gastropodArticle Free Pass
- General features
- Natural history
- Form and function
- Evolution and paleontology
The typical snail has a calcareous shell coiled in a spiral pattern around a central axis called the columella. Generally, the coils, or whorls, added later in life are larger than those added when the snail is young. At the end of the last whorl is the aperture, or opening. The shell is secreted along the outer lip of the aperture by the fleshy part of the animal called the mantle, first by outward additions to the shell lip and then by secretion of inner thickening layers. The outer layer, or periostracum, is a mixture of proteins known as conchin. Inner layers of calcium carbonate interlace with a network of conchin and are impregnated with a variety of mineral salts. The calcium usually is in the form of calcite crystals in marine species and aragonite crystals in terrestrial species, but mixtures of crystal types do occur. New shell is secreted by specialized mantle tissue.
Modifications and ornamentations of the basic shell are widely variable among species. Frequently, the shell is altered into a nonspiral cap or a cup-shaped limpet form as an adaptation to life in swift currents (the freshwater family Ancylidae) or amid pounding waves on rocks (the marine families Acmaeidae, Patellidae, Fissurellidae, and Calyptraeidae). In many groups, such as the abalones (the family Haliotidae), only traces of spiral coiling are evident, because the rate of successive whorl widths is so large that the last, or body, whorl occupies more than 90 percent of the shell volume. Elaborate surface sculpture, including knobs and spines, has evolved to serve as protection against predation. In a few species of the genera Leucozonia and Acanthina, a spine on the lip edge is used to wedge open clam valves so that the snail can feed. As implied earlier, land gastropods in dry regions tend to have very thick shells; on the other hand, those in very humid mountain situations have thin shells or none at all. Many carnivorous snails have the calcareous part of the shell greatly reduced.
The gastropod body consists of four main parts: visceral hump, mantle, head, and foot. The body is attached to the shell either by one columellar muscle or by a series of muscles. Typical snails can withdraw the head and foot into the shell, but numerous species have shells so reduced in size as to be unable to contain the body; slugs, of course, have either an internal shell vestige or no shell at all.
The visceral hump, or visceral mass, of gastropods is always contained within the shell; it generally holds the bulk of the digestive, reproductive, excretory, and respiratory systems. A significant part of the visceral hump consists of the mantle, or pallial, cavity. In both prosobranchs and shelled opisthobranchs this is a cavity completely open anteriorly; in pulmonates it is closed except for a narrow pore. The mantle tissue at the forward edge of the cavity secretes the shell. The upper surface of the mantle cavity serves a respiratory function. In marine species the ciliated lining of the mantle cavity helps produce a water current that passes posteriorly across the gill, or ctenidium, and the osphradium, which is thought to be a sensory receptor that can detect chemical changes in the environment. Both organs lie on the left anterior side of the cavity. The water current sweeps across the posterior part of the mantle cavity, where the nephridiopore, or kidney opening, lies; the water current then passes anteriorly along the right margin past the anus, through which undigested particles of food are eliminated, and usually moves past the gonopore, through which sexual products are released. Cilia on the gill play an important role in water flow through the mantle cavity; they also help some species (e.g., Crepidula) capture food particles.
The mantle cavity serves as a space for the head and foot when these organs are retracted. Many land pulmonates apparently also use the mantle cavity to retain water. Prosobranchs use the operculum, the horny or calcareous disk located on the back of the foot at the posterior end, to seal the shell opening after the head and body have been retracted.
The mantle is the fleshy lining of the outer wall of the shell; it roofs the mantle cavity. At its anterior end lie glandular tissues that deposit the various shell layers. In terrestrial forms with reduced shells, various lobes and laps extend anteriorly over the neck and head or are reflected back over the shell surface. These are highly vascularized and probably serve both in respiration and in water balance of the body. Many carnivorous marine forms have the mantle collar extended forward and rolled into a muscular siphon, which functions in both food location and chemoreception by allowing the snail to sample water in different directions.
Generally, the head is bilaterally symmetrical, bearing one or two pairs of tentacles, often with accessory palps, and the mouth in the middle of the ventral margin. In stylommatophoran land snails the upper tentacles, or ommatophores, are invaginable (capable of being rolled in), and the eyes are borne at the tips. In freshwater basommatophorans and most prosobranchs the eyes are located at the base of the tentacles, although in such forms as Strombus the eyes are elevated onto an accessory stalk. Prosobranchs have contractile (not invaginable) tentacles. In carnivorous snails the lateral lips of the mouth form lobes called labial palps, which help to locate prey. The mouth itself frequently is prolonged into a proboscis that extends well in front of the tentacles. Carnivorous species often have a proboscis capable of great extension, either invaginable or contractile.
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