  Context: While most research shows positive effects of gamification, the
focus on its adverse effects is considerably smaller and further understanding
is needed. Objective: To provide a comprehensive overview on research reporting
negative effects of game design elements and to provide insights into the
awareness of developers on these effects and into how they could be considered
in practice. Method: We conducted a systematic mapping study of the negative
effects of game design elements on education/learning systems. We also held a
focus group discussion with developers of a gamified software, discussing the
mapping study results with regard to their awareness and perceptions on the
reported negative effects in practice. Results: The mapping study revealed 87
papers reporting undesired effects of game design elements. We found that
badges, leaderboards, competitions, and points are the game design elements
most often reported as causing negative effects. The most cited negative
effects were lack of effect, worsened performance, motivational issues, lack of
understanding, and irrelevance. The ethical issues of gaming the system and
cheating were also often reported. As part of our results, we map the relations
between game design elements and the negative effects that they may cause. The
focus group revealed that developers were not aware of many of the possible
negative effects and that they consider this type of information useful. The
discussion revealed their agreement on some of those potential negative effects
and also some positive counterparts. Conclusions: Gamification, when properly
applied, can have positive effects on education/learning software. However,
gamified software is also prone to generate harmful effects. Revealing and
discussing potentially negative effects can help to make more informed
decisions considering their trade-off with respect to the expected benefits.
