The first key concept of what I think is a very simple, at the very least "clean" architecture, is the concept of a layer. A layer itself is actually nothing, if you think about it. It's simply determined by how it's used. Let's stay a bit philosophical, before we dive into some concrete architectural advice.
Qualities of layers
A layer in software serves the following (more or less abstract) purposes:
- A layer helps protect what's beneath it. A layer acts like some kind of barrier: data passing it will be checked for basic structural issues before it gets passed along to a deeper layer. It will be transformed or translated to data that can be understood and processed by deeper layers. A layer also determines which data and behavior from a deeper layer will be allowed to be used in higher layers.
- A layer comes with rules for which classes belong to it. If (as a team) you agree on which layers your software will have, you will know for every class you're wandering around with, in which layer to put it.
- A system of layers can be used to modify the build order of a project. You could in fact build layer upon layer if you like. You can start at the outside, working inward, or at the inside, working towards the "world outside".
- Being able to change the build order is an important tool for software architects. With layers you can build a big part of the application without deciding on which framework, ORM, database, messaging system, etc. to use.
- Most legacy software consists of code without layers, which can be characterised as spaghetti code: everything can use or call anything else inside such an application. With a system of layers in place, and good rules for what they mean, and which things belong in which layer, you will have true separation of concerns. If you document the rules, and reinstate them in code reviews, I'm sure you will start producing code that is less likely to end up being considered "legacy code".
- In order to do so, you need to write tests of course. Having a good system of layers in place will certainly make that easier. A different type of test will be suitable for each type of layer. The purpose of each test suddenly becomes more clear. The test suite as a whole will become much more stable, and it will run faster too.
A warning from Twitter:
"The object-oriented version of spaghetti code is, of course, 'lasagna code'. Too many layers." - Roberto Waltman.— Programming Wisdom (@CodeWisdom) March 7, 2016
I've never seen lasagna code to be honest, I did see a lot of spaghetti code. And I've written code that I thought was properly layered, but in hindsight, the layers were not well chosen. In this article I describe a better set of layers, for the biggest part based on how Vaughn Vernon describes them in his book "Implementing Domain-Driven Design" (see the reference below). Please note that layers are not specific to DDD though, although they do make way for a clean domain model, and at least, a proper amount of attention paid to it by the developer.
Directory layout & namespaces
Directly beneath my
src/ directory I have a directory for every Bounded Context that I distinguish in my application. This directory is also the root of the namespace of the classes in each of these contexts.
Inside each Bounded Context directory I add three directories, one for every layer I'd like to distinguish:
I will briefly describe these layers now.
Layer 1 (core): Domain
The domain layer contains classes of any of the familiar DDD types/design patterns:
- Value objects
- Domain events
- Domain services
Domain I create a subdirectory
Model, then within
Model another directory for each of the aggregates that I model. An aggregate directory contains all the things related to that aggregate (value objects, domain events, a repository interface, etc.).
Domain model code is ethereal as I like to call it. It has no touching points with the real world. And if it were not for the tests, no one would call this code yet (it happens in the higher layers). Tests for domain model code can be purely unit tests, as all they do is execute code in memory. There is no need for domain model code to reach out to the world outside (like approaching the file system, making a network call, generate a random number or get the current time). This makes its tests very stable and fast.
Layer 2 (wrapping Domain): Application
The application layer contains classes called commands and command handlers. A command represents something that has to be done. It's a simple Data Transfer Object, containing only primitive type values and simple lists of those. There's always a command handler that knows how to process a particular command. Usually the command handler (which is also known as an application service) performs any orchestration needed. It uses the data from the command object to create an aggregate, or fetch one from the repository, and perform some action on it. It then often persists the aggregate.
Code in this layer could be unit tested, but having an application layer is also a good starting point for writing acceptance tests, as Gherkin scenarios (and run them with a tool like Behat). An interesting article to start with on this topic is Modelling by Example by Konstantin Kudryashov.
Layer 3 (wrapping Application): Infrastructure
Again, if it weren't for the tests, code in the application layer wouldn't be executed by anyone. Only when you add the infrastructure (or short "infra") layer, the application will become actually usable.
The infrastructure layer contains any code that is needed to expose the use cases to the world and make the application communicate with real users and external services. Think of anything that gives your domain model and your application services "hands and feet" and actually makes the use cases of your application "usable". This layer contains the code for:
- Processing HTTP requests, producing a response for an incoming request
- Making (HTTP) requests to other servers
- Storing things in a database
- Sending emails
- Publishing messages
- Getting the current timestamp
- Generating random numbers
This kind of code requires integration testing (in the terminology of Freeman and Pryce). You test all the "real things": the real database, the real vendor code, the real external services involved. This allows you to verify all the assumptions your infrastructure code makes about things that are beyond your control.
Frameworks and libraries
Any framework and library that is related to "the world outside" (e.g. networking, file systems, time, randomness) will be used or called in the infrastructure layer. Of course, code in the domain and application layers need the functionality offered by ORMs, HTTP client libraries, etc. But they can only do so through more abstract dependencies. This gets dictated by the dependency rule.
The Dependency Rule
The dependency rule (based on the one posed by Robert C. Martin in The Clean Architecture) states that you should only depend on things that are in the same or in a deeper layer. That means, domain code can only depend on itself, application code can only depend on domain code and its own code, and infrastructure code can depend on anything. According to the dependency rule it's not allowed for domain code to depend on infrastructure code. This should already make sense, but the rule formalizes our intuitions here.
Obeying a rule blindly isn't a good idea. So why should you use the dependency rule? Well, it guarantees that you don't couple the code in the domain and application layer to something as "messy" as infrastructure code. When you apply the dependency rule, you can replace anything in the infrastructure layer without touching and/or breaking code in any of the deeper layers.
This style of decoupling has for a long time been known as the Dependency Inversion Principle - the "D" in SOLID, as formulated by Robert C. Martin: "Depend on abstractions, not on concretions." A practical implementation in most object-oriented programming languages implies defining an interface for the thing you want to depend on (which will be the abstraction), then provide a class implementing that interface. This class contains all the low-level details that you've stripped away from the interface, hence, it's the concretion this design principle talks about.
Extending "infrastructure" to everything that's needed to connect your application to users and external services, including code written by us or by any (hardware) vendor we rely on, we should humbly conclude that by far the biggest part of an application is concerned with simply connecting our tiny bit of custom (yet precious) domain and application layer code to the "world outside".
Architecture: deferring technological decisions
Applying the proposed set of layers as well as the dependency rule gives you a lot of options:
- You can develop many use cases before making decisions like "which database am I going to use?". You can easily use different databases for different use cases as well.
- You can even decide later on which (web) framework you're going to use. This prevents your application from becoming "a Symfony application" or "a Laravel project".
- Frameworks and libraries will be put on a safe distance from domain and application layer code. This helps with upgrading to newer (major) versions of those frameworks and libraries. It also prevents you from having to rewrite the system if you ever like to use, say, Symfony 3 instead of Zend Framework 1.
This, to me, is a very attractive idea: I want to keep my options open, and I want to make the right technological decisions; not at the beginning of a project, but only when I know, based on what the use cases of my application are starting to look like, which solutions will be the best ones for the situation at hand.
Having seen a lot of legacy code in my career, I also believe that applying correct layering as well as enforcing the dependency rule helps prevent you from producing legacy code. At least, it helps you prevent making framework and library calls all over the code base. After all, replacing those calls with something more up-to-date, proves to be one of the biggest challenges of working with legacy code. If you have it all in one layer, and if you always apply the dependency inversion principle, it'll be much easier to do so.
As I mentioned in my previous post, with this nice set of layers, we know now that there is a time and place for your beloved framework too. It's not all over the place, but in a restricted zone called "the infrastructure layer". In fact, it's more like the domain and application layer are restricted zones, since the dependency rule has only consequences for these two layers.
Some may find that the proposed layer system results in "too many layers" (I don't know about 3 layers being too many, but anyway, if it hurts, maybe you shouldn't do it). If you want, you could leave out the application layer. You won't be able to write acceptance tests against the application layer anymore (they will be more like system tests, which tend to be slow and brittle). And you won't be able to expose the same use case to, say, a web UI and a web API without duplicating some code. But it should be doable.
At least, make sure that the biggest improvement of your application's design comes from the fact that you separate domain (or core) code from infrastructure code. Optimize it for your application's use cases, apply anything you've learned from the discipline of Domain-Driven Design, and bend ORMs and web frameworks to obey your will.
We still need to look at infrastructure code in more detail. This will bring us to the topic of hexagonal architecture, a.k.a. "ports & adapters", to be covered in another article.
- Growing Object-Oriented Software Guided by Tests by Steve Freeman and Nat Pryce
- Screaming Architecture by Robert C. Martin
- The Clean Architecture by Robert C. Martin
- Implementing Domain-Driven Design, chapter 4: "Architecture" and chapter 9: "Modules", by Vaughn Vernon
You may also check out Deptrac, a tool that helps to enforce rules about layers and dependencies.