Mozambique: General Background Information
The Republic of Mozambique is a sovereign country. It became independent from Portugal in June 1975, after 10 years of freedom fighting headed by FRELIMO, a national freedom party. Initially Mozambique adopted a communism-oriented government with a centralized economy. The country suffered 16 years of civil war, which caused severe damage to human life as well as economic and social structures. One million people died, 1.7 million people sought refuge in neighboring countries, and about 3 million people were displaced from their home places. Sixty percent of the country's primary schools, about 40 percent of its hospitals, and about 3,000 shops in the rural area were destroyed. The war, coupled with the long-term drought that affected southern Africa during the 1980s, was primarily responsible for poverty in Mozambique. The average GDP growth rate was negative in 1985 (see section on Economy below).
In October 1995 the cease-fire agreement with the rebels was signed in Rome. Consequently, political and socio-economic stability has emerged in the country. In October 1994 there was a general election supervised by the UN, establishing a democratically elected government. The political and socio-economic situation in Mozambique in the last 7 to 10 years has been characterized by profound and rapid changes. These transformations are related to:
Mozambique is situated on the eastern coast of southern Africa, between 10°27' S and 26°52' S latitudes and 30°12' E and 40°51' E longitudes (see Figure 1). The total land area is 784,090 km2. The country is divided into 10 provinces. About 70 percent of the country is covered by savanna and secondary forests. Approximately 45 percent of the territory has potential for agriculture. About 60 percent of the land is classified as domesticated land, including crop and permanent pasture lands.
The maritime area is about 666 km2. The shelf area is 104 km2 and up to 200 m in depth, and the total area of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is about 562 km2. The Mozambican coastline is about 2,700 km in length and is characterized by a wide diversity of habitats, including sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, estuarine systems, bays, mangroves, and seagrass beds (Figure 2).
The coastal zone from Ponta do Ouro in the south to latitude 16° S immediately north of Angoche is composed of unconsolidated Quaternary to recent sediments, mostly sand dunes and sandy plains, but interspersed with heavier textured soils (alluviums) at the larger river mouths. At latitude 16° S and at Macambo, Nacala, and Memba bay areas, Tertiary basalt occurs. From Angoche northwards heavily faulted Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments line the coast (again see Figure 2).
The sedimentary deposits occupy two distinct basins, separated by the large area of crystalline rocks of Mozambique Belt (Precambrian). The southern basin corresponds largely to the present wide Mozambique plain, from Maputo River to north of the Zambezi River and the Rovuma Basin in the Cabo Delgado Province. The North-Mozambique basin constitutes a mesa-Cenozoic sedimentary succession with an age ranging between Lower Cretaceous and Mio-Pliocene (Kauru and Nyandwi, 1997).
The morphology of the coastal area is characterized by low lands, rising inland to the altitude of 200 m above sea level or more. The coastline is characterized by a strip of beaches, recent dunes, and inland lagoons in the south; by mangroves, swampy depressions and series of low beach ridges in the center; and mangroves and small dunes alternating with cliffs in the north (Figure 2). The alluvial valleys have fertile clay soils and steppe-like vegetation. The predominant extensive plains and inland dunes have poor sandy soils and a savannah vegetation. Three hydro-geological provinces can be identified as:
The climate in the region north of the Zambezi River is under the influence of the equatorial low pressure zone with a northeast monsoon in the warm season. The climate south of Zambezi River is influenced by a subtropical anti-cyclone zone. North Sofala along the Zambezi River is a transitional zone with high rainfall figures (Roald and Paula e Silva, 1979).
The winds in the northern part of Mozambique are influenced by the monsoon system with northeast winds during the southern summer and southwest winds during the southern winter. Central and southern Mozambique are dominated by the southeast trade winds.
The average annual precipitation is about 1,200 mm. The rainfall is mainly restricted to the warm season November to April. According to the classification of Köppen, the northern (Cabo Delgado, Niassa, Nampula, and Zambezia) and coastal regions have a tropical rain savannah climate, whereas the upland areas of the interior have a humid temperature climate. Ocean currents, particularly the Mozambique warm current, may influence the rainfall.
Mozambique possesses over 100 rivers, and the major ones are: Rovuma, Lúrio, and Zambezi in the north, Pungué, Buzi, Gorongosa, and Save in the center, and Limpopo, Incomati, and Maputo in the south. These rivers annually drain about 208 km3 of water rich in nutrients into the coastal waters. About 80 percent of this water enters the ocean from Sofala Bank, central Mozambique. The Zambezi River, the largest river in eastern Africa, alone contributes 67 percent of the country's total river discharge (Roald and Jorge da Silva, 1982).
The current population of Mozambique is estimated at more than 16.5 million. It is expected to grow at an annual rate of 2.5 percent, and by the year 2025 it is expected to reach about 35 million (Table 1). About 40 to 45 percent of the population is composed of young people less than 15 years old. The working or active population (between ages 15 and 65) constitutes about 50 percent of the total population. Thus about half of the population is dependent. The urban population is quite representative and has shown a considerable increase over time. In 1950 the urban population represented only 5.4 percent of the total population, increasing to about 33 percent by 1995.
The fertility rate is likely to drop in the future as a national family planning program becomes more effective and extensive, the status of women in the society improves, and poverty diminishes. Further, it is likely that the mortality rate will decrease and life expectancy will increase in the future as medical care becomes more accessible and the standard of living of the population improves. The main causes of death in Mozambique are infectious and parasitic diseases, as in other developing countries.
About two thirds of the Mozambican population live in the coastal zone, for security reasons. During the war coastal zones were safer than other areas (UNCED, 1992). Other reasons people are attracted to the coastal zone include the easy access to food and employment facilities. Most of the large cities, tourist areas, industry, commerce, and harbors are located in the coastal zone. The average population density in the coastal area is about 120 people per km2, against overall population density of 2 people per km2.
Mozambique is among the eight poorest countries in the world. The country's debt was around US$1 billion at the beginning of the 1990s, and had risen to US$5 billion by 1996. Several causes have contributed to the current critical economic situation in Mozambique:
As a result of these factors the Gross Domestic Product fell dramatically, the trade account deficit worsened, and public expenditures rose alarmingly (Table 2).
Nevertheless, Mozambique's geographical position and resource potential (Table 3) offered ample space for the country's rapid social and economic development. It is located on the seaside, therefore it offers harbor and transportation facilities to neighboring countries. It has a variety of natural resources, including large areas of fertile land, several forest and wildlife resources, minerals, water resources and a large potential for hydroelectric power production, and other marine and coastal resources.
In other to reverse the negative economic development, the Mozambican government initiated in 1987 a Structural Adjustment Program (UNCED, 1992) aimed at reducing state control over the economy, promoting the family sector in agriculture, improving the marketing of agricultural products, adjusting internal and external trade imbalances, improving resource distribution, and expanding the responsibility of the private sector in the economy activities. In the process of this economic reform policy most of the industries owned by the government were privatized or associated with the private sector.
The new government policy, coupled with the political and social stability, has rendered positive results. From 1986 to 1989 GDP growth increased from 0.9 percent to 5.3 percent; consumption per capita gradually increased from 0.8 percent to 1 percent in 1988 and remained stable at about 2 percent in 1989 and 1990. Forest and wood land increased by 7.7 percent between 1986 and 1989; in the same period production of cereals increased by 5 percent; pig production increased about 27 percent; the marine catch increased by 28 percent; total exports increased by 16 percent. The government has worked hard to bring down inflation and stabilize the local currency. From 1987 to 1990 inflation fell from 170 percent to 40 percent. In the beginning of 1997 it was about 18 percent and it is expected to drop below 10 percent by next year. Debt relief exceeded US$100 million for the first time in 1995. It is expected that it may exceed US$300 million, which means 15 percent of the GDP, by the year 1999. In spite of these economic achievements the foreign debt is still high compared with the Gross Domestic Product and foreign earnings. The government has been negotiating with its creditors in order to reschedule the foreign debt with its private creditors.
Fisheries and aquaculture
The fisheries resources are mostly located in two major shelves: the Sofala Bank in the center and Delagoa Bight in the south, and in the bays. Major resources include: Shallow water shrimp in Sofala Bank, deep water crustaceans on the slope, scad and mackerel in Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight, and demersal fish in the southern and northern regions. In the coast region there are large artisanal fisheries, which include the mollusks and form the basis for the subsistence of several local populations. For a detailed explanation of fisheries, aquaculture, and marine biology in Mozambique see Marine Sciences and Oceanography in Mozambique (Hoguane).
Agriculture is most important sector in Mozambique and is mostly carried out by peasants. More than 80 percent of the country’s population gains its livelihood from the agricultural sector. It contributes by about 40 percent of the country’s export value. Mechanized agriculture is still very localized and is possessed by only a few farmers.
Climate and soil fertility are the two factors that most control agricultural production, and based in these two factors the country may be divided into two large regions: south and north of the Save River. In the region south of the Save River the soil is relatively fertile, but the climate conditions are highly variable from year to year. The climate in the region north of the Save River is for most of the year favorable for agriculture, but the soil, in most of places, is normally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, and occasionally potassium. The most fertile parts are along the river valleys. The coastal zone and the higher lands have low fertility.
The main agriculture products are rice, maize, peanuts, beans, cotton, cashew, copra, sisal, sunflower, and sorghum.
Family farming is predominantly dependent on availability of rain, and is concerned mainly with staple food crops and some important cash crops, particularly cashew nuts and cotton. Almost all the cashew trees and 60 percent of the coconut palms in Mozambique belong to the family sector. This sector also contributes about 52 percent of the national cotton harvest.
The commercial (mechanized) farming sector occupies only 250,000 ha with annual and perennial crops being served by irrigation systems, either for all needs or as a supplement, and using agro-chemicals and machinery in the majority of cases.
Mozambique's industrial sector is not developed and is mainly devoted to food processing, petroleum refinery, and other goods for export. Most of these industries, about 80 percent, are located in the two major cities Maputo/Matola and Beira, the capital and the second largest city, respectively. The most important industries include cement manufacture, oil refining, dairy plant, glass manufacture, textiles, pulp and paper products, wood processing, beer and soft drinks manufacture, tyre production, sugar and salt production, and food processing, including cashew nut processing. Most of these industry plants are old and use obsolete technology.
Mozambican industry suffered the effects of the civil war. There was a steep decline in production at independence, then a slow recovery up to 1981, after which there was a collapse to about 40 percent of its capacity in 1985. Production rose again in subsequent years: 2.8 percent in 1986, 21.5 percent in 1987, 10.8 percent in 1989, 5.9 percent in 1989. Currently the industrial sector is working at about 35 percent of its capacity.
The government is making efforts to develop the industrial sector to its full operational capacity, at the same time encouraging foreign investment in new and diverse industries. Profound reforms related to privatization, as mentioned above, are taking place. These will accelerate the growth of industry.
Ports and harbors
There are three large ports in Mozambique: Maputo, Beira, and Nacala, and several small ports, including Inhambane, Quelimane, Pebane, Angoche, and Pemba. Mozambique's harbors provide services not only for national customers but also, and mostly, for neighboring countries. Most of the foreign services provided by Mozambique are through its harbors.
Mozambican harbors handle annually several tons of cargo to and from Swaziland, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi. Some of the cargo to and from Congo is also handled in Mozambican ports.
Both the road and the railway networks are built to facilitate regional trade rather than for national economic integration. The transport sector used to be an important foreign exchange earner from the transit facilities offered to the neighboring countries. As a result of the war this revenue has dramatically declined. The transport sector accounted for 12.7 percent of GDP in 1975. It dropped to 8.8 percent of GDP in 1989. The harbors and railways sectors earned about US$16.5 million in services related to sugar handling during 1995 to 1997. One of the priorities of the government, now that the war is over, is to revitalize and rehabilitate the infrastructure (harbors, roads, railways) that was destroyed during the war.
The minerals in Mozambique may be grouped into three predominant categories as follows: (I) energetic (coal, natural gas, and petroleum); (ii) metallic minerals (gold, iron, copper); and (iii) non-metallic minerals (marble and precious stones).
The delta of the Zambezi River accumulates large amounts of heavy mineral deposits such as ilmentite, rutile, and zircon; a similar situation exists around the estuaries and deltas of other major Mozambican rivers, such as Limpopo, Save, Ligonha, Lurio, and Rovuma. Accumulations of heavy mineral can also be found on beaches and in sand dunes. The most promising deposits are those located between Quelimane and Quinga, which are currently being exploited.
In spite of the recognition of the potential of mineral resources in Mozambique, the mineral industry still does not play a major role in the country’s economy. Its contribution is only 2 percent of GDP. Reasons for the weak development of the mineral industry include the abandonment of the property by the owners during the struggle for independence and the destruction during the civil war.
Among the mineral resources mentioned above, coal has the largest potential. In the province of Tete the estimated potential is about 10 billion tons. In 1989 about 62,000 tons were extracted. It is possible to extract up to 9 million tons a year.
The national exploitation of minerals is still done by rudimentary techniques, and most of the minerals extracted are for exportation. The principal mines and quarries functioning in the country are presented in Table 4. Major projects in gold, coal, natural gas, and heavy minerals are at an advance stage of implementation, including modest projects in graphite, diatomite earth, marble, bauxite, and bentonite.
Recreational parks and tourism
Tourism offers an important future economic potential for the country. Historically, Mozambique had a thriving tourism industry, mainly in the center and south of the country, with Rhodesia and South Africa providing the potential markets. Now the opportunity exists to tap both these historical markets and the tourism markets of the north. Soon after the war stopped, development plans were put forward. Mozambique has excellent potential for both coastal and wildlife-based tourism.
Coastal tourism is well developed in the southern part of the country, south of Save River. This region is characterized by beautiful sandy beaches and extensive corals. This type of tourism expanded rapidly after the end of the civil war in 1992. Tourism activities include beach sailing and game fishing. Several game fishing competitions take place each year in Bazaruto, Inhambane, Maputo, and Ponta do Ouro.
Wildlife-based tourism offers good prospects for the economy. There are two forms of land-based tourism: (i) photo-safaris and (ii) hunting safaris. Photo-safaris were of very little significance in the past two decade. Safari companies, associated with the civil war, were unable to attract this kind of client. Hunting safaris contributed considerably to the country’s economy. Between 1965 and 1970 some 1,310 tourists hunted in Mozambique. The resulting revenue was about US$87,000 per year for the government (licenses and administrative fees) and US$642,000 per year for the safari companies.
Kauru, K. and Nyandwi, N. 1997. Guidelines for assessment, monitoring and management of physical shoreline changes for West Indian Ocean region. IOC/OSNLR project on coastal erosion. (in press)
Roald, S., and Jorge da Silva, A., 1982. Water masses and circulation of the Mozambique channel. Revista de Investigação Pesqueira, Maputo. No. 3, pp 83.
Roald, S., and Paula e Silva, R., 1979. The Marine Fish Resources of Mozambique. Reports on surveys with the R/V Dr. Fridjof Nansen.
UNCED, 1992. Mozambique country report for UNCED’92.
Overview of Mozambique
Ethnobotany and Health
Care in Mozambique
Marine Sciences and Oceanography