European Journal of Wildlife Research

, Volume 59, Issue 4, pp 495–503

  • V. J. Kontsiotis
    • Department of Wildlife Management and Freshwater Fisheries, School of Forestry and Natural EnvironmentAristotle University of Thessaloniki
    • Department of Forestry and Management of Natural EnvironmentTechnological Educational Institute of Kavala
  • A. C. Tsiompanoudis
Original Paper

DOI: 10.1007/s10344-013-0697-8

Cite this article as:
Kontsiotis, V.J., Bakaloudis, D.E. & Tsiompanoudis, A.C. Eur J Wildl Res (2013) 59: 495. doi:10.1007/s10344-013-0697-8

ProductivityFood shortagePopulation growth rateStructural equation modelManagementMediterranean ecosystems

The European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) plays a multidimensional role in Mediterranean type ecosystems (Thompson and King 1994; Devillard et al. 2008). It acts as a disperser of seeds and a primary consumer of plants and seeds and so modifies the native vegetation (see Delibes-Mateos et al. 2008). It is also a digger of soils thereby improving their physicochemical conditions (Delibes-Mateos et al. 2008; but see Eldridge and Simpson 2002; Eldridge et al. 2006) and is prey for many mammalian and avian predators (Serrano 2000; Ferreras et al. 2011). Finally, it is an important game species (Angulo and Villafuerte 2003; Delibes-Mateos et al. 2011). On the contrary, in several areas where it has been introduced, it remains one of the most important threats for biodiversity and human economy (see Thompson and King 1994; Manchester and Bullock 2000), competing with ecologically similar livestock and wild species, destroying both native and cultivated vegetation. As a result, efforts are commonly made to reduce its negative impacts (Myers et al. 1994; Thompson and King 1994; Williams et al. 1995; Courchamp et al. 2003). In the Iberian Peninsula where it is a native species, its population has declined dramatically due to the release of myxomatosis then the subsequent spread of rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD; Moreno et al. 2007), causing a number of reactions in ecosystem functions and processes (see Delibes-Mateos et al. 2008; Lees and Bell 2008; but see Barrio et al. 2010b). By contrast, in the south-eastern Mediterranean basin, it has been introduced on a few Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, but there is little published information concerning its ecology and its impacts on natural ecosystems, or whether it is a pest species or beneficial for the human economy. Rabbits are the main prey for raptorial species (e.g., the Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata and the common buzzard Buteo buteo), and favored by hunters, while at the same time causing extensive damage to agricultural crops having a devastating impact on the local economy during the last two decades (Kontsiotis 2011). Given the contradictory views of the European rabbit in its geographic range and its key role in the Mediterranean basin, its strategic management should be based on an understanding of its ecology; in particular the limiting factors which potentially affect its population growth rate.

The estimation of population growth rate (r or pgr) of a target species on certain time scales has been considered the central issue in population dynamics (see Sibly et al. 2003; Sinclair et al. 2006). Consequently, the determinants of pgr are important factors in understanding their influence on the target species population. In this sense, a wildlife manager should understand all those factors in order to manipulate, increase, maintain, or decrease the pgr depending on the status of the species: endangered, game, or pest, respectively (see Krebs 2001). Factors which influence year-to-year pgr may be demographic (fecundity and mortality), mechanistic (food, parasites, predators, etc.), and density-dependent (see Sibly et al. 2003; Korpimäki et al. 2004), and they act in an unpredictable way on the population. In seasonal environments, like those in the Mediterranean region, year to year population fluctuation is rather negligible (Béltran 1991; Williams et al. 2007).

Although year-to-year pgr of lagomorphs has been studied in detail [see Krebs (2011) for hares; Villafuerte et al. (1997) and Palomares (2003) for wild rabbit], seasonal changes of the European wild rabbit pgr and its determinants are limited in literature (Caley and Morley 2002; Cabrera-Rodriguez 2008). Investigations into the relationships between the European rabbit’s seasonal population growth rate (spgr hereafter) and its determinants could lead to a better understanding of its seasonal population fluctuation, as well as assisting integrated management to reduce its abundance in a reasonable population level at the appropriate time (Smith and Trout 1994) or to moderate the extensive damage caused to agricultural crops by population control (Delibes-Mateos et al. 2011).

Consequently, the scope of the present study was to define the demographic and mechanistic factors related to spgr of the European rabbit with the aim of evaluating the combined effects of demographic and mechanistic parameters on the wild rabbit’s spgr by using a structural equation model. Implications for managing rabbits are then extensively discussed.

Materials and methods

Study area

The study was conducted in an agricultural area, located in the central region of Lemnos Island (39° 55′ N, 25° 12′ E), in the north Aegean Sea, Greece. It is a lowland area between 8 and 30 m above sea level, dominated by non-irrigated crops (annual cereals, >80 %), with irrigated alfalfa Medicago sativa, native vegetation in fallow fields and shrubby riparian vegetation (mixed Rubus spp. and Arundo donax) occupying the remaining study area. The vegetation in fallow fields is mainly composed of annual winter grasses, legumes, and forbs. The climate is typical-Mediterranean (Csa), with very warm and dry summers and mild winters. The mean annual temperature is 15.9 °C and the average annual precipitation is 474.4 mm, concentrated mainly between November and January. The area experiences occasional thunder storms and heavy rain during June. Mammalian predators are absent in the area. However, the most important predator is the common buzzard (B. buteo). The study area is grazed by sheep between June and September, after the cereal crop harvest. The Greek law allows night-shooting from vehicles from October to early March. Unfortunately, the area is also subject to illegal shooting outside this period.

Data collection and parameter determination

A direct method was employed in the current study for assessing rabbits’ abundance. Direct methods provide a tool for rapid and accurate estimate of density (Williams et al. 1995), although the detectability of animals and their behavior can undermine their suitability (Barrio et al. 2010a; Fernandez-de-Simon et al. 2011). According to Barrio et al. (2010a), however, direct methods are suitable for the estimation of relative abundance or population trends of wild rabbits in open agricultural landscapes. In addition and in order to minimize the drawbacks of the method, we only surveyed open habitats and only during sunrise and dusk to ensure better sampling of active rabbits (Moreno et al. 2007).

Data were collected during the years 2007–2009. A line transects survey technique was used to estimate the relative density of rabbits. Three fixed line transects were established in the study area and surveyed on consecutive days. Transects were distributed among three neighboring sites which were separated by streams and water channels. This spatial arrangement prevented the movement of rabbits between sites, even though they were spaced at a minimum of 400 m apart. The total length of transects was 8 km (3, 2.5, and 2.5 km each) and the width was 60 m (30 m on either side of the route). Because of the open nature of the habitat it is assumed that within this strip, most rabbits were counted. Surveys were conducted by the same observer with a mean walking speed of 1.5–2.0 km h−1. They were performed only during fine weather and over two daily periods to better sample active rabbits. The first transect counts started early in the morning and finished after 1 h, subsequent counts began in the late afternoon and concluded soon after sunset. Surveys were repeated on each transect at one and a half a monthly intervals (twice a season); early April and mid May in spring, early July and mid August in summer, late September and mid November in autumn, and early January and mid February in winter. In total, 72 replications were carried out during the study period (3 transects × 8 intervals per year × 3 years). Rabbit relative density (individuals ha−1) was calculated by dividing the average number of rabbits counted by the surveyed area.

The spgr was calculated using the formula r = logeλ, where λ is defined by dividing the density in time t + 1 by the density in time t (Sibly et al. 2003). The mean productivity for each specific survey period (t, t + 1) was estimated from post-mortem examination of 180 wild rabbits collected monthly by shooting. It was calculated by multiplying the average number of embryos of pregnant females by the percentage of females in the population that were pregnant. In order to calculate those reproductive parameters for the time period (t, t + 1), we used the average of monthly measurements of the included months for that period. Given that the gestation period of wild rabbits is 28 days, the pregnancy is detectable after 5–7 days (Brambell 1942), and young rabbits emerge at 21 days (Gibb 1990; Williams et al. 1995), we defined that the spgr had been influenced by the productivity with a time delay of one month.

Food shortage was determined by taking into consideration two elements: the frequency of green vegetation, and the quality of food. That data set was collected for each period. The frequency of green vegetation was estimated using line-point intercepts (see Cook and Stubbendieck 1986) along five 25 m linear transects, and expressed as a percentage (%). A total of 500 points were sampled each period, and points were spaced at 0.25 m apart. The concentration of nitrogen was used to measure the quality of food. During each period, we selected 10 square plots (50 × 50 cm) which were randomly distributed throughout the study area, and we clipped the vegetation to ground level. Vegetation was dried at 60 °C for 48 h and the crude protein was estimated using the Kjeldahl method (Bremner 1965). Protein content was estimated as N × 6.25 and we used the average content of the total sampled vegetation. The shortage of food was assessed as an inversely ordinal variable with three values: 0 = highest percentage (≥70 %) of green vegetation and qualitative food (crude protein of vegetation ≥ 15), 1 = limited percentage (40–70 %) of green vegetation with medium quality of food (crude protein of vegetation between 10–15), and 2 = almost no green vegetation (<40 %) with the lowest nutritional quality (crude protein of vegetation <10). We assumed that the spgr lagged behind food shortage by one sampling period, since neither the direct effect of deaths caused by starvation nor the indirect effect through the reduction of productivity appear directly related to the initial limitation of vegetation (Boos et al. 2005; Tablado et al. 2009).

Predation pressure was calculated as the number of predators (common buzzards) counted by the same observer at each visit during sampling. Furthermore, between May and July we added three chicks for each pair counted during the sampling. The mean number of chicks was obtained by checking 25 nests on the whole island. In the model, for each time period (t, t + 1) we used the value of predation which was measured for time t, as this number of predators affects the density of rabbits in that period. The hunting pressure was estimated from the number of cartridges counted along a 2,720-m permanent route, established on a dirt road where both legal and illegal hunting was being practiced. In order to avoid duplicate counting, cartridges were removed after each sampling. In each period, when sampling had ended, a new empty cartridge was left on the route. Cartridges that were probably missed from the last counts and had a higher degree of oxidation, than those which were left, were not considered at the next sampling. In the model, for each time period (t, t + 1) we used the number of cartridges counted at time t + 1, as this number of cartridges affect rabbit density in that period. The maximum and minimum temperature, total precipitation and maximum daily precipitation between consecutive surveys (t, t + 1) were calculated during the three study years. These variables are of particular importance since they have a direct effect on the survival and reproduction of rabbits (Cooke 1977; Gibb and Fitzgerald 1998; Trout et al. 2000; Palomares 2003; Rödel et al. 2009; Rödel and Dekker 2012), and an indirect affect through food shortage. The above variables were represented in the model through a climatic index, which was obtained after performing a principal component analysis on the original climatic data (Calvete et al. 2004; Williams et al. 2007) that measured between consecutive population surveys. Precipitation variables were found to be strongly related to the scores of the first principal component axis, and thus affecting mostly the climatic index.

In each surveying time, we collected five soil samples from each linear transect, located at distances of approximately 500 m. The soil samples were collected at least one week after a rainfall event and not during a dry period (Rueda et al. 2008). The soil moisture was determined as the difference of the weight of dried samples at 100 °C for 24-h by the net weight of soil. We applied management treatments on rabbit warrens during November 2008. One third of rabbits warrens were ripped randomly in our area using diggers and two-wheel-drive tractors with rippers. The destruction of warrens on the selected sites was performed at approximately 1 m depth, including a 4-m buffer zone around each site. Warrens were first ripped in one direction and then at right-angles to this to completely destroy the warrens (see Williams et al. 1995). Hence, the habitat treatment was introduced as a binary variable in the model; 0 for periods before treatments, and 1 for periods after warrens had been ripped.

Structural equation modeling

Structural equations modeling (SEM) is a powerful statistical method to address causal (direct and indirect) relationships between population parameters and a number of explanatory variables and their interactions. It is a technique for testing and estimating causal relationships, by using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions, and it is typically used to develop a modeling strategy (Mitchell 1992). Initially, a path diagram is formed in which the illustrated relationships arise primarily from knowledge based on literature and field experience. Then, estimates of regression weights are computed and the strength of these relationships is depicted in the path diagram (Meyers et al. 2006). The model consists of a series of equations which transform the graphical form of the initial theoretical model to causal linkages among all studied variables (Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996).

The hypothetical model (Fig. 2a) developed assumes that both demographic (productivity) and mechanistic (food shortage, predation, hunting pressure, and habitat manipulation) parameters have a direct effect on spgr; climate has either a direct or an indirect effect, while soil moisture has only indirect effect. Given that neither myxomatosis nor RHD have been recorded in the study area during the last decade, we assumed that the aforementioned parameters regulate the seasonal population fluctuation of the wild rabbit. We also assumed a number of correlations among the independent variables.

Statistical analysis

We used the maximum likelihood procedure to estimate standardized path coefficients. They express the proportions of variance and the correlations among variables. We used different approaches to statistically assess the model fitness: the chi-square test, the normed fit index (NFI), the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; see Browne and Cudeck 1993; Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996). The process of analysis in a structural equations system focuses on minimizing the discrepancy function. The chi-square was also mentioned as a measure of discrepancy. Lower chi-square values indicate better models adaptation. NFI and GFI range between 0 and 1, with values >0.90 indicating a good fit (Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996; Hair et al. 1998), although values higher than 0.8 were considered acceptable (see Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996). RMSEA index values less than 0.05 indicate a good model fit, between 0.05 and 0.08 indicate moderate adjustment, while higher index values indicate poor adjustment (Browne and Cudeck 1993).

SEM analysis was performed with the AMOS (release 7.0 for Windows) procedure of the SPSS statistical package (release 15.0 for Windows).

Population fluctuation

The general pattern of seasonal population trend of the European rabbit is shown in Fig. 1. European rabbits start breeding within the two last weeks of January, whereas substantial numbers of young rabbits appear during spring (from March to May) and summer (June and July). The population decreases gradually from the beginning of autumn (September) until the end of winter (February).
Fig. 1

Population trend (mean seasonal number of individuals per hectare) of European wild rabbit obtained by line transects in Lemnos Island. Vertical lines above columns show the standard error (SE) of the mean. The black arrow indicates the time that habitat treatment occurred to rabbits’ warrens

Model evaluation

Path analysis revealed non-statistically significant differences (χ2 = 6.896, df = 9, P = 0.648), indicating a good fit of the collected data to the null model that assumes independence among variables. GFI and NFI suggested a good adjustment, as both indices were greater than 0.90 (0.91 and 0.92, respectively), and the zero value of RMSEA index confirmed a good fit of the model.

Assessment of factors

The values of standardized path coefficients and the values of zero-ordered correlation coefficients are shown in Fig. 2b. The mean productivity had a significant positive effect on spgr (+0.77). On the other hand, significant negative effects on spgr were obtained for food shortage, hunting pressure and predation, but not for management treatment and climate index. Management treatment indicated a negative and climate index had a positive effect, but not significantly so. Soil moisture negatively affected food shortage. The unexplained variance (R) resulted by the model was 0.88.
Fig. 2

a Structural Equation Model (SEM) depicting hypothetical relationships between both demographic and mechanistic factors, and seasonal population growth rate of European rabbits. Single-headed arrows (solid lines) indicate causal relationships (standardized coefficients) between variables and double-headed arrows (dashed lines) show associations (zero-ordered coefficients) between variables. b SEM illustrating the direct and indirect effects of demographic and mechanistic factors on the seasonal population growth rate of European rabbits, using density data from line transects (mean relative density). Black arrows represent positive effects and grey arrows represent negative effects. Arrow widths are proportional to magnitude of coefficients. Values of standardized partial regression coefficients are shown with asterisks (* = P < 0.05; ** = P < 0.01) when they are significantly different from zero. Number above R denotes the unexplained variance by the model

The results of SEM are generally in accordance with our assumptions, since most of the variables were determinants to the spgr of European rabbits in a typical Mediterranean ecosystem. Both demographic and mechanistic parameters, acting directly on spgr and indirectly through food shortage, explain to a great extent the seasonal population fluctuation of European rabbits. This is in line with the findings reported in the literature (see Williams et al. 1995; Krebs 2001; Caley and Morley 2002; Palomares 2003). However, the unexplained variance indicates that other factors, including density-dependent factors, such as colonization, age structure, parasites, over-winter survival etc. (Thompson and King 1994; Williams et al. 1995; Rödel et al. 2004a, b), are likely to influence the seasonal population variation. Therefore, the model reveals a global picture of the factors causally influencing seasonal population fluctuation, detecting at the same time their combined effect. However, the consideration of several factors simultaneously may partly obscure the significant effect of individual factors, due to their opposing action. For instance, the negative synergistic action of predation and hunting pressure may mitigate the positive effect of productivity on spgr.

Mediterranean ecosystems are highly seasonal environments which tend to confine reproduction and mortality in certain periods during the year. In those environments, a particular fluctuation of population is exhibited, and herbivores, like the European rabbit, take advantage of short favorable seasons to reproduce (di Castri and Mooney 1973). The rapid population growth occurring during spring and early summer is followed by a population decline from early autumn through to the end of winter (Fig. 1). This cyclical fluctuation in population size is apparent and it is further characterized by a high degree of inter-annual variation.

The mean productivity was the main determining factor which is conducive to the European rabbit’s spgr. The onset and the end of the breeding season is influenced by environmental and/or ecological factors (e.g., growing vegetation season, precipitation, etc.), and may therefore vary among different areas and among years within an area (Soriguer and Myers 1986; Gonçalves et al. 2002; Rödel and von Holst 2008; Tablado et al. 2009). This variation of the breeding season length may have consequences on the spgr through density fluctuation. Food shortage appears to be the most important negative factor for the spgr. In the Mediterranean region, it could be more pronounced in late summer and early autumn when herbaceous vegetation has dried up and has almost disappeared due to the dry climate (Dallman 1998). Furthermore, the quality of vegetation is degraded drastically during this period, and the available food provided by agricultural crops is minimized due to harvesting (Kontsiotis 2011). All these factors signal the end of the breeding season (Gonçalves et al. 2002; Rödel and von Holst 2008; Tablado et al. 2009) by zeroing the productivity, hence negatively influencing the spgr. In addition, they are responsible for the direct or indirect wild rabbit’s mortality, due to starvation or malnutrition (Moreno and Villafuerte 1995; Palomares and Delibes 1997; Villafuerte et al. 1997; Gibb and Fitzgerald 1998; Palomares 2001; Wilson et al. 2002; Williams et al. 2007), by exerting additional negative effects on the spgr, especially during this period where wild rabbit numbers are at their peak (Kontsiotis 2011). Livestock grazing did not have an impact on the available vegetation, since its effect was very low (<1 %) on the total available vegetation for wild rabbits (Kontsiotis 2011).

The negative effect of hunting pressure on wild rabbits has been noted in other studies (Caruso and Siracusa 2001; Angulo and Villafuerte 2003; Williams et al. 2007), but this effect may not be of critical importance in their population dynamics (Williams et al. 1995). In our study, the significant negative effect of hunting pressure could be attributed to its high and constant occurrence throughout the year (both legal and illegal shooting), to the absence of periodically emerging viral diseases (myxomatosis and RHD), and to the low impact of other mortality factors such as human intervention, adverse weather conditions etc.

Predation was a significant parameter influencing spgr of European rabbits in our study. This may be caused by the high breeding density of common buzzards on the island. Several studies have addressed the effect of predation on European rabbits (Moriarty et al. 2000; Lombardi et al. 2003), but the results are rather inconclusive. In the Iberian Peninsula where rabbits constitute the prey for more than 40 predators, the predation displayed a reciprocal negative effect on the predator–prey system (Moreno et al. 2007; Delibes-Mateos et al. 2009), as in most areas of Australia (Gibb and Fitzgerald 1998; Moriarty et al. 2000). Predation is also referred as an important determinant of wild rabbits at low densities, mainly after populations collapse due to diseases (e.g., RHD, myxomatosis), playing an inhibitory role in the population resurgence (Moreno et al. 2007). In England and Wales, Trout et al. (2000) have noted that predator removal was associated with higher numbers of rabbits, but the cause and effect was unclear. In contrast, predation pressure of both red foxes and common buzzards on rabbits was not found by Caruso and Siracusa (2001) in Italy. Furthermore, a relationship between red fox abundance and rabbit abundance was not observed in northeastern Spain (Williams et al. 2007).

Neither habitat treatment nor climate index had significant effects on spgr. Although habitat treatment showed the expected negative effect on spgr, however, the obtained weight was weak and insignificant (Fig. 2b). There are probably two reasons behind this pattern. Firstly, the ripping of the one third of the study area only was apparently not adequate to cause a significant impact. Secondly, although ripping was suggested by Williams et al. (1995) as the most efficient control measure, especially in agricultural areas (Barrio et al. 2011), it was also suggested that it needs to be combined with additional population control measures, which was not the case in the current study.

Climate index, which in the current study is primarily a function of precipitation, also had an insignificant effect on spgr (Fig. 2b). This was probably due to the good soil drainage, which prevents warren flooding, and the mild climate of the region. It was further found to have a negative but insignificant effect on food shortage, which is explained by the positive effect of precipitation on biomass production. Several researchers have demonstrated the negative impact of adverse weather conditions on European rabbits in areas with prolonged snow cover (Trout et al. 2000), extremely high temperatures (Cooke 1977), and floods (Gibb and Fitzgerald 1998; Palomares 2003; Rödel et al. 2009), as well as interactions between seasonal temperatures and precipitation (Rödel and Dekker 2012).

Significant correlations in zero-ordered coefficients between pairs of variables (e.g., between productivity and predation, see Fig. 2b) are mainly due to their temporal values coincidence. For example, the negative correlation between productivity and food shortage is the result of the opposite temporal appearance of their values; as productivity peaks in spring, food shortage diminishes simultaneously. On the other hand, productivity and predation coincidently both peak during the spring.

In conclusion, the integrative approach made in this study, revealed the importance of demographic and mechanistic parameters to the spgr of the European rabbit. It is further highlighted that the seasonal variability in population density, expressed here as spgr, is determined by direct and indirect interactions between spgr and productivity, food shortage, predation, hunting pressure and soil moisture. Both fecundity and mortality factors regulate the European rabbit’s population interannually in Mediterranean ecosystems and generally have considerable potential for its spgr. Therefore, factors determining spgr have profound implications for managing European rabbits (Sinclair et al. 2006), in particular when seasonal population size exceeds a desired level. The effect of warren ripping, as identified in the current study, indicates the need for its application on a larger scale, since its effect on population control is unambiguous.

Implications for management

The management of the European rabbit population is an immediate priority in many regions of the world (Delibes-Mateos et al. 2011), either for control or for conservation purposes (Lees and Bell 2008). Our findings may contribute to a combination of actions and regulations aiming for a multi-purpose management of rabbits. For example, a reduction of productivity was motivated by management measures, i.e., the exclusion of rabbits from productive habitats, a simultaneous increase in the hunting intensity and/or an adjustment of hunting period (Gonçalves et al. 2002), could cause a reduction in their populations in areas and/or periods of time where the species is considered a pest. On the other hand, where and when the reduction of rabbits is associated with cascade effects in the ecosystems, stimulation of productivity, e.g., by qualitative food supply, decreasing hunting intensity and/or an adjustment of hunting period (Ferreira and Alves 2009; Gonçalves et al. 2002), could enhance their populations. Even though our study area represents a typical insular Mediterranean agricultural landscape, and a well-defined intra-annually population fluctuation pattern was identified during a three-year study, the extrapolation of our findings to broader scales might be risky and needs to be done with caution (Schaub et al. 2011). Our results suggest that understanding how spgr varies according to both demographic and mechanistic factors is crucial to managing effectively a seasonally fluctuated future rabbit population.

This research is part of a Ph.D. thesis, and supported partly financially by the Prefecture of Lesbos. Thanks are given to Professors N. Papageorgiou, C. Vlachos, and V. Papanastasis for their valuable comments during this research. We are most grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions for the improvement of the manuscript. Furthermore, we would like to thank Mrs Margaret Gallacher for her linguistic assistance and Dr P. Xofis for his fruitful comments on this article. The Ministry of Rural Development and Food is also acknowledged for the permission to collect data. The study was conducted according to the Greek and EU laws.

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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013


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Chopper Fold - Conveying a signature from the first parallel fold in a horizontal plane, spine forward, until it passes under a reciprocating blade that forces it down between folding rollers to complete the fold.

CIE - International Commission on Illumination. A standards institute most well known in the graphic arts for its work in color space definition.

Coating - An unbroken, clear film applied to a substrate in layers to protect and seal it, or to make it glossy.

Collate - In binding, the gathering of sheets or signatures.

Color Fidelity - How well a printed piece matches the original.

Color Specification System - Charts or swatches of preprinted color patches of blended inks, each with a corresponding number, used to allow designers, printers and customers to communicate color with more accuracy.

Combination Folder - A bindery machine or in-line finishing component of a web press that incorporates the characteristic of knife and buckle folders.

Composite File - A PostScript file that represents color pages containing picture elements specified in terms of RGB (red, green and blue) color space as opposed to black and white “gray level” pages which represent separations.

Compression - Reducing the size of a file for storage purposes or to enhance the speed of data transfer by eliminating the redundancies and other unnecessary elements from the original. See also: data compression.

Concept Creation - Selecting images and generating and approving ideas from thumbnails and rough layouts during the graphic design process.

Content Proof - A proof that shows the customer the correct text and position of image elements but does not necessarily show accurate color reproduction.

Content Provider -One who owns or is licensed to sell content.

Copyfitting - Adjusting copy to the allotted space, by editing the text or changing the type size and leading.

Crop - To opaque, mask, mark, cut, or trim an illustration or other reproduction to fit a designated area.

Cropping - (1)Indicating what portion of the copy is to be included in the final reproduction. (2)Trimming unwanted areas of a photograph film or print.

Cyan - One of the three subtractive primary colors used in process printing. It is commonly known as “process blue.”

Cylinder - Part of a system of large rollers on an offset lithography press. The plate cylinder transfers an image onto the blanket cylinder, which is then offset onto a press sheet passing between the blanket and impression cylinders.

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Data File - Text, graphics, or pictures that are stored electronically as a unit.

Decompress - To return compressed data to its original size and condition.

Default - A method or value that software will use in processing information unless the computer operator specifies otherwise. For example, a scanning program has default settings for variables like brightness and contrast that apply unless the user requests something else.

Delivery - (1) The section of a printing press that receives, jogs and stacks the printed sheet. (2) The output end of bindery equipment.

Density - The amount an object absorbs or reflects light is called “density level.” High-density objects absorb or stop light; low-density objects reflect or transmit light.

Descender - The part of a lower case letter which extends below the main body, as in “p”.

Desktop Color Separation (DCS) - A color file format that creates five PostScript files, one for each color (CMYK) and a data file about the image.

Desktop Publishing - The creation of fully composed pages with all text and graphics in place on a system that includes a personal computer with a color monitor; word processing, page-makeup, illustration, and other off-the-shelf software; digitized type fonts; a laser printer; and other peripherals, such as an optical image scanner. Completely paginated films are output from an imagesetter.

Desktop Publishing Stripping - Electronic assembly of all elements in final imposition for direct output as composite negative or plate.

Digital - Method of representing information in numerical (binary) code. Unlike analog signals, digital ones are either "on" or "off." See also: analog device.

Digital Color Proof - Proof printed directly from computer data to paper or another substrate without creating separation films first. Proof made with computer output device, such as laser or inkjet printer.

Digitize - To convert an image or signal into binary form.

Digitized Information - Text, photographs and illustrations converted into digital signals for input, processing and output in an electronic publishing system.

Document - (1)Recorded information regardless of physical form or characteristics. Often used interchangeably with record. (2)An individual record or an item of nonrecord materials or of personal papers 2.A collection of information that is processed as a unit.

Document Content - Document Content refers to the substance of the material or information within the document that is intended to be communicated.

Dot - The individual element of a halftone.

Dots Per Inch (DPI) - A unit that describes the resolution of an output device or monitor.

Drier - A substance added to ink to hasten drying.

Dryer - A unit on a web press that hardens the heatset ink by evaporating the solvent ingredient in it.

Dynamically-generated pages - Web pages, birthed at the time they are downloaded, often contain up-to-the-second data pulled into a template. Search engine results pages are dynamically generated.

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Easter egg - A small cartoon, animation, or other feature hidden by a programmer in the code of a game or application and triggered by an arcane sequence of keystrokes or mouse clicks.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) - (1)The communication or transmission of data as electronic messages according to established rules and format s in order to transact business. (2)Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). The computer-to-computer exchange of formatted, transactional information between autonomous organizations. (3)EDI is the exchange of routine business transactions in machine readable format . It covers many areas including, ordering, pricing, quoting, backordering, shipping, receiving, planning purchases as well as invoicing and payments. There are two competing standards : EDIFACT and ASC X12. ASC X12 and EDIFACT consider their format differences to be minor and are pursuing reconciliation.

Electronic Printing, Black or Spot Color - Technology that reproduces pages in black or black plus spot (highlight) colors directly from a computer file without negatives, plates, etc., typically using electrostatic or electrophotographic processes.

Electronic Printing, Full-color - Technology that reproduces pages in process colors directly from a computer file without negatives, plates, etc., typically using electrostatic or electrophotographic processes.

Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) - A file format used to transfer PostScript™ image information from one program to another.

Encapsulation - In programming, the process of combining elements to create a new entity. For example, a procedure is a type of encapsulation because it combines a series of computer instructions. Likewise, a complex data type, such as a record or class, relies on encapsulation. Object-oriented programming languages rely heavily on encapsulation to create high-level objects . Encapsulation is closely related to abstraction and information hiding.

Engraved Cylinder - An image carrier with recessed image areas that are filled with ink, which is then transferred to the substrate. Engraved, or intaglio, cylinders are often used in the gravure process.

Enhanced Multi-color (“High-fidelity”) Printing - Full-color printing using six, seven or more “process” colors instead of the traditional four.

Estimating - The process of determining approximate cost, specifying required quality and quantity, and projecting waste.

Environmentally-friendly Processes - Reduced-chemical, silver-and VOC-free processes for preparation of printed materials.

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Face - Edge of a bound publication opposite the spine.

FAQ - Frequently-asked-questions.

Felt Side - The smoother side of the paper.

File - A collection of digital information stored together as a unit on a computer disk or other storage medium and given a unique name, which permits the user to access the information. A file may contain text, images, video, sound, or an application program.

Filler - Inorganic materials like clay, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, and other white pigments added to the papermaking finish to improve opacity, brightness, and the overall printing surface.

Fold - Bending and creasing a sheet of paper as required to form a printed product.

Foot - The bottom of a page or book.

Format - (1)The sequential organization of data in terms of its components. Also: A specific arrangement of data. (2)a.The shape, size, style, and general makeup of a particular record. (2)b.In electronic records , the arrangement of data for computer input or output, such as the number and size of data fields in a logical record or the spacing and letter size used in a document . Also called layout. See also FILE LAYOUT, RECORD LAYOUT. (2)c.In microform records, the placement of microimage s within a given microform (image arrangement) or the arrangement of images in relation to the edges of the film (image orientation).

Form - Each side of a signature.

Frequency-modulated Screening - See stochastic screening.

FTP - File Transfer Protocol is the language computers speak to transfer files between systems over the Internet.

Full-scale Black - A black printer separation that prints dots in every part of the picture, from the highlight to the shadow. Also called full-range black.

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Gather - To assemble folded signatures in proper sequence.

GIF - The Graphic Interchange Format is a compression format for images. Pictures and graphics you see on Web pages are usually in GIF format because the files are small and download quickly.

Grain - The direction in which most fibers are aligned.

Gutter - The inside margin of a bound page.

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Halftone-based Digital Proofing - Producing a proof with reliable color and halftone pattern directly from a digital file, usually by electronic process, without producing a set of film negatives.

Head - The top of a page or book.

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Image Area - On a lithographic printing plate, the area that has been specially treated to receive ink and repel water.

Image Capture - The process of converting photographs or other artwork into digital data so that they can be used in computer-based layouts.

Image Carrier - The device on a printing press that carries an inked image either to an intermediate rubber blanket or directly to the paper or other printing substrate. A direct-printing letterpress form, a lithographic plate, a gravure cylinder and a screen used in screen printing are examples of image carriers.

Image Processing - The alteration or manipulation of images that have been scanned or captured by a digital recording device. Can be used to modify or improve the image by changing its size, color, contrast, and brightness, or to compare and analyze images for characteristics that the human eye could not perceive unaided. This ability to perceive minute variations in color, shape, and relationship has opened up many application s for image processing.

Imposition - The process of placing graphics into predetermined positions on a press-size sheet of paper. Page layout is the process of defining where repeating elements such as headlines, text, and folios (page numbers) will appear on multiple pages throughout a document, while imposition can be thought of as defining where these completed pages will appear on much larger sheets of paper.

Imposition, Head-to-Head - Arranging pages on a form during stripping so that the top of one page is located adjacent to the top of the opposite page.

Imposition Layout - A guide that indicates how images should be assembled on the sheet to meet press, folding, and bindery requirements.

Impression - One sheet passing once through the press.

Impression Cylinder - The hard metal cylinder that presses the paper against the inked blanket cylinder, transferring the inked image to the substrate. The impression cylinder on most sheetfed presses uses paper grippers to hold the sheet through its rotation.

Indexed Color Images - An image where each pixel value is used as an index to a palette for interpretation before it can be displayed. Such images must, therefore, contain a palette which has been initialized specifically for a given image. The pixel values are usually 8-bit and the palette 24-bit (8-red, 8-green, and 8-blue). See also eight-bit image.

Infeed - (1) The section of a sheetfed press where the sheet is transferred from the registering devices of the feedboard to the first impression cylinder. (2) The set of rollers controlling web tension ahead of the first unit on a web press.

Ink - A printing ink is a dispersion of a colored solid (pigment) in a liquid, specially formulated to reproduce an image on a substrate.

Inking System - The section of a lithographic press that controls the distribution of ink to the plate.

Inplant - A department or division of a company that usually does printing for only that company.

Intensity - The measurement of color from dull to brilliant.

ISO - International Standards Organization.

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JPG - Joint Pictures Expert Group. The committee which set standards for a file format for graphics. The

JPEG file format is a compressed format, with some loss of quality during compression. A popular web format do to the generally small size of pictures. File formats of .jpg, .jpeg, and .jpe.

JDF - JDF is a comprehensive XML-based file format/proposed industry standard for end-to-end job ticket specifications combined with a message description standard and message interchange protocol. JDF is designed to streamline information exchange between different applications and systems. JDF is intended to enable the entire industry, including media, design, graphic arts, on demand and e-commerce companies to implement and work with individual workflow solutions. JDF will allow integration of heterogeneous products from diverse vendors to seamless workflow solutions. Basic Idea upon which JDF is based: To develop an open, extensible, XML-based job ticket standard, as well as mechanism that provides new business opportunities for all individuals and companies involved in the process of creating, managing and producing published documents in the new economy. Building on existing technologies of CIP3’s PPF and Adobe’s PJTF, the Job Definition Format supplies a means for printing businesses to streamline the process of producing printed material. The most prominent features of JDF are: (1)Ability to carry a print job from genesis through completion. This includes a detailed description of the creative, prepress, press, postpress and delivery processes. (2)Ability to bridge the communication gap between production and Management Information Services. This ability enables instantaneous job and device tracking as well as detailed pre- and post calculation of jobs in the graphic arts. (3)Ability to bridge the gap between the customer’s view of product and the manufacturing process by defining a process independent product view as well as a process dependent production view of a print job. (4)Ability to define and track any user defined workflow without constraints on the supported workflow models. This includes serial, parallel, overlapping and iterative processing in arbitrary combinations and over distributed locations. (5)Ability to do so (1,2,3&4) under nearly any precondition.

Job Specifications - A detailed description of the requirements of a print job.

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K - Abbreviation for black in four-color process printing.

Knife - In folding machines, the three or four blades at different levels and at right angles to each other that force the paper between the folding rollers. The sheet of paper is pushed from one knife folding mechanism to the other until the desired number of folds have been made.

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Lap Register - Register where ink colors overlap slightly.

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M - The abbreviation for magenta in the four-color process. Also the abbreviation for “one thousand”.

MNG - (pronounced "ming") The proposed Multiple Network Graphics format is a multi-image extension of the existing PNG format.

Magenta - One of the three subtractive primary colors of process printing. It is commonly called “process red.”

Master - To etch pits (tracks) into the Glass Master (acts like a negative) from which a CD-ROM “stamper” is made.

Mechanical Binding - Clasping individual sheets together with plastic, small wire, or metal rings. Two examples are three-ring binding and spiral binding.

Misregister - Printed images that are incorrectly positioned, either in reference to each other or to the sheet’s edges.

Mottle - Spotty or speckled printing.

Mount - To fasten the plate or blanket to an offset press.

Moveable Type - The individual metal or wooden type characters that are taken from the typecase, arranged to form words and sentences, and then returned to the case for reuse later.

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Non-image Area - The portion of a lithographic printing plate that is treated to accept water and repel ink when the plate is on the press. Only the ink-receptive areas will print an image.

Non-impact Printing - A printing device that creates letters or images on a substrate without striking it. Large, high-speed and ordinary office photocopiers as well as laser and ink-jet printers are some examples.

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Oblong - A booklet or catalog bound along the shorter dimension.

Oxidation - Combining oxygen with the drying oil in a printing ink to promote a slow chemical reaction that produces a dry ink film.

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Page - One side of a leaf in a publication.

Page Layout Software - Computer programs used to assemble type and images into page form.

PDF - Portable document format. A computer file format that preserves a printed or electronic document’s original layout, type fonts and graphics as one unit for electronic transfer and viewing. The recipient uses compatible “reader” software to access and even print the PDF file.

Perforating - Punching a row of small hole or incisions into or through a sheet of paper to permit part of it to be detached; to guide in folding; to allow air to escape from signatures; or to prevent wrinkling when folding heavy papers.

Pinholes - Tiny areas that are not covered by ink.

Pixel Interleave - System of organizing color data within a computer pixel-by-pixel (i.e., a pixel of yellow, a pixel of magenta, a pixel of cyan, a pixel of black, etc.). See also: pixel.

Pixelization - A technique used to represent areas of complex detail as relatively large square or rectangular blocks of discrete, uniform colors or tones.

Plate Cylinder - In lithography, the cylinder that holds the printing plate tightly and in register on press. It places the plate in contact with the dampening rollers that wet the nonimage area and the inking rollers that ink the image area, then transfers the inked image to the blanket, which is held on its own cylinder.

Platemaking - Preparing a printing plate or other image carrier so that it is ready for the press.

Platesetters - A device that images printing plates directly from digital image data; no film or any analog processes are required.

Platform - (1)A computer hardware usually incorporating a specific operating system. (2)The underlying hardware or software for a system. For example, the platform might be an Intel 80486 processor running DOS Version 6.0. The platform could also be UNIX machines on an Ethernet network. The platform defines a standard around which a system can be developed. Once the platform has been defined, software developers can produce appropriate software and managers can purchase appropriate hardware and applications. The term is often used as a synonym of operating system. The term cross-platform refers to applications, formats, or devices that work on different platforms. For example, a cross-platform programming environment enables a program mer to develop programs for many platforms.

Point-and-Click Access - Use of graphical-user-interface (GUI) software and a mouse to execute computer commands.

POP - Point of Presence, terminology for local access to a network or telecom service. Also point of purchase.

Port - The connecting point between an electronic device and the equipment that transfers data to the rest of the system.

Positive - A reproduction which is exactly like the original.

PostScript - Adobe Systems, Inc. tradename for a page description language that enables imagesetters and other output devices developed by different companies to interpret electronic files from any number of personal computers ("front ends") and off-the-shelf software programs.

PostScript, encapsulated - A file format used to transfer PostScript™ image information from one program to another.

Postpress - The final stages in the printing process in which printed sheets are transformed into saleable products, including binding, finishing and delivery.

Preflighting - An orderly procedure using a checklist to verify that all components of an electronic file are present and correct prior to submitting the document for high-resolution output.

Premakeready - The stage prior to printing in which all production specs are examined, necessary materials are brought to the press, and materials are checked for damage.

Presswork - All operations performed on or by a printing press that lead to the transfer of inked images from the image carrier to the paper or other substrate.

Printer Control Language - (PCL) the page description language (PDL) developed by Hewlett Packard and used in many of their laser and ink-jet printers. PCL 5 and later versions support a scalable font technology called Intellifont.

Print Quality - The degree to which the appearance and other properties of a print job approach the desired result.

Printing Plates - A thin metal, plastic or paper sheet that serves as the image carrier in many printing processes.

Printing Unit - The sections on printing presses that house the components for reproducing an image on the substrate. In lithography, a printing unit includes the inking and dampening systems and the plate, blanket and impression cylinders.

Process Control - A system using feedback to monitor and manage a certain procedure, input and output data are tabulated according to specific formulas and compared with certain standards and limits; the process is then adjusted as necessary.

Process Photography - (1) Creating line and halftone images for photomechanical reproduction. (2) The equipment, materials and methods used in preparing color-separated printing forms for color reproduction.

Proof - A prototype of an image that is supposed to show how it will appear when printed on the press.

Property Rights - Metadata recording the ownership of Content and the history of ownership may be stored in the wrapper in order to facilitate the establishment and preservation of copyright.

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Quality Control - The day-to-day operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfill requirements for quality, such as intermediate and final product inspections, testing incoming materials and calibrating instruments used to verify product quality.

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RAW - This may be a Photoshop RAW file, which is a PSD file with no identifying header. Or it may be a minimally formatted image data dump.

RTF - Microsoft's Rich Text Format, which is normally used as a well-understood cross-platform word processing document format, but which can store pictures as well as text. As image storage formats go, though, this one is as inefficient as Postscript.

Random Access - A system of data file management in which a record is accessible independent of its file location or the location of the previous record accessed. In other words, records need not be accessed sequentially.

Random Proof - A color proof consisting of many images ganged on one substrate and randomly positioned with no relation to the final page imposition. This is a cost-effective way to verify the correctness of completed scans prior to further stripping and color correction work. Also called scatter proof.

Raster - An image composed of a set of horizontal scan lines that are formed sequentially by writing each line following the previous line, particularly on a television screen or computer monitor. See also: bitmap.

Raster Image Processor (RIP) - The device that interprets all of the page layout information for the marking engine of the imagesetter or platesetter. PostScript or another page description language serves as an interface between the page layout workstation and the RIP.

Rasterization - The process of converting mathematical and digital information into a series of variable-density pixels.

Resolution - S(1)The density of dots or pixels on a page or display usually measured in dots per inch. The higher the resolution, the smoother the appearance of text or graphics. (2)The precision with which an optical, photographic, or photomechanical system can render visual image detail. Resolution is a measure of image sharpness or the performance of an optical system. It is expressed in lines per inch or millimeter.

Rich Text Format - A standard developed by Microsoft Corporation for specifying format ting of documents. RTF files are actually ASCII files with special commands to indicate format ting information, such as fonts and margins. Other document format ting languages include the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is used to define document s on the World Wide Web, and the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a more robust version of HTML.

Rotogravure - A printing process that uses a cylinder as an image carrier. Image areas are etched below nonimage area in the form of tiny sunken cells. The cylinder is immersed in ink, and the excess ink is scraped off by a blade. When the substrate contacts the printing cylinder, ink transfers, forming the image.

RRED - Right reading, emulsion side down.

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Scanner - Electronic device used to digitize an image.

Secondary Colors - Colors created by combining two primary colorants of a color system. Example: red would be the secondary color produced with magenta and yellow. Also referred to as overprint colors.

Sharpen - Reducing the size in halftones or separations.

Sheeter - A device on a printing press that converts continuous forms into smaller sheets.

Sheetfed Press - A printing press that feeds and prints on individual sheets of paper (or another substrate), rather than a continuous paper roll or web.

Shrink Wrap - Using heat to affix a thin plastic material around printed and bound products to prepare them for shipment.

Silhouette Halftone - A halftone with all of the background removed.

Slur - A smearing of ink that occurs in printing when there isn’t enough pressure on the blanket.

SNAP - Specifications for Nonheatset Advertising Printing, a set of standards for color separations and proofing developed for those printing with uncoated paper and newsprint stock in the United States.

Soft Proof - A proof that is viewed on a color-calibrated video monitor as opposed to a hard proof printed on paper.

Software - The stored instructions (programs) that initiate the various functions of a computer (the hardware). Instructions may be written in machine language or in another programming language, then compiled, interpreted, or assembled into machine language. Word processing, page layout, and drawing programs are a few of the software programs used in the graphic arts. There are also other more specialized software programs that control high-end color electronic prepress systems and even some presswork applications.

Solvent - A component of the vehicle in printing inks that disperses the pigment and keeps the solid binder liquid enough for use in the printing process.

Spectrum - The series of color bands formed when a ray of light is dispersed by refraction; the rainbow-like band of colors resulting when a ray of white light is passed through a prism.

Splice - The area where two paper rolls are joined to form one continuous roll.

Spread - Two facing pages. They can be a reader’s spread or a printer’s spread.

Stamping - Using a die and often colored foil or gold leaf to press a design into a book cover, a sheet of paper or another substrate. The die may be used alone (in blank stamping) if no color or other ornamentation is necessary. Special presses fitted with heating devices can stamp designs into book covers.

Statistical Process Control (SPC) - Method of understanding and managing production processes by collecting numerical data about each step in the process and all materials used in the production sequence, including output; this data is then analyzed to locate causes of variations.

Stock - The paper or other substrate to be printed.

Substrate - Any surface on which printing is done.

Subtractive Color System - A means of producing a color reproduction or image with combinations of yellow, magenta and cyan colorants, which serve as filters to “remove” colors from a white substrate.

Swatch - A small, printed solid used for color matching or measurement. It represents what an ink color might look like after it is printed.

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TIFF/TIF - TIFF stands for Tag Image File Format; TIFF was a large, unwieldy, 24 bit format untilversion 6 came out, which supported compression and made it less painful. The fact that its compression was somewhat broken and might or might not be compatible with different programs on different computers somewhat reduced the bonus. The compression is LZW and thus owned and licensed out by Unisys (see GIF) is another problem. TIFF is, nonetheless, a very popular professional graphics format. A TIFF file permits the image to be edited in other applications (ie, QuarkXpress, and Macromedia Freehand)

Terms and Conditions - This is metadata that describes the "rules" for use of an object. Terms and conditions might include an access list of who can view the object, a "conditions of use" statement that might be displayed before access to the object is allowed, a schedule (tariff) of prices and fees for use of the object, or a definition of permitted uses of an object (viewing, printing, copying, etc.).

Tonal Compression - The reduction of an original’s tonal range to a tonal range achievable though the reproduction process.

Type 1 - A format for storing digital typefaces developed by Adobe Systems. The most popular typeface format for PostScript printers.

Typesetting - Composing type into words and lines in accordance with the manuscript and typographic specifications.

Typography - The art and craft of creating and/or setting type professionally.

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Uncoated Paper - Paper that has not been coated with clay.

URL - The Uniform Resource Locator is the address of a page on the Web.

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Vacuum Frame - A device that holds film or plates in place by withdrawing air through small holes in a rubber supporting surface.

Varnish - A thin, protective liquid coating applied to the printed sheet for protection or appearance.

Vector - Mathematical descriptions of images and their placement.

Vehicle - The liquid component of a printing ink.

Visible Spectrum - That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the human eye is sensitive; wavelengths of approximately 400 through 700 nanometers. Because of the characteristics of cone sensing (color-reading mechanism of the retina), it is generally agreed that humans detect only red, green, and blue. All perceived colors are combinations of those sensitivities (hue) in relation to the strength of the transmitted or reflected light (brightness) and the intensity of the light hitting the retina (saturation). Ultraviolet wavelengths are shorter and infrared wavelengths are longer than the sensitivity range of the eye and are invisible as a result.

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WMF - Windows Metafile format, which is an intermediate vector format for Windows programs to use when interchanging data and, generally speaking, should never be seen anywhere else.

WPG - WordPerfect metafile format, used by WordPerfect software on various platforms. It supports bitmapped, vector and Encapsulated Postscript data.

Washup - The process of cleaning the rollers, form or place and fountain of a press with solvents to remove ink as required after a day’s run, or during a run for ink color changes.

Waterless Lithography Sheetfed - Water-free offset lithographic capability on a sheetfed press that allows ultrafine reproduction and improved, almost continuous-looking halftones.

Waterless Lithography Web - Water-free offset lithographic capability on a web press that allows ultrafine reproduction and improved, almost continuous-looking halftones.

White Light - Theoretically, light that emits all wavelengths of the visible spectrum at uniform intensity. In reality, most light sources cannot achieve such perfection.

Widow - A single word in a line by itself, ending a paragraph, or starting a page, frowned upon in good typography.

Wire Side - The side of a sheet next to the wire in paper manufacturing; opposite the felt or top side.

With the Grain - Folding or feeding paper into a press parallel to the grain of the paper.

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Xerography - An electrostatic nonimpact printing process in which heat fuses dry ink toner particles in electrically charged areas of the substrate, forming a permanent image. The charged areas of the substrate appear dark on the reproduction, while uncharged areas remain white.

X-Height - The height of lowercase letters in a font (not including ascenders or descenders).

XML - eXtensible Markup Language is designed especially for Web documents. It enables Web authors and designers to create their own customized tags to provide functionality not available with HTML.

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SD council considers plastic bag ban

Plastic carryout shopping bags would be prohibited in San Diego if an ordinance advanced by a City Council committee today ultimately passes.

The Natural Resources and Culture Committee voted 2-1 to forward the proposed law to the incoming city attorney for a legal analysis before the issue goes before the full City Council.

Councilman Kevin Faulconer cast the dissenting vote, saying he wants to explore alternatives that favor recycling over an outright ban on plastic carryout shopping bags.

"I do have concerns on how this will impact consumers and how this will

impact cost,'' Faulconer said.

Councilwoman Donna Frye argued that something needs to be done to help stop the proliferation of plastic in the environment.

"The fact of the matter is that when you think that almost every single piece of the planet probably has a piece of plastic on it, at some level you have to start asking yourself 'is that the kind of planet we want to pass on to our kids?' " Frye said.

The proposed law would prohibit supermarkets and pharmacies from providing plastic carryout bags to customers, beginning July 1, to encourage the use of reusable shopping bags. Customers could also opt to pay a 25-cent per-bag fee for paper carryout bags.

Similar laws have already been enacted in San Francisco, Los Angeles, Malibu and Manhattan Beach. Encinitas is the only other city in San Diego County considering prohibiting plastic carryout bags.

Outgoing City Council President Scott Peters said he supports a ban on plastic bags to help keep San Diego's beaches clean, but expressed concern about exposing the city to litigation.

"This is a difficult time for the city to be taking on costs, and I take very seriously the threat of litigation and the CEQA (California Environmental Quality Act) compliance issues," Peters said.

A ban on carryout plastic bags in Oakland was recently overturned due to the lack of an environmental review.

Mayor Jerry Sanders does not support the proposed law due to the threat of litigation and because of the potential impacts it will have on small businesses, a mayoral policy adviser testified.

Danielle Miller, with San Diego Coastkeeper, said plastic bags often end up in the ocean, where they damage the ecosystem. She said volunteers with Coastkeeper have removed 12,000 plastic bags over the past two years from city beaches.

"Many of these bags actually get blown into the ocean or they get washed down storm drains, where they impact the ocean environment negatively," Miller told the City Council committee.

The American Chemistry Council's Jennifer Forkish called for more time to consider alternatives to a ban on plastic bags.

She said plastic bags use far less energy to create than paper bags, which are also much more costly.

"A ban on plastic retail bags would naturally force retailers to use alternative bags, namely paper," Forkish said. "These products are three to five times more expensive, which means higher operating costs for stores and higher prices for their customers.

"Businesses and consumers cannot afford higher costs during these difficult economic times,'' she said.

It's unclear when the ordinance will go before the full City Council for consideration, but Frye requested that it be heard within 90 days after the new city attorney has had a chance to review the issue.


Elsa Marston
children's author

Fiction, young adult
An adventure in ancient Egypt
poems inspired by animals depicted in Southwestern rock art
history, political science
Stories in Y-A collections

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THE OLIVE TREE (illustrated by Claire Ewart)

A story for all ages about an old olive tree in Lebanon, a source of pleasure, of conflict, and much more. Based on the author's award-winning and much reprinted short story, with exquisitely rendered illustrations.

In a mountain village, following many years of devastating civil strife, an old olive tree still bears fruit that Sameer's family calls the best in Lebanon. But there's a curious thing about that tree. While some of its twisting branches drop their olives on the land of Sameer's family, its roots grow in the yard of the neighboring family--who. because of the war, have not lived in their house for many years. Now they're coming back. Will they have children, especially a boy who can be Sameer's buddy? It turns out they do have a child Sameer's age--a girl. But Muna is not friendly, and she makes it clear that she doesn't want to share the best olives in Lebanon.

No olives, no buddy, not even a friendly smile from the other side of the stone wall between the two houses. Sameer is disappointed and resentful. Then something heartbreaking happens. Will Sameer find that the olive tree may have one last gift, before it's too late?

For group discussion, here are some background information and suggested questions.

A bit of background . . . .

Lebanon, a Middle Eastern country along the Mediterranean Sea, part of the Arab world, is unique in many ways. It's famous for beautiful mountains covered with pine trees and fruit trees, houses built of warm-colored stone with orange roofs, fascinating history going back thousands of years, and talented and enterprising people.

Because the population of Lebanon includes large numbers of people from several different religious sects--Muslim, Christian, Druze, and others--the people have traditionally tried to share power in ways that reduced friction. From 1975 to 1991, however, Lebanon was torn by civil war, with fighting forces from many different groups within the country and from neighboring countries as well. The war intensified anxieties and anger, which led to violence and heartbreak. In some villages where people of different religions had lived together peaceably for generations, neighbors turned against neighbors. (And in some villages, the people refused to give in to fear and hatred.)

I was in Lebanon at the outbreak of violence and again when things had more or less settled down. Of course I was deeply distressed by all that happened during those sixteen long years of destruction. But because I try, in my writing, to search for some signs of hope, I decided to write a story about people who are trying to find ways to get past their differences and their memories of hatred and anger. The result is this story, "The Olive Tree," which I first wrote in 1994. It has won a number of national awards and reprintings, and at last--and still timely, I believe!--it is a book, with illustrations that convey both the beauty of the land and life in Lebanon,and the emotional complexities that still lie below the surface.

Some questions for discussion . . . .

THE OLIVE TREE takes place in Lebanon, a country in the part of the Middle East that some people call "the Holy Land." What did you learn about Lebanon, from the story and pictures, that may have been different from what you were expecting (such as the land, houses, animals, people's clothes)?

The story says that Muna's family moved away from the village during a time of trouble, because they were "different" from most of their neighbors. In what ways do you think they may have felt different?

Have you ever seen olive trees? What sort of land and climate do you think they like?

When Sameer climbs the olive tree, do you suppose he picks the ripe olives and eats them, like cherries?

Why do you think Muna doesn't want to make friends with Sameer?

Sameer starts picking up pieces of the shattered tree and taking them to Muna's house. Do you think he really needs to do that, after Muna has behaved so selfishly? What might you have done, in Sameer's shoes?

Most stories have a "hero" of some sort. Does this one? Why do you think so?

There seem to be lots of trees in this village, but the houses don't appear to be made of wood. Why do you suppose the people build their houses in a different way?

Have you ever seen something carved from olive wood? Do you remember anything unusual about the wood?

Maybe you can act out this story! Make up two or three short scenes, like a play, with three or four characters--Sameer, Muna, the olive tree, and maybe a grownup.. Let's see what these characters say and think. (Don't forget the olive tree!) You could either write down some of their speeches, or make them up as you go along. Here are some possible scenes:

Muna sees Sameer picking up the fallen olives, and decides to talk to him.

Sameer starts to pick up the shattered wood. What goes on in Muna's head--and in Sameer's?

What does Sameer say to Muna the next time he sees her?


Every tourist has heard the rule: only drink bottled water in foreign countries. That maxim is especially true for travelers in Tanzania, a still-developing nation where lack of infrastructure often means bottled water is the only safe drinking water.

But the reliance on bottled water comes with one significant drawback: huge amounts of plastic waste in a nation that is only now taking the first steps towards recycling.

One group, however, is turning trash into treasure for their community. Meeting Point Tanga (TICC), a community development organization with a particular focus on education, decided to build an internet café for students entirely out of discarded bottles.

bottle house tangaThe building in progress. Photo: TICC Meetingpoint Tanga

According to TICC director Rugh Nesje, the decision to build using bottles served two purposes: showcasing a better alternative to burning plastic waste, tossing it in dumps, or simply throwing it along the roadside (all of which are common practices in Tanzania); and creating a community space where students can gather safely outside of school hours.

The group used a total of 3,450 bottles of different sizes to create the structure. It’s a small dent in the worldwide issue of plastic waste—the US alone goes through a staggering 29 billion water bottles a year—but it’s a start in a country where thousands of bottles are used every day.

Best of all, the building has some structural advantages; the relative flexibility of the bottles means they can take heavier loads and withstand shocks more easily than rigid building materials like brick.

This low-cost project will have a huge impact on youth in the community, who will be able to freely access the internet outside of school hours, now. Hopefully it can also serve as a model throughout Tanzania, and the rest of the developing world.

Significant investment in agricultural education, followed by targeted micro-loans, is having a hugely positive effect on Tanzania’s agricultural sector, according to Robert Pascal, the head of agri-business for Tanzania’s National Microfinance Bank (NMB).

Operating primarily in parts of the country where farming is still the main source of income, the NMB currently has over 170 branch offices in 90 different regions nationwide. Thanks in part to a $588 million loan from the U.S., the bank has been able to issue micro-loans to over 261,000 farmers throughout Tanzania.

Before issuing these loans, however, the bank invests in a more far-reaching, structural fashion, providing educational opportunities on topics ranging from fertilizer benefits to improving overall farm efficiency. About 500,000 farmers nationwide have attended the seminars.

The seminars are helping spread best practices in a sector that still comprises some 30%+ of Tanzania’s GDP.

Currently just 16-17% of Tanzanian farmers employ basic fertilizers to improve crop yields, and 92% of farmers still rely on hand hoes to harvest their crops. Training on how to employ more modern technologies, followed by loans that allow the farmers to invest in them, have already been showing positive results.

The NMB has been working closely with agricultural research institutions and farm equipment suppliers to ensure the program is functioning smoothly from start to finish.

To date, the NMB has issued upwards of $150 million in targeted micro-loans at every level of the agricultural production chain.

“Substantial finance to agriculture, particularly in the latest and most relevant technology, is an important component in commercializing” the business, Pascal said. “The NMB will continue to support farmers to make farming a highly paying business.”

Credit: The Disposable Project

As part of ongoing efforts to improve worldwide health, in particular in poor and underserved areas, Global Handwashing Day was held on October 15th.

Tanzania was one of 100 countries worldwide to participate in the event, which aims to bring awareness to the necessity of this often neglected (or poorly understood), but highly effective practice in reducing the spread of disease.

Over 200 million people worldwide participated in events and education programs related to Global Handwashing Day.

Especially in poor areas where access to clean water and adequate sanitation may be limited, the importance of thorough handwashing with soap and water is critical. Studies have shown that even with unclean water, washing with soap greatly reduces the spread of illness. Studies have also shown that even in countries where the average standard of living is high, and the link between human feces and disease is well understood, individuals often neglect to wash their hands.

WaterAid (formerly WaterCan) was one of the most prominent NGOs participating in the worldwide event. The group, which focuses on improving access to clean water and safe sanitation worldwide, considers the event an integral part of their annual efforts.

Past efforts by WaterAid to draw attention to clean water issues and to raise funds to help improve access have included awareness walks, philanthropic gala events, and worldwide adventure trips that double as fundraisers (including a Kilimanjaro trek with Thomson Safaris).


One of these shots made it to The ART FOR AIDS, Rumah Cemara X Lomonesia BDG Exhibition. Can you guess which one?


Anna Kirsten Lemnitzer

It can be said that going through various mental states and conditions is universal in the human race and therefore a reflection of the societies in which we live and participate. This continuum in turn allows us to be capable of understanding others at a deep and profound level.

Thematically, my work examines perceptions of “self” and “psyche”. These explorations often reference an individual’s domestic and very personal spaces (including the body), which allows for a physical awareness and appreciation of another’s personality and psychological characteristics.

In my artistic practice, the content dictates the materials and methods necessary for the formulation of an idea. The approaches I use include performance, video and installation, all of which ride the backbone of drawing and traditional applications.

The manipulation of ideas through color, processes, space, sound and the body to fabricate visual metaphors is a rich area of exploration. The psychological, physical and often intimate experience that is manufactured through art allows for the creation of understanding and awareness which allows me to communicate an aesthetic experience with my viewer.


The best laid plans of mice and small minds

Well, here’s an assload of evidence that suggests that’s not true

“…culture of poverty! Single moms! Phrenology!”

A response to Lee

2. accept the claim, start accusing.

And in a separate comment…

Movie Friday: FAN MAIL!

Let’s watch!

#IdleNoMore: Something is happening

And I was doing that.

A letter to Michael Shermer

This morning I was pointed toward a post written by Dr. Michael Shermer, a prominent skeptic, author, and neuroscientist. In it, he responds to an article by author and fellow FTBorg Ophelia Benson in which she sharply critiques the acceptance of stereotypes about the agency and willingness of women to speak up in skeptical circles, using a snippet of an statement that Dr. Shermer said in an interview: that while the gender ratio of non-belief is probably roughly even, it may be that men are more willing to speak up about it, which is one explanation of why it is more difficult to book female atheists for interviews.

I encourage you to read both Ophelia’s article and Dr. Shermer’s response first. My response is below:

Hello Dr. Shermer,

I remember watching the interview in question and being annoyed by your response to the question of why it was more difficult to find female atheists to join discussions. Your response, that speaking out might simply be “a guy thing”, was non-controversial but nonetheless disappointing, because this is not a question about which there is no information. You are, by your own admission, aware of the growing role that feminist discourse has been playing in the skeptic community overall in the past number of years. And yet, despite your awareness of its existence, your response betrayed no hint that you had listened to or understood anything that had been said by those voices – which is not to say that you haven’t, but there was certainly nothing in your “guy thing” response that suggests you have.

Let’s rewind the clock a bit and look at the context into which your statement was spoken. [Read more…]

Who should we fear?

A mysterious and puzzling mystery

There are some things, for all our vaunted expertise and powerful scientific tools, that we can simply not seem to answer. We may never be able to figure them out. They are the mysteries of the universe. And this is one of them:

A new poll released by the charitable organization Samara suggests Canadians are less satisfied with their democracy compared to eight years ago. Last spring, researchers conducted a poll using a question identical to one used in 2004, asking respondents about their level of satisfaction “with the way democracy works in Canada.”

It’s weird. Why would people’s confidence in the Parliamentary system decline so precipitously since 2004? What has changed since then? Anything? I certainly can’t think of an answer. [Read more…]

Is blackness a credible threat?

Feedback on the new layout

Those of you who browse from the main page will probably have noticed that Freethoughblogs (including this page) has a new layout. What may be apparent to you, but not to me, is how that has changed functionality with commenting, or the readability, or any number of other factors that affect how you use the site.

If there’s anything missing, inaccessible, or otherwise seriously problematic about the new format, please let me know in the comments or by e-mail. You can also tell me stuff like “silver is stupid” or “the new logo is for dorks” or “I like the old site better”, but please rest assured that I am ignoring you, because I can’t change that stuff.

A response to Larry Moran

As I mentioned in my summary of my experience at Eschaton2012 in Ottawa, I had a brief exchange after my presentation with biologist ad blogger Larry Moran. He took me to task for a statement that I made during my presentation, in which I asserted that race is not a biologically-defined reality, but rather a socially-derived construct. In response, Larry had this to say:

My position is that the term “race” is used frequently to describe sub-populations of species, or groups that have been genetically isolated from each other1 for many generations. By this definition, races exist in humans just as they do in many other species.

The genetic evidence shows clearly that Africans form a distinctive, but somewhat polyphyletic, group that differs from the people living outside of Africa. Amongst the non-Africans, we recognize two major sub-groups; Europeans and Asians. I see no reason why these major sub-populations don’t qualify as races in the biological sense. Please read: Do Human Races Exist?.

I don’t think that denying the existence of races is going to make racism go away. Nor do I think that accepting the existence of biological races is going to foster racism.

I think that most of my disagreement with Dr. Moran (or perhaps more accurately his disagreement with me) is a product of a number of things. The first and most obvious one is my lack of familiarity with the full scope of the genetic literature when it comes to human beings and their (our) descendent trees. The second seems to be an unfortunate result of the time limit of the presentation and the imprecision of the language I chose. The third one is a bit more complicated, but has largely to do with what evidence we are using to arrive at a definition. I will discuss each of these issues in detail, with the hope of clarifying the problem. [Read more…]


Пересказ любой сказки на английском языке.5-6 предложений

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Пересказ любой сказки на английском языке.5-6 предложений

  • сказка про золушку(начало)
    Once upon a time there lived a one happy family: father, mother and their only daughter that parents were very fond of. For many years they lived happily and joyfully.
    Unfortunately, one day in autumn, when she was sixteen years old, her mother was seriously ill and died a week later. The house reigned a deep sadness. Two years have passed. The girl's father met a widow that had two daughters, and soon married her.

  • Tale of the Golden Cockerel    In the kingdom of Far Far Away , tridesyatom state, there lived a glorious king Dadon . Neighbors and then cause offense easily , old age wanted to take a break from martial affairs. But it began to disturb the neighbors . Protect the kingdom did not succeed . Addressed to the sage . The wise man took out a bag of Golden Cockerel and said to put the bird on the needle , since everything around will be peaceful, so it will sit still. But if you have to wait for the war - pripodymet rooster comb, scream and vstrepenetsya and the place will turn out.    The king thanked him, promised to fulfill any will . The cockerel was to guard the border. Neighbors grew quiet .    Year , the other passes peacefully . Cockerel crying again . The king sends an army to the east , the eldest son of his leads. Cock calmed down .    It takes eight days , no news from the army . Cockerel crying again . Klichet another king 's men , his youngest son, he now sends to the rescue . Cock again subsided . Again, there is no lead from them! Again eight days go by. Cockerel crying again , call together the king 's men and the third leading her to the east.    The troops are going day and night - no carnage . The army of the king of the mountains leads , and Intermedia high mountains sees a silk tent . Around the tent is a beaten army . Tsar Dadon to the tent in a hurry ... What a terrible picture ! Before him his two sons without Shelomov and no armor are both dead , plunging a sword into each other. Suddenly the tent flew open ... and virgin queen Shamahanskaya quietly met the king. Forgot it before her death two sons . She took him by the arm and took her into the tent . Week feasted her Dadon .    Went home with the girl . The crowd saw a eunuch . Asked to give her virginity. The king refused. King of grabbing his wand over his forehead ; he fell on his face , and the spirit of the mind. That is - he enters the city , suddenly there was a light ring, cock sporhnul with needles; flew to the chariot and the king sat on the crown of the head , pecked at the crown and hoisted ... and at the same time, the chariot fell Dadon ! Gasped again - and he died . And the queen suddenly disappeared , though it had not happened. Tale of a lie , but it hints ! Good fellows a lesson.

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After the
Meiji Restoration
As a result of the abolition of feudal domains and the establishment of a centralized prefectural system put in place by the Meiji government, the castle site fell under the control of the War Ministry, and all unnecessary buildings were torn down. For a period of time the main buildings in the secondary enclosure were used as regimental headquarters before they were burnt down in an accidental fire which also destroyed many of the other remaining buildings. Although barracks were still standing on various parts of the site, after the Second World War it became campus to Kanazawa National University.