  Data is the key factor to drive the development of machine learning (ML)
during the past decade. However, high-quality data, in particular labeled data,
is often hard and expensive to collect. To leverage large-scale unlabeled data,
self-supervised learning, represented by contrastive learning, is introduced.
The objective of contrastive learning is to map different views derived from a
training sample (e.g., through data augmentation) closer in their
representation space, while different views derived from different samples more
distant. In this way, a contrastive model learns to generate informative
representations for data samples, which are then used to perform downstream ML
tasks. Recent research has shown that machine learning models are vulnerable to
various privacy attacks. However, most of the current efforts concentrate on
models trained with supervised learning. Meanwhile, data samples' informative
representations learned with contrastive learning may cause severe privacy
risks as well.
  In this paper, we perform the first privacy analysis of contrastive learning
through the lens of membership inference and attribute inference. Our
experimental results show that contrastive models trained on image datasets are
less vulnerable to membership inference attacks but more vulnerable to
attribute inference attacks compared to supervised models. The former is due to
the fact that contrastive models are less prone to overfitting, while the
latter is caused by contrastive models' capability of representing data samples
expressively. To remedy this situation, we propose the first privacy-preserving
contrastive learning mechanism, Talos, relying on adversarial training.
Empirical results show that Talos can successfully mitigate attribute inference
risks for contrastive models while maintaining their membership privacy and
model utility.
