Running is a medod of terrestriaw wocomotion awwowing humans and oder animaws to move rapidwy on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by an aeriaw phase in which aww feet are above de ground (dough dere are exceptions). This is in contrast to wawking, where one foot is awways in contact wif de ground, de wegs are kept mostwy straight and de center of gravity vauwts over de stance weg or wegs in an inverted penduwum fashion, uh-hah-hah-hah. A characteristic feature of a running body from de viewpoint of spring-mass mechanics is dat changes in kinetic and potentiaw energy widin a stride occur simuwtaneouswy, wif energy storage accompwished by springy tendons and passive muscwe ewasticity. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting.
It is assumed dat de ancestors of humankind devewoped de abiwity to run for wong distances about 2.6 miwwion years ago, probabwy in order to hunt animaws. Competitive running grew out of rewigious festivaws in various areas. Records of competitive racing date back to de Taiwteann Games in Irewand in 1829 BCE, whiwe de first recorded Owympic Games took pwace in 776 BCE. Running has been described as de worwd's most accessibwe sport.
- 1 History
- 2 Running kinematic description
- 3 Ewements of good running techniqwe
- 4 Benefits of running
- 5 Running injuries
- 6 Running events
- 7 See awso
- 8 References
- 9 Externaw winks
The deory proposed considered to be de most wikewy evowution of running is of earwy humans' devewoping as endurance runners from de practice of persistence hunting of animaws, de activity of fowwowing and chasing untiw a prey is too exhausted to fwee, succumbing to "chase myopady" (Sears 2001), and dat human features such as de nuchaw wigament, abundant sweat gwands, de Achiwwes tendons, big knee joints and muscuwar gwutei maximi, were changes caused by dis type of activity (Brambwe & Lieberman 2004, et aw.). The deory as first proposed used comparative physiowogicaw evidence and de naturaw habits of animaws when running, indicating de wikewihood of dis activity as a successfuw hunting medod. Furder evidence from observation of modern-day hunting practice awso indicated dis wikewihood (Carrier et aw. 1984).  According to Sears (p. 12) scientific investigation (Wawker & Leakey 1993) of de Nariokotome Skeweton provided furder evidence for de Carrier deory.
Competitive running grew out of rewigious festivaws in various areas such as Greece, Egypt, Asia, and de East African Rift in Africa. The Taiwteann Games, an Irish sporting festivaw in honor of de goddess Taiwtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE, and is one of de earwiest records of competitive running. The origins of de Owympics and Maradon running are shrouded by myf and wegend, dough de first recorded games took pwace in 776 BCE. Running in Ancient Greece can be traced back to dese games of 776 BCE.
...I suspect dat de sun, moon, earf, stars, and heaven, which are stiww de gods of many barbarians, were de onwy gods known to de aboriginaw Hewwenes. Seeing dat dey were awways moving and running, from deir running nature dey were cawwed gods or runners (Thus, Theontas)...
Running kinematic description
Running gait can be divided into two phases in regard to de wower extremity: stance and swing. These can be furder divided into absorption, propuwsion, initiaw swing and terminaw swing. Due to de continuous nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be de beginning. However, for simpwicity it wiww be assumed dat absorption and footstrike mark de beginning of de running cycwe in a body awready in motion, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Footstrike occurs when a pwantar portion of de foot makes initiaw contact wif de ground. Common footstrike types incwude forefoot, midfoot and heew strike types. These are characterized by initiaw contact of de baww of de foot, baww and heew of de foot simuwtaneouswy and heew of de foot respectivewy. During dis time de hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximaw fwexion from de previous swing phase. For proper force absorption, de knee joint shouwd be fwexed upon footstrike and de ankwe shouwd be swightwy in front of de body. Footstrike begins de absorption phase as forces from initiaw contact are attenuated droughout de wower extremity. Absorption of forces continues as de body moves from footstrike to midstance due to verticaw propuwsion from de toe-off during a previous gait cycwe.
Midstance is defined as de time at which de wower extremity wimb of focus is in knee fwexion directwy underneaf de trunk, pewvis and hips. It is at dis point dat propuwsion begins to occur as de hips undergo hip extension, de knee joint undergoes extension and de ankwe undergoes pwantar fwexion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Propuwsion continues untiw de weg is extended behind de body and toe off occurs. This invowves maximaw hip extension, knee extension and pwantar fwexion for de subject, resuwting in de body being pushed forward from dis motion and de ankwe/foot weaves de ground as initiaw swing begins.
Most recent research, particuwarwy regarding de footstrike debate, has focused sowewy on de absorption phases for injury identification and prevention purposes. The propuwsion phase of running invowves de movement beginning at midstance untiw toe off. From a fuww stride wengf modew however, components of de terminaw swing and footstrike can aid in propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Set up for propuwsion begins at de end of terminaw swing as de hip joint fwexes, creating de maximaw range of motion for de hip extensors to accewerate drough and produce force. As de hip extensors change from reciporatory inhibitors to primary muscwe movers, de wower extremity is brought back toward de ground, awdough aided greatwy by de stretch refwex and gravity. Footstrike and absorption phases occur next wif two types of outcomes. This phase can be onwy a continuation of momentum from de stretch refwex reaction to hip fwexion, gravity and wight hip extension wif a heew strike, which does wittwe to provide force absorption drough de ankwe joint. Wif a mid/forefoot strike, woading of de gastro-soweus compwex from shock absorption wiww serve to aid in pwantar fwexion from midstance to toe-off. As de wower extremity enters midstance, true propuwsion begins. The hip extensors continue contracting awong wif hewp from de acceweration of gravity and de stretch refwex weft over from maximaw hip fwexion during de terminaw swing phase. Hip extension puwws de ground underneaf de body, dereby puwwing de runner forward. During midstance, de knee shouwd be in some degree of knee fwexion due to ewastic woading from de absorption and footstrike phases to preserve forward momentum. The ankwe joint is in dorsifwexion at dis point underneaf de body, eider ewasticawwy woaded from a mid/forefoot strike or preparing for stand-awone concentric pwantar fwexion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Aww dree joints perform de finaw propuwsive movements during toe-off. The pwantar fwexors pwantar fwex, pushing off from de ground and returning from dorsifwexion in midstance. This can eider occur by reweasing de ewastic woad from an earwier mid/forefoot strike or concentricawwy contracting from a heew strike. Wif a forefoot strike, bof de ankwe and knee joints wiww rewease deir stored ewastic energy from de footstrike/absorption phase. The qwadriceps group/knee extensors go into fuww knee extension, pushing de body off of de ground. At de same time, de knee fwexors and stretch refwex puww de knee back into fwexion, adding to a puwwing motion on de ground and beginning de initiaw swing phase. The hip extensors extend to maximum, adding de forces puwwing and pushing off of de ground. The movement and momentum generated by de hip extensors awso contributes to knee fwexion and de beginning of de initiaw swing phase.
Initiaw swing is de response of bof stretch refwexes and concentric movements to de propuwsion movements of de body. Hip fwexion and knee fwexion occur beginning de return of de wimb to de starting position and setting up for anoder footstrike. Initiaw swing ends at midswing, when de wimb is again directwy underneaf de trunk, pewvis and hip wif de knee joint fwexed and hip fwexion continuing. Terminaw swing den begins as hip fwexion continues to de point of activation of de stretch refwex of de hip extensors. The knee begins to extend swightwy as it swings to de anterior portion of de body. The foot den makes contact wif de ground wif footstrike, compweting de running cycwe of one side of de wower extremity. Each wimb of de wower extremity works opposite to de oder. When one side is in toe-off/propuwsion, de oder hand is in de swing/recovery phase preparing for footstrike. Fowwowing toe-off and de beginning of de initiaw swing of one side, dere is a fwight phase where neider extremity is in contact wif de ground due to de opposite side finishing terminaw swing. As de footstrike of de one hand occurs, initiaw swing continues. The opposing wimbs meet wif one in midstance and midswing, beginning de propuwsion and terminaw swing phases.
Upper extremity function
Upper extremity function serves mainwy in providing bawance in conjunction wif de opposing side of de wower extremity. The movement of each weg is paired wif de opposite arm which serves to counterbawance de body, particuwarwy during de stance phase. The arms move most effectivewy (as seen in ewite adwetes) wif de ewbow joint at an approximatewy 90 degrees or wess, de hands swinging from de hips up to mid chest wevew wif de opposite weg, de Humerus moving from being parawwew wif de trunk to approximatewy 45 degrees shouwder extension (never passing de trunk in fwexion) and wif as wittwe movement in de transverse pwane as possibwe. The trunk awso rotates in conjunction wif arm swing. It mainwy serves as a bawance point from which de wimbs are anchored. Thus trunk motion shouwd remain mostwy stabwe wif wittwe motion except for swight rotation as excessive movement wouwd contribute to transverse motion and wasted energy.
Recent research into various forms of running has focused on de differences, in de potentiaw injury risks and shock absorption capabiwities between heew and mid/forefoot footstrikes. It has been shown dat heew striking is generawwy associated wif higher rates of injury and impact due to inefficient shock absorption and inefficient biomechanicaw compensations for dese forces. This is due to forces from a heew strike travewing drough bones for shock absorption rader dan being absorbed by muscwes. Since bones cannot disperse forces easiwy, de forces transmitted to oder parts of de body, incwuding wigaments, joints and bones in de rest of de wower extremity aww de way up to de wower back. This causes de body to use abnormaw compensatory motions in an attempt to avoid serious bone injuries. These compensations incwude internaw rotation of de tibia, knee and hip joints. Excessive amounts of compensation over time have been winked to higher risk of injuries in dose joints as weww as de muscwes invowved in dose motions. Conversewy, a mid/forefoot strike has been associated wif greater efficiency and wower injury risk due to de triceps surae being used as a wever system to absorb forces wif de muscwes eccentricawwy rader dan drough de bone. Landing wif a mid/forefoot strike has awso been shown to not onwy properwy attenuate shock but awwows de triceps surae to aid in propuwsion via refwexive pwantarfwexion after stretching to absorb ground contact forces. Thus a mid/forefoot strike may aid in propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, even among ewite adwetes dere are variations in sewf sewected footstrike types. This is especiawwy true in wonger distance events, where dere is a prevawence of heew strikers. There does tend however to be a greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in de ewite fiewds, particuwarwy in de faster racers and de winning individuaws or groups. Whiwe one couwd attribute de faster speeds of ewite runners compared to recreationaw runners wif simiwar footstrikes to physiowogicaw differences, de hip and joints have been weft out of de eqwation for proper propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. This brings up de qwestion as to how heew striking ewite distance runners are abwe to keep up such high paces wif a supposedwy inefficient and injurious foot strike techniqwe.
Stride wengf, hip and knee function
Biomechanicaw factors associated wif ewite runners incwude increased hip function, use and stride wengf over recreationaw runners. An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces and ewite distance runners must compensate for dis to maintain deir pace over wong distances. These forces are attenuated drough increased stride wengf via increased hip fwexion and extension drough decreased ground contact time and more force being used in propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Wif increased propuwsion in de horizontaw pwane, wess impact occurs from decreased force in de verticaw pwane. Increased hip fwexion awwows for increased use of de hip extensors drough midstance and toe-off, awwowing for more force production, uh-hah-hah-hah. The difference even between worwd cwass and nationaw wevew distance runners has been associated wif more efficient hip joint function, uh-hah-hah-hah. The increase in vewocity wikewy comes from de increased range of motion in hip fwexion and extension, awwowing for greater acceweration and vewocity. The hip extensors and hip extension have been winked to more powerfuw knee extension during toe-off, which contributes to propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stride wengf must be properwy increased wif some degree of knee fwexion maintained drough de terminaw swing phases, as excessive knee extension during dis phase awong wif footstrike has been associated wif higher impact forces due to braking and an increased prevawence of heew striking. Ewite runners tend to exhibit some degree of knee fwexion at footstrike and midstance, which first serves to eccentricawwy absorb impact forces in de qwadriceps muscwe group. Secondwy it awwows for de knee joint to concentricawwy contract and provides major aid in propuwsion during toe-off as de qwadriceps group is capabwe of produce warge amounts of force. Recreationaw runners have been shown to increase stride wengf drough increased knee extension rader dan increased hip fwexion as exhibited by ewite runners, which serves instead to provide an intense braking motion wif each step and decrease de rate and efficiency of knee extension during toe-off, swowing down speed. Knee extension however contributes to additionaw stride wengf and propuwsion during toe-off and is seen more freqwentwy in ewite runners as weww.
Ewements of good running techniqwe
Upright posture and a swight forward wean
Leaning forward pwaces a runner's center of mass on de front part of de foot, which avoids wanding on de heew and faciwitates de use of de spring mechanism of de foot. It awso makes it easier for de runner to avoid wanding de foot in front of de center of mass and de resuwtant braking effect. Whiwe upright posture is essentiaw, a runner shouwd maintain a rewaxed frame and use his/her core to keep posture upright and stabwe. This hewps prevent injury as wong as de body is neider rigid nor tense. The most common running mistakes are tiwting de chin up and scrunching shouwders.
Stride rate and types
Exercise physiowogists have found dat de stride rates are extremewy consistent across professionaw runners, between 185 and 200 steps per minute. The main difference between wong- and short-distance runners is de wengf of stride rader dan de rate of stride.
During running, de speed at which de runner moves may be cawcuwated by muwtipwying de cadence (steps per second) by de stride wengf. Running is often measured in terms of pace in minutes per miwe or kiwometer. Fast stride rates coincide wif de rate one pumps one's arms. The faster one's arms move up and down, parawwew wif de body, de faster de rate of stride. Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners stay on deir toes bringing deir wegs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long distance runners tend to have more rewaxed strides dat vary.
Benefits of running
Whiwe dere exists de potentiaw for injury whiwe running (just as dere is in any sport), dere are many benefits. Some of dese benefits incwude potentiaw weight woss, improved cardiovascuwar and respiratory heawf (reducing de risk of cardiovascuwar and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascuwar fitness, reduced totaw bwood chowesterow, strengdening of bones (and potentiawwy increased bone density), possibwe strengdening of de immune system and an improved sewf-esteem and emotionaw state. Running, wike aww forms of reguwar exercise, can effectivewy swow or reverse de effects of aging.
Awdough an optimaw amount of vigorous aerobic exercise such as running might bring benefits rewated to wower cardiovascuwar disease and wife extension, an excessive dose (e.g., maradons) might have an opposite effect associated wif cardiotoxicity.
Weight woss benefits
Running can assist peopwe in wosing weight, staying in shape and improving body composition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Research suggests dat de person of average weight wiww burn approximatewy 100 cawories per miwe run, uh-hah-hah-hah. Running increases one's metabowism, even after running; one wiww continue to burn an increased wevew of cawories for a short time after de run, uh-hah-hah-hah. Different speeds and distances are appropriate for different individuaw heawf and fitness wevews. For new runners, it takes time to get into shape. The key is consistency and a swow increase in speed and distance. Whiwe running, it is best to pay attention to how one's body feews. If a runner is gasping for breaf or feews exhausted whiwe running, it may be beneficiaw to swow down or try a shorter distance for a few weeks. If a runner feews dat de pace or distance is no wonger chawwenging, den de runner may want to speed up or run farder.
Running can awso have psychowogicaw benefits, as many participants in de sport report feewing an ewated, euphoric state, often referred to as a "runner's high". Running is freqwentwy recommended as derapy for peopwe wif cwinicaw depression and peopwe coping wif addiction, uh-hah-hah-hah. A possibwe benefit may be de enjoyment of nature and scenery, which awso improves psychowogicaw weww-being (see Ecopsychowogy § Practicaw benefits).
In animaw modews, running has been shown to increase de number of newwy created neurons widin de brain, uh-hah-hah-hah. This finding couwd have significant impwications in aging as weww as wearning and memory. A recent study pubwished in Ceww Metabowism has awso winked running wif improved memory and wearning skiwws.
Many injuries are associated wif running because of its high-impact nature. Change in running vowume may wead to devewopment of patewwofemoraw pain syndrome, iwiotibiaw band syndrome, patewwar tendinopady, pwica syndrome, and mediaw tibiaw stress syndrome. Change in running pace may cause Achiwwes Tendinitis, gastrocnemius injuries, and pwantar fasciitis. Repetitive stress on de same tissues widout enough time for recovery or running wif improper form can wead to many of de above. Runners generawwy attempt to minimize dese injuries by warming up before exercise, focusing on proper running form, performing strengf training exercises, eating a weww bawanced diet, awwowing time for recovery, and "icing" (appwying ice to sore muscwes or taking an ice baf).
Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The probwem wif running on concrete is dat de body adjusts to dis fwat surface running, and some of de muscwes wiww become weaker, awong wif de added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it is advised[by whom?] to change terrain occasionawwy – such as traiw, beach, or grass running. This is more unstabwe ground and awwows de wegs to strengden different muscwes. Runners shouwd be wary of twisting deir ankwes on such terrain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Running downhiww awso increases knee stress and shouwd, derefore, be avoided. Reducing de freqwency and duration can awso prevent injury.
Barefoot running has been promoted as a means of reducing running rewated injuries, but dis remains controversiaw and a majority of professionaws advocate de wearing of appropriate shoes as de best medod for avoiding injury. However, a study in 2013 concwuded dat wearing neutraw shoes is not associated wif increased injuries.
Anoder common, running-rewated injury is chafing, caused by repetitive rubbing of one piece of skin against anoder, or against an articwe of cwoding. One common wocation for chafe to occur is de runner's upper dighs. The skin feews coarse and devewops a rash-wike wook. A variety of deodorants and speciaw anti-chafing creams are avaiwabwe to treat such probwems. Chafe is awso wikewy to occur on de nippwe. There are a variety of home remedies dat runners use to deaw wif chafing whiwe running such as band-aids and using grease to reduce friction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Prevention is key which is why form fitting cwodes are important.
Running is bof a competition and a type of training for sports dat have running or endurance components. As a sport, it is spwit into events divided by distance and sometimes incwudes permutations such as de obstacwes in steepwechase and hurdwes. Running races are contests to determine which of de competitors is abwe to run a certain distance in de shortest time. Today, competitive running events make up de core of de sport of adwetics. Events are usuawwy grouped into severaw cwasses, each reqwiring substantiawwy different adwetic strengds and invowving different tactics, training medods, and types of competitors.
Running competitions have probabwy existed for most of humanity's history and were a key part of de ancient Owympic Games as weww as de modern Owympics. The activity of running went drough a period of widespread popuwarity in de United States during de running boom of de 1970s. Over de next two decades, as many as 25 miwwion Americans were doing some form of running or jogging – accounting for roughwy one tenf of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Today, road racing is a popuwar sport among non-professionaw adwetes, who incwuded over 7.7 miwwion peopwe in America awone in 2002.
Limits of speed
Footspeed, or sprint speed, is de maximum speed at which a human can run, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is affected by many factors, varies greatwy droughout de popuwation, and is important in adwetics and many sports.
Running speed over increasing distance based on worwd record times
|Distance metres||Men m/s||Women m/s|
|21,097 Hawf maradon||6.02||5.29|
|21,285 One hour run||5.91||5.14|
|303,506 24-hour run||3.513||2.82|
Events by type
- Track running
Track running events are individuaw or reway events wif adwetes racing over specified distances on an ovaw running track. The events are categorised as sprints, middwe and wong-distance, and hurdwing.
- Road running
Road running takes pwace on a measured course over an estabwished road (as opposed to track and cross country running). These events normawwy range from distances of 5 kiwometers to wonger distances such as hawf maradons and maradons, and dey may invowve scores of runners or wheewchair entrants.
- Cross-country running
Cross country running takes pwace over de open or rough terrain, uh-hah-hah-hah. The courses used for dese events may incwude grass, mud, woodwands, hiwws, fwat ground and water. It is a popuwar participatory sport and is one of de events which, awong wif track and fiewd, road running, and racewawking, makes up de umbrewwa sport of adwetics.
- Mountain running
Events by distance
Sprints are short running events in adwetics and track and fiewd. Races over short distances are among de owdest running competitions. The first 13 editions of de Ancient Owympic Games featured onwy one event – de stadion race, which was a race from one end of de stadium to de oder. There are dree sprinting events which are currentwy hewd at de Owympics and outdoor Worwd Championships: de 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have deir roots in races of imperiaw measurements which were water awtered to metric: de 100 m evowved from de 100-yard dash, de 200 m distances came from de furwong (or 1/8 of a miwe), and de 400 m was de successor to de 440 yard dash or qwarter-miwe race.
At de professionaw wevew, sprinters begin de race by assuming a crouching position in de starting bwocks before weaning forward and graduawwy moving into an upright position as de contest progresses and momentum is gained. Adwetes remain in de same wane on de running track droughout aww sprinting events, wif de sowe exception of de 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are wargewy focused upon acceweration to an adwete's maximum speed. Aww sprints beyond dis distance increasingwy incorporate an ewement of endurance. Human physiowogy dictates dat a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more dan dirty seconds or so as wactic acid buiwds up, and weg muscwes begin to be deprived of oxygen.
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it an indoor worwd championship event. Oder wess-common events incwude de 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in some high and cowwegiate competitions in de United States. The 150 metres, is rarewy competed: Pietro Mennea set a worwd best in 1983, Owympic champions Michaew Johnson and Donovan Baiwey went head-to-head over de distance in 1997, and Usain Bowt improved Mennea's record in 2009.
Middwe distance running events are track races wonger dan sprints up to 3000 metres. The standard middwe distances are de 800 metres, 1500 metres and miwe run, awdough de 3000 metres may awso be cwassified as a middwe distance event. The 880 yard run, or hawf miwe, was de forebear to de 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in de United Kingdom in de 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a resuwt of running dree waps of a 500 m track, which was commonpwace in continentaw Europe in de 1900s.
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