  Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are expected to bring major benefits to transport
and society. To exploit this potential, their acceptance by society is a
necessary condition. However, AV acceptance is currently at stake: AVs face
resistance by bystanders and local communities. Resistance can prevent the
implementation and use of AVs, threatening road safety and efficiency. The
present study performed a qualitative and quantitative text analysis of
comments submitted by locals in San Francisco (SF) to the California Public
Utilities Commission (CPUC) on the fared deployment of AVs. The results of the
analysis are synthesized, and a conceptual framework explaining and predicting
resistance is proposed. The framework posits that the occurrence of resistance
is a direct result of the perception of threats, which is determined by
individual and system characteristics, direct and indirect consequences of
system use, reactions of others, and external events. AVs as threat to safety
was associated with their unpredictable, and illegal driving behavior, as well
as producing conflict situations. The lack of explicit communication between
AVs and other road users due to the absence of a human driver behind the
steering wheel negatively contributed to perceived safety and trust, especially
for vulnerable populations in crossing situations. Respondents reported a
negative impact on road capacity, congestion, and traffic flow, with AVs
blocking other road users, such as emergency vehicles. Inaccessible vehicle
design contributed to the exclusion of vulnerable groups with disabilities. The
scientific dialogue on acceptance of AVs needs to shift towards resistance as
the 'other' essential element of acceptance to ensure that we live up to our
promise of transitioning towards more sustainable mobility that is inclusive,
equitable, fair, just, affordable, and available to all.
