2. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear as 2 St abi l i t y• Because an atom is made of protons, neutrons and electrons, you would expect the mass of an atom to be equal to the sum of the masses of the e-, p+, and n0, right?? Neutrons + protons + electrons = atomic mass …right?
3. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear as 3 St abi l i t y Nay.The measured mass will be less than the combined masses. This difference is called the Mass Defect. Let’s look at helium ( 4 He) as an example: 2 2 protons: (2 x 1.007276 amu) = 2.014552 amu 2 neutrons: (2 x 1.008665 amu) = 2.017330 amu 2 electrons: (2 x 0.005486 amu) = 0.001097 amu Total combined mass = 4.032979 amu
4. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear as 4 St abi l i t y But wait…The atomic mass of a 4 He atom has been measured 2 to be 4.002602 amu, NOT 4.032979 amu.That’s 0.030377 amu LESS than the combined mass. Just what the heck is going on?
5. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear as 5 St abi l i t y So what causes the difference in mass?Well, according to Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2,mass can be converted to energy, and energy to mass.So the mass defect is caused by the conversion of mass to energy upon formation of the nucleus. This is called nuclear binding energy. Remember, the nucleus is like a mousetrap, and the nuclear binding energy is needed to “set” the trap. It is TREMENDOUS potential energy.
6. 6Radi oac t i vi t y• One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of ________ (1876-1934).• She discovered ________, the spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.
7. 7Radi oac t i vi t y• One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of ________ (1876-1934). Marie Curie• She discovered ________, the radioactivity spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.
8. Nuc l ear Reac t i ons vs . 8 Nor m Chem c al al i Changes• Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus• The nucleus opens, and protons and neutrons are rearranged• The opening of the nucleus releases a tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together – called binding energy• “Normal” Chemical Reactions involve electrons, not protons and neutrons
9. 9 Mass Defect• Some of the mass can be converted into energy• Shown by a very famous equation! 2 E=mc speed ofEnergy mass light squared
10. 10 Types of Radiation• Alpha (ά) – a positively 4charged helium isotope - we 2 Heusually ignore the charge because it involveselectrons, not protons and neutrons 0•Beta (β) – an electron −1 e•Gamma (γ) – pure energy;called a ray rather than a 0 0 γparticle
11. 11 Other Nuclear Particles 1• Neutron 0 n• Positron – a positive 0electron +1 e•Proton – usually referred to 1as hydrogen-1 1 H•Any other elemental isotope
12. 12Penetrating Ability
13. 13 Balancing Nuclear Reactions•In the reactants (starting materials –on the left side of an equation) andproducts (final products – on the rightside of an equation) Atomic numbers must balance and Mass numbers must balance•Use a particle or isotope to fill in themissing protons and neutrons
14. 14 Nuclear Reactions• Alpha emissionNote that mass number (A) goes down by 4and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2.Nucleons (nuclear particles… protons andneutrons) are rearranged but conserved
15. 15 Nuclear Reactions• Beta emissionNote that mass number (A) is unchangedand atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.
16. 16Other Types of Nuclear Reactions Positron (0+1β ): a positive electron 207 207Electron capture: the capture of an electron
17. 17 Learning CheckWhat radioactive isotope is produced in thefollowing bombardment of boron?10 B + 4He ? + 1 n5 2 0
18. 18 Write Nuclear Equations!Write the nuclear equation for the betaemitter Co-60.
19. 19Artificial Nuclear ReactionsNew elements or new isotopes of known elements are produced by bombarding an atom with a subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -- or even a much heavier particle such as 4He and 11B.Reactions using neutrons are called γ reactions because a γ ray is usually emitted.Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by γ reactions.
20. 20Artificial Nuclear ReactionsExample of a γ reaction is production of radioactive 31P for use in studies of P uptake in the body. 31 P + 15 1 n ---> 0 32 P + γ 15
21. 21 Transuranium ElementsElements beyond 92 (transuranium) made starting with an γ reaction238 U + 92 1 n ---> 0 239 U + γ 92239 U 92 ---> 239 93 Np + 0-1β 239 93 Np ---> 239 94 Pu + 0 β -1
22. 22Nuclear Fission
23. 23 Nuclear Fission Fission is the splitting of atoms These are usually very large, so that they are not as stableFission chain has three general steps:1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the chain (e.g., 235U + neutron) 2362. Propagation. U fission releases neutrons that initiate other fissions3. ___________ .
24. 24 Stability of Nuclei• Out of > 300 stable isotopes: N Even Odd Z 31 Even 157 52 P 15 Odd 50 5 2 19 F 9 1 H, 63Li, 105B, 147N, 18073Ta
25. 25Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay
26. 26Representation of a fission process.
27. 27 Nuclear Fission & POWER• Currently about 103 nuclear power plants in the U.S. and about 435 worldwide.• 17% of the world’s energy comes from nuclear.
28. 28Figure 19.6: Diagram of a nuclear power plant.
29. 29 Nuclear FusionFusion small nuclei combine 2 3 4 1 Energy H + H He + n + 1 1 2 0 Occurs in the sun and other stars
30. 30 Nuclear FusionFusion• Excessive heat can not be contained• Attempts at “cold” fusion have FAILED.• “Hot” fusion is difficult to contain
31. 31 Half-Life• HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for 1/2 a sample to decompose.• The rate of a nuclear transformation depends only on the “reactant” concentration.
32. Half-Life 32Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives?After 5 half-lives?
33. 33 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance decomposes. For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234After 3.6 days > 25 gramsAfter 7.2 days > 12.5 gramsAfter 10.8 days > 6.25 grams
34. 34 Learning Check!The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much ofa 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 39hours?
35. 35Effects of Radiation
36. 36 Geiger Counter• Used to detect radioactive substances
38. 38 Radiocarbon DatingRadioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in cosmic radiation 14 N + 1on ---> 14C + 1HThe C-14 is oxidized to CO2, which circulates through the biosphere.When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished.But the C-14 continues to decay with t1/2 = 5730 years.Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.
39. 39Nuclear Medicine: Imaging Thyroid imaging using Tc-99m
40. 40 Food Irradiation•Food can be irradiated with γ rays from60 Co or 137Cs.•Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo.without refrigeration.•USDA has approved irradiation of meatsand eggs.