The tonic accent is an increase in the intensity of the voice (like, often, a rise the height) accompanying the emission by a Syllabe in a Mot, thus highlighted. Its syllable (or one of its mores) struck accent is known as tonic , in opposition to the dull syllables . One frequently distinguishes the languages with tonic accent from the Langues with tons and with pitch. Presupposed affirming that a language with tonic accent does not have a let us tons is false: indeed, the two systems can coexist, which is the case in Thai Mandarin or . On the other hand, in a language with let us tons, the tonic accent can be only secondary. Lastly, within the tonic accents, one distinguishes two categories: the tonic stress and the pitch.
The tonic accent is a concept studied mainly in Phonétique and Phonologie. In the first discipline, one will analyze by which average physiques it is carried out, in the second his role in the language. It is a discrete Unité as well as the Phonème, but it is not segmentable. It is thus a suprasegmental Unité: the accented unit cannot be perceived without the support of the phonemes and it does not exist without them.
Note: the phonological transcriptions between oblique bars are in API. Let us recall that the tonic accent is announced by the symbol /'/ placed in front of the syllable concerned. The secondary accent, as for him, is symbolized by /ˌ/; thus, in the chain of phonemes /ˌfutri'kɛ/ “foutriquet”, /k ɛ/ carries the tonic accent (primary), /fu/ the secondary accent and /tri/ is dull.
Examples of languages to tonic accentLarge majority of the languages of Europe (whose Indo-European Langues but also Finno-ugric, or Turkish) has a tonic accent. This fact however often lets believe that it is the most widespread system whereas the languages of the world of them use mainly the tonal system makes.
There exists however, more rarely, of the languages known not to follow any of these systems: the Hindī, for example, is neither tonic accent or height nor tons.
Differences with the tonal systemIf the tonic accent ─ height or intensity ─ being so strongly opposed to the tonal system (without one exclue necessarily the other) they is generally because it functions mainly on contrast between marked syllable, minority in the word (often single) or in the statement and syllables dull, majority. In kind, a word has only one number very limited of tonic syllables even any in the case of the clitiques ones. In the tonal system, on the contrary, there does not exist contrast of such a kind: all the syllables (except some, sometimes) carry a tone, whatever it is. It is the difference between the nature of tons which creates contrast.
This point explains why one cannot regard the languages with pitch as tonal languages: indeed, even if there exist “tonèmes”, they strike only one or two syllables of the word, while the others remain dull. The stress system thus emphasizes a limited part of the word (that which carries the accent in opposition to the others) or of the statement (there exist words carrying an accent, the other dull ones) while the tonal system places all the syllables and the words (except some exceptions) at the same hierarchical level.
Where the tonic accent carries out an increase in the sound intensity at the time of the pronunciation of a syllable to highlight it, the pitch highlights it by a change of height of this pronunciation. In the majority of the cases, the language will thus have a height, a “note”, basic, applied to the majority of the syllables, and one (or more rarely several) syllable by word will be pronounced on an acuter note. It is for example the case of the Japanese or the old Greek . The tonal languages, contrary to the languages with pitch, see each one of their syllables carrying a tone or a variation of your different.
Acoustic demonstrations of the tonic stressThe principal acoustic demonstration of the tonic accent is an increase in the vocal intensity concerning one or more tops of Syllabe of a mot. Prononcée with more energy, this syllable is detached from the others, known as dull , by its greater sound intensity.
Difference in intensity according to the languagesThere still, the increase in intensity is variable, according to the languages. Whereas in the majority of the Romance Langues it is very marked, it is, in French, relatively weak even inaudible. Indeed, the tonic accent of French is marked for each word (except the Clitique S) only when they are insulated. In a Sentence, only the last word of each Syntagme will carry the accent, all the more in a fast and current diction. One speaks then about a “accent of group of direction”. For example, the following polysyllables are accentuated when they are insulated as indicated in a neat diction: small /p ə' tit/, house /m ɛ' zɔ̃/, meadow /p ʁɛ' ʁi/, diffused /dify ' ze/. In the sentence “ the Small house in the meadow is not diffused any more”, one will hear /lap ətitmɛ' zɔ̃ dɑ̃lapʁɛ'ʁi neplydify' ze/even /laptitm ɛzɔ̃dɑ̃lapʁɛ'ʁi neplydify' ze/. Indeed, the concept of “group of direction” is variable: one can consider that “the small house in the meadow” is composed of two syntagms: “the small house” + “in the meadow” or although the whole forms a single syntagm.
Primary education and secondary accentsIn addition, so in many languages the words present, phonologiquement speaking, one accent tonic (Romance languages, Russian… but, in the phonetic plan, nondistinctive, one perceives semi-accentuated syllables on whom the pronunciation rests), in others, like the Germanic Langues, there exists a primary education accent, which carries the maximum of intensity, accompanied by one or more secondary accents, according to the size of the mot. These secondary accents, symbolized by/ˌ/into API, meet especially in the made up words: one thus includes/understands that the secondary accents are a survival of the original accent which the element using the composition of the mot. In the Germanic languages carried, therefore, the accented unit is not more the word but the Lexème.
The hierarchy obtained between the accents (there exists always a principal accent) often makes it possible to locate sometimes which lexeme of the made up word is central and informs about secondary structures of the German mot. In , for example, it is normally the radical which carries the principal accent. If the word has a separable particle, it is it which receives the principal accent. Lastly, the inseparable particles are dull:
- in a made up word like ausstaffieren , one has two accents: /“aʊsʃtaˌfiːrən/, allowing to isolate the separable particle aus- from the radical staffieren ;
- both Homonyme S of übersetzen are distinguished by the stressing: /'yːbɐˌzɛtsǝn/“to make cross” is opposed to/ʏbɐ' zɛtsǝn/“to translate”. In the first case, über /'yːbɐ/is a separable particle thus tonic (which keeps its clean Sens: “beyond”), in the second an inseparable particle, therefore dull (and with the Direction illustrated).
Other acoustic demonstrationsThe increase in intensity is accompanied by other phenomena, more or less marked according to the languages.
Modification height of the voiceIn English, the tonic syllable is generally higher or low marked than the dull syllables, according to the sentences. It would be reducing to think that the accent, in addition to by the intensity, appears only by one rise (what remains true when one pronounces the words separately). Indeed, it is not rare that the play of the intonation makes pronounce a tonic syllable low: in the question Are you married? “are you married? ”, realized juː 'mæɹɪd, the syllable will be marked lower than, in the respect of the interrogative rising intonation. In an assertion, on the other hand, it will be acuter.
As long as these variations height do not form a system of relevant oppositions, it is not advisable to speak about a pitch. These variations do nothing but accompany those by intensity.
Lengthening in the stressed syllableIn Italian, the stressed syllable is automatically lengthened. The Quantité is thus not phonological since it is entirely conditioned by the place of the accent; there does not exist vocoïdes or contoïdes long not accentuated, the consonants can however be geminated out of the accent. It is the last segment of the stressed syllable which lengthens, for example fato “destiny”/'fa.to/and fatto “made”/'fat.to/is carried out respectively and. When the core of the syllable is a Diphtongue, its second element undergoes a semi-lengthening: vuoi “you want”/'vwɔi/.
Muscular tension and clearness of the accentuated phonemesThere exists a phenomenon known as “accented Apophonie” which provides that the dull vowels of a word, in certain languages, are carried out less distinctly than the tonics (the muscular tension implemented being less). Their stamp is less clear and of the different vowels are even confused when they are dull. Several phonetic Modifications can enter concerned, like the Neutralization or the Centralisation. Among the languages with accented apophony, one can quote various Slavic Langues (Bulgare, Russian ─ to consult accented Apophonie in Russian ), Romance Langues (Catalan, the Portuguese, the Occitan…) or of the Germanic Languages (English, German, Dutch…). It comes out from such an apophony that it is not so much the accent which modifies the acoustic image of the words that lifelessness: indeed, the accent preserves the identity of the vowels here. In Bulgarian, for example, the vowels о /ɔ/and у /u/ are reduced to while а /a/ and ъ /ɤ/are carried out when they are dull. For other examples, to consult the article devoteds to with the quoted languages.
This last point, one will see it low, involves important consequences for the phonetic evolution of the languages.
Place de l' accentThe tonic accent being carried out like a emphase compared to the dull syllables, it should be noted that a monosyllabic word does not carry, separately, of accent, since one cannot establish a contrast between dull and tonic syllables. In a statement, however, the syllables of words following itself being connected, it appears that certain monosyllables are well accentuated, in opposition to others, always dull (lower cf the question of clitic). Lastly, in the languages with pitch the isolated monosyllables are not inevitably excluded: the modulation implied height can indeed appear very well on only one syllable.
One can separate the languages with accent in two groups: in the first, the place of the accent in the word is free and can be known only by the memorizing of each mot. In the second, the place of the accent is more or less given: the accent “always falls” to the same place in the mot. In general, one determines the place of the accent on the basis of the end of the mot.
Coexistence of the tonic and dull words
Free accentIn the Germanic Languages, for example, the accent is free: one cannot determine his place in advance. The words inherited the Proto-Germanic however tend to have an accent on the first syllable of the radical , which one can see, for example, in the passage of proto-Germanic to the gotic). The borrowed words are often accentuated elsewhere. Here some examples in English:
- Germanic radical accent: APPLE , begin , morning ;
- other sites in the loanwords: advice (of the Old French), command (idem), economy (of the Latin ).
Given accentHere for example of the languages with given tonic accent:
- Esperanto (penultimate syllable);
- Finnish (first syllable);
- French (final of the words or the groups of letters);
- Hungarian (first syllable);
- Quechua (penultimate syllable);
- Czech (first syllable);
- Turkish (final, except with some suffix S; the process remains however regular).
In the following languages, the placement of the accent is more complex but regular in the majority of the cases:
- Classical Arabic
the tonic accent generally falls on the last heavy Syllabe (containing a long vowel or a vowel followed by at least two consonants) from the radical . For example: سُكُون sukūn “silence”. In practice (Dialectical Arabic, for example), the place of the accent does not follow rules still described in precision. One should not either lose sight of the fact only the Arabic alphabet does not note the tonic accent. Of kind, that of the classical Arabic, mainly written language, can be given only by rebuilding or by listening to Arabic-speaking people to read it, which follow the stressing of their own dialect;
the accent falls on before last syllable if the word is finished by a vowel, - S or - N , on the last when the last phoneme is a consonant. For example: perro “dog”, perros . When the accent, lexical (clean with a word) or grammatical (clean with a verbal Form bent), is “irregular” compared to this rule, it is indicated to the writing by a Acute accent. The accent cannot go up beyond the antepenultimate syllable (except in the event of Enclise; to see also low): enseñándoselo “by showing it”. As long as he does not contradict this limitation, he is maintained during the nominal Flection: joven “young” fact jóvenes with the Plural .
the accent (height in traditional Latin, of intensity in Vulgar Latin) falls on before last syllable if it is heavy (it contains a long vowel or short followed at least two consonants), on the antepenultimate if not. The monosyllables are tonic except if they are Enclitique S. Ainsi: C “I give”, dārĕ “to give”, dēbērĕ “to have”, dēbĕō “I must”.
- In addition, the words carried in addition to one pitch a secondary accent of intensity placed invariably on the first vowel, which makes it possible to even explain number of phonetic Modifications in Latin (Métaplasme S and Apophonie mainly and in the Romance Langues (safeguarding of the initial vowel of the words). These phenomena are described low.
the Accentuation of the Greek is complex. It is governed by laws of limitation which one cannot describe here. At most is advisable it to specify that the pitch cannot “go up” (let us recall that one determines the place of a tonic accent compared to the end of the words) beyond the antepenultimate syllable if the final vowel is short, of the penult if the final is long. If the intonation is complex (circumflexe intonation), it cannot go up beyond the penult with a short final, final if it is long. Within these possibilities, the placement remains relatively free. Some examples: ἄνθρωπος “man” but ἀνθρώποις “(for) men” (final long: the accent must descend), δῶρον “gift” but δώροις “(for) gifts” (final long: the circumflexe intonation cannot remain such as it is and becomes acute). In the conjugation, the accent generally tends to go up possible further in the mot.
One notices in these three languages what one names of the “laws of limitations”, which fix the limiting place of the accent (always on the basis of the end).
Accent fixes ~ mobile accentAccording to the languages, the accent can or not change place during the inflection.
Fixed accentIn Czech, in Sindhi or Hungarian, for example, it always remains on the first syllable with all the bent Forme S. In the Germanic Languages, it keeps also its site starting.
Mobile accentThe most frequent changes of place are due to the laws of limitation, if necessary (see higher in Castilian and old Greek).
The change of site can also belong to a grammatical stress system more complex: for example, in Castilian the accent in the verbs tends to go up further “” possible (i.e. it falls on the penult or the final; the antepenultimate and the pre-antepenultimate are considered there “irregular” for this lexical Classe). With the preterite and the future, however, except in certain irregular verbs, it is often attracted with the finale although it is vocalic: enseñe “that it shows” but enseñé “I showed” and enseñará “it will show”. In Russian, the accented modifications that undergo the words during the inflection are much more complex and cannot be summarized thus. There exist several diagrams of stressing for the names (whose diagram utilizing an accent fixes), for example, that it is advisable to learn by heart at the same time as the paradigm. Here for example paradigms of волк volk “wolf” and конь kon' “horse”, in which the accent moves radical with the Désinence S (is indicated a broad phonetic transcription to mask the accented apophony): Rappel: E note always a tonic vowel. Cf Cyrillic alphabet .
The Lituanien is even more complex, since its pitch is with two intonations and can, in addition to moving, to change nature. Here as example the paradigm of the verb veĩkti “to follow” at the present: veikiù , veikì , veĩkia , veĩkiame , veĩkiate , veĩkia . One can compare it with that tikė́ti “to believe”: tikiù , tikì , tìki , tìkime , tìkite , tìki .
FunctionsThe tonic accent can play several parts, according to its type (free, given, fixes, mobile…). One will study each function separately.
ContrastiveIt is the fundamental function of any tonic accent, whether it is height or of intensity: by allowing the highlighting of one (or several) syllables of the word, it created an opposition between tonic and dull syllables. At the syntactic level, the existence of tonic words and words dull (generally of the function words) created a contrast of second order.
The other functions rise naturally from this one.
CulminativeIts principal function, shared by all the languages, is known as culminative (Latin culmen “ridge, top”). It marks the presence of the syntactic and semantic units fundamental (according to the languages: important words, Lexème S for the Germanic languages, groups of direction for French), which allows, in a chain of phonemes, to more or less precisely recognize the presence of such units. The analysis of a statement is thus facilitated. The free accent is limited to such a function.
For example, in the sentence Castilian E puede cortar the edge idiot a cuchillo (“one can cut the meat with a knife”), realized /se ' pweð̞ekoɾ'taɾla'kaɾnekonunku'ʧiʎo/, one identifies four important units, although it is not possible to cut out the chain in a more precise way (the accent being free, one can distinguish only the tops from the units but not their limits). After an analysis requiring to know the language, one can know that these units correspond to () puede (“one can”), cortar (“to cross”), (it) edge (“meat”) and (idiot one) cuchillo (“with a knife”), which is well the four most important words Sémantique lies in the sentence.
DemarcatingThe demarcating function is not possible that with a given and fixed accent. Such an accent makes it possible to distinguish in a more precise way the syntactic and semantic units fundamental since one can recognize the limits of them (contrary to what it occurs with the free accent). For example, it will be simple to cut out a sentence Hungarian E in words since the tonic accent always falls on the first syllable: each occurrence of the accent marks the limit between the end of a word and the beginning of a following word. In the facts, the monosyllables are not inevitably accentuated (all the more when they are function words): one will thus identify rather the fundamental Syntagme S (article and Nom, for example) that the words themselves.
In the languages knowing of the effects of important Sandhi, the Celtic Languages, for example, like the Breton , the sound identity of the words being likely to vary (because of the consonant shifts inter alia), the fixed tonic accent (or little is necessary oneself some) plays a big role in the recognition of the syntactic units.
To note that the demarcating function is not the only fact of the tonic accent: other processes can play a similar part, like the Glottal stop before initial vocalic of Lexème in German, the Disjonction before a '' H '' “aspired” in French or the aspiration of the initial occlusive consonants S in front of English vowel.
DistinctiveFact which is not shared by all the languages, the accent can make it possible to oppose minimal pair . In this case, it is distinctive. It is necessary for that it is free, which allows the lexical oppositions (one can distinguish by the accent two words which would be if not Homophone S). If it is mobile, it adds to the lexical oppositions of grammatical contrasts.
In English, for example, the accent being free, there exist many lexical oppositions. Among most important, one finds that allowing to distinguish from the verbs (accentuated finally) from adjectives or homophonous nouns (accentuated on the initial one). To note that because of the accented Apophonie, it is not rare that homophony is not complete but that one has more than one homography (the Schwa, for example, not being able to be tonic):
- accent → “to accentuate” ~ “accent”;
- increase → “to increase” ~ “increase”;
- progress → “to advance” ~ “progress”;
- transport → “to transport” ~ “transport”.
- record → “to record” ~ “disc”.
In Castilian, the mobile accent allows a set of very frequent oppositions in the Conjugaison: the models canto “I sing” ~ cantó “it sang” and lays “that I sing” or “that it sings” ~ laid “I sang” reproduce regularly in the verbal paradigms and allow to distinguish nobody, time and mode.
Influences on the phonetic evolution of the wordsThe tonic accent of intensity makes it possible to explain a great number of phonetic modifications undergone by the words during their history. It is indeed one of the processes which, acoustically, exploits more the sound identity of the phonemes: while placing more intensity on certain syllables of word, one can easily to deform this syllable and, conversely, fact that certain syllables or words are dull returns it less distinct (that about which one spoke higher within the framework about the accented Apophonie), all the more when they are far away from the accent.
Null role of the pitchThe pitch, as for him, does not seem to play any ─ part or very limited ─ in the evolution of the words: indeed, of the melody modifications are far, acoustically and physically, to as show itself deforming as changes of intensity, which imply a greater muscular tension, a greater quantity of expelled air, a lengthening of the syllables concerned, etc (see higher) whereas a modification height requires ─ by simplifying ─ only one change of the frequency of vibration of the vocal Cords as well as a play on their tension. To change the height of a syllable does not utilize of heavy mechanism. For the blow, pitch and Tonème S the same part quasi no one in the evolution of the Meaning words play.
Some examplesIt would be tiresome to quote all the phonetic cases of modifications utilizing a tonic stress. One can however raise:
- a great number of Métaplasme S, which is explained by the role of a tonic stress, especially for the Amuïssement S (syncope, Aphérèse, Apocope, elision, etc). Indeed, the dull syllables are suppressible, in opposition to the tonic syllables, that the accent protects from phonetic wear; one will refer to the article devoteds to for precise examples;
- the Diphthongization: omnipresent in the history of the Romance Languages and in that of the Germanic Languages, it is frequently due to the accent. Indeed, it is noted that an accentuated vowel tends to lengthen. However, the increase in the concerned muscular tension can not be regular but decrease during the emission of the vowel. It is at this time that diphthongization intervenes: the vowel is not marked any more with identical for all its length of time but “is divided” gradually into two (or more) stamps, the second, less energy, being different by a Aperture less or larger (according to the starting stamp) or by a Consonification (the vowels /i/, /y/ and /u/ being able to become the spirantes /j/,/ɥ/and /w/), in all the cases asking a less muscular tension. Secondary upheavals can make the mechanism even more complex (displacement of the accent of the first at the second more, Dissimilation S, assimilation S, etc). As an example, here the chain of evolution of the Latin Phoneme (language with pitch become tonic stress) /e/ accentuated in open syllable since Antiquity until currently in French:
- among the laws of historical phonetics, that of Verner makes it possible to explain apparent irregularities of the Loi of Grimm by the recourse to the place of the tonic accent in the Germanic Langues.
Accent and poetrypreparation
Data-processing codingThe standard Unicode envisages the two characters of API for the tonic stresses primary and secondaire in the block “modifying Letters with hunting”:
- ˈ (U+02C8):
- UTF-8 : 0xCB 0x88; octal
- UTF-8: \313\210 ;
- decimal numerical entity HTML: & #712; ;
- ˌ (U+02CC):
- UTF-8 : 0xCB 0x8C; octal
- UTF-8: \313\214 ;
- numerical entity HTML: & #716; .
In the facts, the primary education accent is generally coded by the apostrophizes right, directly accessible to the keyboard and automatically displayable by any font face.
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