MARIAN DIAMOND: So
as its name implies,
we're going to be looking at the
orbital surface of the frontal.
So this will be a ventral view.
As we'll have our frontal lobes.
And we'll have as landmarks
here, the olfactory tracks
and olfactory bulbs that you
see on the ventral surface
of the frontal lobe.
These represent olfactory tract.
We'll have this later.
And olfactory bulb, we're just
using them now for a landmark.
And our orbital frontal cortex
then, will be this area.
It's orbital, frontal, as
we see from this plane.
And it will deal
with the emotions.
It has rich connections with the
amygdaloid nucleus or amygdala.
Amygdala, that's the
noun, or amygdaloid
nucleus if you see it that way.
And one of the emotions that
the amygdaloid deals with mostly
is fear.
What does amygdala mean?
Most people know.
Almond.
So you can picture its shape.
It's the shape and
size of an almond.
And where is it?
Whoops, top of the screen I hit
sort of a lopsided cortex here.
Remember, we had the hippocampus
deep in our temporal lobe.
And just at the anterior
end of the hippocampus
here is our amygdala,
or amygdaloid nucleus,
which deals with many emotions,
but fear predominantly.
And it has connections
with the hippocampus,
with the hypothalamus,
hypothalamus
for emotional responses.
So we're seeing lots of
our cortex then deals
with emotions.
But this to just put
in, emphasize these,
because this area is being
worked on a great deal now.
So let's see if there's
anything more we
want to say about
our frontal lobe,
or if that does it pretty well.
Well, one of the
interesting things
about our prefrontal cortex
is its role in inhibition.
You know, before you say
something, you're weighing,
should I say it or not?
And more importantly, it
should be not said many times.
So we're very glad that
part of our prefrontal cort
has an inhibitory function.
Inhibitory function.
Essentially, what not to say.
And you'll find when you lecture
too, all the time there's
so much information that
you think you want to say,
but you're weeding
that out and saying
it's most important
to keep on this track,
and don't bring in the other.
But these inhibitory fibers
become reduced with aging.
You noticed that?
It's so much fun.
Say what you want, when you
want, take the consequences.
But in one area where I
think it's rather humerus,
is that we all know swear words.
But most of the time,
we don't use them.
We've heard them all, we sort of
look at somebody who uses them,
we inhibit them.
But for some people
as they get older,
they lose that inhibition.
I had a student
come to me and she
said she had a grandfather
who was a famous judge down
in Modesto.
You know where Modesto is?
Down in the Silicon Valley.
And as he got older, he was
using all these profane words
in every way, was
just shocked at him.
It was so incongruous to
his normal personality.
But you don't know what's going
to happen to you with aging.
What is going to be lost
for a benefit, or for worse.
All right, that gives you a very
brief picture of how dynamic
your frontal lobes are.
Let's move on to
our parietal lobes.
And here we have started
with them already,
where we had our
central sulcus again.
And we put in the postcentral
gyrus for primary sensory.
Postcentral gyrus.
And we said that we had
our numbers here will be--
we'll do it out here where
we have more room to write.
3, 1, and 2, and why
do we give 3 first?
Because 3 is down
on the surface,
this anterior surface of
our postcentral gyrus.
And then 1 and 2.
At the inferior aspect
of the postcentral gyrus,
we'll have taste.
We had our other sensory
modalities, touch, pressure.
Superiorly, touch, pressure.
What's the one we
gave you in class?
What sensory modality came
to the postcentral gyrus?
Pain and temperature.
And kinesthetic sense.
What pathway in
your spinal cord is
bringing up kinesthetic sense
to your postcentral gyrus?
You don't remember the
name of the pathway,
think of how you divide your
white matter in the cord.
Do you remember at all?
Should I wait here till
somebody has the answer?
Then you really have
to start thinking.
Posterior funiculus, sure.
Gracilis and cuneat
fasciculi, those
are all conscious proprioception
or kinesthetic sense.
So now as we move back,
let's come in to--
we'll have a sulcus.
I'll just put it here.
This sulcus is called
the intraparietal sulcus.
Intraparietal sulcus.
So we'll have a
superior parietal,
and an inferior parietal.
What we want to
look at first, is
what's happening in our
inferior parietal cortex.
So we're going to follow
our lateral fissure back.
And our lateral
fissure curves up
into our inferior parietal area.
And the area at the end
of the fissure is area 40.
That's called the
supramarginal gyrus.
Supramarginal gyrus.
If I follow my
lateral fissure back
into the inferior parietal area.
What happens if you
have a lesion there?
Does anybody want to test
with me whether he or she has
a lesion in the--
You want to come up?
STUDENT: I'll do it.
MARIAN DIAMOND: Very fine.
OK, turn around.
Put out your right hand.
Close-- no, palm up.
Close eyes.
Now tell me what's there.
STUDENT: It's a piece of chalk.
MARIAN DIAMOND: Right.
If he couldn't, he'd have
what's called astereognosis.
Some people can't.
Very simple, you know whether
that part of your brain
is working.
Congratulations, yours is.
STUDENT: Thank you.
MARIAN DIAMOND: It's that nice?
Simple test.
[APPLAUSE] A simple
test for astereognosis.
The ability to recognize
something with touch.
But it comes from a specific
area of your cortex.
So astereognosis means lack
of, this is the condition.
If you have a lesion in
40, you get astereognosis.
Lack of ability to recognize
something with touch.
And just think how
important that is.
You reach in your
pocket for your keys,
and you know whether you want
your house key or door key
or your car key or whatever.
You never think
about it, do you?
Just reach in, two
seconds, you pull out one.
This is the area
that's working for you.
So now we go back to--
we get 40 in yellow.
We're going to follow the
superior temporal sulcus back
into inferior parietal.
I don't want yellow.
This will be area 39.
This one is my
superior temporal.
Using too much yellow chalk.
Superior temporal
sulcus, coming to 39.
39 is what is known
as the angular gyrus.
It deals with such
things as logic, math.
They find if lesions are
here, they have difficulty
with these functions.
But it also serves to integrate
information from visual cortex.
We're going to see in a
moment auditory cortex.
So we'll just put
in integrate info
from visual, auditory, and
general sensory cortices.
So now, knowing what you know
about the cerebral hemispheres,
our frontal and our
parietal cortex,
and you wanted to
study to see which area
is most intelligent
compared to between people,
which two areas might you take?
Prefrontal and angular
gyrus, exactly.
That's why when we
did Einstein's brain,
we took area 39, and
we took area nine,
we wanted superior frontal,
and inferior parietal.
So that's why it's
important that if you're
going to study in this field,
that you know these areas.
So you know what would make--
to invest that
amount of time, you
want to be sure you've got
the areas that would possibly
be involved.
So let's go on then.
We need now superior parietal.
So we have five and seven up
here in superior parietal.
And one of the reasons I
want to give it to you,
you may recall when we talked
about the corticospinal tract,
which was our primary motor
track, corticospinal tract,
we started with area four.
And we said it was
primarily area four carrying
voluntary motor down
to the spinal cord.
But I said there
were adjacent inputs.
But now that you've seen we
have three, one, and two here,
they do contribute.
We'll just turn them around
to one, two, and three.
And we can
contribute-- and five.
So all of these send into
our cortical spinal tract
when I said adjacent areas.
For years, we just
taught area four,
until people found that these
other areas are putting in too.
So now, what can we say
about the superior parietal?
That if I have a lesion on
my right superior parietal,
what syndrome will I develop?
Have any of you heard of
the neglect syndrome--
neglect syndrome.
So a lesion on right
parietal, you'll
have a neglect syndrome on
the left superior parietal.
No, we'll just put it on the--
neglect syndrome-- on the left
body, left side of the body,
on left side of body.
And this can vary in
amount, because you may
get dressed in the morning--
I've said this
before, I'm sure--
that you put on, you
pull your jacket off,
and you quickly put your right
arm in your right sleeve,
and your left arm
in your left sleeve.
If you have a lesion in your
right superior parietal,
you don't put your,
you don't even
know that there's a
left side over here.
You just neglect it.
The way you'll do
it in the office
if you have a patient, which
is easy, you say draw a clock.
And they'll draw a clock, and
they'll put one, two, three,
four, five, six.
And they stop--
have no left input.
So obviously, you have a healthy
then five and seven up here.
So let's say that would
be your introduction
to your parietal lobe.
Let's go back to
the occipital lobe.
And the occipital lobe--
I think so much has been done
on vision, as I've said before--
is that they thought it would
be easier than anything else
because it's only one
modality coming back
to our occipital lobe.
And here, we're
going to define it
by a pre-occipital notch
that you can see here
on the inferior surface
of the hemisphere,
pre-occipital notch.
And a little bit coming over
on the lateral surface here--
we'll see it more on
the medial in a moment.
This is the parietal,
occipital, fissure.
So if we draw an arbitrary
line between these,
we designate then
our occipital lobe.
But within it, we will have
our numerical designations.
We could have the
occipital pole.
This will be area 17.
It's our primary visual cortex.
This is called V1
in animal work.
So many work on the monkey
for the visual cortex.
Then, we have visual
associations surrounding it.
So this will be area 18.
And more medially, or more
interiorly, we'll have area 19.
And these two then will be your
visual association cortices.
And we've given you
examples of how to think,
what your visual association
cortex does for you.
You can see the handle on your
door as you go into your house,
can't you?
Memory stored in your
visual association cortices.
Now, how does this look
on the medial surface,
because we have much more on
the medial surface for vision
than we have on
the ladder surface.
You can see why one picture
is worth a thousand words.
You have a lot of representation
on your cortex for a vision
input.
We'll put in our corpus
callosum to let you know
that this is a mid-line cut.
And here, we're going
to introduce a fissure
that we haven't had before.
Does anybody know the
name of the big fissure
on the medial surface of the
cortex in the occipital lobe?
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
PROFESSOR: Pardon.
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
PROFESSOR: Calcarine, right.
Calcarine fissure, thank you.
So adjacent to the
calcarine fissure,
we will have a healthy
representation of area 17, then
followed by 18, followed by 19.
So if you look
carefully on this,
you'll see it at this position,
your pre-occipital notch
and your parietal
occipital fissure.
So designating clearly
a large representation
of vision on the medial surface.
Now, next time when
we discussed the eye,
we'll look at lesions for this,
because it depends on where
in the system you're
making your lesions
or what kind of
manifestations you'll
have from the field of vision.
So I think this will
be an introduction
to your occipital cortex.
But just because it's
vision, it doesn't
mean that's the
only thing that goes
into this part of the cortex.
Hippocampus goes in.
Hypothalamus goes in.
Lots of other areas feed in
it, but it's primarily vision.
And that's what
most people study.
So let's look now at
the temporal lobe.
And remember, this is all out.
This is all lateral,
and this is medial,
as we put in our
next sensory modality
into the temporal lobe.
So we'll have the
lateral fissure again.
And we'll have the superior
temporal gyrus coming back.
And now, we can put in an area
on the superior temporal gyrus,
which will be your
primary auditory cortex.
And then, it will
be surrounded by--
and primary auditory
cortex is at area 41.
It helps refine this
by giving the numbers.
Surrounded by auditory
association cortex.
And that will be area 42.
And the rest of the superior
temporal gyrus will be area 22.
Anterior and posterior
will be area 22.
And again, it's auditory
association cortex,
refining each time you
go from the primary
to another auditory association,
to the most refined auditory
association.
Now, what does posterior--
I've read different
things here, but I'll
give you what Nolte says,
because that's the book we
use for our graduate course.
He's just the author who
says that posterior 22 is
for vestibular input.
And so when we study
the ear, you'll
see that vestibular and auditory
are part of the same 8th nerve,
so represented on
the same gyrus here.
Now, another area in this region
is called Wernicke's area.
What's Wernicke's area for?
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
PROFESSOR: What part of it?
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
PROFESSOR: Word understanding
versus motor, like Broca's.
So we're going to put
in Wernicke's area.
But I'm putting it in
with a question mark,
because more recent research--
but what I wanted
to show here is
look at visual representation
versus auditory representation.
Tremendous.
So we are going to look
at Wernicke's area.
It's for word understanding.
It's one thing to hear a word.
It's another to
understand what it means.
And classical
Wernicke's has always
been in the area of the
posterior, this area,
most unilateral fissure.
That's classical Wernicke's.
But George Ogomen, who's a
neurosurgeon at the University
of Washington,
stimulates the brain
trying to find a foci
for an epileptic seizure,
so he can remove it.
So he stimulates quite a
bit of this left hemisphere.
And he has found that
Wernicke's area can
be in many different places.
But he stated that in his
most intelligent patients--
whatever that means--
that he would find
Wernicke's area
was down here in the middle.
Let's put it one
below, in the middle
of the middle temporal gyrus.
So if we have excess underlying
middle temporal gyrus,
we're born intelligent people.
But I give these because
you go to meetings today,
and with our more
refined technology,
they're showing that these
old classical areas served
a purpose.
They're all in the text.
We all learn them.
But with more
refinement, they'll
pick it up someplace else.
Just like Broca's area, which
was down here, 44 and 45,
with more refined techniques.
Peter Falk Fox from
Washington U in St. Louis,
he was finding Broca's
area all around here.
So just to let you know,
we teach you a basic
that everybody knows, and then
with more modern technology,
you will get other
pictures as well.
So an experiment that went on
with Wernicke's area recently
down at UCLA was
trying to find out
whether there were more
dendritic branches on nerve
cells from people who had had
different levels of education.
So if you're going to
try to figure out--
thank you-- what part of the
brain you're going to look at,
they figured that
word, understanding,
would be a good
foundation to look for it.
So they had college graduates--
they had this study going
for dendritic branching
in college graduates
in Wernicke's area,
high school graduates,
and elementary school graduates.
And they found that as you
went up with more education,
greater dendritic trees
existed with college education.
But it's just a show because we
did early work with our animals
showing that with enrichment,
you get more dendrites.
But people always
say well, can you
do the same thing with humans?
So this was the same
thing with humans,
where they had a gradation
of little education.
So when you're studying out
there, students always tell me
it hurts to learn.
I said those
dendrites are trying
to find their pathways, right?
Please, what's your question?
STUDENT: Were these
people the same age?
PROFESSOR: Were
they the same age?
I'd have to go
back to the study,
but enough that it was accepted
in the scientific literature.
So it was well done.
Let's look at our
slides, because I
have some slides for you now.
All right, here's our
lateral view of our cortex.
And we had our post-central
gyrus, our pre-central gyrus,
our central sulcus.
And then, this
would be area four,
pre-central, voluntary
motor, and then pre-motor,
where you'd have planning
on the other side.
And then, we'd have our
conjugate eye movements
coming in with eight, and
then nine, 10, and 11.
Our orbital gyrus
would be 11 down here.
Here's our 44 and 45 for Broca's
area in the classical sense.
Our superior temporal
gyrus, and right here you'd
have auditory, primary auditory,
that's called Heschl's gyrus.
You'll see Heschl in
your vocabulary words.
So you'll get that clinically
when they talk about auditory,
they'll say where's
Heschl's gyrus.
You know it's on
superior temporal gyrus.
And here is your
middle temporal gyrus.
And we can see that if we follow
the middle temporal sulcus
back, this will be the
angular gyrus here.
And if we follow the
superior, excuse me,
the lateral fissure back, this
is super marginal, 40, 39,
very important inferior
parietal areas.
And then, your superior
parietal areas will be up here.
If this is my
post-central gyrus,
five and seven would be here.
And then, our pre-occipital
notch would be here.
And you'll see a little of
the parietal occipital sulcus
here in this one, very
small, lateral portion
of our visual cortex.
And our pre-frontal here,
which is most highly evolved.
As I ask the
students frequently,
are we going to continue to
go forward, or with stress
will it take us back?
What would your father
say to that one?
It's a question for him.
He's an evolutionary
biologist, so we can find out
what he would project.
In the next one, this is just a
show without all the markings,
so you can do this
on your own now.
You look for your pre-occipital
notch, would be right in here.
And this parietal
occipital fissure
would be coming in here,
join the two-- again,
very small occipital
cortex here.
Here is your superior
temporal gyrus,
so you'd have your
Heschl's gyrus
right here with the association
fibers around it and centers.
And take it on back
for vestibular.
Here's your primary sensory
cortex, primary motor,
and so forth.
But look at this.
This is a big-- my
goodness, what a talker.
Look at Broca's area.
Think professors
have bigger ones?
What do you know.
Here we go.
Next one, please.
And this gives us
our, see how marked
is our parietal occipital
fissure on the medial surface.
Here is the calcarine fissure.
So very clearly do you
see the delineation here.
It's a little hard
to say which of these
would be a pre-occipital notch
from here to take this up.
But here is primary
vision on each side
of the calcarine fissure,
and then visual association
surrounding it.
And here's our corpus
callosum in the next one.
And this will show our
medial orbital cortex here,
which is actually 11.
Here are, what are they?
STUDENT: [? Olfactory tracks. ?]
PROFESSOR: Olfactory tracks
with olfactory bulbs, right.
Next one.
And this will show that the
posterior cerebral artery
will supply our visual cortex.
It also will supply
inferior temporal.
Now, can everybody in class
tell me what artery this is?
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
I don't hear a thing.
Middle cerebral, right.
I told you, my physics
professor drilled f equals ma,
and we say it in
our sleep even now.
So I want you to
remember middle cerebral.
And then, you have the anterior
cerebral creeping over the top.
So if you have an
anterior cerebral lesion,
you can be paralyzed
in your feet
with your upside
down homunculus.
Here's the anterior cerebral
on the medial surface.
These on the cortex
are going to bring
many patients into your offices,
so you should know them well.
In the next one.
And here's the insula.
We didn't have time to
talk about the insula,
but it's a part of the
cortex which got lost behind.
When Nina Dronkers comes
to speak to you on,
she's a speech pathologist.
She'll let you know
this has something
to do with speech that they
found in more recently.
They used to say it was dealing
with visceral functions, very
general.
In the next one.
Now, who can tell me what's
wrong with these brains?
Now, that you're young
neural anatomists.
What's missing?
STUDENT: Corpus callosum.
PROFESSOR: The corpus callosum.
Evidently 1% of the people
don't have a corpus callosum.
Do you have yours?
I don't know if I have mine.
But this was a brain
that we had in class.
It came to us.
The man, what did he do?
He died of emphysema.
And the brain was a whole brain.
My students cut it in
half to begin to study,
and they stood back.
You could tell
something was wrong.
They said this is
not a normal brain.
And we went back.
And sure enough, the corpus
callosum was not here.
You don't have a cingulum
gyrus like you have
with the corpus callosum there.
So we called the hospital.
It turned out it was
a 42-year-old male.
He had had emphysema.
And that's what he died of.
There was no record
because medical records
don't take behavioral data.
One thing we are missing when
we have our checkups, but--
so what we look for then, this
is his anterior commissure.
It's about three times the size
as a normal anterior commissure
so something was
trying to compensate.
But definitely, it couldn't
compensate for a whole corpus
callosum.
And his massa intermedia, here
in the thalamus, is bigger.
Anyhow, next one.
This is to show pyramidal
cells in your cortex.
We didn't have time
for neural histology.
And these fibers that are light
are all recurrent collaterals
coming into the cortex off of
the axons that are leaving.
Next one.
And this shows that
layer one of your cortex
has no pyramidal cells
or no stellate cells.
Next one.
Next one, please.
This is a pyramidal cell.
Two kinds of cells to make your
cortex for all of your ideas
come from pyramidal
cells or stellate cells.
Next one.
These are stellate cells.
Next one.
What do you think of this?
Sort of playing with knowledge.
We start with a single circle.
We developed one dendrite.
Ignorance.
We add some knowledge.
With that knowledge, we
get creativity and reason.
Then, we begin to think of
others, love, generosity.
But wisdom doesn't come until
a six order of dendrites,
because you have such a
broad spectrum to sample.
And we showed in
our old animals,
this is where we could
still show growth
with aging in wisdom.
So we drew this little
cartoon for you.
So I had to say something
about cortical cortex,
because we go to
vision the next time.
