- Overview of recent space achievements
- History of space exploration
- Human beings in space: debate and consequences
- Science in space
- Space applications
- Issues for the future
- Chronology of manned spaceflights
In the United States, Robert Hutchings Goddard became interested in space exploration after reading works such as The War of the Worlds. Even as a young man, he dedicated himself to working on spaceflight. In his 1904 high-school graduation speech, he stated that “it is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today and the reality of tomorrow.” Goddard received his first two patents for rocket technology in 1914, and, with funding from the Smithsonian Institution, he published a theoretical treatise, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, in 1919. Goddard’s claim that rockets could be used to send objects as far as the Moon was widely ridiculed in the public press, including The New York Times (which published a retraction on July 17, 1969, the day after the launch of the first manned mission to the Moon). Thereafter, the already shy Goddard conducted much of his work in secret, preferring to patent rather than publish his results. This approach limited his influence on the development of American rocketry, although early rocket developers in Germany took notice of his work.
In the 1920s, as a professor of physics at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, Goddard began to experiment with liquid-fueled rockets. His first rocket, launched in Auburn, Massachusetts, on March 16, 1926, rose 12.5 metres (41 feet) and traveled 56 metres (184 feet) from its launching place. The noisy character of his experiments made it difficult for Goddard to continue work in Massachusetts. With support from aviator Charles A. Lindbergh and financial assistance from the philanthropic Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, he moved to Roswell, New Mexico, where from 1930 to 1941 he built engines and launched rockets of increasing complexity.
The third widely recognized pioneer of rocketry, Hermann Oberth, was by birth a Romanian but by nationality a German. Reading Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon as a youth inspired him to study the requirements for interplanetary travel. Oberth’s 1922 doctoral dissertation on rocket-powered flight was rejected by the University of Heidelberg for being too speculative, but it became the basis for his classic 1923 book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen (“The Rocket into Interplanetary Space”). The work explained the mathematical theory of rocketry, applied the theory to rocket design, and discussed the possibility of constructing space stations and of traveling to other planets.
In 1929 Oberth published a second influential book, Wege zur Raumschiffahrt (Ways to Spaceflight). His works led to the creation of a number of rocket clubs in Germany as enthusiasts tried to turn Oberth’s ideas into practical devices. The most important of these groups historically was the Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR; “Society for Spaceship Travel”), which had as a member the young Wernher von Braun. Although Oberth’s work was crucial in stimulating the development of rocketry in Germany, he himself had only a limited role in that development. Alone among the rocket pioneers, Oberth lived to see his ideas become reality: he was Braun’s guest at the July 16, 1969, launch of Apollo 11.
Other space pioneers
Although Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, and Oberth are recognized as the most influential of the first-generation space pioneers, others made contributions in the early decades of the 20th century. For example, the Frenchman Robert Esnault-Pelterie began work on the theoretical aspects of spaceflight as early as 1907 and subsequently published several major books on the topic. He, like Tsiolkovsky in the Soviet Union and Oberth in Germany, was an effective publicist regarding the potential of space exploration. In Austria, Eugen Sänger worked on rocket engines and in the late 1920s proposed developing a “rocket plane” that could reach a speed exceeding 10,000 km (more than 6,000 miles) per hour and an altitude of more than 65 km (40 miles). Interested in Sänger’s work, Nazi Germany in 1936 invited him to continue his investigations in that country.
Early rocket development
It was space exploration that motivated the members of the German VfR to build their rockets, but in the early 1930s their work came to the attention of the German military. In 1932 Wernher von Braun, at age 20, became chief engineer of a rocket-development team for the German army. After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, Braun was named the civilian head of that team, under the military command of Walter Robert Dornberger. To give Braun’s engineers the needed space and secrecy for their work, the German government erected a development and test centre at Peenemünde on the coast of the Baltic Sea. There they developed, among other devices, the V-2 (originally designated the A-4) ballistic missile. First launched successfully in 1942, the V-2 was used on targets in Europe beginning in September 1944. Although built as a weapon of war, the V-2 later served as the predecessor of many of the rockets used in the early space programs of the United States and the Soviet Union. As World War II neared its end in early 1945, Braun and many of his associates chose to surrender to the United States, where they believed they would likely receive support for their rocket research and space exploration plans. Later in the year they were taken to the United States, as were their engineering plans and the parts needed to construct a number of V-2s. The German rocket team played a central role in the early development of space launchers for the United States.