  Reform movements in science education, such as inquiry-based instruction,
have been heavily influenced by constructivist learning theories (National
Research Council, 2000). These learning theories place the learner as the sole
constructor of knowledge and emphasize the importance of the learner's inquiry
process (Yilmaz, 2008). In constructivist inquiry-based science education, lab
experiences frequently play an important role in instruction as they provide
students with opportunities to observe and make sense of the world around them
(National Research Council, 2000), which raises the question of how
inquiry-based science instruction can be translated to online environments.
There are several models for lab experiences in online science courses,
including hands-on labs where students directly manipulate materials, remote
labs where students manipulate materials through a computer, and virtual labs
and simulations where students work with simulated materials (Powell, et al.,
2010). Hands-on labs play an important role, especially given constructivist
views that students construct meaning by making observations of the world
around them, but there is evidence that simulated and virtual labs can play an
important role and may even be better suited to some instructional goals than
hands-on labs. Constructivist instruction also requires students to make their
process visible and teachers to be responsive to student thinking, both of
which are more challenging in online environments (Crippen, et al., 2013).
However, with intentional design, these features can be incorporated into
online science courses (Jaber, et al., 2018; Jang, 2009).
