  The presence of a dispersed phase substantially modifies small-scale
turbulence. However, there has not been a comprehensive mechanistically-based
understanding to predict turbulence modulation. Based on the energy flux
balance, we propose a theoretical model to predict the turbulent kinetic energy
modulation in isotropic turbulence due to the dispersed phase. The comparison
between model predictions and results from particle-resolved simulations and
high-fidelity experiments validates the performance of the model over a wide
range of turbulence and particle parameters.
