Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is one of the major religions that developed within the ancient civilization of India. The name of the religion derives from the term Jina, meaning “victor” or “conqueror.” The goal of Jainism explains this term. It is the spiritual progress of the individual through a succession of stages until he is able to conquer and renounce dependence on the world and the self. Thereby the individual is freed from all contamination by the material world.
Followers of Jainism believe that the world, space, and time are eternal and uncreated. There is a center containing a region of souls in which all living things—people, animals, gods, and devils—exist. Below this region is a series of hells—places of punishment and torture, and above the region are levels of heavens and celestial areas in which souls live once they are liberated from bodies. All reality in the universe is divided into two parts: living substances called souls and nonliving substances, or nonsouls. The soul, in its pure state, possesses unlimited perception, knowledge, happiness, and power. But once a soul is entrapped in matter—such as the human body—these faculties are limited by location in space, contaminated by the senses, and subject to the chain of cause and effect, birth and death.
The means of liberation for the soul is yoga, a discipline of self-control and meditation. Yoga consists of right belief, right knowledge, and right action. It aims at these goals through knowledge of reality, faith in the teachings of religious leaders who are called Tirthankaras, and doing no evil.
The chief concept that guides behavior in Jainism is ahimsa, or reverence for life, the principle of nonviolence and noninjury toward all living things. This principle has led to a belief in the equality of all souls and to the freedom to associate with anyone. Because of ahimsa, the social distinctions prevalent in the Hindu caste system never became firmly established in Jainism (see Hinduism).
Believers are of two types, monks and lay followers. The monks lead a far more austere life than do lay members because they devote their whole lives to the stages of spiritual perfection. Monks must adhere scrupulously to the principle of ahimsa and avoid such sins of Jainism as lying, stealing, sexual intercourse, and eating meals at night (for fear of inadvertently killing an insect or other small creature). Some monks have no possessions at all, not even clothing; others keep a few things—a robe, an alms bowl, a duster to sweep away insects in their paths, and a cloth to keep insects out of the mouth.
Lay members are expected to refrain from eating certain foods, limit their possessions, be content with their spouses, and avoid violence, lying, and stealing. They are also expected to avoid unnecessary travel and pleasure, to fast and control their diets, and to serve their fellow believers, especially the monks and the poor. Above all, they are expected to devote themselves to the stages of spiritual progress by means of various religious rituals and exercises.
Temple worship plays a major role in Jainism. There is a large pantheon of lesser gods, goddesses, demons, and other divinities.
The major objects of worship, however, are the Tirthankaras and other liberated souls who are called Lords of the Gods. Following the Lords of the Gods are the leaders of the monks, the teachers of sacred texts, and the rest of the monks.
Jainism was founded in the 6th century bc by Vardhamana Mahavira, a contemporary of Siddhartha Gotama, the Buddha (see Buddha). Mahavira is believed to be the last in a series of 24 Tirthankaras in the first age of the world. In the next age another 24 will live. Mahavira is regarded as a historical figure, as is his predecessor, Parsvanatha, who died 250 years before him. During Mahavira’s lifetime a split occurred in Jainism, and over the next few centuries several more divisions took place.
About ad 80 two principal sects emerged: the Svetambara, or “white-robed,” and the Digambara, meaning “sky-clad” or “naked.” In the 16th century two subsects opposed to image worship were organized: the Sthankakavasis, belonging to the Svetambara, and the Taranapantha, belonging to the Digambara. There are more than 2 million followers of Jainism in India and very few outside that country.
Jainism has an extensive canon, or body, of scripture. The Svetambaras recognize 45 agamas, collections that are supposedly based upon discourses of Mahavira made by his direct disciples. Digambaras recognize two works, the Karmaprabhrta and the Kasayaprabhrta, based on a work of the 1st century ad that is now lost.