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- Mechanisms of the immune system
- Nonspecific, innate immunity
- Chemical barriers to infection
- Specific, acquired immunity
- The nature of lymphocytes
- B-cell antigen receptors and antibodies
- Activation of T and B lymphocytes
- Antibody-mediated immune mechanisms
- Nonspecific, innate immunity
- Evolution of the immune system
- The development of immunity in major animal groups
Evolution of the immune system
Virtually all organisms have at least one form of defense that helps repel disease-causing organisms. Advanced vertebrate animals, a group that includes humans, defend themselves against such microorganisms by means of a complex group of defense responses collectively called the immune system. This protective system evolved from simpler defense mechanisms, but the evolutionary twists and turns that led to its development are not entirely clear. To unravel the path that the vertebrate immune system followed in its evolution, investigators have studied the defense responses of various living organisms. They also have examined the genes of immune system proteins for clues to the genetic origins of immunity. These approaches and the information they have yielded are discussed in the following sections. For a discussion of human immune diseases, see the article immune system disorder.
The development of immunity in major animal groups
Because the immune system is composed of cells and tissues that do not lend themselves to fossilization, it is impossible to trace the evolution of immunity from the paleontological record. But, because all animals exhibit some general ability to recognize self and to repel foreign substances, it is possible to study the immune capacity of living animals and, based on the relative positions of these animals in the evolutionary tree, to extrapolate a reasonable evolutionary history of the immune system.
Immune capacity among invertebrates
From the lowliest protozoans to the higher marine tunicates, invertebrates have means of distinguishing self components from nonself components. Sponges from one colony will reject tissue grafts from a different colony but will accept grafts from their own. When tissue grafts are made in animals higher up the evolutionary tree—between individual annelid worms or starfish, for example—the foreign tissue is commonly invaded by phagocytic cells (cells that engulf and destroy foreign material) and cells resembling lymphocytes (white blood cells of the immune system), and it is destroyed. Yet tissues grafted from one part of the body to another on the same individual adhere and heal readily and remain healthy. So it seems that something akin to cellular immunity is present at this level of evolution.
Insects engulf and eliminate foreign invaders through the process of phagocytosis (“cellular eating”). They have factors present in their circulatory fluids that can bind to foreign cells and cause clumping, or agglutination, of a number of these cells, an event that facilitates phagocytosis. Insects also seem to acquire immunity to infectious agents.
Immune capacity among vertebrates
The most sophisticated immune systems are those of the vertebrates. Recognizable lymphocytes and immunoglobulins (Ig; also called antibodies) appear only in these organisms. The most primitive living vertebrates—the jawless fishes (hagfish and lampreys)—do not have lymphoid tissues corresponding to a spleen or a thymus, and their immune responses, although demonstrable, are very weak and sluggish. Farther up the evolutionary tree, at the level of the cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays) and the bony fishes, a thymus and a spleen are present, as are immunoglobulins, although only those immunoglobulins of the IgM class are detectable. Fish lack specialized lymph nodes, but they do have clusters of lymphocytes in the gut that may serve an analogous purpose.
It is not until the level of the terrestrial vertebrates—amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—that a complete immune system with thymus, spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes is present and IgM and IgG antibodies are made. Antibodies of the IgA class are found only in birds and mammals, and IgE antibodies are confined to mammals. So it appears that the most primitive devices for producing specific, acquired immunity gradually diversified to meet the new environmental hazards as animals moved out of the sea onto the land.
The evolution of the complement system (a group of proteins involved in immune responses) may have occurred faster than that of the immunoglobulin system. The jawless fishes have complement components corresponding only to the later-acting (i.e., cytolytic, or cell-killing) aspects of complement function, but all higher vertebrates have components similar to the complete complement system of mammals. The fact that the complement system has been so well conserved during evolution implies not only that it has been of great biological value but also that complement and immunoglobulins have interacted throughout the evolution of the immune system in higher vertebrates. (For more information on the complement system, see Antibody-mediated immune mechanisms.)
Genetic origins of the immune system
Researchers have found many similarities between the structures of proteins involved in antigen recognition and those in cell-to-cell recognition in the immune system. (Antigens are the foreign proteins that antibodies recognize and bind to.) These proteins include the antigen receptors of lymphocytes, the (MHC) proteins, the coreceptors involved in cell-to-cell recognition in immune reactions (such as the receptors named CD4, CD8, and CD28), and the FC receptor that binds to the stem of the Y-shaped immunoglobulin molecule. A number of proteins not involved in the immune system also share structural features with these proteins. The main feature similarity is a structure called the immunoglobulin domain. Each protein is composed of one or more Ig domains of nearly identical size. The domains are formed into a loop by bonds between sulfur atoms on the amino acids at the ends. Although each domain is different and serves a different function in the molecule as a whole, the number and order of the amino acids forming each domain are far more similar than would be expected if each had arisen independently in the course of evolution. Equally remarkable is the fact that nerve cells, thymus cells, and T lymphocytes (T cells) in mice and rats carry a surface protein called Thy-1 (thymus-1 antigen) that also has this same basic structure and a similar arrangement of amino acids. The similarities suggest that the genes for all these molecules originated from some primitive gene involved in the recognition of one cell by another, which is required for orderly development of a complex, multicellular organism, and that during evolution they had acquired different functions. Researchers named this group of genes and their protein products the immunoglobulin superfamily. The processes whereby one ancestral gene could have given rise to such a family of genes include gene duplication, crossing over, and mutation, all of which are discussed in detail in genetics.
Not surprisingly, molecules that have a similar function in different species (e.g., immunoglobulins or MHC components) show an even closer resemblance. By analyzing the number of differences in the amino acids and their position in the polypeptide chains that make up IgM and IgG molecules in, for example, humans, mice, and rabbits and by making reasonable assumptions about mutation rates, scientists can estimate roughly how many generations would have had to elapse—and hence how much time—for the present immunoglobulins of these species to have evolved from a common ancestral IgM-like molecule. Such calculations suggest that divergence from the ancestral immunoglobulin took place some 200 million years ago. That was about the same time amphibians are thought to have diverged from the main vertebrate line. So one may conclude that a functional immune system arose even earlier and has continued to provide a defense against foreign agents ever since.
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