  As the power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) continues to advance, there is
increased interest in how best to combine AI-based agents with humans to
achieve mission effectiveness. Three perspectives have emerged. The first stems
from more conventional human factors traditions and views these entities as
highly capable tools that humans can use to accomplish increasingly
sophisticated tasks. The second "camp" believes that as the sophistication of
these entities increases, it becomes increasingly appropriate to talk about
them as "teammates" and use the research on human teams as a foundation for
further exploration. The third perspective is emerging and finds both the
"tools" and "teammate" metaphors flawed and limiting. This perspective
emphasizes "joint activity," "joint cognitive activity," or something similar.
In this article, we briefly review these three perspectives.
