Functions of skeleton-
Support- The skeleton supports the soft tissues of the body as it forms a rigid framework to which our muscles,tendoms are attached to
Shape- The overal shape of our bodies is mostly due to our skeletons- Short or Tall
Protection- Our bones are very strong and can provide protection to the vital organs- Skull protects brain
Movement- Our bones are levers which are pulled by the muscles to cause movement
Making blood cells- Inside long bones is a substance called mone marrow- makes new blood cells
Types of bones
Long bones- Have a body longer than it is wide
Have a hard casing, spongy in centre
Bones such as Femur, Humerus
Short bones- Are roughly as wide as they are long
Contain large amounts of bone marrow to make blood vessels
Bones such as Carpals and Tarsals
Flat bones- Strong, flat pieces of bone
Main funtions are protection and muscle attachment
Bones such as cranium, Scapula
Irregular Bones- Dont fit in other categories-unusual shape
Ossification- Process by which cartilage is turned into born
When born all our bones are cartilage
Process of Ossification turns the cartilage to bone-longer for some bones
Bones made up of serveral layers- Outter layer is Periosteum
There is then an outer layer of strong compact (hard bone)
Some spongy bone contains red bone marrow- makes red blood cells
The Marrow cavity contains yellow marrow- makes whiteblood cells.
Fixed or immovable joints - also known as fibrous joints. Like the joints between the different bones of the skull
Slightly movable joints - also known as cartilaginous joints. There is a small amount of movement permitted at these joints which are separated by cartilage, such as in the joints between the vertebrae.
Freely movable - also known as synovial joints. These contain synovial fluid inside a synovial membrane which surrounds the joint. An example is the knee joint.
Different types of movement available at different joints- shoulder moves in far more ways than the knee. Main types of movement are-
Flexion- Reducing the angle at the joint- bending knee or elbow
Extension- Increasing the angle at the join- Straiting knee or elbow
Adduction- Moving the body part towards the centre of body- Bring leg towards other
Abduction- Moving the body part awayfrom the centre of body- One leg away from the other
Rotaion- Turning or twisting a body part- turning leg to point toe
Freely movable (synovial) Joints
Hinge- Flextion/Extension - Elbow or knee
Pivot- Rotation of one bone around another- Top of the neck
Ball and socket- Flexion/Extension/Adduction/Abduction/internal and external rotation- Shoulder/hip
Condyloid- Flexion/Extension/Adduction/Abduction/Circumduction-Wrist joint
Gliding- Gliding movements- Intercarpal joints
Connective Tissues and joints
Three types of connective tissue in and around joints-
Cartliage- Sits on the ends of to bones within a joint to stop the two ends from rubbing
Ligaments- These connect bones to bones and help keep joint together
Tendons- These connect the mucsle to bones and usually cross a joint so that the associtaed muscle can cause movement at the joint
Consists of lots of small irregular bones- Vertebrae. Their fuction is to allow movement at the spine- provide an attachment for muscles and also to protect spinal cord whcih runs through their centres.
Cervical- The neck part of the spines and consists of 7 vertebrae
Thoracic- Is the upper back and consists of 12 vertebrae
Lumbar- its the vertebrae forms the lower back- includes 5 vertebrae
Sacrum- Is the buttocks part of the spine and consists of 5 vertebrae- fused together appear as triangular bone
Coccyx- Very end of the spine and used to be our tail bones- does not have function
Types of muscles
Skeletal Muscle (Voluntary muscle)- Attached to our skeletons and cause us to move our body parts. Always under control.
Smooth Muscle (Involuntary muscle)- Not under our direct control and contracts of it own accord. situated in many walls of organs- such as stomach and blood vessels.Called smooth as it does not share the same stripy appearance as others.
Cardiac Muscle- Found in the heart, no where else. Works continuously and is not under our control.
Muscles are made up of bundles of fibres. Either Fast or Slow Twitch
Fast twitch fibres- Used for powerful, fast movements. Get tired quickly. Athletes who are good at short events which require speed and power have high number of these twitch fibres.
Slow twitch fibres- Are good for indurance activities. Contract slowly with less force, dont tire as easily. Long distance runners tend to have more of these.
Everyone have a similar number of muscle fibres. People with larger muscles have larger fibres, not more.
In order for a muscle to cause a movement, it corsses a joint. it is attached to two bones which form the joint by tendons. Just one of the the bones will move when the muscle contracts.
Muscles have two ends, one is called the Orgigin, and is the end that attaches to the stationary bone. Other is called in insertion and is attached to the moving bone.
Muscles only pull and cant push they work in pairs called antagonistic pairs. When one muscle contracts the other relaxes. The muscle which is contracting is called agonist or the prime mover. Relaxing muscle is called antagonist. There is a third muscle type called- Synergist. These muscles stabilise bone which is not moving,
Agonist- Biceps Brachii
Antagonist- Triceps Brachii
Isometric- muscle length does not change and there is no movement-carry bucket of water.
Isotonic- Muscle length changes, causing movement at a joint- bicep curl.
The growth in muscle size is called Hypertrophy.
If we don not use our muscles regulary, muscles reduce in size. This is called Atrophy.
Muscles always under slight tension- can sit up right. This small amount is known as muscle tone. Exercise improves it.
The Respiratory system
Consistes of all structures which are used in the process of breathing and supplying our bodies with oxygen.
Mouth or nose- Air is warmed and filteredand passed through larynx and pharynx
Trachea- or windpipe carries air towards the lungs
Bronchi- the trachea splits into two bronchi, one leads to the left other to right
Bronchioles- once within the lungs the bronchi continue to divide into these smaller tubes
Alveoli- the bronchiloles end in small sacs called alveoli-gas exchange takes place
Gas exchange is assing the of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood flow and the excess Carbon Dioxide within the blood flow passing back into the alveoli to be breathed out, Each tiny alveoli is covered by capillaries.
We breathe in air- 21% Oxygen.
Here oxygen enters red blood cells
Can travel around body the organs and muscles
Carbon Dioxide is a wast product collect from the muscles, blood stream and organs.
Cycle continues as more oxygen is recived into blood flow.
The Circulatory system
Consists of the Heart, blood vessels and blood itself. Transport, temperature control and Protection.
Transport- of substances such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Control of body temperature- blood moves towards the skin to cool us down,
Protection- in the form of our immune syetem. Blood carries white blood cells which help fight disease. Platelets also clot the blood to stop us from bleeding.
Arteries- Carry blood away from heart
Carry oxygenated blood
Thick, Strong, Elastic walls
Smaller arteries are called arterioles
Veins- Carry blood back to the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood
Contain valves to make sure the blood travels in the right direction when
under low pressure
Thinner walls and Smaller Veins are called venules
Capillaries- smallest blood vessels which connect veins and arteries
Travel deep inside muscles and organs to supply nutrients/oxygen
Have walls only one cell thick to allow exchange of these
Red blood cells- These are disc shaped cells which carry haemoglobin to
combine with oxygen.
White blood cells- These fight against disease by using antibodies and antitoxins
Platelets- These are fragments of cells whcih help blood to clot at wounds.
Plasma- Straw coloured liquid which carries all the blood cells as well as hormones, waste products and digested foods.
Health is a state well-being. A state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease of infirmity.
Physical well-being- You are injury and disease free.
Mental well-being- Dont suffer from mental illness or high levels of stress anxiety
Soical well-being- Believe you have some purpose.
P-ersonal hygiene- Keeping clean, help avoid illness
L-ifestyles- way you live your life- activities, jobs, rest. Lazyness affects health
E-motional health- Wotk, relationships and friends can cause you feel good/bad
A-locohol/Drugs- Excessive alocohol and use of illegal drugs have negative affect on physical, emotional and social well-being.
S-afety- Not being safe and careful, have correct equipment.
E-nvironment- Noisy envrioments can cause stress and lack of sleep.
D-iet- having a well-balanced diet helps to keep you healthy.
Improved body shapes- including muscle tone and posture
Strengthens bones and muscles
Reduces the chance of illness so increasing life expectancy
Improves endurance, flexibility and overall fitness
Helps you to deal with stress and tension
Something to aim for like a challenge
Helps tou meet new people
Improves your teamwork and coopertaion
Diet and Nutrition
Four main food types-
Meat and fish
Fruit and vegetables
Bread, Cereaks, potatoes, nuts, pulses etc
Proteins are used to help us Grow and repair tissues.
Protains found in meat, fish, milk and eggs.
Also found in beans and lentils
Made from amino acids
15% of your diet
Sorce of energy, also provide warmth for our bodies and protextion for our vital organs.
three types of fats-
Saturated, Monosaturated, Polysaturated
30% of your daily diet
Muscles can continue to exert a lot of force for a long period
The feeling of heavyness and weakness means your muscles are fatiguing
Athletes with higher muscular endurance have a higher proportions of Slow Twitch mucsle fibres
Muscular endurance can be increase through weight training
Your heart and lungs can keep your muscles supplied with oxygen throughout exercise
The harder your muscles work the more oxygen they need, heart rate rises.
The better your CV system is, the slower your heart rate is because you pump more blood with each beat.
You can improve your CV endurance through aerobice training
Aerobic- Means with oxygen
Heart and lung supply enough to maintain level of exercise
Glucose+Oxygen=Carbon dioxide +Water + Energy
Carbon dioxide and water are breathed out-water also lost through sweat
Long as you get enough Oxygen to the muscles-go on for long time
Anaerobic- Means without oxygen
Heart and lungs dont supply enough oxygen
Glucose= Lactic acid +Energy
Lactic acid builds up in muscles as there isnt enough oxygen
Lactic acid makes your muscles feel very tired and heavy
Soon enough you have to slow down or stop
Static strength- Try and move an immoveable object, or carry a heavy object.
No movement of the object.
Muscles do not change lenght (isometric contraction)
Explosive strength- Used when exerting a force in a short, fast bursts
Similar to power
Throwing a ball or long jump
Dynamic strength- Repeatedly applying force, over long period
Similar to muscular endurance
Performing reps when weight training
Combination of reaction time and movement-
Reaction time- is the time it takes you to responf to a stimulus
Movement time- is the time it takes to perform a movement
Speed can be improved through training which concentrates on strength and techniques- some factors may limit your speed-
Inherited characteristics- such as the number of fast twitch fibres you may have.
Body shape and size- Bone structure, weight and muscle size will affect how quickly you can move
Event duration- Over longer distances, it is not possible to run at full speed throughout
Power is basically strong movements, performed with speed. Lots of sports require power
To be powerful you need to be strong but you also need to have good balance and coordination, to direct and control this power.
Flexibility is how far your joints move which depends on the elasticity of you your muscles.
Being flexible is great for most sports not just dance and ballet- it helps-
Make your movements more efficient, meaning you have more energy available for other aspects of your performance.
Avoid injuries as fleible muscles are not as easy to stretch.
Flexible people generally have better posture- helps avid aches and pains.
Stretching helps to prepare you for exercise as it is a good way of warming up.
Active stretches- Move the joint to the point where you feel gentle stretch
Hold position, dont bounce
If strecthing muscle fades make harder- move further
Stretched should not hurt
Passive stretching- Involves a partner moving your body part for you
important you communicate
Effect of age in sport
Strength- Children not as strong as adults
in 20s and 30s is is easy to build up strength and muscle mass
in your 40s strength decreases as protein levels fall
Flexibility- Most flexible as adolescents
As we get older we tend to loose suppleness
Oxygen capacity- The capacity to transport and use oxygen so effectively falls
Injury + Disease- As we age we get weaker- injuries can be caused
Longer for older to heal
Diseases like caner are more prominent in older people
Reaction time- As we age, we get slower to react to a stimulus
Experience- Older atheletes are oftern experience- important tool
helps us yo know how best to deal with situation
Effect of gender in sport
Men and woman rarely compete against each other-
Men have longer and heavier bones
Woman have a wider and flatter pelvis
Woman carry more body fat than men
Womans menstrual cycle affect performance
Men have higher testosterone levels- stronger bones
Women more flexible- lower muscle mass
Girls reach there physical maturity at 16/17- boys 3-4 years after
Sport and personality
Personality can affect type of sports tou like-
Introverted- people tend to be quiet and thoughtful
Extroverted- people are move loud and excitable
Introverts- Concentration Extroverts- Exciting
Precision Team sports
Self motivation Fast paced
intricate skills High arousal levels Low arousal levels Large, simple motor skills
solo performance Low concentration
Indirect aggression- this means taking aggression out on an object
Like the ball in golf, tennis or football
Dircet aggression- The aggression is in the direction of another player
Involves physical contact- rugby tackle or boxing
Aggression can lead to breaking rules of the sport or injury
Performance enhancing drugs
Anabolice agents (steroids)- used by athletes who want to bulk up and increase
their muscle mass, Make them train harder
- Many side effects- high blood pressure, heart
Stimulants- Reduce pain, increase reaction speed and raise aggression
Highly addictive- side effects like strokes, heart and liver problems
Can increase injury.
Diuretics- Athletes use diuretics for one or two reasons. Loose weight quickly or
to clear trace of other substances
Narcotic analgesics- pain killers, mask pain from injury
Highly addictive and cause withdrawl symptons
Its monitored closely so its accurate. Can be performed at any time.
Urine samples divided into A and B
A is then tested
If positive then B is also tested
If also positive then they face a life time ban
Refusing a drugs test is taken as failing a drugs test