of helium.) Neptunium-237 is formed in kilogram quantities as a by-product of the large-scale production of plutonium in nuclear reactors. This isotope is synthesized from the reactor fuel uranium-235 by the reaction
and from uranium-238 by
Plutonium, as the isotope plutonium-239, is produced in ton quantities in nuclear reactors by the sequence
Because of its ability to undergo fission with neutrons of all energies, plutonium-239 has considerable practical applications as an energy source in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear power reactors.
The method of element production discussed thus far has been that of successive neutron capture resulting from the continuous intensive irradiation with slow (low-energy) neutrons of an actinoid target. The sequence of nuclides that can be synthesized in nuclear reactors by this process is shown in the figure, in which the light line indicates the principal path of neutron capture (horizontal arrows) and negative beta-particle decay (up arrows) that results in successively heavier elements and higher atomic numbers. (Down arrows represent electron-capture decay.) The heavier lines show subsidiary paths that augment the major path. The major path terminates at fermium-257, because the short half-life of the next fermium isotope (fermium-258)for radioactive decay by spontaneous fission (370 microseconds)precludes its production and the production of isotopes of elements beyond fermium by this means.
Heavy isotopes of some transuranium elements are also produced in nuclear explosions. Typically, in such events, a uranium target is bombarded by a high number of fast (high-energy) neutrons for a small fraction of a second, a process known as rapid-neutron capture, or the r-process (in contrast to the slow-neutron capture, or s-process, described above). Underground detonations of nuclear explosive devices during the late 1960s resulted in the production of significant quantities of einsteinium and fermium isotopes, which were separated from rock debris by mining techniques and chemical processing. Again, the heaviest isotope found was that of fermium-257.
An important method of synthesizing transuranium isotopes is by bombarding heavy element targets not with neutrons but with light charged particles (such as the helium nuclei mentioned above as alpha particles) from accelerators. For the synthesis of elements heavier than mendelevium, so-called heavy ions (with atomic number greater than 2 and mass number greater than 5) have been used for the projectile nuclei. Targets and projectiles relatively rich in neutrons are required so that the resulting nuclei will have sufficiently high neutron numbers; too low a neutron number renders the nucleus extremely unstable and unobservable because of its resultantly short half-life.
The elements from seaborgium to copernicium have been synthesized and identified (i.e., discovered) by the use of cold, or soft, fusion reactions. In this type of reaction, medium-weight projectiles are fused to target nuclei with protons numbering close to 82 and neutrons numbering about 126i.e., near the doubly magic lead-208resulting in a relatively cold compound system. The elements from 113 to 118 were made using hot fusion reactions, similar to those described above using alpha particles, in which a relatively light projectile collides with a heavier actinoid. Because the compound nuclei formed in cold fusion have lower excitation energies than those produced in hot fusion, they may emit only one or two neutrons and thus have a much higher probability of remaining intact instead of undergoing the competing prompt fission reaction. (Nuclei formed in hot fusion have higher excitation energy and emit three to five neutrons.) Cold fusion reactions were first recognized as a method for the synthesis of heavy elements by Yuri Oganessian of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna in the U.S.S.R. (now in Russia).
·Discovery of the first transuranium elements
·Synthesis of transuranium elements
·Extension of the periodic table
·Characterization and identification
·Practical applications of transuranium isotopes