  Automatic emergency steering maneuvers can be used to avoid more obstacles
than emergency braking alone. While a steer-by-wire system can decouple the
driver who might act as a disturbance during the emergency steering maneuver,
the alternative in which the steering wheel remains coupled can enable the
driver to cover for automation faults and conform to regulations that require
the driver to retain control authority. In this paper we present results from a
driving simulator study with 48 participants in which we tested the performance
of three emergency steering intervention schemes. In the first scheme, the
driver was decoupled and the automation system had full control over the
vehicle. In the second and third schemes, the driver was coupled and the
automation system was either given a high impedance or a low impedance. Two
types of unexpected automation faults were also simulated. Results showed that
a high impedance automation system results in significantly fewer collisions
during intended steering interventions but significantly higher collisions
during automation faults when compared to a low impedance automation system.
Moreover, decoupling the driver did not seem to significantly influence the
time required to hand back control to the driver. When coupled, drivers were
able to cover for a faulty automation system and avoid obstacles to a certain
degree, though differences by condition were significant for only one type of
automation fault.
