Van der Waaws force
In mowecuwar physics, de van der Waaws force, named after Dutch scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waaws, is a distance-dependent interaction between atoms or mowecuwes. Unwike ionic or covawent bonds, dese attractions do not resuwt from a chemicaw ewectronic bond; dey are comparativewy weak and derefore more susceptibwe to disturbance. The Van der Waaws force qwickwy vanishes at wonger distances between interacting mowecuwes.
Van der Waaws force pways a fundamentaw rowe in fiewds as diverse as supramowecuwar chemistry, structuraw biowogy, powymer science, nanotechnowogy, surface science, and condensed matter physics. It awso underwies many properties of organic compounds and mowecuwar sowids, incwuding deir sowubiwity in powar and non-powar media.
If no oder force is present, de distance between atoms at which de force becomes repuwsive rader dan attractive as de atoms approach one anoder is cawwed de van der Waaws contact distance; dis phenomenon resuwts from de mutuaw repuwsion between de atoms' ewectron cwouds. The van der Waaws force has de same origin as de Casimir effect, arising from qwantum interactions wif de zero-point fiewd.
The term van der Waaws force is sometimes used woosewy for aww intermowecuwar forces. The term awways incwudes de London dispersion force between instantaneouswy induced dipowes. It is sometimes appwied to de Debye force between a permanent dipowe and a corresponding induced dipowe or to de Keesom force between permanent mowecuwar dipowes.
Van der Waaws forces incwude attraction and repuwsions between atoms, mowecuwes, and surfaces, as weww as oder intermowecuwar forces. They differ from covawent and ionic bonding in dat dey are caused by correwations in de fwuctuating powarizations of nearby particwes (a conseqwence of qwantum dynamics).
Being de weakest of de weakest chemicaw forces, wif a strengf between 0.4 and 4kJ/mow, dey may stiww support an integraw structuraw woad when muwtitudes of such interactions are present. Such a force resuwts from a transient shift in ewectron density. Specificawwy, de ewectron density may temporariwy shift more greatwy to one side of de nucweus. This generates a transient charge to which a nearby atom can be eider attracted or repewwed. When de interatomic distance of two atoms is greater dan 0.6 nm de force is not strong enough to be observed. In de same vein, when de interatomic distance is bewow 0.4 nm de force becomes repuwsive.
Intermowecuwar forces have four major contributions:
- A repuwsive component resuwting from de Pauwi excwusion principwe dat prevents de cowwapse of mowecuwes.
- Attractive or repuwsive ewectrostatic interactions between permanent charges (in de case of mowecuwar ions), dipowes (in de case of mowecuwes widout inversion center), qwadrupowes (aww mowecuwes wif symmetry wower dan cubic), and in generaw between permanent muwtipowes. The ewectrostatic interaction is sometimes cawwed de Keesom interaction or Keesom force after Wiwwem Hendrik Keesom.
- Induction (awso known as powarization), which is de attractive interaction between a permanent muwtipowe on one mowecuwe wif an induced muwtipowe on anoder. This interaction is sometimes cawwed Debye force after Peter J.W. Debye.
- Dispersion (usuawwy named London dispersion interactions after Fritz London), which is de attractive interaction between any pair of mowecuwes, incwuding non-powar atoms, arising from de interactions of instantaneous muwtipowes.
Returning to nomencwature, different texts refer to different dings using de term "van der Waaws force". Some texts describe de van der Waaws force as de totawity of forces (incwuding repuwsion); oders mean aww de attractive forces (and den sometimes distinguish van der Waaws–Keesom, van der Waaws–Debye, and van der Waaws–London).
Aww intermowecuwar/van der Waaws forces are anisotropic (except dose between two nobwe gas atoms), which means dat dey depend on de rewative orientation of de mowecuwes. The induction and dispersion interactions are awways attractive, irrespective of orientation, but de ewectrostatic interaction changes sign upon rotation of de mowecuwes. That is, de ewectrostatic force can be attractive or repuwsive, depending on de mutuaw orientation of de mowecuwes. When mowecuwes are in dermaw motion, as dey are in de gas and wiqwid phase, de ewectrostatic force is averaged out to a warge extent, because de mowecuwes dermawwy rotate and dus probe bof repuwsive and attractive parts of de ewectrostatic force. Sometimes dis effect is expressed by de statement dat "random dermaw motion around room temperature can usuawwy overcome or disrupt dem" (which refers to de ewectrostatic component of de van der Waaws force). Cwearwy, de dermaw averaging effect is much wess pronounced for de attractive induction and dispersion forces.
The Lennard-Jones potentiaw is often used as an approximate modew for de isotropic part of a totaw (repuwsion pwus attraction) van der Waaws force as a function of distance.
Van der Waaws forces are responsibwe for certain cases of pressure broadening (van der Waaws broadening) of spectraw wines and de formation of van der Waaws mowecuwes. The London-van der Waaws forces are rewated to de Casimir effect for diewectric media, de former being de microscopic description of de watter buwk property. The first detaiwed cawcuwations of dis were done in 1955 by E. M. Lifshitz. A more generaw deory of van der Waaws forces has awso been devewoped.
The main characteristics of van der Waaws forces are:
- They are weaker dan normaw covawent and ionic bonds.
- Van der Waaws forces are additive and cannot be saturated.
- They have no directionaw characteristic.
- They are aww short-range forces and hence onwy interactions between de nearest particwes need to be considered (instead of aww de particwes). Van der Waaws attraction is greater if de mowecuwes are cwoser.
- Van der Waaws forces are independent of temperature except dipowe – dipowe interactions.
In wow mowecuwar weight awcohows, de hydrogen-bonding properties of deir powar hydroxyw group dominate oder weaker van der Waaws interactions. In higher mowecuwar weight awcohows, de properties of de nonpowar hydrocarbon chain(s) dominate and determine deir sowubiwity.
London dispersion force
London dispersion forces, named after de German-American physicist Fritz London, are weak intermowecuwar forces dat arise from de interactive forces between instantaneous muwtipowes in mowecuwes widout permanent muwtipowe moments. In and between organic mowecuwes de muwtitude of contacts can wead to warger contribution of dispersive attraction, particuwarwy in de presence of heteroatoms. London dispersion forces are awso known as 'dispersion forces', 'London forces', or 'instantaneous dipowe–induced dipowe forces'. The strengf of London dispersion forces is proportionaw to de powarizabiwity of de mowecuwe, which in turn depends on de totaw number of ewectrons and de area over which dey are spread. Hydrocarbons dispway smaww dispersive contributions, de presence of heteroatoms wead to increased LD forces as function of deir powarizabiwity, e.g. in de seqwence RI>RBr>RCw>RF. In absence of sowvents weakwy powarizabwe hydrocarbons form due to dispersive forces crystaws; deir subwimation heat is a measure of de dispersive interaction, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Van der Waaws forces between macroscopic objects
For macroscopic bodies wif known vowumes and numbers of atoms or mowecuwes per unit vowume, de totaw van der Waaws force is often computed based on de "microscopic deory" as de sum over aww interacting pairs. It is necessary to integrate over de totaw vowume of de object, which makes de cawcuwation dependent on de objects' shapes. For exampwe, de van der Waaws' interaction energy between sphericaw bodies of radii R1 and R2 and wif smoof surfaces was approximated in 1937 by Hamaker (using London's famous 1937 eqwation for de dispersion interaction energy between atoms/mowecuwes as de starting point) by:
where A is de Hamaker coefficient, which is a constant (~10−19 − 10−20 J) dat depends on de materiaw properties (it can be positive or negative in sign depending on de intervening medium), and z is de center-to-center distance; i.e., de sum of R1, R2, and r (de distance between de surfaces): .
In de wimit of cwose-approach, de spheres are sufficientwy warge compared to de distance between dem; i.e., or , so dat eqwation (1) for de potentiaw energy function simpwifies to:
The van der Waaws force between two spheres of constant radii (R1 and R2 are treated as parameters) is den a function of separation since de force on an object is de negative of de derivative of de potentiaw energy function,. This yiewds:
From de expression above, it is seen dat de van der Waaws force decreases wif decreasing size of bodies (R). Neverdewess, de strengf of inertiaw forces, such as gravity and drag/wift, decrease to a greater extent. Conseqwentwy, de van der Waaws forces become dominant for cowwections of very smaww particwes such as very fine-grained dry powders (where dere are no capiwwary forces present) even dough de force of attraction is smawwer in magnitude dan it is for warger particwes of de same substance. Such powders are said to be cohesive, meaning dey are not as easiwy fwuidized or pneumaticawwy conveyed as deir more coarse-grained counterparts. Generawwy, free-fwow occurs wif particwes greater dan about 250 μm.
The van der Waaws force of adhesion is awso dependent on de surface topography. If dere are surface asperities, or protuberances, dat resuwt in a greater totaw area of contact between two particwes or between a particwe and a waww, dis increases de van der Waaws force of attraction as weww as de tendency for mechanicaw interwocking.
The microscopic deory assumes pairwise additivity. It negwects many-body interactions and retardation. A more rigorous approach accounting for dese effects, cawwed de "macroscopic deory" was devewoped by Lifshitz in 1956. Langbein derived a much more cumbersome "exact" expression in 1970 for sphericaw bodies widin de framework of de Lifshitz deory whiwe a simpwer macroscopic modew approximation had been made by Derjaguin as earwy as 1934. Expressions for de van der Waaws forces for many different geometries using de Lifshitz deory have wikewise been pubwished.
Use by geckos and ardropods
The abiwity of geckos – which can hang on a gwass surface using onwy one toe – to cwimb on sheer surfaces has been for many years mainwy attributed to de van der Waaws forces between dese surfaces and de spatuwae, or microscopic projections, which cover de hair-wike setae found on deir footpads. A water study suggested dat capiwwary adhesion might pway a rowe, but dat hypodesis has been rejected by more recent studies.
A recent study has however shown dat gecko adhesion is in fact mainwy determined by ewectrostatic interaction (caused by contact ewectrification), not van der Waaws or capiwwary forces.
There were efforts in 2008 to create a dry gwue dat expwoits de effect, and success was achieved in 2011 to create an adhesive tape on simiwar grounds. In 2011, a paper was pubwished rewating de effect to bof vewcro-wike hairs and de presence of wipids in gecko footprints.
Among de ardropods, some spiders have simiwar setae on deir scopuwae or scopuwa pads, enabwing dem to cwimb or hang upside-down from extremewy smoof surfaces such as gwass or porcewain, uh-hah-hah-hah.
In modern technowogy
In May 2014, DARPA demonstrated de watest iteration of its Geckskin by having a 100 kg researcher (saddwed wif 20 kg of recording gear) scawe an 8-metre-taww (26 ft) gwass waww using onwy two cwimbing paddwes. Tests are ongoing, but DARPA hopes one day to make de technowogy avaiwabwe for miwitary use, giving sowdiers Spider-Man-wike abiwities in urban combat.
- Noncovawent interactions
- Dispersion (chemistry)
- Wringing of gauge bwocks used in machining
- Insect adhesion
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