Tuesday, October 19, 2010

Honors World History II: 20 October 2010

Current Events (none on Quiz/Test days):

The Chapter 10 Test is today.

Cf. http://shanawiki.wikispaces.com/Honors+World+History+II+Fall+2010+Chapter+10+Test+Prep+Page

Clear your desk except for a pencil. Once everyone is quiet, and no talking during the Test, we can begin. Be sure to put your name on the Test and the Scantron. You may write on both the Test and the Scantron.

Be sure your name is on both the Scantron and the Test.

Chapter 11 The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789–1815
Chapter Overviews

Section 1 The French Revolution Begins

Poverty and deep social divisions were the backdrop of the French Revolution. On the eve of the revolution, financial crisis gripped the government of Louis XVI. Rather than accept higher taxes, the commoners in France's legislative body, the Estates-General, broke off to form a National Assembly. Anticipating an attack by the king's forces, commoners then stormed the Bastille prison, marking the start of the Revolution. The new Assembly took control of the Catholic Church and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The document was inspired in part by the American Declaration of Independence and Constitution. The Assembly then wrote a constitution establishing a limited monarchy and a Legislative Assembly. France was soon at war with Austria, where some feared the revolution might spread. Louis XVI was taken captive by the Paris Commune. The Commune called for a National Convention and forced the revolution into a more violent phase.

Chapter Overviews

After surveying the Chapter, we begin in Section 1 The French Revolution Begins

We can consider the "Causes of the French Revolution."

To cover the entire French Revolution is a lofty task but to deal with the subject as best we can there is a good reference in the "Detailed Guide to the Revolution."

One of the most interesting characters of the period is "Marie Antoinette."

Or, alternatively, we can listen to "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution" in song.

If someone is studying French, perhaps they can translate the anthem of the republican Revolution:

The Marseillaise (War Song for the Army of the Rhine)

(Chant de guerre pour l'armée du Rhin)

Allons enfants de la patrie!
Le jour de gloire est arrivé;
Contre nous de la tyrannie
L'étendard sanglant est levé.
L'étendard sanglant est levé.

Entendez-vous dans les campagnes
Mugir ces féroces soldats?
Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras
Egorger vos fils, vos compagnes!

Aux armes, citoyens, formez vos bataillons,
Marchez, marchez, qu'un sang impur
abreuve nos sillons.

Que veut cet horde d'esclaves,
De traîtres, de rois conjurés?
Pour qui ces ignobles entraves,
Ces fers dès longtemps préparés?
Ces fers dès longtemps préparés?

Francais! Pour nous, ah quel outrage!
Quels transports il doit exciter!
C'est nous qu'on ose méditer
De rendre à l'antique esclavage?

Amour sacré de la patrie,
Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs
Liberté, Liberté chérie!
Combats avec tes défenseurs
Combats avec tes défenseurs

Sous nos drapeaux que la Victoire
Accourt à tes mâles accents:
Que tes ennemis expirants
Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire

One of the most arresting images of the Revolution, no pun intended, is the guillotine.

Chapter 11 Section 1 The French Revolution Begins

*Describe the social divisions of France’s old order.
*List reasons for France’s economic troubles in 1789.
*Explain why Louis XVI called the Estates-General and summarize what resulted.
*Understand why Parisians stormed the Bastille.

Witness History

The Loss of Blood Begins (Audio)

On July 14, 1789, after a daylong hunting expedition, King Louis XVI returned to his palace in Versailles. Hours earlier, armed Parisians had attacked the Bastille. They had cut the chains of the prison drawbridge, crushing a member of the crowd, and poured into the courtyard. Chaos ensued as shots rang out, blood was spattered, and heads were paraded down the streets on spikes. When Louis heard the news, he exclaimed, “Then it’s a revolt?” “No, sire,” replied the duke bearing the news, “it’s a revolution!” The French Revolution had begun. Witness History relates the fall of the Bastille.

The Conquerors of the Bastille before the Hotel de Ville, painted by Paul Delaroche

Chapter Focus Question

What were the causes and effects of the French Revolution, and how did the revolution lead to the Napoleonic era?

Fall of the Bastille

The Bastille was a symbol to the people of France representing years of abuse by the monarchy. The storming of and subsequent fall of the Bastille was a wake-up call to Louis XVI. Unlike any other riot or short-lived protest, this event posed a challenge to the sheer existence of the regime. Since 1880, the French have celebrated Bastille Day annually as their national independence day.

Background to the Revolution

The Three Estates

In 1789, France, like the rest of Europe, still clung to an outdated social system that had emerged in the Middle Ages. Under this ancien régime, or old order, everyone in France was divided into one of three social classes, or estates. The First Estate was made up of the clergy; the Second Estate was made up of the nobility; and the Third Estate comprised the vast majority of the population.

During the Middle Ages, the Church had exerted great influence throughout Christian Europe. In 1789, the French clergy still enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege. The Church owned about 10 percent of the land, collected tithes, and paid no direct taxes to the state. High Church leaders such as bishops and abbots were usually nobles who lived very well. Parish priests, however, often came from humble origins and might be as poor as their peasant congregations.

The First Estate did provide some social services. Nuns, monks, and priests ran schools, hospitals, and orphanages. But during the Enlightenment, philosophes targeted the Church for reform. They criticized the idleness of some clergy, the Church’s interference in politics, and its intolerance of dissent. In response, many clergy condemned the Enlightenment for undermining religion and moral order.

The Second Estate was the titled nobility of French society. In the Middle Ages, noble knights had defended the land. In the 1600s, Richelieu and Louis XIV had crushed the nobles’ military power but had given them other rights—under strict royal control. Those rights included top jobs in government, the army, the courts, and the Church.

At Versailles, ambitious nobles competed for royal appointments while idle courtiers enjoyed endless entertainments. Many nobles, however, lived far from the center of power. Though they owned land, they received little financial income. As a result, they felt the pinch of trying to maintain their status in a period of rising prices.

Analyzing Political Cartoons

The Old Regime

This cartoon represents the social order in France before the French Revolution. While a member of the Third Estate is beginning to express anger and rise up, a nobleman representing the Second Estate and a priest, representing the First Estate, recoil in surprise and fear.

1. How does the cartoonist portray the Third Estate? Explain why.

2. What were the differences among the social classes in pre-revolutionary France?

The Third Estate was the most diverse social class. At the top sat the bourgeoisie (boor zhwah zee), or middle class. The bourgeoisie included prosperous bankers, merchants, and manufacturers, as well as lawyers, doctors, journalists, and professors. The bulk of the Third Estate, however, consisted of rural peasants. Some were prosperous landowners who hired laborers to work for them. Others were tenant farmers or day laborers.

The poorest members of the Third Estate were urban workers. They included apprentices, journeymen, and others who worked in industries such as printing or cloth making. Many women and men earned a meager living as servants, stable hands, construction workers, or street sellers of everything from food to pots and pans. A large number of the urban poor were unemployed. To survive, some turned to begging or crime.

Vocabulary Builder

urban—(ur bun) adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of a city

From rich to poor, members of the Third Estate resented the privileges enjoyed by their social “betters.” Wealthy bourgeois families in the Third Estate could buy political office and even titles, but the best jobs were still reserved for nobles. Urban workers earned miserable wages. Even the smallest rise in the price of bread, their main food, brought the threat of greater hunger or even starvation.

Because of traditional privileges, the First and Second Estates paid almost no taxes. Peasants were burdened by taxes on everything from land to soap to salt. Though they were technically free, many owed fees and services that dated back to medieval times, such as the corvée (kawr vay), which was unpaid labor to repair roads and bridges. Peasants were also incensed when nobles, hurt by rising prices, tried to reimpose old manor dues.

What Is the Third Estate?

In towns and cities, Enlightenment ideas led people to question the inequalities of the old regime. Why, people demanded, should the first two estates have such great privileges at the expense of the majority? Throughout France, the Third Estate called for the privileged classes to pay their share.

Financial Crisis

Poorer peasants and city dwellers in France were faced with great hunger as bad harvests sent food prices soaring. People began to riot to demand bread. In the countryside, peasants began to attack the manor houses of the nobles. Arthur Young, an English visitor to France, witnessed these riots and disturbances. Why did the poor attack the nobles’ homes?

Primary Source

“Everything conspires to render the present period in France critical: the [lack] of bread is terrible: accounts arrive every moment from the provinces of riots and disturbances, and calling in the military, to preserve the peace of the markets.”

—Arthur Young, Travels in France During the Years 1787, 1788, 1789
Reading Check

What groups were part of the Third Estate?

From Estates-General to National Assembly

In preparation, Louis had all three estates prepare cahiers (kah yayz), or notebooks, listing their grievances. Many cahiers called for reforms such as fairer taxes, freedom of the press, or regular meetings of the Estates-General. In one town, shoemakers denounced regulations that made leather so expensive they could not afford to make shoes. Servant girls in the city of Toulouse demanded the right to leave service when they wanted and that “after a girl has served her master for many years, she receive some reward for her service.”

Delegates of the Third Estate declare themselves to be the National Assembly, representing the people of France. They take the Tennis Court Oath, vowing to create a constitution. The National Assembly later issues the assignat as currency to help pay the government’s debts.

Delegates to the Estates-General from the Third Estate were elected, though only propertied men could vote. Thus, the delegates were mostly lawyers, middle-class officials, and writers. They were familiar with the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other philosophes. They went to Versailles not only to solve the financial crisis but also to insist on reform.

The Estates-General convened in May 1789. From the start, the delegates were deadlocked over the issue of voting. Traditionally, each estate had met and voted separately. Each group had one vote. Under this system, the First and Second Estates always outvoted the Third Estate two to one. This time, the Third Estate wanted all three estates to meet in a single body, with votes counted “by head.”

After weeks of stalemate, delegates of the Third Estate took a daring step. in June 1789, claiming to represent the people of France, they declared themselves to be the National Assembly. A few days later, the National Assembly found its meeting hall locked and guarded. Fearing that the king planned to dismiss them, the delegates moved to a nearby indoor tennis court. As curious spectators looked on, the delegates took their famous Tennis Court Oath. They swore “never to separate and to meet wherever the circumstances might require until we have established a sound and just constitution.”

When reform-minded clergy and nobles joined the Assembly, Louis XVI grudgingly accepted it. But royal troops gathered around Paris, and rumors spread that the king planned to dissolve the Assembly.

Reading Check

Why did the Third Estate object to each estate's having one vote in the Estates-General?

The Destruction of the Old Regime

Declaration of the Rights of Man

The King Concedes

Church Reforms

The National Assembly put the French Catholic Church under state control. The Civil Constitution ended papal authority over the French Church and dissolved convents and monasteries.

A New Constitution and New Fears

War with Austria

European rulers opposed the French Revolution because they were afraid that revolutionary ideas would spread to their own countries. European rulers were afraid of having their privileges, their property, their religion, and their lives threatened if the French revolutionary ideas were to spread. Even "enlightened" rulers turned against France.

With the Declaration of Pilnitz European rulers threatened to intervene to protect the French monarchy. The king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria (Marie Antoinette's brother) issued the Declaration of Pilnitz, threatening to intervene to protect the French monarchy.

The French declared war on Austria, Prussia, Britain, and others, which caused those great powers
expected an easy victory since France was divided by revolution, facing crises at home.

Rise of the Paris Commune

Reading Check

What was the significance of the Constitution of 1791?

Section 2 Radical Revolution and Reaction

HW: email me at gmsmith@shanahan.org.

1. Using print and Internet sources (a reference to La Marseilloise is made above, an English translation is also available), familiarize yourself with the lyrics to The Marseillaise, God Save the Queen (not the pop version),

and The Star Spangled Banner. How do they vary in subject matter, tone, theme, and style, and how are they similar?

Not required, but if helpful, create a chart listing your findings.

Bibliographic resources for the French Revolution

Previous to or the buildup to the Revolution

Cf. The Coming of the French Revolution (Princeton Classic Editions)
by Georges Lefebvre.

The Fall of the French Monarchy 1787-1792 (The French Revolution)
by Michel Vovelle.

Great Fear of 1789
by Georges Lefebvre.

General works on the Revolution

The Crowd in the French Revolution (Galaxy Books)
by George Rude.

A Short History of the French Revolution, 1789-1799
by Albert Soboul.

The Abolition Of Feudalism: Peasants, Lords, And Legislators In The French Revolution, by John Markoff.

Interpreting the French Revolution
by Francois Furet.

Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution
by Simon Schama.

The Radical Revolution

The Sans-Culottes
by Albert Soboul.

by Charles Tilly.

Revolutionary Themes After the Revolution

Reflections on the Revolution in France (Oxford World's Classics)
by Edmund Burke.

The Age of Revolution: 1789-1848
by Eric Hobsbawm.

Work and Revolution in France: The Language of Labor from the Old Regime…
by William H. Sewell Jr.

The Course in German History by A.J.P. Taylor.

Chapter 10 Test Prep page

These questions may be--but there is no guarantee--on the Test. They are here as possible questions on the Test for study purposes.

The Enlightenment and the American Revolution (1700–1800)
Philosophy in the Age of Reason

Cf. http://www.phschool.com/webcodes10/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.gotoWebCode&wcprefix=naa&wcsuffix=1719

Enlightenment Ideas Spread Self-Test

Birth of the American Republic Self-Test

Chapter Self-Test

Sec. 1 The French Revolution Begins

1. Monday HW

p. 334, Picturing History, What happened to the royal family after their capture?

Email only if you answer (i.e., you voluntarily choose to participate):

Last week what I liked least about the class was . . .
Last week what I enjoyed most about the class was . . .

Study for the Test on Ch. 10, Wednesday

Get a Voki now!

1. Tuesday HW

What was the significance of the Constitution of 1791?

2. Study for the Test on Ch. 10, Wednesday

Chapter 10 Test Prep page

Honors World History II Chapter 10 Test Prep Page

Get a Voki now!

1. Wednesday HW

p. 335, #4

Get a Voki now!

Get a Voki now!


While Expanding Free Independent Human Societies Throughout the Universe

Thursday, June 28, 2012

Space Exploration Prizes and Petition Sponsorships

Home could advocate for the immediate development of Mars gravity simulation centrifuge large enough to house several generations of mice over a multi-month period on the International Space Station. Social media campaigns and direct advocacy through "We the People" White House direct petitions could result in a high-profile Home-sponsored mission to test mammalian gestation aboard ISS.

On the International Space Station several generations of mice should be brought through full gestation in a centrifuge simulating Martian gravity to study an approximation of its effects on small mammal breeding, human settlement, and child-bearing on Mars.

Gravity on Mars is only about 38% as strong as it is on Earth, the long-term effects of such reduced gravity are unknown. Astronauts who are weightless for long periods of time lose significant amounts of bone and muscle mass. It is unclear if the gravity on Mars is strong enough to avoid or minimize these health problems.

This experiment will provide data on how mammalian health is affected by long-term exposure to lower levels of gravity, focusing on bone loss, changes in bone structure, muscle atrophy, affects in the inner ear, and child-bearing off-Earth.

The results from the experiment would be compared against a variety of earth based controls, including vivarium, hindlimb suspension, partial weight suspension, flight habitat effects, and short-radius centrifuge testing. Data will further our understanding of osteoporosis, neurological disorders, fetal development, and more - on Earth and space exploration in general.

NASA is expanding its existing capabilities for doing plant and animal tissue investigations on the International Space Station with the small Gravitational Biology Lab. A centrifuge will allow biological experimentation in artificial gravity -- from zero gravity to twice Earth’s normal gravity -- for prolonged periods of time. The new facility will provide environmental control, lighting, data transfer, commanding, and observation of experiments in Mars and moon gravity conditions, as well as mimicking Earth's gravity. This is useful for biological research, and could lead to advances in medications and vaccines, agricultural controls, and discoveries in genetics -- all beneficial to those of us on Earth.


File HPIM0823

Jonas Zemaitis (also known under his codename Vytautas; March 15, 1909 in Palanga – November 26, 1954 in Moscow) was one of the leaders of armed resistance against the Soviet occupation in Lithuania and acknowledged as the Head of State of contemporary occupied Lithuania.

Biography Edit

Zemaitis was born to Jonas Zemaitis and Petronele Dauksaite. Despite the fact that his father was non-religious, Zemaitis was christened in Palanga's church. From 1910 to 1917 he lived with his parents in Lomża, Poland, where his uncle A. Dauksa owned a large dairy farm. In Lomża, Zemaitis attended primary school while his parents were working. In 1917, Zemaitis returned to Lithuania and settled down in the Siluva region, in the village of Kiaulininkai, where his grandparents lived. In 1921, he finished Raseiniai Gymnasium First Class. In 1926, started studying in Kaunas Military School. In 1929 he finished this school and became a lieutenant. Zemaitis started soldiering in The Second Flock Of Artillery as a commander. 1936 - 1938 Zemaitis studied in Fontainebleu school of artillery (Ecole d’Artillerie de Fontainebleau). After the pupillage Zemaitis acquired the rank of captain and directed to flocks of Lithuania military forces.

After the USSR occupation of Lithuania in 1940, Zemaitis continued his active service in the 617th flock of artillery, where he held the position of head of swarm school. At the beginning of the war between the USSR and Nazi Germany waylayed Zemaitis in the ground of VarEna. After receiving the order to retreat to the east, Zemaitis and a group of soldiers consciously fell behind and surrendered to the captivity of Germans. He did not want to serve the Nazis, and therefore he retired and settled down in Kaunas. He worked as a technician of peat extraction.

Jonas Zemaitis Monument in front of the Ministry of National Defence, Vilnius.

In 1944 he joined the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, organized by Povilas PlechaviCius. After the force was disbanded by the Nazis, Zemaitis went into hiding. When the Red Army returned to Lithuania, Zemaitis joined the Lithuanian Freedom Army and the Lithuanian partisans, steadily rising to a position of leadership. In February 1949 he established the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters and became its chairman; he worked to continue partisan resistance to Soviet occupation and legitimize the actions of the partisans. In December 1951 he was stricken with a cerebral hemorrhage and became paralyzed. In May 1953 his place of hiding was discovered by Soviet agents and he was arrested. After being transported to Moscow, he was interrogated by Lavrentiy Beria and was executed in the Butyrka prison in 1954.

Jonas Zemaitis is the namesake of the General Jonas Zemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania. In 1995 a documentary Ketvirtasis Prezidentas (The Fourth President) was released about his life.

Posthumously Jonas Zemaitis-Vytautas was awarded the rank of Brigadier General and was officially named as the fourth President of Lithuania in March 2009.

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I have no faith in the so-called controlled use of atomic weapons. There is no dependable distinction between tactical and strategic situations. I would not recommend the use of any atomic weapon, no matter how small, when both sides have the power to destroy the world.

Admiral Charles R Brown

This was the subject of a GROUP PRESENTATION made by allied officers in the PAF Air War College

On 6 August 1945, the first atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. At least 66,000 people died almost immediately after the explosion and the firestorm that followed. Tens of thousands more died in the aftermath. Three days after the first explosion, a second bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki. The immediate death toll numbered some 40,000 people and about 40% of the city's structure were destroyed as against 80% in Hiroshima.

The devastation caused by the two atomic bombs in August 1945 set forth a dilemma, which strategists have been trying to solve ever since. Initially when atomic bombs first made their dramatic entrance on to the international stage, they were discussed and understood in terms derived from the established theorizing of air power. Eventually, nuclear weapons became more powerful, more numerous and more crucial, possessed by more than one nation. New concepts and approaches developed in an attempt to come to terms with a situation to avoid the most dreadful catastrophic fallout, if nations or organizations were to use these weapons.

Development of Concepts and Approaches

Since the beginning of nuclear age in 1945, within 40 years, the super powers and their Allies developed 70,000 nuclear warheads. While comparing its effect with Hiroshima bomb, it is said, 'The total explosive of their stock is equal to one million Hiroshima bombs with 5 tons of TNT nuclear explosive power per capita for entire world's population'. The history of atomic development refers to the period of 1930's, when the British scientists told the United States of America that the making of atomic bomb was possible. That led the Americans to be in possession of their first nuclear bomb in 1945, and had the monopoly till the former Soviet Union developed the nuclear bomb in 1949. But they did not have an exclusive franchise on nuclear weapons as the development continued by other countries like Great Britain, France, China and India which exploded the nuclear device in 1954, 1960, 1964 and 1974 respectively. To illustrate this development further, this can be divided into six time periods:-

(a) 1945 to 1961. This was the first time-frame. Since 1945, the United States remained confident of leading the nuclear arms race. But that confidence ended abruptly in 1957, when the Soviets put the first satellite Sputnik into orbit, thus signalling capability of developing missiles carrying nuclear warhead across the intercontinental distances. This fear of missile gap gripped the United States, which was capable of bomber-borne nuclear weapons only.

(b) 1961 to 1967. This was the second stage. Realizing the vulnerabilities of the missile gap, during this period, the United States developed the concept of arms control agreement with Soviet Union. This allowed each other to target only military installations. This is known as counter force theory. Therefore, for protection of nuclear missiles, the missile silos were constructed.

(c) 1967 to 1974. This period witnessed the development of the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs), in order to destroy more than one missile in the underground silos. Consequently, to counter the MIRVs both sides developed Anti- Ballistic Missiles (ABM) Systems.

(d) 1974 to 1981. Following the development of Anti Ballistic Missile Systems, during this period, the former Soviet Union developed most powerful and transportable Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBM) i.e. SS-20. This led the Western European countries to develop their own IRBMs for security. Simultaneously, the USA with the worries of strategic parity, developed the stealth bombers and large MX missiles with multiple warheads, and continued the reconstruction of nuclear forces till 1985.

(e) 1981 to 1985. During this reconstruction period, the fleets of Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) were increased and updated, B-52 bombers and B-1 bombers were developed with nuclear cruise missiles for deep penetration strikes into Soviet territory. This was also the period when the concept of Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) was thought of, to intercept and destroy the Soviet Strategic Ballistic Missiles. But it did not take a real shape due to budgetary constraints, its doubtful technical feasibility and change in Soviet leadership.

(f) 1985 to 1991. Following Gorbachev's rise to power in 1985, the Soviets changed their policy with the adaptation of Perestroika and Glasnost. This affected the participation of Soviet Union in nuclear arms race and resulted in 50% reduction of nuclear warheads under Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The latest survey carried out by the Defence Council of the United States shows that from 70,000, the number has reduced to 36,000 with 12,000 in US and 22,000 in Russia, while 14,000 of 36,000 warheads are awaiting dis-assembly.

Strategic Nuclear Weapons

During this period, the nuclear weapons were developed broadly in two categories, i.e. strategic and tactical. The strategic nuclear weapons were developed to cover a distance of 6400 km mainly with Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM). Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) and the long-range bombers. The four most important characteristics of strategic nuclear weapons are their striking power, Accuracy, Survivability and Penetrability. Some of the strategic nuclear weapons, having these characteristics are discussed below:-

Inter Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)

(a) Striking Power. The largest single-warhead carrying ICBM is the Russian SS-18, which has an explosive yield of 20 megatons (MT), while its MIRV version has ten MIRVs each with 500 kilotons (KT) of yields. (1000 ton+ 1 KT, 1000 KT+ 1 MT)

(b) Accuracy. The designers continued to improve the guidance system for better accuracy. For example, the ICBMs built in 1950s i.e., the US Atlas-D and the Soviet SS-7 had CEP (Circular Error Probable; the radius of circle into which half the warheads aimed at the circle's centre, are predicted to fall) of about 1600m, while the latest models of the Minuteman-III and the SS-18 have CEP of about 200m and 320m respectively. The latest versions of ICBMs carry a very high degree of accuracy.

(c) Penetrability. The ballistic missiles have excellent penetrability because of difficulty in destroying or deflecting them in flight with ABM missiles. It is like hitting a bullet with another bullet when an ICBM can launch also the decoys MIRVs and at the end only one is enough to cause the disaster.

(d) Survivability. The improved missile accuracy and development of MIRVs made the ICBM silos much more vulnerable. A MIRVed ICBM could destroy a number of silos, whereas, a single warhead ICBM could destroy only one silo. It was estimated that the former Soviet Union could destroy 90% of the US ICBM force using only 1/5 of her 308 SS-18s. Similarly, the United States could destroy 90% of the former Soviet Union's ICBM force with 300 MX Missiles.

Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM)

(a) Poseidon. The submarines armed with Poseidon ballistic missiles are by far the most survivable types of strategic nuclear weapon, which, on patrol, could stay under water for more than a month. The Poseidon type US missile submarines carries 16 SLBMs. Each SLBM has ten 50-kiloton MIRVs, enabling one Poseidon submarine hit 160 targets.

(b) Trident. Much larger is the Trident submarine, which carries 24 SLBMs, each with eight 100-kiloton MIRVs and the range is equal to an ICBM, i.e. 6400 km. therefore, one Trident submarine could hit 192 targets.

Long Range Bombers. These were first long range strategic nuclear weapon carrying aircraft developed by the United States of America. A B-52 bomber can carry upto 12 Cruise Missiles armed with nuclear warheads. However, these bombers were found to be vulnerable to attack. they also suffered from the problem of penetrability. A strategic bomber like B-52, being much slower and bigger, unlike the missiles, is easier to shoot. This led the United States to further research and B-IBs were developed for low level penetration. This aircraft is capable of carrying 22 Cruise Missiles. The latest addition is of B-2 Stealth Bombers which has an improved penetrability carrying strategic nuclear bombs of 1 to 2 megaton yield.

Tactical Nuclear Weapons

As compared to the range of strategic nuclear weapon, the tactical nuclear weapons were developed to cover the distances below 6400 km with Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM), Medium Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBM) and Short Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBM). Additionally, the Cruise Missiles, Nuclear Capable Attack Aircraft, Nuclear Artillery, Torpedoes and Mines were also developed. The most powerful is the Soviet SS-20 IRBM. It has a range of more than 4800 km and can carry a 1.5 megaton warhead or 3 MIRVs of 150 kiloton each. the least powerful is the US made nuclear land mine with explosion power as low as 0.01 kiloton. The diversified tactical nuclear weapons can be classified into two broad categories.

(a) Theatre Nuclear Weapons. The theatre nuclear weapons were developed primarily for use against the targets well behind the battlefront. The US Pershin-II is a typical theatre surface-to-surface nuclear weapon. It has the range of 720 km with yield from 60 to 400 kilotons and CEP of 40m. The India's Agni IRBM has a range of 2500 km with 680 to 900 kg payloads and CEP of 60m while the Prithivi SRBM has the range of 250 km with 750 kg of payload. The latest edition of Prithivi has the range of 350 km. Both the missiles have the capability to carry the conventional payloads as well.

(b) Battlefield Nuclear Weapons. The Battlefield Nuclear Weapons were designed for use against enemy front-line troops. Their range is less than 160 km and the yields are of one or two kilotons. the US M110, an 8-inch self-propelled gun, whose nuclear shell has a yield of one kiloton and range of 21 km, is a typical battle field nuclear weapon. the neutron bomb or Enhanced Radiation (ER) warhead is a significant innovation in battlefield nuclear weapons. It is designed to kill the tank crewmen by direct radiation only while causing no damage to the tanks.

Effects of Nuclear Weapon Employment

The very thought of the employment of nuclear weapons is dreadful and shocking. The best reference point for visualizing the effects of nuclear weapon employment, is the nuclear explosion at Hiroshima, which had a yield of about 14 kilotons and killed about 130,000 people in total. Today, we have atomic warheads in thousands ranging from 20 megaton to 0.01 kiloton. The destruction would depend on the distribution of energy on the warhead's size and its design. However, the following will be the outcome of the use of a nuclear device:-

(a) Blast. Maximum damage to the cities would occur from the Blast. For example, a megaton surface burst would cause over pressure of more than 5 psi on things 6 km (4 miles) away. This would exert a force 180 ton on the walls of building with a wind speed of 255 kph thereby, crushing the building to the ground level.

(b) Initial Radiation. The initial or direct radiation occurs at the time of explosion. Direct radiation did substantial damage to the residents of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A dose of 600 rem (roentgen - equivalent - man - a unit used to measure biological damage) would create 90% fatalities within a week, while 300 rem would create 10% fatalities, of the exposed people.

(c) Thermal Radiation. The flash of lights and heat, which would precede the blast wave by several seconds, would cause thermal radiation. This would produce flash-blindness in people looking directly at the explosion. A megaton surface burst could cause flash-blindness at a distance of 21 km on clear day and at 53 km on a clear night. The same yield explosion would cause the third degree burns at 8 km distance.

(d) Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP). The EMP from a nuclear explosion is similar to lighting but the rise in voltage is hundred times faster. This would damage the communication and electronic power systems.

(e) Fallout. The fallout is strongly influenced by the local weather condition. With a uniform wind speed of 24 kph, the radiated particles would be flown downwind in a long plume. The length of the plume from a megaton explosion is expected to be 386 km (240 miles). The biological effects of the fallout are the same as those from direct radiation.

(f) Nuclear Winter. The effects of nuclear weapons' employment are subject to very large uncertainties, eg the uncertainties of Nuclear Winter as a result of nuclear exchange, which could last for months or possibly a year (Some radiation particles would also be accumulated into the stratosphere and may not return to Earth for some years. For example, some fallouts from US and former Soviet Union's weapon tests in the 50's and early 60's were detected in 80's. Some scientists believe that the large-scale burning of cities and forests after a nuclear explosion would loft smoke into the stratosphere, therefore, would block the incoming solar radiation and cause a drop in temperatures. The effect is called Nuclear Winter, which would last for months or possibly a year. The effect is compared with that of a volcanic eruption in 1815. The explosion was so great that the pressure wave encircled the Earth several times. The dust lowered the global temperature by 10C. The next year, i.e., 1816, was the year without a summer.

Since the effects of a nuclear war cannot be calculated or measured in precise terms; what then is the answer? Conventional doctrines are likely to become irrelevant in case of a nuclear conflict. It soon became apparent that only the nuclear doctrines provide effective answer to the nuclear threats.

Evolution of Nuclear Doctrines

Nuclear doctrine and strategy developed during the cold war period of continuing political struggle between the United States and the former USSR. Deterrence was of extreme importance in creating an impression of military strength upon a potential adversary that he would have no chance of victory in war. There will be no victors in a nuclear holocaust. This gave birth to an arms race between the superpowers, unprecedented, in warfare.

During the first decade after the end of World War-II, the United States enjoyed first, a real nuclear monopoly, and then an overwhelming nuclear superiority. The USSR, on the other hand, had large-scale conventional forces. The Soviet Union, however, succeeded in constructing a few atomic bombs, and in forming an embryonic striking force. Faced with these initial Soviet steps towards development of a nuclear threat and an air defence system, the United States declared the doctrine of massive retaliation; which is defined as, 'A great capacity to retaliate instantly by means and at places of our own choosing' against Soviet aggression. In other words, it will be an all-out nuclear response to an enemy's attack.

The resulting stockpile, which gave birth to nuclear deterrence by massive retaliation, was substituted by the doctrine of flexible response in 1967. The logic of nuclear deterrence strategies of the superpowers reflects the enormity of the punishment that a nuclear-armed deterrer would be capable of inflicting on the homeland and society of an aggressor. In the nuclear age, a surprise attack attains a chilling connotation, cities are considered to be the only viable targets for atomic assault but unless the enemy's means of nuclear retaliation are destroyed, little could be gained by surprise.

The next question was 'why squander precious assets of surprise and the initiative in attacking cities (the counter-value targets); a mission which can be carried out later so easily. The main targets of a surprise nuclear attack must then be the force-in-being or counter-force targets. Therefore, the first and foremost priority in the security programme of a nuclear weapon state of the age of atomic weapons was to take measures to ensure the possibility of retaliation in case of a surprise nuclear attack must then be the force-in-being or counter-force targets. Therefore, the first and foremost priority in the security programme of a nuclear weapon state of the age of atomic weapons was to take measures to ensure the possibility of retaliation in case of a surprise attack. This formed the basis of the 'Second Strike' capability.

Nuclear Parity

When the Soviet nuclear stockpile developed to a level to create nuclear parity with the United States, a new era of nuclear doctrine emerged. A situation arrived where neither side could eliminate the retaliatory power of the other. Restraint was considered a more prudent option as compared to Massive retaliation or Flexible Response. The nuclear doctrine started to mention of 1st and 2nd strike capability.

A First Strike capability was taken to refer to a strike that was not only the opening volley of a nuclear war, but was also directed against the nuclear capability of the enemy, with the intention of crippling his means of retaliation. A second strike force or capability was the one capable of ensuring effective retaliation even after absorbing an enemy's first strike. Whereas the first strike involved a counter-force, i.e. the enemy's nuclear forces, the second-strike would be targeted at counter-value targets i.e. the enemy's cities. Unlike first strike weapons, second strike weapons were, therefore, seen as contributing to stable deterrence.

The concept of 2nd strike was based on Triad of Forces, which include nuclear warhead delivery by means of missiles, submarines and the aircraft. While the missiles, being deployed on fixed locations were expected to be the obvious targets of counter-force first strike, the aircraft could be launched on warning to make a retaliatory move. But their survivability and timely reaction was also not guaranteed. Submarines enjoyed immunity from first strike menace thus constituting an ideal 2nd strike platform. With the disposition of nuclear forces in a Triad, and with the Soviet nuclear stockpile developed to a level of nuclear parity, the situation of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) was reached. This period was also termed as the period of nuclear stalemate or stability of deterrence or the balance of terror.

As the USSR built its own arsenal of ICBMs, this strategy changed in two ways. First, the US government sought to protect its nuclear striking force against a Soviet pre-emptive attack by reducing the vulnerability of its weapons. Second, it sought to develop forces that could oppose Communist aggression of various types without resorting to nuclear war. That was, the policy of flexible response. This flexible response was the last major change in the US strategy, and from the 1960s to the 1980s, it remained the official US doctrine. During this period, both the United States and the USSR, built nuclear arsenals many times larger than needed to guarantee assured destruction. For the United States, the principal reason for this surplus was the need to ensure the credibility of its commitment to Asia and Europe. More generally, the US government believed that the deterrence would be enhanced if it could match the Soviet Union at every level of force. It can, therefore, be concluded that the doctrine of massive retaliation that was adopted after the Second World War and which gave birth to nuclear deterrence and counter-force theory was replaced by the doctrine of Flexible Response. This provided the United States a variety of options to respond to Soviet aggression.

Nuclear Strategy After the Cold War

The Cold-War ended with the break-up of Soviet Union about a decade ago. The nuclear warheads have now been reduced from 70,000 to 36,000. This is because of the feeling and apprehensions that these weapons posed the most dangerous threat of a pre-emptive first strike. The Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) between the United States and Soviet Union resulted into agreements specifying the elimination of multiple-warheads, land-based MIRV's missiles deployed by each side. However, both sides would continue to possess SLBMs. The effect of the agreement is to reduce the effectiveness of a surprise attack by either side.

Doctrines of Other Nuclear Weapon States

Britain, France and China are the other acknowledged nuclear weapon states. They pursued nuclear weapon programmes to attain great power status besides, acquiring a credible deterrence. They did not make any significant contribution towards the process of evolution of nuclear doctrine and by and large, followed the American concept of employment.

While the nuclear concept of surprise and defence is applicable to all the states having nuclear arsenal, the concept of deterrence may be slightly different.

The real nuclear weapon states are deterred from resorting to the use of nuclear weapons due to MAD or even a possible extinction of human civilization. The smaller nuclear weapon states have a different concern ranging from inability to control the course of events after launching the opening volley of nuclear arsenal to a possible reprisal attack from a nuclear weapon states. Therefore, while India sees it's nuclear potential as a tool of projecting itself as a great power, Israel sees it as a security guarantee against conventionally powerful and hostile Arab neighbours. This brings us to have a look at some possible nuclear weapon employment scenarios.

Possible Scenarios of Nuclear Weapons Employment

It is unlikely that nuclear weapons would be used by anyone out of sheer cunning and with the objective of totally destroying an enemy in a surprise attack. All the assumptions behind the following scenarios are of their worst case sort, and the Middle-East has had its share of terror. In any case, it is most likely that if any atomic destruction comes, it will arise from a perceived need for more drastic action, which the conventional means wouldn't permit. After Hiroshima and Nagasaki, any further use of nuclear weapons will have to be justified to the world and international opinion. A last ditch defensive effort would be the best, and perhaps the only justification. It is, therefore, possible to imagine, three defensive military scenarios, i.e., Survival Scenario, Interdiction Scenario and Preemption Scenario.

Survival Scenario. To begin with, we should again take note of a survival syndrome that seems constantly present in the Middle East. For Israel, this is expressed as fear of another holocaust similar to that which engulfed over six million European Jews during World War-II. From security standpoint, however, the Six-Day war was in certain respects a poor bargain for Israel. The areas occupied in 1967 became a major focus for Arab anxieties about their own security, what residual holocaust fixation remained in Israel was thus mixed with new Arab fears for their own survival. This explosive mixture reached its most volatile state with the arrival of the first American F-4, Phantom in Israel during 1969 and Israel's subsequent deep-penetration raids into Egypt in 1970 with these Phantoms. October 1973 represented the almost inevitable Arab effort to gain some measure of military self-assurance for them, even though they were not victorious in any strict sense. Under such circumstances, extreme measures involving nuclear or other unconventional weapons might be used in defence of real or imagined threats to the nation's survival.

Interdiction Scenario. It should be recalled that certain tactical nuclear weapons can be used either to destroy large number of an enemy's approaching forces on the front-line or to disrupt military activity behind enemy lines, rail junctions, airfields, and so on. Whether used in shorter or longer-range modes, however, such unconventional arms are designed to slow down or stop a superior conventional attack. Such an attack might come as a surprise or involve a powerful offensive (or counter-offensive) breakthrough, against which retreating forces would have to use some kind of extremely powerful interdiction to turn the tide or at least moderate it.

Middle Eastern wars have seen both surprise-attacks and sudden breakthrough. With the short distances involved and expected increase in the number of tanks and other equipment likely to be used in a new round of fighting, it may prove necessary for either side to mount an effective interdiction campaign. While one can imagine using conventional means for this, one lesson of the October 1973 war is especially important for the next war, should it occur. Equipment and personnel losses were rapid and high, and in a war involving the use of everything, attrition should be worst. Even if the superpowers could (or would) mount equipment airlifts on the 1973 scale, this would hardly replenish forces that are larger than they were at that time. And some doubt may be expressed that even a 1973 style re-supply effort would materialize, whatever be the size of an outside assistance effort, attrition would be more rapid than in 1973, given the likelihood that even better sophisticated weaponry is now deployed. Under these conditions, use of nuclear weapons might quickly become an attractive option should war erupt again. In fact, one can say that all the Arab-Israeli wars in the past have shown some form of surprise attacks and/or breakthrough, which provide decisive results.

Pre-emotion Scenario. A pre-emptive scenario or what is now called by some Preventive War would likely occur, if a state intelligence indicates that such an attack was imminent, there would have been a need to stop this devastating blow by preventive action, what one might call a preventive scenario. In this case, inferior conventional power could be compensated for, in dire circumstances, by initiating atomic warfare. A feeling of inferiority could result from one of the two reasons:-

(a) Fear that one is ill-equipped to stand and fight in the first place

(b) The fear that one is under-supplied for a long war once started.

In a sense, a pre-emptive or preventive war is a form of surprise attack, but the effects of a pre-emptive strike, however, are the same as of a surprise attack and will be so treated by the country attacked. Both are designed to catch an enemy by 'surprise'. This might lead to the conclusion that since this will be the final round of fighting and one is already losing after the first shots, one had better take drastic interactive action against the pre-emptor, by using nuclear weapons pre-emptively, out of fear that the opponent will attack first.

Any pre-emptive use of nuclear weapons would not only bring about world condemnation but probably retaliation of some sort by one or more members of the nuclear club. Pre-emptive attack with nuclear weapons would surely be the most dangerous use of un-conventional arms in the world.

Effects on Conventional Force Structure

After having looked at the development of nuclear weapons, the doctrines and the possible scenarios, let us now discuss the effects on the conventional force structure. The initial euphoria on development of nuclear weapons provided reasons to consider conventional forces redundant. But owing to their menacing character, the realization developed that nuclear weapons were not 'just another type of weapons'. They would have to be kept as the weapons of last resort or mainly for the purpose of averting armed conflict by creating a credible deterrence.

Deterrence is likely to play an increasingly important role in future arms struggles. It is not likely that even with possession of large amount of nuclear weapons, in the present state of parity, that anyone is going to resort to their use unless when conventional defence has virtually broken down. Even in this situation, there is a possibility that nuclear weapons will not be used. However, this puts a great burden on the conventional forces. Hence, they must continue to be employed as long as they possibly can.

Sophistication of Conventional Weapons. Today's sophistication and lethality of conventional weapons can be called a spin-off of nuclear weapon production. The spin-off of nuclear research and development enhanced the accuracy and effectiveness of conventional weapons. Now smart and intelligent munitions can be employed with surgical accuracy to attack military targets without fear of much collateral damage. The one weapon one target concept has given great strength to the conventional forces.

Structural Changes. As regards to structural changes, their effectiveness, long employment range combined with a smaller size of weapons brought out a conceptual change in the art of waging conventional war. For a conventional force to meet the challenges of a nuclear environment is by no means an easy task. It needs to re-evaluate its war-fighting concepts, create its organizational structure and enhance its ability to operate under the threat of a nuclear strike. These would be in the form of Organization, Survivability, Mobility, Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence and Electro-Magnetic Spectrum:-

(a) Organization. The essence of organizational changes would encompass the following:-

  • Reducing the size of existing units without degrading the existing kill potential/operational efficiency. This would entail greater mechanization and increased firepower.
  • Integration of the all arms concept at the unit level to give it greater autonomy.
  • Rehashing the entire training infrastructure would be required to meet new doctrinal compulsions. This would include special psychological training programme, including confidence building for troops to operate in the new scenario.
  • Introduction of specialist units to cater for detection, monitoring, damage limitation and casualty evacuation for troops operating in areas where nuclear strikes may be initiated. Special medical facilities will also be required to evacuate, receive and treat personnel exposed to a nuclear strike. The requirement of surveillance units equipped and organized to provide early warning of incoming aircraft and missiles will also have to be met. Special forces for special operations to neutralize missile deployment indepth will have to be created and trained.

(b) Survival. To increase the survivability factor and generate adequate confidence level in the conventional forces, it would be essential to do the following:-

  • Provision of Nuclear-Biological-Chemical (NBC) defensive equipment for personnel and combat vehicles.
  • Hardening of communication systems to reduce collateral failures and maintenance of command and control centres and posts.
  • Creation of hardened command posts in pre-selected areas.
  • Suitable equipment to monitor radioactive fallout.
  • Introduction of special camouflage and concealment equipment to reduce the chances of exposure.

(c) Mobility. Under nuclear environment, the smaller units and larger area equation have greater emphasis on mobility. Hence, mobility on the battlefield has become essential for rapid concentration and dispersal and, therefore, a greater dependence on mechanization and aerial mobility.

(d) C3I Network. Command and control of these smaller but spreadout units will have to be tightened up considerably if they are to be employed to maximum advantage. To make the command and control meaningful, a comprehensive C3I network is essential. The command and control problems associated with the employment of strategic nuclear forces were tackled through extensive R&D. Airborne Command Post, Joint Surveillance Target Acquisition Radar System (J-STARS) and Joint Tactical Information and Distribution System (J-TIDS). These types of C3I systems have become a reality. Now even a conventional force commander can exercise control over each and every tank employed in the tactical battlefield or fighter aircraft deployed, apart from having a complete theatre picture in real time. This has projected the art of warfare in the fourth dimension, i.e., the struggle for supremacy in the Electro Magnetic Spectrum.

(e) Electro-Magnetic Spectrum (EMS). Deception units, equipped to generate audio-visual and electronic emission to deceive the enemy on actual battle plans and movements, would increase the degree of difficulty in the decision making process for the adversary. The efficient use of EMS or successful denial of its use to the enemy has become a battle-deciding factor.

Tactical nuclear weapons, today, are considered as important as a conventional force structure. The modern state-of-the-art weaponry and tactical nuclear weapons have had a profound effect on small states' force structure as well. Those countries, which can develop nuclear weapons, would like to possess them on their inventory for deterrence purposes, but not without possessing a viable conventional force structure comprising a highly effective and sophisticated military machine. This means that the existence of nuclear weapons has not been able to reduce the conventional forces in terms of numbers. As a matter of fact, conventional forces have become more destructive due to weapon sophistication. Even the nuclear powers spend several times as much on conventional as on nuclear forces.

War has always been the breeding grounds for advances in weapon technology. Generally, a weapon was developed to meet a doctrinal requirement. However, a new development like nuclear weapons altered the doctrinal concept.

They were developed to meet a doctrinal necessity of potent strategic bombardment but came out to be so devastating that the plausibility of their employment as just another weapon of war waging became questionable. Nevertheless, they were developed to stay and form an integral part of war waging doctrine. The pendulum, however, swung from these weapons being the main force structure to their being unemployable. The unemployment of nuclear devices, after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki tragedy, resulted in full-scale comeback of conventional weapons. Conventional weaponry has witnessed unprecedented qualitative and quantitative developments during the last fifty years. The same has been the case with the employment doctrines of conventional forces, in the back drop of nuclear advancement in the fields of enhanced weapon effectiveness, organization, command, control, communication, survivability, mobility, creation of specialist units, field of reconnaissance and surveillance and development of electro-magnetic spectrum.

In short, the non-employability of nuclear weapons to start an armed conflict or during the conflict have resulted in giving greater importance to conventional force structures. In today's world, modern, sophisticated, effective and strong conventional forces are maintained by all nuclear states and are organized, equipped and trained to operate in a nuclear environment.

(Note: The article is based on a presentation made on the topic by a group of four allied officers of No. 11 Air War Course to some of the members of air staff at the PAF Air War College, Faisal on 24 April, 1998. Lt Col Rosly Bin Jalahuddin of the Royal Malaysian Air Force was the group leader. Col Yasin Mohammad Muhsen Al-Ma'aitah of the Royal Jordanian Air Force, Wg Cdr. Muhammad Anwarul Haque of the Bangladesh Air Force and Lt. Col Kuswantoro of the Indonesian Air Force were the other three members of the group. South Asia, at the time of presentation, had not gone under a strategic change as a result of nuclear explosions conducted by India and Pakistan in May 1998.

1. Roger Molander and Robbie Nichols. Who will Stop the Bomb'. File Publications, New York, Oxford, England 1985.
2. Samuel B Payne, Jr, The Conduct of War, Basis Blackwell Ltd. England 1988.
3. Robert I Premger, Date R Tahtinum, Nuclear Threat in the Middle East, 1975.
4. William Bunge, Nuclear War Atlas, Basil Blackwell Ltd, UK, 1989.
5. Syed Sikander Mehdi, Nuclear Weapons and Human Insecurity, An article in Pakistan Horizon, 1985.
6. Adelphi Papers-317.
7. The Daily Dawn, Karachi, Pakistan-1998.
8. Microsoft Encarta' 97, Encyclopedias, 1993-1996.
9. Oxford Encyclopedia, 1997.
10. Encyclopedia, America, 1997.


Specialists: government loans exceeding commodity flow and contribute to reduce unemployment

Economists stressed that the loans released by the government will move the wheel of the local economy with an emphasis on activating the laws that provide refunds with their profits without wastage, while the Committee of Economy in Parliament called for a "dissuasive" sanctions against banks that do not support small and medium enterprises initiative. The economist said Maytham defect in an interview for the "long", that "the amount of government loans contribute to the increase of commodity production, and works to reduce unemployment, and supposed that these amounts are distributed between small, medium and large enterprises, and pumping these amounts to the economy represented in addition to the demand and it played to an increase in trading activity. " He added that "is expected to go this money abroad the country, because most of them will be spent on the purchase of goods and investment services imported to the establishment of industrial plants and agricultural mechanization, as well as intermediate materials contribute to the production process." He said defect that "the positive effects can appear on term term, on the assumption that the money actually go to the truth, and not to go to the fake projects and do not go to investors Hakeyen projects, which presupposes the existence of real guarantees and controls to prevent get it. " He said the "Past experience has shown that a lot of the money that has been lent not return, a private industrial loans, home loans and other, so it requires the development of guarantees and the application of strict laws against defaulters, also requires a balance between controls and safeguards and between that the money go to the investors and industrialists, agricultural real.
"He stressed the need to" develop a unit to follow up these loans, paying greater part of them for large projects, so the selection of projects represent goods group are carefully selected and then distributed to the provinces to take into account issues of availability of raw materials, which are base to reduce the imported goods in the future. " .

He pointed out the need to "choose a smaller number of projects to facilitate the control process and follow-up instead of many small businesses and medium can be dispersed and difficult to control them and then lose the project its true value."

The Iraqi Central Bank announced on Tuesday 23/6/2015, the launch of loan amounts for projects medium and small by the Iraqi private banks early next month of July, and pointed out that the loan amounts will reach up to 50 million dinars, as he emphasized that banks benefit will not exceed 5.5%.

The governor of the Central Bank on the Keywords in an interview to the (long-Presse), The "The central bank's decision to allocate trillion dinars to the private banks and directed to establish medium and small projects will begin early next month (July)," noting that the goal of these projects is to achieve economic and social development and support for small and medium-sized economic projects and operation of premium skills workforce.

"He added Keywords that "the amounts to be allocated will target projects in the sectors (industrial, agricultural, housing, commercial, educational, health, tourism)," pointing out that "all Iraqi private banks covered by this decision for those who wish to work out."

Turn The head of the parliamentary Economic Committee Jawad al-Bolani, Thursday, to impose a "dissuasive" sanctions against banks that do not do the central bank for supporting small and medium enterprises initiative, while calling for the need to support those projects relying on private banks.

Bolani said, in a statement, received (range Press), copy it, that "the ball today in private banks stadium after the Central Bank of Iraq was launched for small and medium loans initiative in the previous time", calling for "the need for the effective contribution of private banks to support those projects."

He stressed Bolani, to "be there deterrent penalties against banks that this initiative does not do strict penalties of up to banks and denial of access to the foreign currency auction. "The Central Bank of Iraq was launched in the previous time a loan in the amount of trillion Iraqi dinars to support small and medium enterprises provide the form of loans to citizens through private banks.


airbag injuries

If you have been in a crash, you probably were thankful for your airbag. However, airbag injuries can and do happen.

While airbags help keep most motorists safe and prevent injuries in a crash, airbag injuries can leave motorists with broken bones, burns and more. While they are rare, airbag injures can be debilitating.

So, what are some common airbag injuries? Read on:

Fractures and sprains

Airbags can cause facial fractures, skull fractures, spine fractures and other fractures to body parts like wrists, hands and chest.

Abrasions and contusions

You can get cut and bruised from the airbag being deployed, especially on your face, upper body and chest and hands. Airbags can also bruise your internal organs and knees.

It’s possible for injuries to include concussions, brain swelling and traumatic brain injuries (TBI). If you lost consciousness during the accident, it may have been caused by an airbag injury.

Eyes and ears

Injuries can include retinal tears, abrasions and other eye injuries, as well as hearing loss or other ear injuries.

While some of these airbag injuries can be mild, some can be quite serious or debilitating. You can cut your risk of airbag injuries by properly using your seatbelt and not letting children under age 12 ride in the front seat.

Schottenstein Law Offices can help with airbag injuries

If you or someone you know has been injured due to an airbag, give our legal experts a call today! You might be entitled to a settlement and we can help protect your rights.

CategoryAuto Safety


BOSTON -- Democratic gubernatorial candidate Don Berwick said Monday he is confident he can make himself better known to primary voters in the coming months, and dismissed attempts to frame the race as being between Attorney General Martha Coakley and state Treasurer Steven Grossman.

Berwick, a pediatrician and former federal health-care administrator, qualified for the Sept. 9 primary ballot after finishing third at the state Democratic convention Saturday. He almost edged out Coakley for second place among the nearly 4,400 delegates who voted.

While Berwick, a first-time candidate, made inroads with many liberal party activists, recent polls suggest he remains largely unknown to the much wider state audience. For example, a Suffolk University/Boston Herald poll released before the convention found that nearly 60 percent of 800 likely Democratic voters surveyed had never heard of Berwick, and few had formed an opinion about him.

While saying he would have sufficient financial resources for his campaign, Berwick did not say whether he plans statewide TV ads that could be critical to getting prospective voters' attention during the summer months.

Berwick had about $229,000 in his campaign account at the end of May compared with $910,000 for Grossman and $528,000 for Coakley, according to state records.

Coakley visited with fast-food industry workers in Boston's Dorchester neighborhood Monday, pledging her support for the workers who are seeking to unionize and pushing for a minimum wage of $15 per hour.

Coakley has held large leads over Grossman in early polling of likely Democratic voters.

Grossman began what his campaign called the "One Commonwealth" tour with stops at a career center in Salem and a Taunton organization that assists first-time homebuyers and tenants.

Charlie Baker and Mark Fisher will compete in the Republican primary.


I Am Become Overwhelmed

In Cold Blood

In Cold Blood by Truman Capote

First Line: The village of Holcomb stands on the high wheat plains of western Kansas, a lonesome area that other Kansans call “out there.”

I don’t frequently turn to this genre, which I suppose is why I picked up the title that started it all. I mean, In Cold Blood is the epitome of true crime, right?

Then again, this is more than a true crime read. It’s a psychological study of violence in America, a historical novel, a horror story that gets under your skin in a twisted, emotional way. Our sympathies are naturally inclined toward the Clutter family, then to investigator Alvin Adams Dewey. But as we delve deeper with Capote’s narrative, allegiance becomes blurred. I leave this book with a complicated sense of pity for the murderers. It’s a disgusting tragedy through-and-through, but the writing sure is done well.

I feel compelled to recommend this book because it challenges the reader. Like Lolita, it’s confusing…we try to create answers for why these characters choose this, or do that, but there is no true, concrete explanation.

The ending only emphasizes this sense of loss. The histories of the death row inmates lodging next-door to Dick and Perry are a strong parallels to the boys’ own downward spiral leading to the Clutter family murders. Since mental health is a highlighted theme here, everyone affiliated with these various crimes becomes a victim in some form or other. Quite unsettling.

Bottom Line: Read it because it’s classic and difficult–then follow it with something light.


RI Audubon Society Records Nearly 300 Young Ospreys; Largest Number In 40 Years

Jul 19, 2017

A recent report from Audubon Society of Rhode Island, a wildlife conservation organization, recorded the highest number of osprey fledglings throughout the state since monitoring of the species began in 1977.

In 2016, as a part of the Audubon Osprey Monitoring Program, more than 100 volunteers recorded 297 fledglings. That's up from 239 in 2015 and up from just eight in 1977.

Jon Scoones, director of volunteer services at Audubon and author of the report, said since 98 percent of the bird's diet is fish, the steady increase in fledglings could be due to the state's waterways being opened.

"The removal of the dams in several of the rivers make it so the fish can go further upstream, and if the fish can go further upstream, that means the osprey can follow them upstream, they can have access to those fish now spread out a little bit more throughout Rhode Island," Scoones said.

Scoones said more access to fish means ospreys can feed all of their young instead of just one or two.

Scoones said other factors contributing to the increase could be a larger fish population in general because of the state's better water quality and an increase in the number of Audubon volunteers monitoring osprey nests.

Scoones said it's important for the number of fledglings in the state to keep going up because they benefit Rhode Islanders and the environment.

"Osprey are a wonderful indicator species because they only eat fish. So if there’s a problem with the water or the fish or the habitat, it’s going to show up in the osprey," Scoones said.

Ospreys helped scientists realize a widely-used pesticide in the 1950s called DDT was impacting the aquatic ecosystem, Scoones said.

Ospreys were eating fish swimming in contaminated waters. DDT would "bioaccumulate" in the birds' system, causing them to lay eggs with soft shells that would be crushed when the mother tried to sit on them.

DDT was banned in 1972.

Ospreys are monitored bi-weekly every year from April to July.


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Charges applicable for day care (less than 8 hours) are calculated on the basis of half-day bed charges.

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I. Final bill (original) ii. Receipts of all payments iii. Check-out slip

What are the rules for transferring patients to a higher category?
Transfer to a higher category is based on the availability of beds. The rates of the higher category transferred to will be applicable from the date of the transfer. For surgical procedures, investigations and other diagnostics you will be charged as per the higher category rate only, from the date of admission.
In the case of packages, for transfer to a higher category the total difference in the package charge has to be paid before the transfer.

What is the system of billing?
Billing is done on a 24-hour basis.

Can we buy medicines or consumables from outside?
All the medicines and consumables are provided by the hospital pharmacy only.

How do I get a discharge summary?
Your summary report or discharge card will be given to you by the nursing staff at the time of the discharge. In case there is a delay in the preparation of a discharge card, it will be mailed or posted to you within a week of the discharge.

Do you have telephone facilities for the patients?
Yes, telephone connections are provided in all the wards and rooms to facilitate communication.


Cupid Brand Guidelines

First there was The Santa Brand and of course now we get Cupid Brand Guidelines.

Antonio Ortiz

Antonio Ortiz has always been an autodidact with an eclectic array of interests. Fascinated with technology, advertising and culture he has forged a career that combines them all. In 1991 Antonio developed one of the very first websites to market the arts. It was text based, only available to computer scientists, and increased attendance to the Rutgers Arts Center where he had truly begun his professional career. Since then Antonio has been an early adopter and innovator merging technology and marketing with his passion for art, culture and entertainment. For a more in-depth look at those passions, visit

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III Percent Patriots: Rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others. ~ Thomas Jefferson

Click the Image

Feb 6, 2013

Operation Thunderdome and more

Have you made your targeting list?

The enemy is making theirs and checking it twice.

From Hagmann's DHS Insider
RB: The DHS will oversee the domestic crackdown that will happen when the perfect storm bears down on us. And the perfect storm is the economy, meaning the U.S. dollar collapse and hyperinflation, racial or class riots sparked by a high-profile incident, and another mass causality event involving guns. Watch for these three things to happen all at once, or in close succession.

The polarization caused by these events will be sufficient to cause a second civil war.
DH: When? How soon will all of this happen?

RB: I don’t have a crystal ball, but I have seen various reports referencing unprecedented “drills” to take place in later March and April. I’ll mention this because I know a lot of people on the inside at DHS have seen this. A document called “Operation Thunderdome.” It’s maybe 50 or 60 pages, I’m not certain. It describes an economic collapse in the U.S., followed by an attack on the government by “a made-up patriotic group.” It combines gun owners, Constitutionalists, and even Christians into an enemy group that pulls off an attack in Washington.

But don’t fall into the trap of trying to pick the time of these events. Their plans are flexible, but their objectives are carved in stone.

And this

RB: The instructions seemed very specific. Infiltrate web forums, collect screen names, avatars, and posters’ tag lines, and attempt to resolve these to their actual identities. I read one paragraph that listed circumstances when the “asset” was only to monitor but do not disrupt without authorization. There was another section titled “Divert, Disrupt and Destroy,” listing “how to’s” in certain cases.

There was also a section on maintaining a social media presence, and another on the most effective use of Twitter.

Lastly, there was a “reference section,” which included statistics, specific language to use to marginalize different posters, and effective methods to discredit people while maintaining a sense of legitimacy.

It was surreal, to say the least.

Oh, one more thing that’s important. As I said, these “kids,” or young people I believe, are known collectively as “Cyber-Warriors for Obama.” The subheading was “And the truth shall set you free.” Truth? Really? They were hired on their hacking abilities, or more precisely on their abilities to make postings through proxy servers and effectively use alternate identities and multiple e-mail addresses.


Visiting the zoo is always a fun and exciting experience no matter what age group you fall into.

With beautiful enclosures, educational tours, seasonal specials, and of course the remarkable animals themselves, there's always something new and interested to do at the zoo!  Nowadays, most people who visit the zoo never miss out on the chance to take a snap of their favorite exhibitions and share their fun day out with all their loved ones. Unfortunately for these visitors, the unexpected happened when they decided to take a picture of this quirky monkey...

When a group of visitors decided to visit Russia's Krasnodar Safari Park, they couldn't help but notice little Yasha, a capuchin monkey, who in their eyes was the perfect subject of their next picture. Yasha however, had something else in mind!

The hilarious clip was uploaded this week on the 27th November, 2017, starring a fascinated couple who excitedly approached Yasha for a closer look.

As soon as the man decides to pull out his phone for a close up shot of the adorable monkey, Yasha cheekily reached through the barrier and surprised everyone with what he did next.

In a split second, the capuchin monkey snatched this visitor's smartphone right out of his hands frantically trying to fit the device through the gate. Terrified the monkey would run away with his phone, the stunned man stretches out in a fury and grabbed his phone back form this little thief.

Upon realizing his exciting new device was snatched away, Yasha expressed his obvious frustration screeching with all his might!

You never know what to expect whenever you come across a bored and curious monkey. Maybe all he wanted to do was take a selfie!

Check out this hilarious and unexpected incident when visiting a monkey at the zoo, and don't forget toSHAREwith all your animal loving friends and family!


Morgan {Senior ’14} Dallas Senior Photographer

Meet the oh so gorgeous, Morgan! She is a senior at Colleyville Heritage High School with dreams of being an aggie next year! She was such a trooper throughout her session, considering temps were in the 40’s! but the sun was shining and her outfits were perfect for the occasion 😉 Here is a sneak peek!

L~ F~:


Friday, October 22, 2010

When Personality Deters Your Employment Chances

In spite of looming economy, the number of cosmetic surgeries and other beauty alternatives and interventions continue to rise up since a good number of people have poor or inadequate personality,thereby, affecting their self confidence and skills.

Thus, when you experience inadequacy because you don't have the right communication or social skills, then, remedy it by acquiring short courses to address this concern. If you have health issues including untreated pimples,  chin acne   and other skin problems, then, seek the right treatment.

Your employment may be based on your academic qualifications and skills but when personality becomes a problem, then, have this resolved immediately because with stiff employment competition, you can't simply rely on luck, grades or experience.


The daily ramblings …

Geophysics : An Introduction to Velocity

Posted in Geophysics by akamal on January 18, 2007

[ Introduction]

Velocity by definition refers to the rate at which an object changes its position. It is of a vector quantity, and as such, is direction aware. To illustrate this, imagine a person moving rapidly, one step forward and another backward, always returning to the original position. While this might result in a change of activity, it would result in a zero velocity, as the person always return to the original position (no distance to comapare with).

In geophysics, velocity is an extremely important trait that enables us to predict the sort of content the earth’s ground covers. As it is related to how fast waves travel between layers of the earth, it also tells us of how compact they are in between.

It’s formula is:

velocity = total distance / total time , or put simply,
v = d/t

As in the usual case of physics, there are 2 types of fundamental velocity to deal with. Let’s have a quick look into all 2.

[ Average Velocity ]
Much like the name suggests, it actually calculates the average speed between the distance traveled and time taken. For example, when traveling to Petaling which is 50km in distance, and taking 1 hour, my velocity would be

v = 50 km / 1 hour = 50 km/h

It’s comparison will be your starting distance and time against your last.

[ Instantaneous Velocity ]
Shows the velocity at one given point. As the name indicated, it’s a velocity at one instance of time. In average velocity, we consider the speed between point A and B, so they’re like intervals between them.

[ Example ]

Consider the example below (don’t bother to ask where I got the diagram, I freakingly did it myself) :

Velocity Diagram 001

Consider a car going from point A to B. As the diagram indicated, the car arrives at point B in 50 mintues time. To calculate the average speed, we use the following information.

total distance = sum of distance; td = 25 + 20 + 30 + 10 = 85 km
total time = end time – starting time; tt = 50 – 0 = 50 minutes

The average velocity is:

td / tt = 85
50 = 1.7 km per minute

In geophysics, the standard is meter/second, so I’d take the answer as 24 meter/second.

Now, to understand the concept of instantaneous velocity, I’d have to write some lengthy explanation here. Remember that instantaneous refers to a reading at one particular point or time.

Suppose the velocity of the car is varying, because for example, you’re in a traffic jam. You look at the speedometer and it’s varying a lot, all the way from zero to 60 mph. What is the instantaneous velocity? It is, more or less, what you read on the speedometer. I’m assuming you’ve got a good speedometer that isn’t too sluggish and can change its reading quite quickly. Your speedometer is measuring the the average velocity but one measured over quite a short time, to ensure that you’re getting an up to date reading of your velocity.

So if you measure the displacement of the car d over t, you can use that to determine the average velocity of the car. What we want is to take the limit as difference of t goes to zero. More formally, the instantaneous velocity v is defined as

v = d / t; where t -> is nearing to 0

What the heck do I mean by that? I know you’d be confused. Just consider this, instant velocity still uses the same equation as of average. v = d/t, but instead of taking the total difference between the 2 variables, we try to limit the range of the difference, example, to get velocity at 40km, we use these information:

time difference = 160 seconds – 159.5 seconds
distance difference = 40km – 39.75km

The comparison looks so small right? That’s what you call instantaneous velocity, because we’re comparing the velocity at time 160 seconds, as compared to the previous velocity at 159.5 seconds. Usually, with average, you’re just comparing from time at some xx seconds and 0 (initial time). So what is the limit you say? Yeah, there is a limit to what extent you should define the difference on. You can’t just write difference of time as 60 seconds – 59.999999 seconds, that’s absurd.

To explain on the concept of limits, I’ll explain it in another article.


King Krule at the Independent

Aidin Vaziri | Everyone knew it was coming, but it still felt like a wallop. The moment Archy Marshall, the British singer-songwriter who records under the name King Krule, took the stage at the Independent and opened his mouth – out came a staggering croak that was a mixture of crushed gravel, broken glass and a rumbling steam train. That voice. There’s nothing else quite like it in pop music at the moment.

When he sings, he sounds so wizened that you would never guess Marshall turned 19 in August, on the same day he released King Krule’s debut album, “6 Feet Beneath the Moon.” Playing the second of two sold-out concerts at the San Francisco venue, the 6-foot-1 South Londoner appeared even younger up close. He was wearing a shirt that was too large and pants that were too small, and was accompanied by a group of musicians who looked like truants from jazz camp. They may have been, too.

Marshall’s music, on the other hand, sounded impossibly mature. It was as jarring as his voice, built around languid guitar riffs, skittering drum ‘n’ bass rhythms and fluid jazz chords. A lot of it sounded as if it had been produced by accident, which, considering that some of the songs go as far back as when Marshall was 8 years old, is just fine.

Read more.


NEED-MEETING & 5 Ways Your Church Can Meet Your Community’s Needs

By Kate Riney, Facts & Trends, LifeWay, 7/26/16.

…To reach the lost and broken with the gospel, each church needs to be aware and reflective of its community’s assets and needs. Here are five ways your church can do that.

1. Take a walk and talk.

Map out a radius around your church based on how concentrated the population is in your area. For urban churches, tackle the 2- to 3-block radius of your church location. For more suburban or rural churches, you may want to take a 2- to 3-mile walk or drive.

Walk around the area with staff leaders and key volunteers. Meet people hanging out at the bus stop, coffee shops, local eatery, the gym, etc. Ask these people about their lives and take notes. Get to know them and the challenges they face.

Try to take on the posture of a missionary who has recently arrived on the mission field. By starting without assumptions, you’ll be better prepared to hear some surprising revelations.

Ask open-ended questions: How does the surrounding community affect their lives (positively or negatively)? What is their involvement in any spiritual community? What’s the familiarity and impression people have of a) religion in general, b) Christianity, and c) your particular denomination or tradition?

Ask about the history of the community. When did the community get its start and under what circumstances? What historical or cultural events and landmarks are important to the community? How has the area evolved?…

2. Identify community assets.

As you walk, take note of medical facilities, homeless shelters, day cares, schools, libraries, different types of housing (high-rise apartments, single-family homes, public housing, mobile homes, etc.), religious and civic organizations, public transit, gas stations, grocery stores, shopping malls, green space, recreation facilities, etc.

Next, identify these assets on your map. Look first for assets, second for patterns, third for needs…

Write all these patterns down and begin to draw some conclusions about the nature and identity of your community. Only then can you assess the community’s physical, relational, and spiritual needs.

3. Assess community needs and begin developing your strategy.

Perhaps there are no grocery stores in your church’s area, only corner stores. Maybe you could offer a farmer’s market in your parking lot to bring quality, nutritious food to the local residents. Are there many day cares, but mainly overcrowded or underfunded preschools?

Consider starting a church school for all those tots about to age out of day care. If the area lacks public transit, the church might offer a shuttle ministry to allow more people to attend worship services and church events.

What cultures, ethnicities, and languages are represented around you? Try to see past the obvious and easily visible demographics of the neighborhood.

Many elderly people may live in an assisted living or retirement community you’ve never noticed. They might love to be a part of your church family if the opportunity is available.

Are there many people with different abilities in your community (those with cognitive disabilities, issues with mobility, sight or hearing impairment, etc.)?

Consider making your church highly wheelchair-accessible, providing sign language interpreters, and tailoring your worship service production to the needs of all those in your community.

4. Filter and prioritize.

After your group shares its thoughts on the community’s patterns or needs and you do some “blue-sky thinking,” pray and begin to prioritize those assets your church wants to offer based on what your community needs most.

Some initiatives will be simpler than others to start, and you may find you can easily implement two or three projects at once.

Read more at …


Democrat City Jacks Up Minimum Wage To $13…Look How Their Policies Killed The Poor

In a radical shift, economists have begun to subscribe to an emerging economic theory called “common sense.”

This theory is based upon two new concepts: “reality” and “facts.”

The idea behind common sense economics is that we should only institute policies that work. Policies that do not work, on the other hand, should be abandoned.

Since this is a new economic theory, those who believe in its principles are few and far between. Nevertheless, occasionally a study that adheres to its teachings will be published.

A recent paper from the National Bureau of Economic Research is the newest example of common sense economics in the public sphere.

See what it concluded about Seattle’s 2016 minimum wage hike:

From the National Bureau of Economic Research:

This paper evaluates the wage, employment, and hours effects of the first and second phase-in of the Seattle Minimum Wage Ordinance, which raised the minimum wage from $9.47 to $11 per hour in 2015 and to $13 per hour in 2016.

Using a variety of methods to analyze employment in all sectors paying below a specified real hourly rate, we conclude that the second wage increase to $13 reduced hours worked in low-wage jobs by around 9 percent, while hourly wages in such jobs increased by around 3 percent.

Consequently, total payroll fell for such jobs, implying that the minimum wage ordinance lowered low-wage employees’ earnings by an average of $125 per month in 2016.

Evidence attributes more modest effects to the first wage increase. We estimate an effect of zero when analyzing employment in the restaurant industry at all wage levels, comparable to many prior studies.

Indeed, this is a perfect example of common sense economics in action.

When the minimum wage is set at an above-market rate, businesses need to take action to offset the costs. Often, the actions do not help low-wage workers.

For many small businesses, which can barely stay afloat in the first place, that means cutting back employee hours to save money.

In many instances, prices rise as well. This is because common sense economic theory states that businesses which spend more end up charging more.

Fortunately, common sense economics presents a catch-all solution to economic woes: let the free market take its course.

Common sense economics states that the best way to fix economic problems is to let the problems fix themselves. This operates off the fundamental belief that the people, rather than the government, know what is best for themselves.

According to this solution, government should limit its level of economic interference. Only a government-free economy will operate as it is supposed to, with wages naturally increasing and prices naturally decreasing according to the will of the people.

Common sense economic theory, however, is still wildly unpopular within progressive circles. Liberal politicians and activists alike are reluctant to accept its principles, and it looks like it might be a while until their anti-common sense stigma goes away.

Thankfully, experts believe that President Trump himself subscribes to common sense economic theory. Many are hopeful that he will use the theory’s principles to indeed Make America Great Again.

Source: National Bureau of Economic Research

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What: Shares of food-delivery company GrubHub (NYSE:GRUB) jumped on Thursday following the company's fourth-quarter earnings report. GrubHub beat analyst estimates for both revenue and earnings, and the company provided in-line revenue guidance for the first quarter. At 3:20 p.m. ET, the stock was up about 11.5%.

So what: GrubHub reported quarterly revenue of $100 million, up 36% year over year and slightly higher than the average analyst estimate. Active diners totaled 6.75 million during the fourth quarter, up 34% year over year, while gross food sales rose 26% to $643 million.

GrubHub reported non-GAAP net income of $0.19 per share, up 16% year over year and $0.05 higher than analyst expectations. On a GAAP basis, EPS of $0.13 was flat year over year, with total costs rising by 48% year over year, substantially faster than revenue.

The company expects first-quarter revenue between $109 million and $112 million, in line with the average analyst estimate. Adjusted EBITDA is expected between $30 and $33 million, above analyst expectations of $28.6 million.

Now what: Shares of GrubHub have been hammered over the past year, falling nearly 50% prior to Thursday's gain. A string of mixed and negative earnings reports beginning in April of last year sent the stock tumbling.

GrubHub's growth rate has slowed, and concerns about intense competition in the food-delivery business have contributed to the stock's decline over the past year. The fourth quarter was generally positive for GrubHub, although costs are rising faster than revenue, and the number of daily average orders only grew by 19% year over year. Still, after a steep decline in the stock price over the past year, expectations are likely lower, and investors seem pleased with the company's results.


Mallory M. Kerner

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