Paper Trails: Cultural Imperialism from the late 19th Century as seen through Documents, Literature and Photographs
Marc Jason Gilbert
In former times, it was commonplace to say that
"every school boys knows" the story of the great colonial empires of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, what they once knew was generally
confined to the color of their own colonial empire as painted on a map and
the names of its builders, from Paul Doumer to Cecil Rhodes.1
Today, at least according to a typical report on that subject prepared by
Aldridge High School students, they know much more:
. . . . the style of colonial rule and patterns of social
interaction between colonizer and colonized changed considerably in the
late 19th century. Racism and social snobbery became pervasive in contacts
between the colonizers and their African and Asian subordinates. The [colonizers]
consciously renounced the ways of dressing, eating habits, and pastimes
that had earlier been borrowed from or shared with the peoples of the
colonies . . . [and became obsessed with demonstrating] the superiority
of [their own] learning and of everything from political organization
to fashions in clothing.2
|Students at Aldridge and elsewhere have now moved beyond the mere identification of the size and locale of colonial empires and the reputations of their founders to examining the nature of modern imperialism and how it changed over time. These students are able to do so largely because of the work of the past two generations of scholars who have made these subjects a focal point of world historical analysis. Initially, the work of these scholars concentrated on the role of psychology, racial attitudes and gender relations in the expression of imperial power.3 Students of world history have since examined the emergence of industrial exhibitions meant to tout imperial achievements,4 the development of architectural styles intended to exalt the power of British rule,5 the granting of honorary titles and imperial orders to bind the elite classes among their subject peoples to their colonial masters (a process called ornamentalism),6 the use of the cinema to promote colonial dominance,7 and even the changing view of the clothing deemed proper to be worn by populations charged with administering and defending empire.8||3|
|Other foci of study have included the manner in which control over and extraction of the world's resources were represented as confirmation of the superiority of the colonizing nations: for example, how the devastation of the Amazon and Congo basins due to the heedless extraction of raw materials were framed as the triumphs of positivism9 and how even colonial famines were used to demonstrate the superiority of metropolitan ways of knowledge, despite the death tolls rung up in Ireland and India due to doctrinaire applications of laissez faire.10 Recently, attention has been directed towards the way in which the imperial idea was expressed through the colonizer's control over much of the world's natural environment11 and trade in commodities such as drugs,12 salt,13 sugar,14 spices,15 tea (the Black Gold of the Empire long before oil),16 bananas17 and the pineapple (which today remains the motif that defines what modern manufactures from Ethan Allen to Bed Bath and Beyond happily tout as British "colonial" furniture—a phrase trademarked by Lennox).18||4|
The following material identifies
sources for the exploration of colonial culture readily available on the
Web or from most college or public lending libraries. Samples of material
suitable for document based questions, lesson plans, suggested student exercises,
and a bibliography suitable for student research are also included. The
latter suggests introductions to the subject that may serve as a guide for
study. The selected documents are meant to be suggestive rather than comprehensive:
individual instructors may wish to examine subjects not stressed here, such
as migration and diaspora studies. It is hoped that these resources will
help illuminate how, for both the colonized as well as the colonizer, cultural
issues were as significant as (and often directly related to) economic,
political and military affairs in determining their identities and giving
shape to their societies.
This material is offered with two caveats. In the hands of critics of empire,
cultural studies are subject to "essentailization," or reductionism. In
the process of applying new critical approaches, some students of gender
in South Asia have labeled legislation passed in 1891 to discourage child
marriage in India as proof that domination over the sexual lives of Indians
was central to the establishment of British imperial hegemony on the subcontinent.
Yet, on this occasion, the British were responding to Indian demands for
reform, a step which the British government had previously refused to take
due to a reasonable fear of the consequences of interfering in the social
relations of Indians after the Great Rebellion of 1857. In fact, the British
government had earlier passed up many opportunities to effect such reforms
despite rather egregious examples of the destruction of young women's lives.
A reluctant colonial government that had passed up previous opportunities
to control the sexuality of its subjects is not necessarily innocent of
the charge of seeking sexual dominance, but its gives one pause to read
that its actions in this case demonstrated the centrality of sexual politics
to the colonial enterprise.19
A far more serious challenge to historical enquiry is the claim by a rising
crop of apologists for empire that the colonial enterprise was necessary
to spread the benefits of human rights, democracy and modern medicine around
the globe. Setting aside the issue to how these values can (or should) be
effectively imposed by admittedly self-serving, economically exploitative
racist colonial orders, these apologists, in order to tout the benefits
of imperialism, dismiss the parallel record of human and environmental exploitation
which are now universally regretted and acknowledged to be part-and-parcel
of all colonial systems. Recently, Paul Johnson has argued that the solution
to terrorism is colonialism,20 while William Kristol of the Weekly
Standard and the features editor of the Wall Street Journal,
Max Boot, suggest that while imperialism has a bad name, it is nevertheless
a good thing.21 These writers are fully aware of the Amritsar and Dinshwai
massacres, the massive death tolls in deliberately ill-regulated colonial
sweatshops, mines, and rubber plantations, and also of the corruption of
the colonizer's own culture that attended the carrying of the "White Man's
Burden," but there is little room for these events and processes in the
apologists' conveniently narrow and one-sided drawing of the imperial balance
sheet. Of course, these apologists do have a point, but their praise of
imperialism is offered without much historical reflection or caveat emptor--
an important issue for educators. These apologists can the talk the colonialist
talk, but if their voices are heard in the corridors of power, it is not
these talking heads, but the present and rising generation of students that
will have to walk that walk.
Whether or not these students are ultimately tasked with spreading the civilization
of their choice by imperial instruments or experiencing the trauma that
is so often part of the cultural collateral damage of imperial life, they
deserve the most intellectually honest discussion of the issue an instructor
can provide, even when the instructor has already made up her or his mind
on the question. If the following discussion of instructional materials
fails to promote that aim, instructors are welcome to employ them in any
manner they see as better suited to accomplish this task.
Selected Document Analyses
While colonialism is a familiar subject, its study is often divided according
to regional or national-colonial systems (in Africa, in Asia, French, British,
Japanese imperialism etc.) or by discipline (economic imperialism, literature,
science, etc.). Of course, this creates very rich sources for comparative
history that are of great interest, and rightly so, to world historians.
However, world history is also an interdisciplinary field that is willing
to consider the broadest spectrum of analyses. Fortunately, modern imperial
history has embraced interdisciplinary approaches and is addressing the
challenge of post-colonial studies and critical theory. The following nine
document sets suggest the richness of the sources for the study of cultural
imperialism as an element of world history. They are produced here with
introductions and text in abbreviated form where the full text is available
on-line. Following each of the document sets are questions for discussion
and related lesson plans. This article concludes with a bibliography arranged
by topic and a list of web-based primary sources.
Document Exercise 1: Camp Life in India by Sir Monier Monier-Williams (1850)
The seductive power of culture in the imperial context
is clearest in a recollection offered by Monier-William's account of an
evening spent as a visitor for dinner with the Collector, the principle
local British administrator, in an Indian forest camp in 1850. Sir Monier
Monier-Williams (1819-1899) was Professor of Sanskrit at Haileybury, the
British East India Company's school for its administrators, from 1844-1858.
He was named Boden professor of Sanskrit at Oxford in 1860. He was knighted
in 1886. The photograph of Monier-Williams (above, center) is by the British
writer Lewis Carroll (from http://international.loc.gov/intldl/carrollhtml/lcgallery.html).
He is surrounded here by photographs of typical British Indian family servants
in Darjeeling c. 1898-1902 (from http://www.geocities.com/photosofindia/peter.htm)
who represent the type of servants he encountered in India. The following
account is originally from Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story:
A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, Volume 2, India,
Persia, Mesopotamia, and Palestine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914):
224-233. It was edited and posted on the World Wide Web as part of Paul
Halsall's valuable Indian History Internet Sourcebook at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1850monier.html.
Also resident at that same website is an often-referenced account of Indian
society (the Parsis community) by Monier-Williams (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1870-monier-parsees.html).
However, Monier-Williams' reference to Aladdin in the close of this passage
is unique in that it offers something of a smoking gun regarding "Orientalism"
among Western writers and observers of the colonial world.
Camp Life in India
. . . if every collector is a small king, every Englishman in India is regarded
as a petty prince. Obsequious natives watch his movements, and hang upon
his words. I try to stroll about, but as I circle leisurely round the compound,
attendant satellites hover about my path. I am evidently expected to develop
wants of some kind or other in the course of my ramble . . . I hastily hide
my head within the walls of my tent. But my tenacious followers are not
to be shaken off so easily. I am conscious of being vigilantly watched through
my barrier of canvas. By way of experiment I utter the magical formula,
"Qui hai?" ["Khoi Hai?" Literally, "Who is there?" was the stock
phrase uttered by a European visitor in India upon arriving at a home not
his own in order to summon a servant; it became a descriptive term for the
British in India] and a dusky form seems to rise out of the ground as if
by magic. There he stands in an attitude of abject reverence and attention,
waiting for me to issue my commands. . . . Just at this juncture I hear
a commanding voice call out in the distance "Khana lao."["Bring
the food/meal!"] This is the collector's brief and business-like order for
dinner. I repair with relief to the drawing-room and dining-room. The collector
and his wife, beaming with hospitality, make me sit down at a well-appointed
dinner-table. I have a French menu placed before me. I eat a dinner cooked
with Parisian skill, I drink wine fit for an emperor, and am waited on by
a stately butler and half a dozen stately waiters in imposing costumes,
who move about with noiseless tread behind my chair, and anticipate every
eccentricity of my appetite. I am evidently on enchanted ground, and can
only think of Aladdin in the "Arabian Nights."22
Study Questions: Why is "every Englishman"
entitled to high status? Does Sir Monier Monier-Williams question the human
environment in which he finds himself? Why or why not? How does he feel
about the service he is receiving? What would be the consequences for an
Indian servant who was not ubiquitous and ready to serve? Is such obsequiousness
unique to servants in the colonial setting, or, in other words, would a
servant of a traditional ruler have more of a buffer between those they
served or less? Why or why not? What does the use of Hindi-Urdu in the "familiar"
imperative form ("Bring food!") indicate about how language can be used
to express the dominance of the ruling elite? Monier-Williams, as a linguist,
knows of this usage and its meaning. How does he respond to it? Do you sense
any contrast between the collector's behavior towards Indians and his behavior
toward Monier-Williams, or Monier-Williams toward the collector and his
own attitude towards Indians?
Document Exercise 2: Living off the Country (1942)
Colonial settlers and officials
strove mightily to preserve their diet as a symbol of the social distance
from their subject-people. From Britain to Imperial Japan, cookbooks were
developed to assist them to replicate the cuisine of "home," as in the case
offered immediately below from a rare recipe book published in Nigeria in
1942, reprinted in Charles Allen, Plain Tales from the Dark Continent,23 of whose title only
a humorous pun was intended. The recipes offer the means for preparing 'Fish
and Chips' and other British culinary mainstays. Students might be asked
to explain the necessity for such recipes (see study questions below) or
extend the use of this resource to the examination of their socio-political
context, using as guides Mary A. Procida's "Feeding the Imperial Appetite:
Imperial Knowledge and Anglo-Indian Discourse" in the Journal of Women's
History, 15 no. 2 (Summer 2003): 123-149 and Anne L. Bower's "Romanced
by Cookbooks" Gastronomica 1 (Spring 2001): 76–79. Alternatively,
they could consult the website http: www.congocookbook.com
which has a section on historic books and recipes that offers excerpts from
the works of authors as varied as Sir Richard Burton and Chinua Achebe.
Students can be assigned to examine these or similar sources in the food
and diet section of the bibliography below for their content in identifying
the role of food in world history from colonialism to globalization. This
bibliography will also support examinations of the impact and long-term
results of colonialism on the eating habits and diets of the colonized from
Latin America to Japan.
MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES AND HOUSE-
Alkama Sponge Cake.
4 eggs, 3 ozs. Castor sugar, 4 ozs. Alkama, º teaspoon baking powder, ½ teaspoon boiling water.
Beat the eggs and sugar together until very thick. Mix the baking powder with the alkama and fold lightly into the eggs and sugar. Add the boiling water slowly, turn into a tin 5 inches in diameter. Bake for about 25 minutes in a moderate oven. When the cake is cold ice it with Zaria sugar icing.
(A substitute for potato chips with fried fish)
Peel green bananas and slice lengthways or crossways as desired. Sprinkle with pepper and salt and fry up quickly in fat or lard. Pile on a dish and serve immediately.
Bean Croquettes (Kwasi).
Soak native beans in cold water over night. In the morning remove from the water and grind finely in a food chopper or have a native woman grind them on her stone. Add enough water to make a stiff batter. Add finely chopped onion and salt to taste.
Drop by small spoonfuls into a saucepan which is about half full of hot fat, preferably groundnut oil. Care should be taken that the oil is not too highly seasoned with pepper or the bean cakes will be too 'hot' to eat. Remove from fat when they are brown. Serve hot with some sort of tart sauce, such as "Kukuki" jam. 24
Study Questions: Why would colonizing
peoples seek to replicate the recipes of "home?" What words or directions
in food preparation are stressed and why? Who would actually prepare these
meals? What would be their reaction to this effort? Yours? A "Google" standard
search of the terms "food imperialism lesson plans" identifies more than
ten pages of resources, as does a search for "food imperialism." The Food
Timeline and the Food Museum offers classrooms resources for students of
food history and heritage: http://www.foodtimeline.org/food2a.html and http://www.foodmuseum.com/.
Document 3: Science, Medicine, Music, and the Colonizer's Fear of the Sun
Colonial insecurities extended well beyond dietary
concerns. Dane Kennedy of George Washington University has examined the
clothing worn by late nineteenth and early twentieth century colonial settlers
and officials. He found that British and American colonizers were obsessed
by the fear that without special clothing they would be subject to the penetrating
the rays of the tropical sun; the rays were thought to account, at least
in part, for the laziness and other bad habits of the colonized. They even
purchased "spine pads" to shield their nervous systems from these invisible
enervating forces. We are fortunate that there is an audio file available
of Noel Coward singing his own rendition of the first verse of his famous
song, "Mad Dogs and Englishmen" (1932), in which he illuminates the determination
of British rulers in Asia to get about in the tropic heat in the face of
these invisible dangers in a manner that they believed served to single
themselves out favorably from those they ruled. The audio file and the text
produced here may be found at http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/coward.htm.
Mad Dogs and Englishmen
by Noel Coward
In tropical climes there are certain times of day
When all the citizens retire to tear their clothes off and perspire.
It's one of the rules that the greatest fools obey,
Because the sun is much too sultry
And one must avoid its ultry-violet ray.
The natives grieve when the white men leave their huts,
Because they're obviously, definitely nuts!
Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun,
It's such a surprise for the Eastern eyes to see,
Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun.
Of course, it was not true
that the "natives" feared the noonday sun: neither the Guptan nor Mughal
Empires would have lasted very long, nor would the Indian peasantry have
been productive for thousands of years, if they kept to the shade at noon.
However, but they did manage their relations with their climate (farmers
took a long lunch in the fields at midday). The claim made in the song's
last line is thus an imperialist conceit with significant portent. Coward's
tongue-in-cheek lyrics draw attention to the quite serious distinctions
made by the British. They energetically refused to surrender to their environment:
it was the weak South Asian subject peoples who succumbed to it. Who then,
are the rightful masters of that world, if not the European colonizers?
Note that Coward indicates that indigenous empire builders, the Chinese
and the Japanese, share the Asian characteristic of avoiding the midday
sun, raising the question as to whether the British are the rightful masters
of all Asian empires as well. This may sound like over-stretching the point,
but Dane Kennedy is merely exposing the tip of the iceberg of the cultural
costs of the effort to sustain Western dominance paid by making no concessions
to indigenous conditions. He notes that, "In the early years of the twentieth
century, a strange new illness appeared in the colonial tropics. It
was called tropical neurasthenia." His analysis of this illness is essential
reading for anyone who wishes to understand the complexity of the burdens
borne by colonizers. For the full text of an essay based on Kennedy's research,
Google "Dane Kennedy, Diagnosing the Colonial Dilemma." What follows is
Kennedy's introduction to that essay. He argues that tropical neurasthenia
Study Questions: After reading all of this paper, students may address
why Kennedy argues that one of the elements/sources of tropical neurasthenia
may have been social. They can also assess whether tropical neurasthenia
was unique to British colonials (American examples are cited) and ascertain
why Kennedy suggests such symptoms changed with the approaching end of formal
empire. Students in science as well as humanities courses will profit by
writing an essay synthesizing the findings of several recent works on imperial
exhibitions and science museums offered below, such as Peter Hoffenberg's
An Empire on Display. These studies, like Kennedy's essay, explore
the means by which the colonizers, when describing their world, often distorted
its nature and content, and science itself, to justify the continuation
of imperial rule.
Document Exercise 4: Picturing Empire: Photography, Painting, Gender and Race
|The website for the NEH-The website for the NEH-supported Women and World History project located at http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/wwhprimary.php features a section devoted to primary sources in world history which emphasizes the cultural content of colonial encounters. These range from Africa to Southeast Asia and from Western views of foot-binding in China to women's education in Indonesia. However, the examples range far beyond gender issues. Each source featured at this site is preceded by a short descriptive essay.||17|
The image on the left, below, is a rendition of
a painting by T. J. Barker, "The Secret of England's Success" (1863). In
this famous painting, Queen Victoria is portrayed handing a Bible to a kneeling
African prince. The line drawing provided is offered out of respect for
copyright, but a beautiful full-color image can be obtained at http://www.humanities.uci.edu/users/vfolkenflik/VRF%20Sources/Victoria.jpg.
If for any reason this image is unavailable at that site, merely go to the
web portal of the National Portrait Gallery, London at http://www.npg.org.uk/live/index.asp.
Click on Search Collection, fill the "Sitter" search option by entering
"Queen Victoria," then hit Search. The digital image of the painting is
on the top of the second page of the search. For analysis of the image,
The two costumed figures below on the right are from a series of paintings
by Claude Antoine Rozet, which according to the analysis offered at their
marks the beginning of racial taxonomy in France's newly conquered territory
Study Questions: The Women in World History site directs students
to the Barker painting above left and asks them to imagine what it might
suggest to someone living in Victorian Britain about the British Empire
and discuss whether it was possible for a Victorian to imagine switching
the position of the two central figures, in other words, Queen Victoria
kneeling to an African chief? The site informs students that, despite the
British association of empire with masculinity, the Queen was a familiar
source of imperial symbolism. Why would this be so? How, in this picture,
is British masculinity inserted (her husband looks on, other male advisers
are present and she is shown possessor of holder of the Crown, etc). How
is the inferiority of the African visually produced in posture and costume?
The host site for the illustrations of Claude Antoine Rozet directs students
to the images of racial taxonomy (as above right) and asks them to trace
how differences in appearances were interpreted by the French as reflecting
class and/or racial difference and above all rendering them inferior for
their collective "exotic" non-European characteristics. Students of patterns
of authority, from gender to race, can access the works at this site and
in the bibliography that follows as support for projects focusing on perceptions
of women's roles and the cult of colonial masculinity. They can also examine
the differences in class, education and experience of those women who opposed
or participated in traditional gender roles in the colonial setting and/or
their relations with the women among the colonial population.
Document Exercise 5: Responding to "Uncivilized" Behavior: Kaiser Wilhelm II and Boxer Rebellion
|American, European and Japanese imperialists often used any barbarity that accompanied indigenous resistance to colonialism as proof of the "uncivilized" nature of the colonized. In this document, Kaiser Wilhelm II employs the most "lurid terms" in justifying a military response to the barbarities of the Boxer rebellion, during which the German envoy to China was killed, when giving a speech to the men of a departing German punitive expedition at the seaport at Bremerhaven on July 2, 1900. It was such speech that the Indian nationalist and poet Rabindranath Tagore described when he wrote, "To justify their own spilling of ink, they spell the day as night."25 The texts below are edited and made available at http://www2.h-et.msu.edu/~gtext/kaiserreich/china.html. It introduces three related texts, the second in two versions. This selection is from the second verbatim account of the Kaiser's speech; the site also offers the sanitized official account that offers its own glimpse into the colonial mindset. The accompanying supporting photographs are available along with many others for this application at http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/boxeraufstand_zusammenfassung.htm. They are, clockwise from left: a poster of "The War in China;" an image of the Kaiser receiving the submission of a Chinese envoy, Prince Chun; and German and Japanese imperial troops displaying Boxer heads as war trophies: note that this photograph links Japanese with German imperial forces.||20|
Kaiser Wilhelm's Speech, July 2, 1900
|The task which I am sending you out to do is a great one. You must see that a serious injustice is expiated. In this case the Chinese have dared to overturn a thousand year old international law and to make a mockery of the sanctity of the diplomat and the right of hospitality. The case is unprecedented in world history--and this from a people proud of its ancient culture!||23|
|But you can see from this what a culture not based on Christianity comes to. Every heathen culture, no matter how beautiful or august, will come to nought at the first catastrophe!||24|
|...When you come upon the enemy, smite him. Pardon will not be given. Prisoners will not be taken. Whoever falls into your hands is forfeit. Once, a thousand years ago, the Huns under their King Attila made a name for themselves, one still potent in legend and tradition [The Kaiser's allusion to Attila was seized upon by enemy propagandists during World War I. In popular consciousness the Germans and the barbaric "Huns" became one]. May you in this way make the name German remembered in China for a thousand years so that no Chinaman will ever again dare to even squint at a German!|
|You will have to fight a force superior in numbers. But, as our military history demonstrates, we are accustomed to this . . . . Gather new laurels for your [regimental] flags. The blessings of the Lord go with you and your prayers. An entire nation accompanies you on all your paths. My best wishes to you for the fortune of your arms....And may God's blessing attach itself to your banner and bring a blessing upon this war so that Christianity may survive in that land and such sad events never reoccur. To this end stand by your oath. And now, a prosperous voyage! Adieu, comrades!|
Study Questions: How are the Chinese portrayed in these speeches? Is the reason for their actions discussed? What alone matters? What nationalistic images are raised to inspire the troops? How is Christianity employed? How are these related, i.e. how Christian is Germany's "place in the sun?" In the accompanying photographs, how are European and Chinese military technologies represented? How do these photographs conjoin German and Japanese imperialism? Students as well as teachers may benefit from examining the lesson plan directing students to compare Japanese and European colonialism on the web at www.outreachworld.org/Files/asia/swangerK-jpn.pdf.
Document Exercise 6: Tying Burmese Days to Heart of Darkness
|George Orwell's novel Burmese Days (1936) drawn from his service as a minor police official in Burma, and Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, a fictionalized meditation on Conrad's experiences in Africa, are familiar to most students of colonialism. However, since world historians seek to explore historical processes across regions, readings that tie these works together are more valuable than a reading drawn from one or the other. Students can be directed first to focus on an essay written in 1934 entitled "Shooting an Elephant," offered at http://www.online-literature.com/orwell/887/ and also at the George Orwell homepage at http://www.k-1.com/Orwell/index.cgi/work/essays/elephant.html, from which the above journalist's I.D. picture is also drawn:|
Orwell: Shooting A Elephant
Study Questions: Orwell realized this story gave him "a glimpse of the real nature of imperialism." What was it that Orwell found and revealed in his account? British Indian officials were warned "never to show the feather," or indecision, in front of the "natives." What is the cost of this psychological element of colonial administration? Orwell refers to the 'White Man" in the East. What undercurrent of gender is revealed by this story? Do these themes appear in Heart of Darkness?
Joseph Conrad: Heart of Darkness
|Orwell's "man on the spot" view of colonialism can be usefully paired with the opening pages of Joseph Conrad's most famous work, which are offered at http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader_2/Conrad.html (the picture of Conrad, above left, is drawn from another site useful for its lesson plan: http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/heartofdarkness/):|
|I left in a French steamer, and she called in every blamed port they have out there, for, as far as I could see, the sole purpose of landing soldiers and custom-house officers. I watched the coast. Watching a coast as it slips by the ship is like thinking about an enigma. There it is before you-- smiling, frowning, inviting, grand, mean, insipid, or savage, and always mute with an air of whispering, Come and find out. This one was almost featureless, as if still in the making, with an aspect of monotonous grimness. The edge of a colossal jungle, so dark-green as to be almost black, fringed with white surf, ran straight, like a ruled line, far, far away along a blue sea whose glitter was blurred by a creeping mist. The sun was fierce, the land seemed to glisten and drip with steam. Here and there grayish-whitish specks showed up clustered inside the white surf, with a flag flying above them perhaps. Settlements some centuries old, and still no bigger than pinheads on the untouched expanse of their background. We pounded along, stopped, landed soldiers; went on, landed custom-house clerks to levy toll in what looked like a God-forsaken wilderness, with a tin shed and a flagpole lost in it; landed more soldiers--to take care of the custom-house clerks, presumably. Some, I heard, got drowned in the surf; but whether they did or not, nobody seemed particularly to care. They were just flung out there, and on we went. Every day the coast looked the same, as though we had not moved; but we passed various places--trading places--with names like Gran' Bassam, Little Popo; names that seemed to belong to some sordid farce acted in front of a sinister back-cloth. The idleness of a passenger, my isolation amongst all these men with whom I had no point of contact, the oily and languid sea, the uniform somberness of the coast, seemed to keep me away from the truth of things, within the toil of a mournful and senseless delusion. The voice of the surf heard now and then was a positive pleasure, like the speech of a brother. It was something natural, that had its reason, that had a meaning. Now and then a boat from the shore gave one a momentary contact with reality. It was paddled by black fellows. You could see from afar the white of their eyeballs glistening. They shouted, sang; their bodies streamed with perspiration; they had faces like grotesque masks--these chaps; but they had bone, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense energy of movement, that was as natural and true as the surf along their coast. They wanted no excuse for being there. They were a great comfort to look at. For a time I would feel I belonged still to a world of straightforward facts; but the feeling would not last long. Something would turn up to scare it away. Once, I remember, we came upon a man-of-war anchored off the coast. There wasn't even a shed there, and she was shelling the bush. It appears the French had one of their wars going on thereabouts. Her ensign dropped limp like a rag; the muzzles of the long six-inch guns stuck out all over the low hull; the greasy, slimy swell swung her up lazily and let her down, swaying her thin masts. In the empty immensity of earth, sky, and water, there she was, incomprehensible, firing into a continent. Pop, would go one of the six-inch guns; a small flame would dart and vanish, a little white smoke would disappear, a tiny projectile would give a feeble screech--and nothing happened. Nothing could happen. There was a touch of insanity in the proceeding, a sense of lugubrious drollery in the sight; and it was not dissipated by somebody on board assuring me earnestly there was a camp of natives--he called them enemies!--hidden out of sight somewhere.|
|We gave her her letters (I heard the men in that lonely ship were dying of fever at the rate of three a day) and went on. We called at some more places with farcical names, where the merry dance of death and trade goes on in a still and earthy atmosphere as of an overheated catacomb; all along the formless coast bordered by dangerous surf, as if Nature herself had tried to ward off intruders; in and out of rivers, streams of death in life, whose banks were rotting into mud, whose waters, thickened into slime, invaded the contorted mangroves that seemed to writhe at us in the extremity of an impotent despair. Nowhere did we stop long enough to get a particularized impression, but the general sense of vague and oppressive wonder grew upon me. It was like a weary pilgrimage amongst hints for nightmares. "It was upward of thirty days before I saw the mouth of the big river. We anchored off the seat of the government. But my work would not begin till some two hundred miles farther on. So as soon as I could I made a start for a place thirty miles higher up.|
|I had my passage on a little sea-going steamer. Her captain was a Swede, and knowing me for a seaman, invited me on the bridge. He was a young man, lean, fair, and morose, with lanky hair and a shuffling gait. As we left the miserable little wharf, he tossed his head contemptuously at the shore. 'Been living there?' he asked. I said, 'Yes.' 'Fine lot these government chaps--are they not?' he went on, speaking English with great precision and considerable bitterness. 'It is funny what some people will do for a few francs a month. I wonder what becomes of that kind when it goes up country?' I said to him I expected to see that soon. 'So-o-o!' he exclaimed. He shuffled athwart, keeping one eye ahead vigilantly. 'Don't be too sure,' he continued. 'The other day I took up a man who hanged himself on the road. He was a Swede, too.' 'Hanged himself! Why, in God's name?' I cried. He kept on looking out watchfully. 'Who knows? The sun too much for him, or the country perhaps.'|
|At last we opened a reach. A rocky cliff appeared, mounds of turned-up earth by the shore, houses on a hill, others with iron roofs, amongst a waste of excavations, or hanging to the declivity. A continuous noise of the rapids above hovered over this scene of inhabited devastation. A lot of people, mostly black and naked, moved about like ants. A jetty projected into the river. A blinding sunlight drowned all this at times in a sudden recrudescence of glare. 'There's your Company's station,' said the Swede, pointing to three wooden barrack-like structures on the rocky slope. 'I will send your things up. Four boxes did you say? So. Farewell.' "I came upon a boiler wallowing in the grass, then found a path leading up the hill. It turned aside for the boulders, and also for an undersized railway-truck lying there on its back with its wheels in the air. One was off. The thing looked as dead as the carcass of some animal. I came upon more pieces of decaying machinery, a stack of rusty rails. To the left a clump of trees made a shady spot, where dark things seemed to stir feebly. I blinked, the path was steep. A horn tooted to the right, and I saw the black people run. A heavy and dull detonation shook the ground, a puff of smoke came out of the cliff, and that was all. No change appeared on the face of the rock. They were building a railway. The cliff was not in the way or anything; but this objectless blasting was all the work going on.|
|A slight clinking behind me made me turn my head. Six black men advanced in a file, toiling up the path. They walked erect and slow, balancing small baskets full of earth on their heads, and the clink kept time with their footsteps. Black rags were wound round their loins, and the short ends behind waggled to and fro like tails. I could see every rib, the joints of their limbs were like knots in a rope; each had an iron collar on his neck, and all were connected together with a chain whose bights swung between them, rhythmically clinking. Another report from the cliff made me think suddenly of that ship of war I had seen firing into a continent. It was the same kind of ominous voice; but these men could by no stretch of imagination be called enemies. They were called criminals, and the outraged law, like the bursting shells had come to them, an insoluble mystery from the sea. All their meager breasts panted together, the violently dilated nostrils quivered, the eyes stared stonily up-hill. They passed me within six inches, without a glance, with that complete, deathlike indifference of unhappy savages. Behind this raw matter one of the reclaimed, the product of the new forces at work, strolled despondently, carrying a rifle by its middle. He had a uniform jacket with one button off, and seeing a white man on the path, hoisted his weapon to his shoulder with alacrity. This was simple prudence, white men being so much alike at a distance that he could not tell who I might be. He was speedily reassured, and with a large, white, rascally grin, and a glance at his charge, seemed to take me into partnership in his exalted trust. After all, I was also a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings.|
|Instead of going up, I turned and descended to the left. My idea was to let that chain-gang get out of sight before I climbed the hill. You know I am not particularly tender; I've had to strike and to fend off. I've had to resist and to attack sometimes--that's the only way of resisting--without counting the exact cost, according to the demands of such sort of life as I had blundered into. I've seen the devil of violence, and the devil of greed, and the devil of hot desire; but, by all the stars! these were strong, lusty, red-eyed devils, that swayed and drove men--men, I tell you. But as I stood on this hillside, I foresaw that in the blinding sunshine of that land I would become acquainted with a flabby, pretending, weak-eyed devil of a rapacious and pitiless folly. How insidious he could be, too, I was only to find out several months later and a thousand miles farther. For a moment I stood appalled, as though by a warning. Finally I descended the hill, obliquely, towards the trees I had seen.|
Study Questions: Conrad and Orwell
The introduction to this reading suggests that the novel conceals levels of meaning that place Africans in a poor light as a people. Others suggest the opposite, that what Conrad is exploring is the horror inherent in the domination of men by any other men, and how that horror was made known to him "on the ground" in Africa, not as a matter of fiction, but as a matter of his own encounter with the evil itself while he himself was in Africa. How does he regard the African seamen he sees (he is himself a seaman)? How does he regard the French naval bombardment he witnesses and what does he deduce from the "criminals" he sees escorted by an African in a uniform? Do these incidents suggest Conrad has any sympathy with Africans? After witnessing these sights (and on hearing about the Swede who committed suicide), he feels forewarned about what is to come, but he goes on. Why? How would Orwell, in the reading above, provide something like an answer? Bonus question: What in Orwell and Conrad is illuminated in two scenes from Francis Ford Coppola's film, Apocalypse Now (1979), inspired by Conrad's work, where the American operative, Captain Willard (played by Martin Sheen), both arrives and, later, as he leaves the Cham temple complex having killed Colonel Kurzt (for another analysis of the connection, see the essay by James Rennie at http://www.film.queensu.ca/Critical/Rennie.html, from which the photograph of Willard's boat is derived). Students in courses in history and literature can explore the analyses/case studies of travel writing, as well as general literature, provided in this essay's bibliography (see below) by searching for content relating to how cultural perceptions and habits affect perceptions of difference between the ruler and the ruled in colonial societies. Local library holdings of colonial diaries, travelogues and texts can be the venue for a scavenger hunt for colonial literary images similar to those found above and analyzed in course papers or class presentations using the bibliography provided below.
|Students can relate Conrad to Rudyard Kipling through John A. McClure's Kipling and Conrad: the Colonial Fiction (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981) and Orwell to Kipling (see E. Baneth-Nouailhetas, "George Orwell and the 'White Man's Burden'', Commonwealth, 17-1 (1994), 32-390. Rudyard Kipling's poetry and his novel Kim (1901) and E. M. Forster's A Passage to India (1924) have been thoroughly deconstructed (again, see the bibliography below). These examinations may be used as models for student analysis of these works.|
|The National Endowment for the Humanities Edsitement webpages permit comparative study of Conrad, Orwell and Kipling alongside Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka at http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=382.|
Document Exercise 7: Reversing the Imperial Gaze—Connecting Orwell and Conrad with Wole Soyinka's Death and the King's Horseman (1975)
|Instructors have long used the seminal works of Conrad and Orwell as well as Rudyard Kipling (see bibliography below) to illuminate imperial values. Excerpts and lesson plans for these works abound (see also below). However, these works were authored by Europeans. Several works by the colonized people permit the reversing of the imperial gaze and are equally well-supported by instructional aids. These works include Frederick Oyono's The Old Man and the Medal (1970) in which an African is given a decoration and then abandoned by colonial society, and Chinua Achebe's better- known Things Fall Apart (1958), the story of the coming of colonialism to a West African community (for teaching guides see http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/2.1/mgilbert.html). However, Wole Soyinka's Death and the King's Horseman (1975) is a worthy addition to the cannon. This Noble Prize-winning author offers a much more intimate portrait of colonial subjection in a play in which Yoruban magical realism blends with traditional European-style narrative. It is also well-supported by teacher and student study guides,26 one of which offers a comparative approach. It is possible to examine cultural colonialism in both Conrad and Soyinka via Rachel Teisch's on-line article "Colonialism in Soyinka and Conrad" on-line at http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/ostost/soyinka/soyinka2.html.|
|There are many editions of Death and the King's Horseman in print, including one with both text and textual criticism published by W. W. Norton (New York), edited by Simon Gikandi (2002). A short, personal reaction to the play by Ayanna Gillian, which explores what she sees as the play's capacity for psychological decolonization and the reshaping of her ancestors as "initiators" of history, not merely as "victims," is offered at http://www.africaspeaks.com/articles/2004/2305.html. It includes this excerpt from the play, wherein the King's Horseman lives his last hours on earth:|
|"PRAISE SINGER: "In their time the great wars came and went, the little wars came and went; the white slavers came and went, they took away the heart of our race; they bore away the mind and muscle of our race. The city fell and was rebuilt, the city fell and our people trudged through mountain and forest to found a new home but- Elesin Oba do you hear me?|
|ELESIN: I hear your voice Olohun-iyo|
|PRAISE SINGER: Our world was never wrenched from its true course. There is only one home to the life of a river mussel; there is only one home to the life of a tortoise; there is only one shell to the soul of a man; there is only one world to the spirit of our race. If that world leaves its course and smashes on boulders of the great void, whose world will give us shelter?"|
|Questions for Study: How has the King's Horseman's soul been harmed by his association with the colonial power? What led to his conflict with them? Why did the colonizers act in manner which promoted conflict? How are those motivations connected to those described in Orwell and Conrad? Has the Yoruban world been destroyed? As mentioned above, the National Endowment for the Humanities Edsitement webpages encourage comparative study of Conrad, Orwell and Kipling alongside Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka. See http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=382 (scroll to bottom of the page).|
Document Exercise 8: American Anti-Imperialism: The White Man's Burden Rejected
|Jim Zwick's "Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898-1935" is an invaluable website (http://www.boondocksnet.com/ai/index.html) that offers historical background as well as selections from literature, cartoons, essays, political platforms and biographies related to the subject. These include a copy of, and examinations of, the anti-imperialist attack on Kipling's famous poem on race and empire by a large number of contemporary American men and women who were angered at the imperialist content of the poem (see http://www.boondocksnet.com/kipling/. One example is William Jennings Bryan's "The White Man's Burden," an address at the Independence Day Banquet of the American Society of London, July 4, 1906, in The Public vol. 9 (July 14, 1906):|
|If it is legitimate to "seek another's profit" and "to work another's gain," how can this service best be rendered? This has been the disputed point. Individuals and nations have differed less about the purpose to be accomplished than about the methods to be employed. Persecutions have been carried on avowedly for the benefit of the persecuted, wars been waged for the alleged improvement of those attacked, and still more frequently philanthropy has been adulterated with selfish interest. If the superior nations have a mission, it is not to wound but to heal -- not to cast down but to lift up; and the means must be an example -- a far more powerful and enduring means than violence. Example may be likened to the sun whose genial rays constantly coax the buried seed into life and clothe the earth, first with verdure and afterward with ripened grain, while violence is the occasional tempest which can ruin but cannot give life.|
|Can we doubt the efficacy of example, in the light of history? There has been great increase in education during the last century and the school houses have not been opened by the bayonet. They owe their existence largely to the moral influence which neighboring nations exert upon each other. And the spread of popular government during the same period, how rapid! Constitution after constitution has been adopted and limitation after limitation has been placed upon arbitrary power until Russia, yielding to public opinion, establishes a legislative body and China sends commissioners abroad with a view to inviting the people to share the responsibilities of government.|
Questions for Further Study: Choose five of the many American anti-imperialist responses such as that provided above at the Boondocks site and compose an essay identifying the reasons they choose to resist Kipling's call for America to take up the burdens of imperial leadership. For example, why does William Jennings Brian believe that the colonial enterprise is unnecessary to achieve the spread of democracy and constitutional government? American history classes might employ the bibliography that follows to compare the cultures of imperialism in the U. S. and another imperial nation (or nations), focusing on the sources of the colonizers cultural outlook on race, class, gender etc. and how it accords or is oppose by the culture of the colonized. The attitudes of both towards women or the natural environment, for example, can be explored. The lesson plan on American imperialism in the Philippines includes links to anti-imperialist speeches. See http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/tav2003/content.php4/381/5.
Document Exercise 9: Daily Life on Colonial Plantations
|Three works are often employed to lend insight into the conditions on colonial plantations: three by Europeans and one by a Vietnamese: Multatuli (the pen name of Eduard Douwes Dekker), author of Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company (a free e-book at http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11024); Adam Hochschild's King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), Edward Morel, a British journalist who wrote Red Rubber: The Story of the Rubber Trade Flourishing on the Congo in the Year of Grace 1906 (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1906), his earlier (1903) The Black Man's Burden (excerpted at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1903blackburden.html), and Tran Tu Binh's The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation (Athens. OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies Center, 1985). While valuable and accessible and visceral, instructors might wish to consider a source which is more suitable to younger students: Helen R. Nagtalon-Miller's three-page essay, "The Filipino Plantation Community in Hawaii: Experience of a Second Generation Filipina," featured in The Age of Discovery_ Impact on Philippine Culture and Society edited by Belinda A. Aquino and Dean T. Alegado, (Honolulu: The Center for Philippine Studies, University of Hawaii, Manoa, 2nd ed.,1992): 30-33. The essay takes the reader inside the Filipino plantation community in Hawaii and is especially valuable as it illuminates the parallel experiences of colonial Filipino and migrant Japanese workers as well as the impact of plantation life on Filipino diet and language. It also extends the Filipino plantation-worker experience in post-colonial American society.|
|This work is no longer obtainable from its publisher, the Center for Philippine Studies, School of Asian, Hawaiian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii, Manoa, though copies exist at the Center and were distributed to libraries and may be obtainable through interlibrary loan. In view of this limited availability, the Center for Philippine Center in a gracious act of bayanihan ('Helping each other") has granted permission for the article to be reprinted here, to be used for educational purposes only. It has been changed only minutely to suit the present format.|
The Filipino Plantation Community in Hawaii: Experiences of a Second-Generation Filipina
Helen R. Nagtalon-Miller
|The age of discovery had an especially devastating effect on the people of the Philippines. From the Western point of view the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century began a process of leading the Philippines into the path of Western culture. From the point of view of the Filipino people, in retrospect, the Spanish arrival marked the beginning of the mixture of indigenous cultures that had existed for several centuries with that of European culture.|
|Filipino culture was a blend of what had existed in 1521 overlaid with the impact of more than three centuries of Spanish intrusion and later of several decades of American occupation. The earliest Filipino immigrants to Hawaii in 1906 had only a few years of the American experience, but by the time the largest numbers began to arrive after World War I, a generation of Filipinos had been influenced by the "Little Brown Brother" colonial philosophy of the American expansionists.|
|The Filipinos who came to work on the sugar plantation of Hawaii were thus the product of this fusing of Malay, Spanish and American cultures. In reality, however, Filipinos (like most colonized or multicultural people) are not always aware of their culture, or conscious about which culture is which.|
|The Hawaii sugar planters attempted to ensure that those they recruited were agricultural laborers who would be satisfied to remain on the plantations to fulfill their contracts. The planters were usually successful in recruiting laborers, although many accounts are told of better educated recruits successfully passing themselves off as farm laborers.|
|One such person was my father. He was a graduate of Ilocos Norte High School and the Provincial Normal School, and was more interested in pursuits of the mind than in the farming and managing of his family's land. Determined to leave the Philippines without telling his family (he knew that his family would not give him their blessing if he told them of his intentions), he spent several weeks before arriving at the recruiting agent's office roughing up his palms with rocks in order to be able to show calloused hands and succeed in being recruited. This may not have happen too often, and most of those education and fewer employment possibilities in their homeland.|
|When my father was recruited he left the Philippines alone and went to a plantation on Kauai where he had been assigned as a laborer. After a year, he asked to be transferred to Oahu Sugar Company in Waipahu on the island of Oahu, where he was to be employed as the company's office assistant payroll and sugar cane weight clerk. He married my mother, whose high education in the Philippines was interrupted when she left for Hawaii with her father, mother, and two younger brothers. Her father had been recruited to be the chief cook and manager of the company's boarding house where my father was employed shortly after being transferred from his laborer's job on Kauai to Oahu.|
|In Hawaii there was a noteworthy difference between the Filipino immigrant workers and the Japanese who arrived earlier. The Filipinos came from a land that had been colonized by the Americans after more that three centuries of Spanish rule. The Japanese, on the other hand, came from a country which was already a world power and a relatively homogenous society. Because of Japan's position among world powers it could try to bring pressure on the United States, and often did, when there were complaints of worker mistreatment. (This did not mean that the intervention of the Japanese government on behalf of its citizens in Hawaii were always successful.) The Filipinos had no such recourse because the Philippines before independence in 1946 was a colony of the United States.|
|Considering the much larger number of males compared with the females, it is not surprising that Filipinos in Hawaii lived two quite different lifestyles. The largest group consisted of single men who lived in dormitory-style housing. In the early days the plantations provided boarding facilities for single Filipino laborers in structures called "clubhouses." They often were comprised of a kitchen, a large dinning room, a social hall, and a recreation hall.|
|Only a small minority of Filipinos lived in single family units. However, these units did not exist in isolation of nuclear and extended families, and frequently of fictive families (families whose members are not related by blood).|
|Often single males who were related to one or another of family members, or were just friends, would share living quarters, expenses and household chores. Many single males would be asked to become godfathers to the family's children, thus becoming honorary fathers to those children. There were at least two relatives living with our family. They tended the vegetable garden, help with the cooking and housework, and were treated and respected as members of the family.|
|In older plantation homes, where the plantation did not object to the tenants adding or changing the design of the house, whenever a relative arrived, new rooms were added.|
|After 1965, when a new wave of Filipino immigrants came and plantation families were buying their own lots and homes (fee simple), families began rebuilding their homes to resemble the two-story Spanish-type architecture of the Philippines.|
|The low wages paid sugar workers, lower for Filipinos than for other groups in the early years, required ingenuity in order to survive. It was common for workers to grow vegetables in their gardens and to share their harvest with neighbors and friends. Where land was not available near their living quarters, they would cultivate their vegetables in unused plots of land near the sugar cane fields.|
|A group of neighbors and relatives shared large quantities of food: for example, a large can of bagoong (Filipino fish sauce) would be brought cooperatively and shared by members of the group.|
|A pig would be slaughtered and butchered in someone's backyard and the meat cuts divided among five to ten families, depending on the size of the pig. The organizing family would get such delicacies as the head, tail, and the innards.|
|Some bachelors (2 to 4 individuals) would buy a automobile together and share its use. The workers helped each other to buy household appliances, equipment, tools, or large purchases requiring loans. Lending money to each other without written contracts was common.|
|Since a high percentage of laborers were Ilokano, their foods were vegetables cooked with dried shrimp or fish and slices of pork or chicken. In contrast, our Tagalog friends and neighbors used more tomato sauces, potatoes, peas and garbanzos in their cooking. Gradually, each group began cooking each other's dishes.|
|The favorite foods were pinakbet (the Ilokano vegetable stew resembling the French ratatouille but with bagoong and fish, shrimp, pork, or pork rinds, and with very little broth), and dinengdeng (sliced eggplant, long green beans, bitter melon, okra, and lima beans cooked in broth consisting of bagoong, fresh tomatoes and dried shrimp).|
|Conditions peculiar to Hawaii meant that these dishes underwent changes. Less bagoong was used while more pork and tomatoes were included in the recipes. In the U.S. mainland even greater changes were necessary. The pinakbet cooked by the Mexican wife of my father's cousin did not look at all like pinakbet to me because of the changes she had made to make since basic ingredients were not available, or she felt that bagoong had too strong a flavor.|
|The Filipino tradition of bayanihan (helping each other) was a common practice among all groups on the plantation. The laborers helped each other build chicken houses garages, play-rooms or screened work rooms. For weddings and baptismal parties the relatives, neighbors and friends helped with the preparations of the lunch or dinner, which included kankanen (sweets made of sticky rice, sugar, and coconut milk). On the plantations, probably due to the scarcity of women, the men did the large-scale cooking; the women made the rice cakes. Families often took care of the orphaned children of their friends with little or no monetary help, with just the satisfaction of a mutual debt of gratitude in mind.|
|A majority of the Filipino immigrants were Catholic. A much smaller number were Methodists and Congregationalists who had become Protestants through the work of the Boards of Mission of those denominations in the Philippines and Hawaii. Those denominations established churches on the plantations where services were held in the language of the members. The sugar planters supported the work of those churches by constructing buildings for the Protestant Churches on almost every plantation.|
|Both Catholics and Protestants practiced rituals that were not entirely Catholic or Protestant, but contained elements of animism. The atang (offering), food for deceased relatives, was common on household shrines; it was a common practice to go to the beach after a funeral service to immerse oneself. My mother, despite being dyed-in-the-wool Congregational Protestant, would always say upon returning home from any outing "Adda kamin," ("We are back"), just to inform the house spirits that the family members have returned home.|
|At all parties, large of small, participants who could play a musical instrument, dance or sing, were asked to perform. It was considered ungracious not to perform when asked to do so. Children who could perform or those who were taking music and/or dance lessons were expected to perform for their elders and for guests. At out family parties, my parents were always asked to sing duets. Usually they sang Ilokano songs that were popular in their youth. Even our family parties were formally organized with a designated master of ceremonies and a formalized program featuring speeches and testimonies.|
|Filipinos of the plantations would use the language of their native regions when among speakers of the same language. It was common for parents to use their native language with their children even the children responded in English. My parents spoke English fluently, but they spoke Ilokano to each other and to me and my sister. Even though we answered in English, they continued to speak to use in Ilokano.|
A special vocabulary developed from the Filipino experience on the plantation and spread to other groups. It included expressions such as:
1. Bulakbol (lazy, probably from "blackballed," that is, someone blackballed by the plantation and who, therefore, could not work, even if through no fault of his own, was regarded as a ne'er-do'well).
2. Salamabit (son-of-a-bitch) and Salamagan (son-of-a-gun), expressions used in place of Filipino swear words when resorting to Hawaiian English Creole (pidgin).
3. Sabidong (poison) Gang, a term used on the plantation to refer to a work group assigned to spray chemicals to eradicate weeds in the cane fields.
4. Manong, Manang (Ilokano terms of respect for older brother/sister, but also used for other older people usually of the same generation of one's older siblings); Tata, Nana, (terms for father/mother, but also used for older people of one's parents generation). They were often used derogatorily or incorrectly by members of other groups.
5. Booli-booli (the way many Filipino laborers in the early plantation era pronounced "benevolent" when referring to benevolent societies which provided their members with financial help). Booli-booli often had a bad connotation because some of these aid societies did not fulfill their obligations to the laborers who had invested most of their savings.
6. In speaking English the traditional Ilokano honorifics of Manong and Manang, Tata and Nana were not usually used. They were replaced by Mr. And Mrs. My mother-in-law, who was of Anglo-Saxon background, could not understand why my mother insisted on calling her "Mrs. Miller" even after they had known each other for a number of years.
|Unlike many American children, Filipino children were not paid to do chores around the house. Money which they earned was given to their mothers. The mothers in turn gave the children what was needed for daily school or other expenses. Children were taught to help educate their younger siblings and were not expected to say to their parents, "You owe me $5 for yesterday's grocery shopping," or "for my having cleaned the house."|
|Filipino parents commonly told their children they were not only American but also Filipino. However, since the children attended American schools and moreover the radio and newspapers were in English, they often had difficulty knowing to which group they belonged. Many second-generation Filipinos born and raised on the plantations found protection from ethnic slurs by identifying themselves as Spanish or Chinese. Children often were required by their parents to wear Filipino costumes during community celebrations, but as they approached their teens, refused to do so for far of being teased manong, buk-buk, or bayaw, all terms of derision.|
|Important events in Philippine history were marked by major community celebrations, the most important of which were the observations of the birth and death of the Filipino patriot, Dr. Jose Rizal, and the Philippine Commonwealth Day. On such occasions members of the Filipino community wore Filipino dresses and Barong Tagalog (men's embroidered native shirt). These events were marked with the recitation of poems and speeches in Ilokano, Tagalog, or Visayan, folk dancing and singing.|
|The Filipinos who came to Hawaii to work on the sugar plantations survived because, like other groups that came before them, they drew from those aspects of their culture that enabled them to continue to adapt. This, in turn, helped them to emerge gradually as a distinct and important group whose languages, history, religion, food, customs, and music have made an impact on the social, economic, and political institutions of American society.|
Study Questions: What type of Filipinos did plantations wish to recruit? Why did they seek these types of workers? What problems do Filipino plantation workers face in adjusting to plantation life in Hawaii in terms of housing and other cultural issues, such as the prevalence of single men? How did housing styles change over time? Demonstrate how plantation life lead to a mixing of cultures not found to such a degree in the Philippines? What benefits could the Japanese plantation workers enjoy that Filipino workers might not? Why the disparity? How does plantation life affect the language of the plantation workers and their diet? What Filipino family traditions were different from that of American society? What impact did plantation life have on the indigenous beliefs of the workers? What kind of traditions survived? Provide an example of cultural survival i. e, in religious belief and social-political celebrations. What kind of traditions suffered as the younger generation matured? Why would they wish not to seem so Filipino? Students can compare everyday life of multicultural plantation communities in Hawaii and elsewhere at sites such as:
Students can compare everyday life of multicultural plantation communities in Hawaii and elsewhere at sites such as:http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54/132.html
Bibliography: Imperialism and Culture, 1860-1960.
|The following titles, arranged topically, have largely been chosen for their accessibility and utility for student analysis. Though sufficient sources are grouped to support student research on a variety of topics, the list is not comprehensive. An asterisk denotes works that are both widely used in courses and accessible to younger students; academic journal articles have been included that focus on case studies or encapsulate or illustrate the findings of much larger and more demanding works less suitable for that audience.|
For a general introduction to colonialism and culture, see J. Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: a Critical Introduction (London: Pinter, 1991) and Nicholas B. Dirks, ed. Colonialism and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.). Dirk's 25-page introduction to the subject work is a useful place to begin. Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston, Grove Press, 1967) is the most accessible of any work on the subject. Other means of getting started are:
Mark Bradley, Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Post-Colonial Vietnam, 1919-1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2000.
Cooper, Frederick & Ann L. Stoler, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1997.
Curtin, Philip D. The Image of Africa Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975.
Hoffenberg, Peter. An Empire on Display: English, Indian, and Australian Exhibitions from the Crystal Palace to the Great War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
Inden, Ronald. Imagining India. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990.
Nandi, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1983.
Strobel, Margaret. European Women and the Second British Empire. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991.
Art, Architecture and Visuality
Robert, Andrew ed. Photographs as Sources for African History: Papers Presented at a Workshop Held at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, May 12-13, 1988. London: SOAS, 1988._____."Review Article: Photographs and African History," Journal of African History 29 (1988): 301-11. Chowdhry, Prem. Colonial India and the Making of Empire Cinema: Image, Ideology and Identity. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 2001.
Guha-Thakurta, Tapati. The Making of a New `Indian' Art. Artists, Aesthetics and Nationalism in Bengal, c. 1850-1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.Hanson, Allan and Louise, eds. Art and Identity in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.
Irbouh, Hamid. Art in the Service of Colonialism: French Art Education in Morocco. 1912-1956. New York: Palgrave, 2005.
Landau, Paul S. and Deborah D. Kaspin eds. Images and Empires: Visuality in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
_____."With Camera and Gun in South Africa: Constructing the Image of Bushmen, ca. 1880-1940," in Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of Bushmen. Pippa Skotnes ed. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 1996: 129-41.
Metcalfe, Thomas. An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.Mitter, Partha. Art and Nationalism in Colonial India 1850-1922. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Prochaska, David. "Fantasia of the Phototeque: French Views of Colonial Senegal," African Arts 24, 4 (1991): 40-47.
Rosenthal, Donald A. Orientalism, the Near East in French painting, 1800-1880. Rochester, N.Y. : Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982.
Sieberling, Grace with Carolyn Bloore, Amateurs, Photography and the Mid-Victorian Imagination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
Authority and Identity: Ethnicity, Family, and Gender (see "Race" and also" Sexuality")
Ahmed, Leila. "Western Ethnocentrism and the Perceptions of the Harem." Feminist Studies 8 (1982): 522-534.
Alford, Katrina. "Colonial Women's Employment As Seen By Nineteenth-Century Statisticians and Twentieth-Century Economics Historians." Labour History 1986 (No. 50) 1-10.
Alloula, Malek. Colonial Harem. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.
Amies, Marion. "The Victorian Governess and Colonial Ideals of Womanhood." Victorian Studies 31, no. 4 (1988): 537-565.
*Ballhatchet, Kenneth. Race, Sex and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and their Critics, 1793-1905 London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980.
Burton, Antoinette M. At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter In Late-Victorian Britain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
_____. "The White Woman's Burden: British Feminists and The Indian Woman, 1865-1915." Women's Studies International Forum, 13, no. 4: 295-308.
_____.Gender, Sexuality and Colonial Modernities. London; New York: Routledge, 1991.
_____. Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Bush, Julia. Edwardian Ladies and Imperial Power. New York: Leicester University Press, 1999.
Callaway, Helen. Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan Press in association with St Anthony's College, Oxford 1987.
*Chaudhuri, Nupur and Margaret Strobel, eds. Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
Chatterjee, Partha. "The Nationalist Resolution of the Women's Question." In Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid, eds., Recasting Women. Essays in Indian Colonial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990:.233-253.
_____."Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonized Women: the Contest in India." American Ethnologist 16:4 (November, 1989): 622-633.
Clark, Alice W, ed. Gender and Political Economy: Explorations of South Asian Systems. Oxford UP. Delhi. 1993.
Davin, Anna. "Imperialism and Motherhood." History Workshop Journal 5 (1978): 9-65.Davenport, Randi. "Thomas Malthus and Maternal Bodies Politic: Gender, Race, and Empire." Women's History Review 4, no. 4 (1995): 415-40.
Devi, Mahasweta. "Breast Giver." In Gayatri Spivak, ed. Other Worlds . London and New York: Methuen, 1987: 222-268.Dudden, Alexis, Japan's Colonization of Korea: Discourse and Power. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004
Etienne, Mona and Eleanor Leacock, eds. Women and Colonialization: Autobiographical Perspectives. New York: Praeger, 1980.El Guindi, Fadwa. "Veiling Resistance." In Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, eds. Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003: 586-609. Fanon, Frantz. "Algeria Unveiled." A Dying Colonialism. New York: Grove Press, 1965 : 35-67.
*Forbes, Geraldine. Women in Modern India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Foster, S. "Colonialism and Gender in the East: Representations of the Harem in the Writings of Women Travelers." The Yearbook of English Studies, 34 no. 1 (January 2004): 6-17.Foucault, Michel. History of Sexuality, Volume 1 (New York: Random House, 1985).
Fuller, Thomas. "British Images and Attitudes in Colonial Uganda." Historian 38 (1978) 305-318.Graham-Brown, Sarah. "The Seen, the Unseen, and the Imagined: Private and Public Lives." In Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, eds. Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003: 502-19.
Huttenback, Robert A. Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self Governing Colonies, 1830-1910. Ithaca, NY & London: Cornell University Press, 1976.
Hutchins, Francis, The Illusion of Permanence British
Imperialism in India.
Huttenback, Robert A. "No Strangers Within the Gates: Attitudes and Policies Towards the Non-White Residents of the British Empire of Settlement." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1, (1973) 271-302
Jayawardena. K. The White Woman's Other Burden. Western Women and South Asia During British Colonial Rule. New York: Routledge, 1995.
Jolly, Margaret and Macintyre, Martha eds. Family & Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact. Cambridge UP. Cambridge. 1989.
Lemelle, Sidney and Robin D.G. Kelley, eds. Imagining Home: Class, Culture, and Nationalism in the African Diaspora. London: Verso, 1994.Lewis, Reina. "On Veiling, Vision and Voyage: Cross-Cultural Dressing and Narratives of Identity." In Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, eds. Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003: 520-41.
Knapman, Claudia. White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire? Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986.
Mackenzie, John M. "The Imperial Pioneer and Hunter and the British Masculine Stereotype in Late Victorian and Edwardian Times." In J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, eds. Manliness and Morality: Middle-class masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940. Manchester: Manchester University Press 1987: 176-198.
MacMillan, Margaret. Women of the Raj. New York, Thames and Hudson, 1988.Mamdani, Mahmood. When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Mangan, J. A. "The Grit of Our Forefathers: Invented Traditions, Propaganda and Imperialism." In John M. Mackenzie, ed. Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester and Dover, N.H.: Manchester University Press 1986: 113-139.
McClintock, Ann. "Maidens, Maps, and Mines: The Reinvention of Patriarchy in Colonial South Africa." South Atlantic Quarterly 87, 1 (Winter 1988): 146-92.
Midgley, Clare, ed. Gender and Imperialism. Manchester; New York: Manchester University Press; New York: Distributed exclusively in the USA by St. Martin's Press, 1988.
Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse." Feminist Review 30 (1988): 60-88.*Nandi, Bahtia, "Kilping's Burden: Representing Colonial Authority and Constructing the 'Other" through Kimball O'Hara and Babu Hurree Chander in Kim" at http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/pages/sagar/sprring.1994/nandi.bhatia.art.html. Narayan, Uma. Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Tradition and Third World Feminism, Routledge, New York, 1997.
Roper, Michael and John Tosh. "Introduction: Historians and the Policies of Masculinity." In Michael Roper and John Tosh, eds. Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800. London and New York: Routledge 1991
Oliver, Caroline. Western Women in Colonial Africa. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
Paxton, Nancy. "Mobilizing Chivalry: Rape in British Novels about the Indian Uprising of 1857." Victorian Studies. (Fall 1992):1-30.Pedersen, Susan. "National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policymaking." Journal of Modern History 63 (1991): 647-680.
Sharpe, Jenny. Allegories of Empire. The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
Sahlins, Marshall. Islands of History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Schwartz, Stuart B., ed. Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting, & Reflecting on the Encounters Between Europeans & Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Singh, Amar. Reversing the Imperial Gaze: A Colonial Subject's Narrative of Imperial India. Boulder, CO.:Westview, 2002.
Sinha, Mrinalini. "Gender in the Critiques of Colonialism and Nationalism: Locating the Indian Woman." In Joan Wallach Scott, ed. Feminism and History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996: 477-504.
______. "Gender and Imperialism: Colonial Policy and the Ideology of Moral Imperialism in Late Nineteenth- Century Bengal." In Michael S. Kimmel, ed. Changing Men: New directions in Research on Men and Masculinity. Newbury Park and Beverly Hills: Sage Publications 1987, 217-231.
Streets, Heather. Martial Races: The Military, Race, and Masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857-1914. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.
*Strobel, Margaret. European Women and the Second British Empire. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991.
Sunder, Rajan Rajeswari. Real and Imagined Women: Gender, Culture and Postcolonialism. Routledge. New York. 1993.
*Trask, Haunani-Kay. From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai'i. Rev, ed. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.
Trinh, Minh-ha T. Woman, Native, Other. Writing, Postcoloniality and Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
Walvin, James. "Symbols of Moral Superiority: Slavery, Sport and the Changng World Order, 1800-1940." In J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, eds. Manliness and Morality: Middle-class masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940. Manchester: Manchester University Press 1987: 242-260.
Wildenthal, Lora. "Race, Gender, and Citizenship in the German Colonial Empire." In Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds. Tensions of Empire. Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: California, 1997: 263-283.Woodhull, Winifred. "Unveiling Algeria." In Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, eds. Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003: 567-85.
Wolf, Diane L. Factory Daughters: Gender, Household Dynamics, and Rural Industrialization in Java. University of California Press. Berkeley. 1992.
Yegenoglu, Meyda. Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Young, Robert. "White Power, White Desire. The Political Economy of Miscegenation." in Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
Cinema, Photography, and the Colonial Imagination
Bhabha, Homi. "The Other Question - The Stereotype and Colonial Discourse". Screen 24:6 (1983), 18-36.Banta, Melissa and Curtis M. Hinsley. From Site to Sight: Anthropology, Photography, and the Power of Imagery. Boston: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 1986
Chowdhry, Prem. Colonial India and the Making of Empire Cinema: Image, Ideology and Identity. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 2001.
Dawson, Graham. Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire, and the Imagining of Masculinities. London; New York: Routledge, 1994.
Falconer, John. India:. Pioneering Photographers, 1850-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
Foster, Gwendolyn A. Captive Bodies: Postcolonial Subjectivity in Cinema. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Francis, Mark. Governors and Settlers: Images of Authority in the British Colonies, 1820-1860. London: Macmillan/Christchurch, NZ: Canterbury University Press, 1992.Geery. C. M. Images from Bamum: German colonial photography at the court of King Njoya, Cameroon, West Africa. Washington, DC: The National Museum of African Art, 1988. Grandin, Greg "Can the Subaltern Be Seen? Photography and the Affects of Nationalism." Hispanic American Historical Review 84:1(February 2004): 83-111. Hight, Eleanor M.and Gary D. Sampson, eds. Colonialist Photography: Imag(in)ing Race And Place. London: Routledge, 2004. Landau, Paul S. and Deborah D. Kaspin, eds. Images and Empires: Visuality in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. Lindfors, Bernth. "Ethnological Show Business: Footlighting the Dark Continent." In Rosemarie Garland, ed. Freakery: Cultural Spectacle of the Extraordinary Body. New York: New York University Press, 1996: 158-172. Maxwell, Anne. Colonial Photography and Exhibitions: Representations of the 'Native' and the Making of European Identities. London and New York: Leicester University Press, 1999. *Pelizzari, Maria Antonella. Traces of India: Photography, Architecture, and the Politics of Representation, 1850-1900. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003. Pfaff, F. "Hollywood's Image of Africa." Commonwealth 5 (1982): 97-117. *Pinney, Christopher. Camera Indica: The Social Life of Indian Photographs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. _____.Photos of the Gods: The Printed Image and Political Struggle in India. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2004. Rony, Fatimah Tobing. "Those Who Squat and Those Who Sit: The Iconography of Race in the 1895 Films of Felix-Louis Regnault." Camera Obscura: A Journal of Feminism and Film 28 (1992): 263-289. ________. The Third Eye: Race, Cinema, and Ethnographic Spectacle. Durham: Duke University Press, 1996.
Reid, A, ed. Fact of Blackness. Frantz Fanon and Visual Representation. Seattle: Bay Press, 1996.
Richards, Jeffrey. "Boy"s Own Empire: Feature Films and Imperialism in the 1930s." In John M. Mackenzie, ed. Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester and Dover, N.H.: Manchester University Press 1986: 140-164.
Roach, Colleen. "Cultural Imperialism and Resistance in Media Theory and Literary Theory." Media, Culture & Society 19:1 (Jan 1997): 47-67.*Ryan, James R. Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire. Chicago, University Of Chicago Press, 1998.
Scully, Pamela. "Imperial Crossings: British Identities and the 'Imperial Imaginary'" Journal of British Studies 41 (2002): 520–525.
Sharpe, Jenny. Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.*Slavin, David. Colonial Cinema and Imperial France, 1919-1939: White Blank Spots, Male Fantasies, Settler Myths. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2001. Stoller, Paul. "Regarding Rouch: The Recasting of West African Colonial Culture." In Dina Sherzer, ed. Cinema, Colonialism, Postcolonialism: Perspectives from the French and Francophone World. Austin: University of Texas, 1996: 65-79 *Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis, Minn. University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
Ukadike, Nwachukwu Frank. Black African Cinema. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994: 48-52.Workwick, Clark et. al. The Last Empire: Photography in British India: 1855-1911. New York: Aperture, reprint ed. 2001.
Colonial Criminality and Prisons:
|Arnold, David. Police Power
and Colonial Rule: Madras, 1859-1947. Delhi: Oxford, 1986.
Brown, Mark. "Ethnology and Colonial Administration in Nineteenth Century
British India: The Question of Native Crime and Criminality." British
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Chanock, Martin. "A Peculiar Sharpness: An Essay on Property in the History of Customary Law in Colonial Africa." Journal of African History 32:1 (1991): 65-88.Ho Chi Minh. Prison Diary. Reflections from Captivity. David Marr, ed. Trans. Christopher Jenkins, Tran Khanh Tuyet, and Huynh Sanh Thong. Southeast Asia Translation Series, Vol. I. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1978: 67-98. Satadru Sen. Disciplining Punishment: Colonialism and Convict Society in the Andaman Islands. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000. Yang, Anand. Crime and Criminality in British India. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986 _____."Dangerous Castes and Tribes: The Criminal Tribes Act and the Magahiya Doms of Northeast India." In Anand Yang, ed. Crime and Criminology in British India. University of Arizona Press, 1985. ______."Disciplining 'Natives': Prisons and Prisoners in Early Nineteenth Century India." South Asia 10 (1987): 29-45. Zinoman, Peter. The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 2001.
Culinary Imperialism: Food, Diet and Drugs
Achaya, K.T. Indian Food: A Historical Companion. Oxford University Press, 1994.*Allen, Charles, ed. Plain Tales from the Raj. Images of British India in the Twentieth Century. Andre Deutsch: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1975.
Appadurai, A. "Cookbooks and Cultural Change: The Indian Case." Comparative Studies in Society and History. 30 (1988): 3-24.
Appadurai, A., ed. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Anonymous, The Indian Cooker Book: A Practical Handbook to the Kitchen in India. By a Thirty-five Year Resident. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1931.
Arnold, David. "The 'discovery' of malnutrition and diet in colonial India." The Indian Economic and Social History Review, 31:1 (1994):1-26.
Bhowmik, D. C. "Food Habits of the Khasi People: A Study of Tradition and Change." Journal of the Anthropology Survey of India. 33:4 (1984): 263-9.
Bindon, J. R. "Banana, Breadfruit, Beef, and Beer: Modernization of the Samoan Diet." Ecology of Food and Nutrition 12 (1982):49- 60.
Bonanno, A., L. Busch, W. Friedland, L. Gouveia, and E. Mingione, eds. From Columbus to ConAgra: the Globalization of Agriculture & Food. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994.
Bower, Anne L. "Romanced by Cookbooks." Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture 1 (Spring 2001): 76–79.
Brennan, Jennifer. Tradewinds & Coconuts: A Reminiscence and Recipes from the Pacific Islands. Gladstonbury, CT: Periplus Press, 2000.
Cwiertka, K. "To What Extent Is Foreign Food Adaptation Culturally Determined -- an Example of Japan in Comparison with Europe." Appetite 24:3: 272-80.
Cwiertka, K. "A Note on the Making of a Culinary Tradition -- an Example of Modern Japan." Appetite. 30:2 :117-28.
Cwiertka K. "Western Nutritional Knowledge in Early Twentieth Century Japan." British Nutrition Foundation Nutritional Bulletin 21 (1996):183-189.
Dalby, Andrew, Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
Diver, Maud. The Englishwoman in India. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1909.
Donaldson, Laura E. Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender and Empire Building. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Duke, Joshua. Queries at a Mess Table: What Shall I Eat? What Shall I Drink? Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1908
Esterik, P. van. "From Marco Polo to Mcdonalds: Thai Cuisine in Transition." Food and Foodways 5 (1995):177-93.
Franke, R. "The Effects of Colonialism and Neocolonialism on the Gastronomic Patterns of the Third World," In M. Harris and E. Ross, eds. Food and Evolution. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, Reprint 1989.
Fitzgerald, T. M. "Dietary Change among Cook Islanders in New Zealand." In L. Manderson, ed. Shared Wealth and Symbol: Food, Culture and Society in Oceania. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.
Grew, R., ed. Food in Global History. Boulder, CO.:Westview Press. 1999.
Gunewardene, A., G.F. Huon, and R. Zheng, eds. "Exposure to Westernization and Dieting: A Cross-cultural Study." The International Journal of Eating Disorders 29:3.
Gupta, S. P. "Changes in the Food Habits of Asian Indians in the United States: A Case Study." Sociology and Social Research 60 (1975): 87-99.
Hall, R. "From Blackstrap Molasses to Smokeless Tobacco: A Chronicle of Assaults on the Dental Health of Native Americans in the Northwest." In R. Huss-Ashmore, J. Schall, and M Hediger, eds. Health and Lifestyle Change. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.
Heine, P. Food Culture in the Middle East, Near East, and North Africa. Greenwood Press, 2004.
*Heldke, Lisa, "Let's Cook Thai: Recipes for Colonialism." In Sherrie A. Inness, ed. Pilaf, Pozole, and Pad Thai: American Women and Ethnic Food. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts, 2001: 184-185.
_____."'Let's Eat Chinese!' Reflections on Cultural Food Colonialism." Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture 1:2 (2001): 76-79.
_____. Exotic Appetites: Ruminations of a Food Adventurer. New York and London: Routledge, 2003.
Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Change: Five Plants that Transformed Mankind. New York: Harper and Row, 1987
Hooks, Bell. "Eating the Other." In Black Looks: Race and Representation. Boston: South End Press, 1992: 21-40.
Ikpe, E. B. Food and Society in Nigeria: A History of Food Customs, Food Economy, and Culture Change, 1900-1989. Berlin: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1994
Jenkins, Virginia Scott. Bananas: An American History. Washington, D. C.: The Smithsonian Institution, 2000.
Kenne-Hebert, A. R. Culinary Jottings for Madras. Madras: Higginbotham and Co., 1879.
Klopfer, L. "Padang Restaurants: Creating "Ethnic" Cuisine in Indonesia." Foodand Foodways 5 (1993): 293-304.
Kurlansky, Mark. Salt: A World History. New York: Penguin, 2003.
Lentz, Carola. Changing Food Habits: Case Studies from Africa, South America and Europe. Amsterdam: Harwood, 1999: 263-283.
Lewis, N. D. "The Pacific Islands." In K.F. Kiple and K.C. Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge World History of Food. Volume 2. Cambridge University Press, 2000: 351-366.
Love, John F. McDonald's: Behind the Arches. New York: Bantam Books, 2nd revised ed.1995.
MacLennan, Carol A. "Hawai`i Turns to Sugar: The Rise of the Plantation Centers, 1860-1880." Hawaiian Journal of History 31 (1997): 97-25.
Magner, L. 2000. "Korea." In K.F. Kiple and K.C Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge World History of Food. Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000: 1183-1192.
McCoy, Alfred. The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia. Harper Colophon, 1973.
_____.The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade.
New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
Macinnis, Peter. Bittersweet : The Story of Sugar. London: Allen Unwin, 2003.
Mcintosh, W., and M. Zey. "Women As Gatekeepers of Food Consumption: A Sociological Critique." Food and Foodways 3 (1989):140-53.
McClintock, Anne. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest. London: Routledge, 1995. (See also the site serving as a dedicated study guide at http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~ikalmar/question/McClintock5146.htm).
Mills, James H. Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade and Prohibition, 1800-1928. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
_____. Double Crossings: Madness, Sexuality and Imperialism. London: Ronsdale Press, 2001.
Moxham, Roy. Great Hedge of India: The Search for the Living Barrier That Divided a Nation. Berkeley: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2001.
Newman, L., W. Crossgrove, and R. Kates, eds. Hunger in History: Food Shortage, Poverty, and Deprivation. London: Blackwell, 1990.
Mintz, Sydney. "Pleasure, Profit, and Satiation." In Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis, eds. Seeds of Change. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian, 1991.
Mintz, Sydney. Sweetness and Power: the Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York: Viking, 1985.
*Narayan, Uma. "Eating Cultures: Incorporation, Identity and Indian Food." Social Identities 1:1 (1995): 65-86.
Norris, Betty. Everyday Cookery for India: 874 Tried and Tested Recipes for Delicious Dishes and Drinks. Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co., 1940.
Ohnuki-Tierney, E. McDonald's in Japan: Changing Manners and Etiquette. In J. Watson, ed. Golden Arches East: Mcdonald's in East Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997: 161-182
Probyn, Elspeth, "Mc-Identities: Food and the Familial Citizen." Theory, Culture & Society 15:2 (1998): 155-173.
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Dowry Deaths, Sati and Colonialism
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Ecology and Colonial Culture
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Education and Colonialism
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Fletcher, Laadan. "Early British Colonial School Inspectors: Agents of Imperialism?" History of Education 11(1982): 281-310.
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Games, Scouts, Sports and Empire
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Imperial Archives, Exhibitions and Museum Studies
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Hoffenberg, Peter. An Empire on Display: English, Indian, and Australian Exhibitions from the Crystal Palace to the Great War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
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Rydell, Robert, All the World's a Fair: Visions of America at American International Exhibitions 1876–1916. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Richards, Thomas. The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire. London: Verso Books, 1993.
Saloni Mathur, "Living Ethnological Exhibits: The Case of 1886." Cultural Anthropology 15:4 (2001): 492–524.
Sheets-Pyenson, Susan. "Cathedrals of Science: The Development of Colonial Natural History Museums During the Late Nineteenth Century." History of Science, 25 (1987): 279-300.
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Spivak, Gayatri. "The Rani of Sirmur: An Essay in Reading the Archives." History and Theory 24 (1985): 247-272
Zeynep, Çelik and Laura Kinney, "Ethnography and Exhibitions at the Expositions Universelles." Assemblages 13 (1990): 35–59.
The Late Colonial Americas and Hispanic Worlds
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Calderon, Hector and Saldovar, Jose David eds. "Criticism in the Borderlands." Studies in Chicano Literature, Culture and Ideology. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991.
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Gilroy, Paul: The Black Atlantic. Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.Jaimes, M. Annette. The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance. Boston: South End Press, 1992.
Kaplan, Amy and Donald E. Pease, eds. Cultures of United States Imperialism. Durham: Duke University Press, 1993.Kiple, Kenneth F. The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Martinez-Alier, Verena. Marriage, Class and Colour in 19th century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society. London: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
Merk, Frederick & Lois B. Merk. Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. Originally published: New York: Knopf, 1963.
Pauline, E. "Hopkins on Race and Imperialism." In Amy Kaplan and Donald Rease, eds. Cultures of United States Imperialism. Durham: Duke University Press, 1993:433-55.Peard, Julyan G. Race, Place, and Medicine: The Idea of the Tropics in Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Medicine. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.
Pérez, Emma. The Decolonial Imaginary: Writing Chicanas into History. Bloomington: IN: Indiana University Press, 1999.Sayre, Gordon M. 'Les Sauvages Américains': Representations of Native Americans in French and English Colonial Literature. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1997. Washburn, Wilcomb E. Red Man's Land/White Man's Law: A Study of the Past and Present Status of the American Indian. New York: Scribner, 1971.
Yelvington, Kevin A. and Bridget Brereton. The Colonial Caribbean in Transition: Essays on Post-Emancipation Social and Cultural History. Barbados: U of the West Indies Press, 1999.
Zavala, Iris M. Colonialism and Culture: Hispanic Modernisms and the Social Imaginary. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992.
Literature and Linguistics (see also Travel Literature)
Afzal-Khan, Fawzia. Cultural Imperialism and the Indo-English Novel: Genre and Ideology in R.K. Narayan, Anita Desai, Kamala Markandaya, and Salman Rushdie. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.
Arlott, John. Aspects of E M Forster. London. Edwin Arnold, 1969.
Bratton, J. S. "Of England, Home and Duty: The Image of England in Victorian and Edwardian Juvenile Fiction." In John M. Mackenzie, ed. Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester and Dover, N.H.: Manchester University Press 1986: 73-93.
Bell, B. "Images of Africa in the Afro-American Novel." Commonwealth 5 (1982), 53-70.
Brantlinger, Patrick. Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Bose, Purnima. "Survivors of the Raj, Survivors of the Empire: Narrating the Colonial and Post-colonial Encounters." Ph.D. dissertation., University of Texas, May 1993.Bellippa, K.C. "The Meaning of Rudyard Kipling's Kim." Journal of Commonwealth Literature 16:1 (1991): 151-157.
Edattori, Elizabeth Sauer and Balachandra Rajan. Imperialisms: Historical and Literary Investigations, 1500-1900. New York: Palgrave, 2004.
Fabian, Johannes. Language and Colonial Power. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.Fulford, Tim and Peter J. Kitson, eds. Romanticism and Colonialism : Writing and Empire, 1780-1830. New York : Cambridge University Press, 1998. Jamiluddin, K. The Tropic Sun: Rudyard Kipling and the Raj. Lucknow: Lucknow University, 1974.
JanMohamed, Abdul: Manichean Aesthetics. The Politics of Literature in Colonial Africa. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983.
Lazarus, Neil: Resistance in Postcolonial African Fiction. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.McClure, John A. Kipling and Conrad: the Colonial Fiction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.
MacDonald, Robert H. The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880-1918. New York: Manchester University Press, 1994.
McClure, John A. Kipling and Conrad: the Colonial Fiction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.
Niranjana, Tejaswini. Siting Translation. History, Post-Structuralism and the Colonial Context. Berkeley, CA : University of California Press, 1992.
Said, Edward. "Kim, The Pleasures of Imperialism." Raritan 7 (1987): 63.
Simola, Raisa. World Views in Chinua Achebe's Works. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 1995.
*Soyinka, Wole. Ake: The Years of Childhood. Random House, 1981: 149-60.
Suleri, Sara: The Rhetoric of English India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Thiong'o, Ngugi Wa. Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1986.
Thumboo, E. "E M Forster's Inner Passage to India: Dewas, Alexandria and the Road to Mau." In Vasant Shahane, ed. Approaches to E M Forster. New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann Publishing, 1981: 35 -58.
Vishwanathan, Gauri: Masks of Conquest. Literary Study and British Rule in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1989.
Wetherell, Margaret, and Jonathan Potter. Mapping the Language of Racism: Discourse and the Legitimation of Exploitation. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.Wilson, Edmund. "The Kipling that Nobody Read." In Andrew Rutherford, ed. Kipling's Mind and Art. Palo Alto: CA: Stanford University Press, 1964. Wurgaft, Lewis D. The Imperial Imagination. Magic and Myth in Kipling's India. New York: Harper and Row, 1983.
Dyh, Yu and Cheung Sch, eds. The Globalization of Chinese Food. London: Curzon, 2002.
Mapping Imperial Culture: Cartography and Imperial Surveys
Burnett, D. Graham. Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography, and a British El Dorado. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Keay, John. The Great Arc: The Dramatic Tale of How India was Mapped and Everest was Named. New York: Harper Collins, 2001. Hoestetler, Laura. Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Lewis, G. Malcolm, ed. Cartographic Encounters: Perspectives on Native American Mapmaking and Map Use. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Piper, Karen L. Cartographic Fictions: Maps, Race, and Identity. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002.
Stafford, Robert A. "Geological Surveys, Mineral Discoveries, and British Expansion 1835-1871." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 12:3 (1984): 5-32.Short, John R. Representing the Republic: Mapping the United States, 1600-1900. London: Reaktion, 2001. Winichakul, Thongchai. Siam Mapped: The History of the Geo-body of a Nation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1997.
Babadzan, Alain. "Kastom and Nation Building in the South Pacific." In Remo Guidieri, Francesco Pellizzi and Stanley J. Tambiah, eds. Ethnicities and Nations: Processes of Interethnic Relations in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1988.Douglas, Bronwen. "Science and the Art of Representing 'Savages': Reading 'Races' in Text and Image in South Seas Voyage Literature." History and Anthropology 11 (1999): 157-201.
Burt, Ben. Tradition and Christianity : The Colonial Transformation of a Solomon Islands Society. Chur, Switerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1994.
Hoorn, Jeanette and Barabara Creed, eds. Body Trade: Captivity, Cannibalism and the Colonialism in Australia and the Pacific. London: Pluto Press, 2001.
Jolly, Margaret and Macintyre, Martha eds. Family & Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1989.Gailey, Christine Ward. "Politics, Colonialism, and the Mutable Color of Southern Pacific Peoples." Transforming Anthropology 5:1-2 (1994): 34-40.
Linnekin, Jocelyn. Sacred Queens and Women of Consequences: Rank, Gender, and Colonialism in the Hawaiian Islands. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990.
Meleisea, M. The Making of Modern Samoa. Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the History of Western Samoa. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific, 1987.
Nicholson, M. "Medicine and racial politics: changing images of the New Zealand Maori in the nineteenth century." In David Arnold, ed. Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988: 66-104.
Pollock, N. J. These Roots Remain: Food Habits in Islands of the Central and Eastern Pacific Since Western Contact. Institute for Polynesian Studies, 1992.
Rodman, M and M. Cooper, eds. The Pacification of Melanesia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979.
Sahlins, Marshall. Islands of History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Smith, Vanessa. Literary Culture and the Pacific: Nineteenth-Century Textual Encounters. Cambridge: Cambridge Studies in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture, 1998.
Trask, Haunani-Kay. From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai'i. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, rev. ed, 1999.
Williams, Mark. Post-Colonial Literatures in English: Southeast Asia, New Zealand, and the Pacific, 1970-1992. New York: Hall, 1996.
Appiah, Kwame. "Is the Post in Postmodernism the Post in Postcolonial?" Critical Inquiry 17:2 (1991): 336-357.
Ashcroft, William D. Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies. London: Routledge, 1998.
_____. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge, 1995.
_____, Gareth Griffith, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back. Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. London: Routledge, 1989.
Childs, Peter and Patrick Williams. An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theory. London: Prentice Hall, 1997.
Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments. Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Ching-Liang Low, Gail. White Skins/Black Masks. Representation and Colonialism. Routledge: London and New York. 1996.
Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
Frankenberg, Ruth and Lata Mani. "Crosscurrents, Crosstalk: Race, 'Postcoloniality' and the Politics of Location." Cultural Studies 7:2 (1993): 292-310.
Fanon, Franz. Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove Press, 1967.
*Fanon, Franz. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 1965.
Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1972.
Gates, Henry Louis. "Critical Fanonism." Critical Inquiry 17 (1991): 457-470.Jay, Martin. "In the Empire of the Gaze: Foucault and the Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought." In David Couzens Hoy, ed. Foucault: A Critical Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986: 175-203.
Spivak, Gayatri. The Post-Colonial Critic. Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues. New York: Routledge, 1990.
Sprinkler, Michael ed. Edward Said: A Critical Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1992.
Racism and Colonial Identity
|Alatas, Syed. The Myth of the Lazy Native:
A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos and Javanese from the 16th
to the 20th Century and Its Function in the Ideology of Colonial Capitalism.
London: Cass, 1977.
Ballhatchet, Kenneth. Race, Sex and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and their Critics, 1793-1905. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980.Barua, Pradeep. "Inventing Race: The British and India's Martial Races." Historian: Journal of History 58 (1995): 107-116. Blanckaert, Claude. "On the Origins of French Ethnology: William Edwards and the Doctrine of Race." In George W. Stocking, Jr., ed. Bones, Bodies, Behavior: Essays on Biological Anthropology. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988: 18-55. Brantlinger, Patrick. " 'Dying Races': Rationalizing Genocide in the Nineteenth Century." In Jan Nederveen Pieterse and Bhikhu Parekh, eds. The Colonization of Imagination: Cultures, Knowledge and Power. London: Zed, 1995: 43-56. _____."Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent" In Henry Louis Gates Jr, ed. "Race," Writing, and Difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986: 185-223. Breman, Jan, ed. Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1990.
Burton, Antoinette M. At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late-Victorian Britain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.Davenport, Randi. "Thomas Malthus and Maternal Bodies Politic: Gender, Race, and Empire." Women's History Review 4:4 (1995): 415-40.
Dubow, Saul. Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi, ed. Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997. Gailey, Christine Ward. "Politics, Colonialism, and the Mutable Color of Southern Pacific Peoples." Transforming Anthropology 5:1-2 (1994): 34-40.
Glendenning, F. J. "Attitudes to Colonialism and Race in British and French History School Books." History of Education 3:2 (1974): 57-72.Gouda, Frances. Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies 1900-1942. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1995. _____."The Gendered Rhetoric of Colonialism and Anti-Colonialism in Twentieth-Century Indonesia." Indonesia 55 (April 1993):1-22. Hale, Dana S. Races on Display: French Representations of the Colonial Native, 1886-1931. Boston: Brandeis University, 1998.
Huttenback, Robert A. "No Strangers Within the Gates: Attitudes and Policies Towards the Non-White Residents of the British Empire of Settlement." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1 (1973): 271-302.
_____.Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self Governing Colonies, 1830-1910. Ithaca, NY & London: Cornell University Press, 1976.
Jayawardena. K. The White Woman's Other Burden. Western Women and South Asia During British Colonial Rule. New York: Routledge, 1995.
Jolly, Margaret and Martha Macintyre, eds. Family & Gender in the Pacific: Domestic Contradictions and the Colonial Impact. Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Lebow, Richard. White Britain and Black Ireland: The Influence of Stereotypes on Colonial Policy. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1976.Leopold, Joan. "British Application of the Aryan Theory of Race to India, 1850-1870." English Historical Review 89 (1974): 578-610. Lorcin, Patricia M. E. "Imperialism, Colonial Identity, and Race in Algeria, 1830-1870: The Role of the French Medical Corps." Isis 90:4 (1999): 652-679.
Love, Eric. Race Over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865-1900. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.*Nandi, Bahtia, "Kilping's Burden: Representing Colonial Authority and Constructing the 'Other" through Kimball O'Hara and Babu Hurree Chander in Kim" at http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/pages/sagar/sprring.1994/nandi.bhatia.art.html.
Pieterse, Jan Nederveen: White on Black. Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.Rich, Paul B. "Racial Ideas and the Impact of Imperialism in Europe." European Legacy 3 (1998): 33-44.
Trautman, Thomas. Aryans and British India. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.Weikart, Richard. "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Imperial Germany." Journal of the History of Ideas 53:4 (1993): 469-88. Weiner, Michael. "Discourses of Race, Nation and Empire in Pre-1945 Japan." Ethnic and Racial Studies 18:3 (1995): 433-456. Wilson, Kathleen. The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Rubber and Road: Everyday Life and Labor on Modern Colonial Plantations and Railways
|Derbyshire, Ian. "The Building of India's
Railways: The Application of Western Technology in the Colonial Periphery,
1850-1920." In Roy McLeod and Deepak Kumar, eds. Technology and
the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India. New Delhi:
Sage Publications, 1995.
Hochschild, Adam. King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.Kerr, Ian, ed. Railways in Modern India. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2001. Merry, Sally Engle. Colonizing Hawai'i. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999. Morel, Edmund D. Red Rubber: The Story of the Rubber Trade Flourishing on the Congo in the Year of Grace 1906. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1906. Multatuli (Eduard Douwes Dekker). Max Havelaar or the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company (a free e-book at http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11024). Tran Tu Binh. The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1985.
Reisz, Emma. "Free trade and the Pursuit of Hegemony: Imperial Britain in Global Rubber Markets, 1860-1922," http://Cambridgewww.ehs.org.uk/ehs/conference2003/assets/Reisz.doc.
Stanfield, M. E. Red Rubber, Bleeding Trees: Violence, Slavery, and Empire in Northwest Amazonia, 1850-193. Albuquerque, N.M.: University of New Mexico Press, 1998.
Davis, Clarence B., Kenneth E. Wilburn, Jr. and Ronald E. Robinson eds. Railway Imperialism. New York: Greenwood Press. 1991.
Science, Scientific Enquiry and Ideology
|*Adas, Michael. Machines as the Measure of
Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1989.
Arnold, David. Science and Technology in Colonial India. The New
Cambridge History of India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Alam, Anis. "Science and Imperialism." Race and Class 19 (1978):
Bank, Andrew. "Of 'Native Skulls' and 'Noble Caucasians': Phrenology in
Colonial South Africa." Journal of Southern African Studies 22:3
Breman, Jan, ed. Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social
Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice. Amsterdam: VU University Press,
Bayly, C. A. Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social
Communication in India. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996.
Brockway, Lucille. Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens, New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Ciekawy, Diane. "Witchcraft and Statecraft: Five Technologies of Power
in Colonial and Post Colonial Coastal Kenya." African Studies Review
41:3 (1998): 119-141.
Chambers, David Wade and Richard Gillespie. "Locality in the History of
Science: Colonial Science, Technoscience, and Indigenous Knowledges." Osiris
15 (2000): 221-240.
Cohn, Bernard. Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: the British in
India. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Comaroff, Jean. "The Diseased Heart of Africa: Medicine, Colonialism and
the Black Body." In Shirley Lindenbaum and Margaret Lock, eds. Knowledge,
Power, and Practice: The Anthropology of Medicine and Everyday Life.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
Cooper, Fredrick, and Randall Packard, eds. International Development
and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Dirks, Nicholas. "The Policing of Tradition: Colonialism and Anthropology
in Southern India." Comparative Studies in Society & History
39:1 (1997): 182-212.
Gilmartin, David. "Scientific Empire and Imperial Science: Colonialism and
Irrigation Technology in the Indus Basin." Journal of Asian Studies
53:4 (1994): 1127-49.
Fausto-Sterling, Anne. "Gender, Race, and Nation: The Comparative Anatomy
of 'Hottentot' Women in Europe, 1815-1817." In Jennifer Terry and Jacqueline
Urla, eds. Deviant Bodies: Critical Perspectives on Difference in Science
and Popular Culture. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1995:19-48.
*Kumar, Deepak. Science and the Raj, 1857-1905. Delhi; New York:
Oxford University Press. 1995.
Headrick, D. Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of
Imperialism, 1850-1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Hess, David. Science and Technology in a Multicultural World: The Cultural
Politics of Facts and Artifacts. New York: Oxford University Press,
Metcalfe, Thomas. Ideologies of the Raj. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Mohamed, Jama. "'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism During the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland." Past and Present 174 (2002): 184-216. Osborne, Michael. Nature, the Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. ________. "Acclimatizing the World: A History of the Paradigmatic Colonial Science." Osiris 15 (2000): 135-51. Prakash, Gyan. Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India. Princeton University Press 1999.
Richards, Thomas. The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire. London: Verso Books, 1993.
Robb, Peter, ed. Society and Ideology: Essays in South Asian History. London: School for Oriental and African Studies, 1993.
Semmel, Bernard. The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire: Theories of Imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.Stauder, Jack. "The 'Relevance' of Anthropology to Colonialism and Imperialism." In Sandra Harding, ed. The "Racial" Economy of Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993: 408-427.
Story, William Kelleher, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1997.Sur, Abha. "Aesthetics, Authority, and Control in an Indian Laboratory: The Raman-Born Controversy on Lattice Dynamics." Isis 90:1 (1999): 25-29.
Thomas, Nicolas. Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel, and Government. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994.
Venkataraman, G. Journey Into Light: Life and Science of Raman, Indian Academy of Science. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, reprint ed. 1994.Whyte, Nicolas. Science, Colonialism and Ireland. Cork: University of Cork Press, 1999.
Sexuality in the Colonial Context
Ballhatchet, Kenneth. Race, Sex and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and their Critics, 1793-1905. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980.
Berger, M. "Imperialism and Sexual Exploitation: A Review Article." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 17 (1988), 83-98.
Burton, Antoinette. Gender, Sexuality and Colonial Modernities. London; New York: Routledge, 1961.
Dawson, Graham. "The Blond Bedouin: Lawrence of Arabia, Imperial Adventure and the Imagining of English-British Masculinity." In Michael Roper and John Tosh, eds. Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800. London and New York: Routledge 1991: 113-144.
_____. Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire, and the Imagining of Masculinities. London and New York: Routledge. 1994.
De Groot, Joanna. " 'Sex' and 'Race': The Construction of Language and Image in the Nineteenth Century." In Susan Mendus and Jane Rendall, eds. Sexuality and Subordination: Interdisciplinary Studies of Gender in the Nineteenth Century. London and New York: Routledge 1989: 89-128.Gilman, Sander. "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward an Iconography of Female Sexuality." In Sander Gilman, ed. Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985.
Gunson, N. "British Missionaries and Sexuality: The Polynesian Legacy and its Aftermath." In H.Hiery and J.MacKenzie, eds. European Impact and Pacific Influence. British and German Colonial Policies in the Pacific and the Indigenous Response. London: German Historical Society 1997: 279-298.
Hyam, Ronald. "Concubinage and the Colonial Service: The Crewe Circular (1909)." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 14:3 (1986): 170-186.
_____. Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1990.
_____."Empire and Sexual Opportunity." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 14:2 (1986): 34-90.
Lane, Christopher. The Ruling Passion: British Colonial Allegory and the Paradox of Homosexual Desire. Durham: Duke University Press. 1995.
Manderson, Lenore. "Colonial Desires: Sexuality, Race, and Gender in British Malaya." Journal of the History of Sexuality 7:2 (1997):372-88.
Mackenzie, John M. "The Imperial Pioneer and Hunter and the British Masculine Stereotype in Late Victorian and Edwardian Times." In J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, eds. Manliness and Morality: Middle-class masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940. Manchester: Manchester University Press 1987: 176-198.
Mangan, J. A. "The Grit of Our Forefathers: Invented Traditions, Propaganda and Imperialism." In John M. Mackenzie, ed. Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester and Dover, N.H.: Manchester University Press 1986: 113-139.
Nussbaum, Felicity. Torrid Zones: Maternity, Sexuality, and Empire in Eighteenth-Century English Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.Pedersen, Susan. "National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policymaking." Journal of Modern History 63 (1991): 647-680.
Sharpe, Jenny. Allegories of Empire. The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.Stoler, Ann. Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. _____. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995.
_____."Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia" in Frederick Cooper and Ann Stoler, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1997.
Summers, Carol. "Intimate Colonialism: The Imperial Production of Reproduction in Uganda, 1907-1925." Signs 16 (1991):787-807.
White, Luise. The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.Whitehead, Judy. "Bodies Clean and Unclean: Prostitution, Sanitary Legislation, and Respectable Femininity in Colonial North India," Gender and History 7:1 (April 1995): 41-63.
Banerjee, Pompa. Burning Women: Widows, Witches, and Early Modern European Travelers in India. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Behdad, Ali. Belated Travelers: Orientalism in the Age of Colonial Dissolution. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.Birkett, Dea. Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1989. Bush, Barbara. "Through the Traveler's Eye: Anglo-Saxon Representation of Afro-Cuban Identity from 1850 to 1950." Nature, Society, and Thought: A Journal of Dialectical and Historical Materialism 10 (1997): 229-250.
Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.Ghose, Indira. Women Travellers in Colonial India: The Power of the Female Gaze. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1998.
Graburn, Nelson H, ed. Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Artistic Expressions from the Fourth World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
Grewal, Inderpal. Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.Hahner, June Edith. Women through women's eyes. Latin American women in 19th century travel accounts. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1998.
Harrison, David, ed. Tourism and the Less Developed Countries. Belhaven Press. London. 1992.Kingsley, Mary. Travels in West Africa. London: Thomas Nelson, 3rd edition, 1965. Mathews, James and Lecia Gordner. French Memoirs and Travel Literature of Africa (at http://titan.iwu.edu/~matthews/memoirs.htm). McEwan, Cheryl. Gender, Geography and Empire. Victorian Women Travellers in West Africa. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2000. Melman, Billie. Women's Orients. English women and the Middle East. 1718-1918. London: Macmillan, 1995. Mills, Sara.Discourses of Differences: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism. London: Routledge, 1991. Morgan, Susan. Place matters: Gendered Geography in Victorian Women's Travel Books about S.E. Asia. New Brunswick, N.J. Rutgers University Press, 1996.
Pratt, Mary Louise. Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation. London: Routledge, 1992.Jane Robinson. Wayward Women. A Guide to Women Travellers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. Romero, Patricia W., ed. Women Voices on Africa: A century of travel writings. Princeton: Markus Weiner Publishing, 1992. Stevenson, Catherine B. Victorian Women travel writers in Africa. Boston: Tywyne, 1982.
Spurr, David. The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993.
Thomas, Nicholas. Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
Theory and Practice: Critical Studies
*Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso, 1983.
Bernal, Martin. Black Athena. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987.
*Cesaire, Aime. Discourse on Colonialism. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
Chomsky, Noam. Year 501: The Conquest Continues. Boston: South End Press, 2003.
*Chatterjee, Partha. Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
Chew, Sing C. and Robert A. Denemark, eds. The Underdevelopment of Development: Essays in Honor of Andre Gunder Frank. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1996.
Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Tavistock
Gates, Henry Louis. "Critical Fanonism". Critical Inquiry 17 (1991): 457-470.
Goonatilake, Susantha. Crippled Minds: An Exploration into Colonial Culture. New Delhi: Vikas, 1982.
Fabian, Johannes: Time and the Other: How Anthropology makes its Object. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
Faubion, James D, ed. Rethinking the Subject: An Anthology of Contemporary European Social Thought. Westview Press. Boulder. 1995.
Hall, Stuart ed. Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: Sage. 1997.
Harris, Paul. "Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth-Century China." Pacific Historical Review 60:3 (August 1991): 309-338.
Havinden, Michael, and David Meredith. Colonialism and Development: Britain and Its Tropical Colonies, 1850-1960. London: Routledge, 1994.
Heidrich, Joachim, ed. Changing Identities: The Transformation of Asian and African Societies under Colonialism. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch/Center for Modern Oriental Studies, 1994.Jameson, Fredric. Modernism and Imperialism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990. Jay, Martin. "In the Empire of the Gaze: Foucault and the Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought." In David Couzens Hoy, ed. Foucault: A Critical Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986: 175-203.
Rosaldo, Renato. "Imperial Nostalgia". Representations 26 (1989): 107-123.
Rothkopf, David. "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?" Foreign Policy 107 (Summer 1997): 38.
Mitchell, Timothy. Colonizing Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Knopf, 1993
Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.
Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. Revised ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1997.
Scott, James. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1985.
Slemon, Stephen. "Unsettling the Empire: Resistance Theory for the Second World". World Literature Written in English 30:2 (1992): 30-41.
Sprinkler, Michael, ed. Edward Said: A Critical Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1992.
Troung Buu Lam, ed. Borrowings and Adaptations in Vietnamese Culture. Southeast Asia Paper No. 25. Manoa, HI: University of Hawaii, 1987.
Web-based Primary Sources on Cultural Imperialism:
For major links pages, see:
Some Document Sets:
*Age of Imperialism at:
Excellent sample documents and lesson plans on the Small Planet website.
*Documents in Colonialism and Nationalism in Indonesia, 1830-1942
Excellent collection written for students
European Imperialism at:
Organized according to metropolitan power.
*James Mill "On the Manners of the Hindoos" from his History of British India, Chapter 6, third edition, 1826.
Indian office official and philosopher who believed it unnecessary to go to India to administer or write about its society.
*Extent of Imperialism at:
The expression of modern colonialism via statistics.
*Modern Imperialism, Imperialism in Africa and India and Women in Imperial history at:
Extensive primary sources and links on cultural imperialism from the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Other Sourcebooks (East Asia, Global, Islamic, and Jewish) are also useful and linked to these pages.
*The New Imperialism at:
*Victorian Political History at:
Resources for the study of the British Empire and International Relations.
*Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898-1935 at:
One of the Web's best collections of primary source documents on the subject of cultural imperialism
*Wars of Imperialism (1880-1914) at:
Offers excellent background summaries of colonial policy and conflict supported by rare documents and links. Focus is on Africa, but includes section on the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05
*Women in World History: Primary Sources at:
Beautifully presented and cogently introduced documents and images on women in colonial history from Africa to Southeast Asia.
1 This no mere adage. See J. R. Ackerley's 'Explanation" in the unpaginated preamble to his Hindoo Holiday; an Indian Journey (New York: Poseidon Press, 2nd ed., 1960).
2 Aldridge State High School students addressing the evolution of European imperialism at http://www.aldridgeshs.eq.edu.au/sose/modrespg/imperial/group1/conclusion.htm. The italics are mine; the ellipses indicate where this author has replaced references to only European empires where their remarks would also apply to Japanese and other colonial regimes.
3 See Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965); Kenneth Ballhatchet, Race, Sex and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and their Critics, 1793-1905 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980); Julia Bush, Edwardian Ladies and Imperial Power (New York: Leicester University Press. 1999); Antoinette M. Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); and At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter In Late-Victorian Britain (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1998); M. Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849–1905 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985); Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel, eds., Western Women and Imperialism. Complicity and Resistance (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992); D. Engels, Beyond Purdah? Women in Bengal, 1890–1939 (New York: Oxford, 1996); K. Jayawardena, The White Woman's Other Burden. Western Women and South Asia During British Colonial Rule (New York, Routledge, 1995); M. MacMillan, Women of the Raj (New York, Thames and Hudson, 1988); Ashis Nandy, Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (London and New York: Oxford University Press, reprint ed. 1989); M. Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991).
4Peter Hoffenberg, An Empire on Display: English, Indian, and Australian Exhibitions from the Crystal Palace to the Great War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
5 See, for example, Thomas Metcalfe, An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
6 David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British saw their Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2001).
7 See Prem Chowdhry, Colonial India and the Making of Empire Cinema: Image, Ideology and Identity (New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 2001).
8 See "Unit 21, Colonial Identities,"in Bridging World History, Annenberg/Corporation for Public Broadcasting at http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/worldhistory/unit_overview_21.html.
9 Michael Edward Stanfield, Red Rubber, Bleeding Trees: Violence, Slavery, and Empire in Northwest Amazonia, 1850-1933 (Albuquerque, N.M.: University of New Mexico Press, 1998); Tran Tu Binh, The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies Center, 1985); and Emma Reisz, "Free trade and the Pursuit of Hegemony: Imperial Britain in Global Rubber Markets, 1860-1922," http://www.ehs.org.uk/othercontent/reisz.htm.
10 See Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the making of the Third World (New York: Verso, 2000).
11 Vandana Swami, "Environmental History and British Colonialism in India: A Prime Political Agenda," CR: The New Centennial Review 3:3 (Fall 2003): 113-130.
12 Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: A Study of the Asian Opium Trade 1750-1950 (New York: 1999). Also Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (1991), and The Politics of Heroin (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 2003).
13 See Roy Moxham, Great Hedge of India: The Search for the Living Barrier That Divided a Nation (Berkeley: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2001) and Mark Kulansky, Salt: A World History (New York: Penguin, 2003).
14 Peter Macinnis, Bittersweet : The Story of Sugar (London: Allen Unwin, 2003).
15 Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York: Knopf, 2004).
16 Woodruff D. Smith, "Complications of the Commonplace: Tea, Sugar, and Imperialism," in the Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXIII/2 (Autumn 1992): 259-278, and Tom Standage, History of the World in Six Glasses (New York: Walker and Company, 2005).
18 Trask, Haunani-Kay. From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai'i (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, rev. ed, 1999). For "British Colonial," see http://www.bedbathandbeyond.com/product.asp?order_num=-1&SKU=13216576&RN=503&KSKU=104249.
19 Himani Banerji, Age of Consent and Hegemonic Social Reform, in Clare Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998): 21-44.
20 Paul Johnson, The Birth of the Modern: World Society, 1815-1830 (Harper Perennial, reissue edition, 1992). See also Paul Jonnson, "Commentary: The Answer to Terrorsm? Colonialism" (October 21, 2001) at http://tanakanews.com/b1112wsj.htm.
21 The Socialist Worker noted "William Kristol, editor of the Weekly Standard and chair of the Project for a New American Century, tells us: "And if people want to say we're an imperial power, fine." Wall Street Journal editorial features editor Max Boot agrees. "Given the historical baggage that 'imperialism' carries, there's no need for the U.S. government to embrace the term," he wrote in a recent column. "But it should definitely embrace the practice." at http://www.socialistworker.org/2003-1/454/454_06_Empire.shtml.
22Quoted in Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, Volume 2, India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Palestine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914): 224-233.
23 Charles Allen, Plain Tales from the Dark Continent (New York: Warner, 1992 ed.).
24 From "Living off the Country," published in Nigeria in 1942, reprinted in Charles Allen, ed., Tales from the Dark Continent (London: Andre Deutsch, 1979):110-123. Image is a facsimile of the original.
26 Other resources include: http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1986/soyinka-bio.html http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/soyinka http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/post/soyinka/soyinkaov.html http://athena.english.vt.edu/~carlisle/Postcolonial/Wole_Soyinka/%20King's_Horseman.html http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/anglophone/soyinka.html http://www.enotes.com/death-kings/ http://iago.stfx.ca/people/jgreenla/Thesis.html http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Soyinka.html
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