A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, Thermal spraying/ parts reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being the potter’s wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The material can be held in place by either one or two centers, at least one of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate varying material lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps.
Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick holders, gun barrels, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments (especially woodwind instruments), crankshafts, and camshafts.
Operations of Lathe Machine:
(i) Facing: This operation is almost essential for all works. In this operation, as shown in fig., the work piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is fed from the center of the work piece towards the outer surface or from the outer surface to the center, with the help of a cross-slide.
(ii) Plane Turning: It is an operation of removing excess amount of material from the surface the surface of the cylinder work piece. In this operation, shown in fig., the work is held either in the chuck or between centers & the longitudinal feed is given to the tool either by hand or power.
(iii) Step Turning: It is an operation of producing various steps of different diameters of in the work piece as shown in fig. This operation is carried out in the similar way as plain turning.
(iv) Drilling : It is an operation of making a hole in a work piece with the help of a drill. In this case as shown in fig., the work piece, by rotating the tail stock hand wheel. The drill is fed normally, into the rotating work piece, by rotating the tail stock hand wheel.
(v) Reaming : It is an operation of finishing the previously drilled hole. In the operation as shown in fig., a reamer is held in the tailstock and it is fed into the hole in the similar way as for drilling.
The lathe is a machine tool which holds the workpiece between two rigid and strong supports called centers or in a chuck or face plate which revolves. The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool
post which is fed against the revolving work. The normal cutting operations are performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work.
The cutting tool may also be fed at an angle relative to the axis of work for machining tapers and angles.
Construction: The main parts of the lathe are the bed, headstock, quick changing gear box, carriage and tailstock.
1. Bed: The bed is a heavy, rugged casting in which are mounted the working parts of the lathe. It carries the headstock and tail stock for supporting the workpiece and provides a base for the movement of carriage assembly which carries the tool.
2. Legs: The legs carry the entire load of machine and are firmly secured to floor by foundation bolts.
3. Headstock: The headstock is clamped on the left hand side of the bed and it serves as housing for the driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the feed reverse gear. The headstock spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft that provides a drive from the motor to work holding devices.
4. Gear Box: The quick-change gear-box is placed below the headstock and contains a number of different sized gears.
5. Carriage: The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job during operation. The main parts of carriage are:
a). The saddle is an H-shaped casting mounted on the top of lathe ways. It provides support to cross-slide, compound rest and tool post.
b). The cross slide is mounted on the top of saddle, and it provides a mounted or automatic cross movement for the cutting tool.
c). The compound rest is fitted on the top of cross slide and is used to support the tool post and the cutting tool.
d). The tool post is mounted on the compound rest, and it rigidly clamps the cutting tool or tool holder at the proper height relative to the work centre line.
e). The apron is fastened to the saddle and it houses the gears, clutches and levers required to move the carriage or cross slide. The engagement of split nut lever and the automatic feed lever at the same time is prevented she carriage along the lathe bed.
6. Tailstock: The tailstock is a movable casting located opposite the headstock on the ways of the bed. The tailstock can slide along the bed to accommodate different lengths of workpiece between the centers. A tailstock clamp is provided to lock the tailstock at any desired position. The tailstock spindle has an internal taper to hold the dead Centre and the tapered shank tools such as reamers and drills.
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. (Adding axes of motion can yield helical tool paths, has also done in helical planning.) A shaper is analogous to a planer, but smaller, and with the cutter riding a ram that moves above a stationary workpiece, rather than the entire workpiece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the column; hydraulically actuated shapers also exist.
Fig: Shaper linkage.
The drive arm revolves less for the return stroke than for the cutting stroke, resulting in a quicker return stroke and more powerful cutting stroke.
A shaper operates by moving a hardened cutting tool backwards and forwards across the workpiece. On the return stroke of the ram the tool is lifted clear of the workpiece, reducing the cutting action to one direction only.
The workpiece mounts on a rigid, box-shaped table in front of the machine. The height of the table can be adjusted to suit this workpiece, and the table can traverse sideways underneath the reciprocating tool, which is mounted on the ram. Table motion may be controlled manually, but is usually advanced by automatic feed mechanism acting on the feeds crew. The ram slides back and forth above the work. At the front end of the ram is a vertical tool slide that may be adjusted to either side of the vertical plane along the stroke axis. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and tool post, from which the tool can be positioned to cut a straight, flat surface on the top of the workpiece. The tool-slide permits feeding the tool downwards to deepen a cut. This adjustability, coupled with the use of specialized cutters and tool holders, enable the operator to cut internal and external gear tooth profiles, splines, dovetails, and keyways.
The ram is adjustable for stroke and, due to the geometry of the linkage, it moves faster on the return (non-cutting) stroke than on the forward, cutting stroke. This action is via a slotted link or Whitworth link.
Working Principle: The job is rigidly fixed on the machine table. The single point cutting tool held properly in the tool post is mounted on a reciprocating ram. The reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by a quick return motion mechanism. As the ram reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. During return, there is no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. The forward and return strokes constitute one operating cycle of the shaper.
Construction: The main parts of the Shaper machine is Base, Body (Pillar, Frame, Column), Cross rail, Ram and tool head (Tool Post, Tool Slide, Clamper Box Block).
Fig: shaper machine.
Base: The base is a heavy cast iron casting which is fixed to the shop floor. It supports the body frame and the entire load of the machine. The base absorbs and withstands vibrations and other forces which are likely to be induced during the shaping operations.
Body (Pillar, Frame, Column): It is mounted on the base and houses the drive mechanism compressing the main drives, the gear box and the quick return mechanism for the ram movement. The top of the body provides guide ways for the ram and its front provides the guide ways for the cross rail.
Cross rail: The cross rail is mounted on the front of the body frame and can be moved up and down. The vertical movement of the cross rail permits jobs of different heights to be accommodated below the tool. Sliding along the cross rail is a saddle which carries the work table.
Ram and tool head: The ram is driven back and forth in its slides by the slotted link mechanism. The back and forth movement of ram is called stroke and it can be adjusted according to the length of the workpiece to be-machined.
Introduction: The planer is a machine tool designed to produce plane and flat surface on a workpiece which is too large or too heavy. The workpiece is securely fixed on a table called platen, and it reciprocates horizontally against a single edged cutting tool. The surface machined may be horizontal, vertical or at an angle.
Operations of planer machine:
The planer is used for:
1. Planing flat horizontal, vertical and curved surfaces.
2. Planing at an angle and machining dovetails.
3. Planing slots and grooves.
The planer are available in different types for doing different types and sizes of job; the most common being the standard and double housing planer.
The main parts of the double Housing Planer machine is Bed and table, Housings, Cross rail, Tool heads, Driving and feed mechanism.
Bed and table: The bed is a long heavy base and table made of cast iron. Its top surface is flat and machined accurately. The flat top surface has slots in which the workpiece can be securely clamped. The workpiece needs rigid fixing so that it does not shift out of its position. The standard clamping devices used on planer machine are: Heavy duty vice, T-holders and clamps, angle plate, planer jack, step blocks and stop. The table movement may be actuated by a variable speed drive through a rack and pinion arrangement, or a hydraulic system.
Housings: The housings are the rigid and upright column like castings. These are located near the centre on each side of the base.
Cross rail: The cross rail is a horizontal member supported on the machined ways of the upright columns. Guide ways are provided on vertical face of each column and that enables up and vertical movement of the cross rail. The vertical movement of the cross rail allows to accommodate workpiece of different heights. Since the cross rail is supported at both the ends, this type of planer machine is rigid in construction.
Tool heads: Generally two tool heads are mounted in the horizontal cross rail and one on each of the vertical housing. Tool heads may be swiveled so that angular cuts can be made.
Driving and feed mechanism: The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical direction. The motor drive is usually at one side of the planer near the centre and drive mechanism is located under the table.
The size of the planer is specified by the maximum length of the stroke, and also by the size of the largest rectangular solid that can be machined on it.
Fig:Horizontal milling machine.
4 & 5: table (x-axis slide is integral)
7: arbor (attached to spindle)
A horizontal mill has the same sort of x–y table, but the cutters are mounted on a horizontal arbor (see Arbor milling) across the table. Many horizontal mills also feature a built-in rotary table that allows milling at various angles; this feature is called a universal table. While end mills and the other types of tools available to a vertical mill may be used in a horizontal mill, their real advantage lies in arbor-mounted cutters, called side and face mills, which have a cross section rather like a circular saw, but are generally wider and smaller in diameter. Because the cutters have good support from the arbor and have a larger cross-sectional area than an end mill, quite heavy cuts can be taken enabling rapid material removal rates. These are used to mill grooves and slots. Plain mills are used to shape flat surfaces. Several cutters may be ganged together on the arbor to mill a complex shape of slots and planes. Special cutters can also cut grooves, bevels, radii, or indeed any section desired. These specialty cutters tend to be expensive. Simplex mills have one spindle, and duplex mills have two. It is also easier to cut gears on a horizontal mill. Some horizontal milling machines are equipped with a power-take-off provision on the table. This allows the table feed to be synchronized to a rotary fixture, enabling the milling of spiral features such as hypoid gears.
Cylindrical grinding machine:
The cylindrical grinder is a type of grinding machine used to shape the outside of an object. The cylindrical grinder can work on a variety of shapes; however the object must have a central axis of rotation. This includes but is not limited to such shapes as a cylinder, an ellipse, a cam, or a crankshaft
Cylindrical grinding is defined as having four essential actions:
The work (object) must be constantly rotating
The grinding wheel must be constantly rotating
The grinding wheel is fed towards and away from the work
Either the work or the grinding wheel is traversed with respect to the other.
While the majority of cylindrical grinders employ all four movements, there are grinders that only employ three of the four actions.