Objective Personality Measures: Administer standard set of questions and the examinee responds using a fixed set of option choices (ex: T/F or Y/N response).
Advantages of Objective Tests or Self-Report Inventories
- Economical—large groups can be tested after only brief instructions.
- Administration and scoring is also very simple thus making interpretation easier (e.g. functional- dysfunctional). But it is very objective and reliable.
Disadvantages of Objective Tests or Self-Report Inventories
- Questions are behavioral in nature and so may not characterize the respondent (can't tell why different people gave same response).
- A single score is provided to look at both cognitions and emotions, but individuals who receive the same overall score may have different cognitions and emotions.
- Option choice prevents respondents from providing answer reasons, so information may be lost.
Methods of Construction for Objective Tests
- Best for clinicians to decide what they wish to test and then ask the patient that information.
- Content validation focuses on:
o A. defining relevant aspects of the variable looking to be measured
o B. consulting experts before generating items
o C. Using judges to assess each potential items relevance to the variable of interest
o D. Using psychometric analysis to assess each item before it is included in the measure.
Empirical Criterion Keying
- No assumption is made as to whether a patient is really telling the truth about feelings.
- Assumes that members of a certain diagnostic group will respond in the same way
- Utility of an item is based on its ability to discriminate between groups.
- Difficulty with interpreting the meaning of a score.
Factor Analysis or Internal Consistency Approach
- Seeks to reduce or “purify” the scales to reflect basic personality dimensions.
- Exploratory Approach: Taking various items and then reducing these items to basic elements— (ex: personality, adjustment) to arrive at core traits of personality.
- Confirmatory Factor Approach: Seek to confirm a hypothesized factor structure (based on predictions) for test items. Largely used by clinicians because it is empirical.
Construct Validity Approach
- Scales are developed to measure specific constructs from a theory (personality). Validation is obtained when the scale measures the theoretical construct.
- The most desirable and labor-intensive approach
Description of MMPI
- Uses the Keying Approach; Hathaway & McKinley wanted to identify psychiatric diagnoses of individuals. Originally designed for ages 16+, but was also used with younger individuals.
- Given to both clinical and non-clinical population.
- 550 items that were answered T/F or “can't say”. Only items that differentiated clinical from non-clinical individuals (ex: depressed individuals vs. non-clinical individuals) were included.
Description of MMPI-2
- MMPI originally overemphasized the U.S. population and lacked diversity; this was changed.
- Language was changed to be modern, & 154 new items were added bringing total to 704 items.
- Lower age range—can be used with at least 13 year olds or those with 8th grade education level.
- Versions in multiple languages are available & an adolescent version MMPI-A is also available.
- As MMPI & MMPI-2 as self-report measures they are susceptible to distortion due to attitudes.
- To detect “faking-bad” behavior the MMPI & MMPI-2 incorporates 4 validity scales:
Cannot Say Scale—items left unanswered
F(Infrequency) Scale—tendency to exaggerate one's problems/ symptoms L (Lie) Scale—attempts to present oneself favorably
o K (Defensiveness) Scale—attempts to present oneself favorably
- “Added” MMPI-2:
o Fb (Back-page Infrequency) Scale—tendency to exaggerate one's problem's/symptoms o VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) Scale—random responding or T/F to most items o TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) Scale—random responding or T/F to most items
Short Forms and Interpretation Through Patterns (Profile Analysis)
- Shortened versions of the MMPI & MMPI-2; but loss of interpretation is present and intense scrutiny should be present in terms of whether these and reliable and valid measures.
- MMPI—interpretation on elevated scale scores (ex: high Sc scored schizophrenia).
- MMPI-2—interpretation of “pattern or profile” test scores
Interpretation Through Content and Supplementary Scales
- Shift from clinical use of MMPI & MMPI-2—away from use of differential psychiatric diagnosis based on a single score to a more sophisticated profile analysis of scale scores.
- MMPI-2: Content scales have been developed (ex: identify health concerns, identity fears...)
- Supplementary Scales: 450 MMPI scales ranging from Dominance to Success in Basketball! MMPI-2 there are 20 supplementary scales (ex:nxiety, Strength, Social Responsibility).
A Summary Evaluation of the MMPI and MMPI-2
Screening and The Question of Personality Traits
- MMPI-2 useful for information about mental disorder diagnosis in terms of severity and hypothesis generator.
- Not useful for a screening specific disorders (ex: depression) as very long + time intensive.
- Atheoretical: MMPI measures symptoms of psychopathology. Not useful for understanding general personality traits and situational determinants.
Reliability and Validity of MMPI-2
- Lacks internal consistency but do show good test-retest reliability.
- Strong validity with external correlates—emotional states, stress reactivity.
- 2 aspects of validity for MMPI-2 (Butcher et al., 1995)—incremental validity & cut-off scores.
o Incremental Validity: If a scale's score provides information about a person's personality features, behavior or psychopathology that is not provided by other measures
- All psychological tests including MMPI-2 lack incremental validity.
o Cut-off scores validity: Varies on the nature of the sample population (which patients have or don't have the disorder).
- MMPI-2 cut off T score of 65+ may or may not be appropriate.
Personnel Selection and Bias
- Empirical Criterion Keying approach limits usage of MMPI-2 to those that understand it.
- May not be appropriate to use MMPI-2 to screen candidates for employment hiring (invasion of privacy into religious beliefs, sexual orientation).
- MMPI original—may be biased against ethnic groups. Test Bias means that different predictions are made for two groups even when they receive the same score.
Concerns about the MMPI-2
- The normative sample is too education; individuals without college degrees not represented.
- Criteria for inclusion of “normal respondents” is confusing.
- Those who are administered both versions of the MMPI show different results on each version.
- Scores on MMPI-2 are lower than the MMPI
- Internal consistency of the MMPI-2 Scale is low
The Revised NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)
- Self-report personality inventory that is made up of the Five-Factor Model (FFM)
- OCEAN (Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).
o There are 6 subscales/facet scales for each FFM
- The 240 items are rated on a scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neural, agree, strongly agree)
- Original Version (Costa & McCrae) looked at only Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness.
- Half of the items are reverse scored—lower scores are more indicative of a trait.
Norms and Reliability & Stability, Factor Structure
- S. Census for distribution of age and racial groups as well as college students.
- Excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability (for periods as long as 6 years later).
- Factor analysis have supported the NEO-PI-R five-factor-model structure.
Clinical Applications, Alternative Forms of the NEO-PI-R
- Axis II (Personality Problems), application to the NEO-PI-R makes sense.
- The NEO-PI-R and related FFM can be used for clinical assessment related to Axis I & II disorders.
- 60 question NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI); but has no facet scales. There is also Form R. Limitations of the NEO-PI-R
- Lack of validity scales, has no items to assess response patterns and test taking approach.
- May not be good for clinical diagnosis because it was based of a “normal” personality
Nature of Projective Tests
- Projective techniques: First developed by Rorschach in 1921, uses inkblots as a method of differential diagnosis for psychopathology. Characterized as a person's modes of behavior by observing their behavior in response to a situation that does not elicit a particular response.
- Characteristics include:
- Examinees are forced to impose their own structure and reveal something of themselves when responding to ambiguous stimuli
- Stimulus material is unstructured (supposed to be ambiguous without a clear answer).
- Method is indirect—examinees are not aware of the purpose of the test.
- There is freedom in response—allows a range of responses
- Response interpretation deals with more variables—allows for interpretation along multiple dimensions.
Standardization of Projective Tests, Reliability and Validity
- If they were standardized it would allow for communication & checks against biases.
- Other's ague that project tests can't be standardized because each person is unique.
- Test-retest reliability may change with participants over time, but even split-half reliability is difficult to demonstrate in projective tests.
- Validity needs to ask specific questions: Does the TAT predict aggression in situation A?
The Rorschach Inkblot Test
Description and Administration of Rorschach
- Consists of 10 cards on which inkblot images are printed. 5 black & white and 5 colored
- “Tell me what you see, there are no right or wrong answers, tell me what it looks like to you”
- Cards are administered in order and clinician notes down patient's responses word for word.
- Other recorded aspects: lengths of time to make response, total time spent on card, position of the card, all spontaneous remarks (um, uh.).
- Inquiry: At the end patient is reminded of their responses to each card and asked what prompted that response.
- Location: Area of the card that the patient responds to (whole, blot, large detail, white space.)
- Content: What is the object that is being viewed (animal, rock, clothing, person.)
- Determinants: What aspect of the card prompted patient's response (form of the blot, color, texture, shading.)
o Some tests also score Popular responses and Original responses
o Exner's Comprehensive System of scoring is the most used.
- Most clinicians do not formally score the Rorschach but simply rely on determinants.
- Exner's Scoring System—strong for test-retest reliability and construct validity.
Reliability and Validity of Rorschach
- Many argue that reliability across time or test conditions does not exist for the Rorschach, while others counter-argue this statement.
- Clinicians who haven't been trained together & that use free-wheeling interpretation of the Rorschach makes interpreting the test difficult.
- Rorschach may be valid only under certain conditions; with the average validity being .41 (this has not been steady as another clinician found a value of .29).
Rorschach Inkblot Method
- Best viewed as a method of data collection and not a “test”, as it is subject to interpretation.
- Viewing it as a method allows clinicians to use all aspects of the data output.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- 31 TAT cards (of that 20 is recommended to be given to an examinee). Not as ambiguous as the Rorschach but not clear cut either.
o Other versions: Roberts Apperception Test and Children's Apperception Test]
- Reveal patient's basic personality characteristics by their interpretation of their responses to a series of pictures.
- Used as a method inferring psychological needs (ex: for achievement, sex, power...) and how the patient interacts with the environment. Used to infer content of personality & mode of social interaction.
Administration and Scoring
- 6-12 cards are administered and patient's responses and noted down word-for-word.
- “Make up a story for each of these pictures, who are these people, what are they doing.”
- Not much emphasis is placed on scoring TAT's as the types of responses are so varied.
Reliability and Validity
- Very difficult to assess validity and reliability (as a result of personality changes—test-retest).
- Broadly looks at reliability of interpretations—when there is explicit scoring instructs interjudge reliability can be achieved.
- Comparing TAT data with case data and patient evaluations, matching techniques with no prior patient knowledge and general principles interpretation include ways of establishing validity.
- There are no adequate norms for TAT and typically clinicians interpret responses (no scores).
Sentence Completion Techniques
- Most used is the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank.
- Incomplete Sentences Blank—uses 40 sentence stems (ex: I like.., What annoys me..)
- Completions are scored along a 7-point scale for adjustment-maladjustment.
- Very versatile and has a strong scoring system that is objective and reliable (but also has freedom of response), it can be used economically and is a good screening device.
- Not a lot of evidence backing these “signs” associated with certain personalities.
- Poor correlation between making valid statement about patients on the basis of their responses—illusory correlation can lead to error.
Incremental Validity and Utility
- Refers to the degree to which a procedure adds to the prediction obtainable from other sources.
- Assessment must inform the clinicians of something that the base rate/prevalence rate can't.
Use and Abuse of Testing: Protections, The Question of Privacy
- Clinicians should use only assessments that lie within their competence (only then can they acquire tests).
- The examinee or individual has a right to full explanation of how their responses & results will be used. Informed consent must thus be obtained.
- Must only be given tests relevant to the evaluation and reason for test must be provided.
Use and Abuse of Testing: The Question of Confidentiality & The Question of Discrimination
- There are cases in which confidential matters must be disclosed (i.e. Tarasoff case). If the person is going to harm themselves or others, then information can't be privileged.
- Tests might discriminate against minorities (only include White-middle class populations) or include only certain population members (ex: TAT only white members in cards)
Use and Abuse of Testing: Test Bias
- This is a validity issue (i.e. criterion or performance varies significantly across groups). That it is more accurate for one group than another.
o Using traits characteristic for one group (ex: men) but not the other group (ex: women).
- Differences in mean scores does not mean bias, and bias can be overcome.
The Use and Abuse of Testing: Computer-Based Assessment
- Used to standardize tests, interpret responses, cut costs, increase clients attention.
- Internet based psychological testing may lack qualities of traditional testing—less reliable, valid, lack of control over testing situation, technological issues, cultural differences in test interpretation.
- Computer Based Test Interpretation (CBTI's): Generate quick responses and processing complex scores, but they must result in inaccurate interpretations of results.
- CBTI's must be clinically useful (should aid in clinical understanding and treatment), valid (accurate interpretations) and reliable (interpretations should be similar for similar scores).