Cell:cell interactions in the immune system

  • Facundo D. Batista,

    1. Lymphocyte Interaction Group, London Research Institute, Cancer Research UK, London, UK
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  • Michael L. Dustin

    Corresponding author
    1. Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
    • Lymphocyte Interaction Group, London Research Institute, Cancer Research UK, London, UK
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Correspondence to:

Michael L. Dustin

Professor of Pathology

Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine of the Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, 2nd Floor, Labs 4 and 5

NYU School of Medicine

540 First Avenue

New York, NY 10016, USA

Tel.: +1 212 263 3207

Fax: +1 212 263 5711

e-mail: michael.dustin@med.nyu.edu

Video podcast available

Go to www.immunologicalreviews.com to watch an interview with Guest Editor Facundo Batista.

This article introduces a series of reviews covering Cell:Cell Contacts appearing in Volume 251 of Immunological Reviews.

The cells of the immune system are continually on the move! Naive T cells in a human collectively crawl over 10 000 miles a day in search of antigens [1]. Each dendritic cell (DC) touches 5000 T cells an hour to scan repertoires over a million deep [2, 3]. The adaptive immune system functions through a vast network of provisional cell–cell interactions that are continuously changing. When this frenetic scanning finds a fit between T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) and DC antigen, the interaction can be prolonged with a pronounced deceleration of the T cell and finally a long-lived interaction that has been described as an immunological synapse [2, 4]. In vitro studies on the immunological synapse suggest a profound supramolecular organization that serves focused trans-synaptic and juxtracrine information transfer between cells [5-8]. Immunological synapses are not restricted to T cells but are also formed by natural killer (NK) cells, B cells, granulocytes, and phagocytes using related immunotyrosine-based activation motif-containing receptors [9, 10]. These interactions are profoundly influenced by the three-dimensional (3D) tissue environment [11]. This volume of Immunological Reviews takes a broader look at the cell–cell interactions in the immune system from the molecular organization of antigen receptors during surveillance to the organization of stromal cell networks in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and the lung (Fig. 1).

Figure 1.

Cell-cell interactions in the immune system at the tissue, cellular and receptor scales.

The organization of the plasma membrane is a fundamental issue in biology that sets the stage for cell–cell interaction and communication. The classical fluid mosaic model suggested membrane proteins diffusing in a lipid sea with potential for interactions with cytoplasmic and extra-cytoplasmic binding partners that account for regulation and processes like adhesion and receptor capping. Observations on lipid phases in model systems with disordered, liquid-ordered, and gel phases in order of increasing viscosity suggested that such phases could also exist in biological membranes on some scale [12]. Biophysical observations of liquid-ordered domains enriched in various lipid-modified proteins have led to models in which lipids have a role in providing a higher level of organization [13]. Most recently, evidence for protein-driven domains, referred to as tetraspannin domains and protein islands, have been presented with the suggestion that protein–protein interaction may dominate organization of biological membranes, with the lipid rafts being a subtype of protein island [14-16]. Articles from Schamel and Alarcón [17], Sherman et al. [18], and Purbhoo [19] explore issues of antigen receptor organization and how membrane structures, including cytoplasmic vesicles, set the stage for and modulate signaling.

Cell–cell interactions are mediated by receptor–ligand interactions at membrane interfaces. It has been argued that it is often hard to define receptors and ligands in this context, as both molecules can signal, leading to proposals to refer to receptors and counter-receptors. Regardless, this is a unique chemical environment, and despite our success in cataloging hundreds of cell surface receptors and dozens of relevant molecular interactions, the precise chemistry of these interactions has been difficult to quantify and model. Bell [20] generated a theoretical framework for interactions at cell–cell interfaces and postulated that interactions would have low affinity but could function due to operation in a confinement zone of approximately 1 nm in the interface between cells, such that the interactions would be highly efficient due to pre-positioning for binding and re-binding when released. Quantitative measurements of such two-dimensional (2D) affinities (units of molecules−1 μm2) were consistent with this theory for the CD2–CD58 and related adhesive interactions of the immune system [21-23]. These measurements were based on interaction of live cells with supported planar bilayers containing fluorescent ligands as a model for a cell–cell interface. The application of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching in this system suggested that the low-affinity interactions were short lived in the interface but that the highly ordered contact area might effectively favor relatively long interactions compared to interactions of the same receptor and ligand measured in solution [24-26]. Zhu et al. [27] and Xie et al. [28] focus in part on the different approaches to measuring 2D affinity and kinetic rates.

The approach described by Xie et al. [28] uses a single molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer approach in the supported planar bilayer model and directly measures 2D off rates with exciting results. The 2D on rates and affinity estimates assume steady-state conditions and a model for receptor organization, such that these questions also become involved with issues discussed by Alarcon [17] and Davis [18]. Like the CD2–CD58 system, the TCR seems to make up for low affinity in solution by taking advantage of pre-positioning in the immunological synapse. However, the TCR system is much more complex than the early measurement on CD2.

The approach to 2D affinity utilized by Zhu et al. [27] is completely different and based on capturing the earliest events in TCR interaction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC)–peptide complexes as single tethers at the interface between a live T cell and a swelled erythrocyte coated with MHC–peptide complexes. The red blood cell (RBC) is manipulated into a contact with the T cell of defined area and duration and then withdrawn to determine if a tether has formed with a digital outcome for each test. The MHC–peptide density is set empirically to yield ~50% probability of tether formation with short contacts of less than a second to a couple of seconds. This process is then scored based on an equilibrium model for bond formation in the environment of the T–RBC contact. The results from these analyses have been intriguing, as this measurement is the most successful to date in being able to use a kinetic parameter (the 2D on rate in this case) to rank MHC–peptide complexes by biological potency. Using an equilibrium model to assess an intermediate in forming a signaling cluster in a live T cell complicates the interpretation of these results. In fact, other studies with this system reveal complex time-dependent phenomena related to the role of co-receptors like CD8. This is an exciting area, and the reviews by Xie et al. [28] and Zhu et al. [27] provide important perspectives on the current state of the art.

The immune system provides outstanding models for studying cell biology of cell–cell interactions and cell polarization [29]. There is a wealth of information about powerful signals that acutely control the polarization and activation of a variety of immune cell types with clearly defined functions. The only rub is that the cells are smaller than in the most popular cell biology model systems, and thus imaging can be a challenge. The Krummel [30] and Baldari [31] groups have risen to this challenge in different ways. Gérard et al. [30] present a discussion of immunological synapse dynamics and definitions in the context of a larger model for how sequential immunological synapses may be formed by naive T cells on the way to becoming an effector cell. The emphasis is on the necessity of transient and sequential interactions for differentiation to take place. The work builds on earlier concepts about immunological synapse periodicity [32] and extends this to consideration of T–T synapses [33], which is particularly attractive given that lymphocyte aggregates are correlates of successful activation of T cells in vitro.

Most mammalian cells have a hair-like projection on their surface, which is non-motile [34]. This primary cilium works as a sensor that helps cells to react to environmental signals. This is achieved by a specialized mechanism that specifically delivers receptors responsible for performing this function at this location. This complex dedicated machinery, known as intraflagellar transport, has recently been identified in T cells, though they do not appear to be ciliated cells. Finett and Baldari [31] provide a new spin on the immunological synapse by relating it to the primary cilium of other polarized cells. They provide a model for the function of intraflagellar transport proteins in the formation and function of the immunological synapse. The theme is that immune cells have taken many elements that evolved earlier in polarized epithelial cells and have modified these pathways to suit the function of more mobile cells that communicate by provisional synaptic interactions. Finding the lymphocyte-specific modifications in these evolutionarily and more widely used pathways may provide a next generation of immunomodulatory drug candidates.

The classical communication media in the immunological synapse are the signals generated by the receptor–ligand interactions (e.g. TCR–pMHC, CD28–CD80, CD40L–CD40, etc.) and the secreted components such as perforins and granzymes from cytotoxic T lymphocytes and cytokines like interferon-γ from helper T cells. There are exciting new findings related to larger structures that can be transferred through the immunological synapse and related junctions. The first realization that large particles may also be transferred through the immunological synapse came from studies of viral spread. Human T-lymphotrophic virus-1 generates particles that cannot survive in the extracellular milieu and thus can only be spread between T cells through a virological synapse: a direct cell–cell transfer [35]. It has been proposed that both the initial introduction of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from DCs to T cells and then spread from T cells to other T cells utilize a virological synapse [36]. Dale et al. [37] review the literature on cell to cell spread of HIV and the structure of the virological synapse. In this area, it is still not clear how antigen recognition impacts HIV spread and vice versa. Recent work from the Sanchez-Madrid laboratory points to a role of exosomes in transfer of microRNAs from T cells to antigen-presenting B cells via the immunological synapse. Exosomes are small vesicles generated in late endosomes by action of the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT). Gutiérrez-Vázque et al. [38] present a comprehensive review of not only exosomes but also other types of microparticles and how they could be involved throughout the immune response. The ESCRT pathway appears to play a key role in the formation of the immunological synapse, and this connection is yet to be fully explored.

The parallel analysis of the immunological synapse in vitro and in vivo has been invaluable for our appreciation of the diversity of immune responses. Early studies on the T-cell immunological synapse suggested that in vitro conditions may be established to result in antigen recognition through stable immunological synapses [6] or highly motile interactions, which may be defined as kinapses [39, 40]. Early in vivo imaging provided a win-win answer, as T-cell priming in lymph nodes takes place through dynamic and stable phases [4]. Parallel in vitro and in vivo imaging continues to be of great value, as in vitro systems still offer unparalleled resolution and contrast, whereas in vivo systems offer insight into cellular interactions and signaling in a more physiological setting. Huse et al. [41] and Deguine and Bousso [42] provide excellent examples of the value of in vitro and in vivo approaches applied to NK cell studies. Cell–cell interactions play an important role for these frontline immune effectors.

Huse and colleagues [43, 44] have made extensive use of photoactivation as a tool to dissect the order of events in T cells. Photoactivation can be applied to the rapid generation of new chemical signals (also called uncaging) and the generation of fluorescent signals to follow changes in localization over time. In this volume, Huse et al. [41] applies photoactivation of inhibitory ligands of NK cells and the disruption of the NK cell immunological synapse. This is a valuable approach in this context, because it allows the study of how the inhibitory ligands impact an existing NK cell immunological synapse, as described in the article.

While the greater focus of in vivo imaging approaches has initially been on B and T cells, as suggested by Deguine and Bousso [42], the lack of tracking tools has delayed NK cell studies until very recently. As discussed in their review, cell–cell interactions are important in every stage of NK cell life. They regulate NK cell survival, modulate their responsiveness in the periphery, and are involved in their activation. Given the dynamic nature of these interactions, they are mainly studied in vivo. Deguine and Bousso [42] review their recent understanding of NK cell interactions in vivo at steady state, during inflammation, and during tumor elimination, emphasizing the similarities and differences with T cells. Recent application of photoactivation methods in vivo may allow the approaches of Huse and Bousso to be combined to gain additional insights [45].

Tissue niches are critical to function of the immune system and establish environments for unique cell–cell interactions. The niches are defined largely by the most understudied cells of the immune system, the stromal cells that provide a scaffold for the tissues, but also much more [46]. Three reviews focus on lymph node stroma, the bone marrow niches of plasma cells, and the unique characteristics of airways.

Cells of the immune system are able to respond to a large variety of pathogenic challenges. Secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) have evolved to maximize the chances of lymphocytes encountering their cognate antigen as well as to find the right partners to mount an adequate immune response. SLOs are highly organized structures that establish the right collaborative environment for numerous cellular interactions to occur. Contractility of stromal cells may also provide a critical mechanical environment for immune cell interactions [11]. Recent studies suggest that stromal cells also influence the chemical environment in ways that profoundly influence adaptive immune responses [47, 48]. Turley's group [49] has done pioneering work on this topic, as discussed in their review herein.

Cell–cell interactions are key in the generation of humoral response as well as maintaining memory [50]. In recent years, progress has been made in understanding how B cells are activated in secondary lymphoid tissues. This is mediated by B-cell interaction with antigen-presenting cells, such as DCs, macrophages, and follicular DCs [51-53]. However, we still know very little about how B cells, once activated, are able to produce antibodies for years, in some cases for a lifetime. One possibility is that antigen-specific B cells are continuously differentiated into plasmablasts, which in turn continuously secrete antibodies. Another more likely possibility is that once activated, B cells differentiate into plasma cells that will live for many years. This raises interesting questions regarding what type of environment these plasma cells live in and what requirements they have to survive for decades. Part of the answer to this question relies on their survival niche in the bone marrow. Chu and Berek [54] discuss here what is known about the cell–cell interactions needed to support the long-term survival of plasma cells in the bone marrow. A particular emphasis is put on the role of eosinophils, which have been shown to be key providers of plasma cell survival factors. This novel example of cell–cell interaction is where attention will be focused on over the next few years.

The airway system is a highly vulnerable site both for microbial infection and immunopathology related to inappropriate immune responses to benign environmental antigens. Hasenberg et al. [55] provide an overview of the anatomy of airways and the unique physical and physiological issues that face the innate and adaptive immune cell–cell interaction networks. The alveoli are among the most fascinating microenvironments, displaying a remarkable combination of fragility and the crushing pressure of the surfactant layer.

We very much hope that readers will enjoy this collection of exciting articles on cell–cell interactions. We anticipate that the studies discussed here will inspire even more exciting new investigations.


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Science  10 Dec 1999:
Vol. 286, Issue 5447, pp. 2072-2078
DOI: 10.1126/science.286.5447.2072

A millennium ago, like today, people were contemplating the significance of a new era. They reflected on the accomplishments of their past and on the possibilities for their future. In France, Germany, and throughout Europe, people gathered to witness the end of the world, and churches were erected to express thanks in the event of the postponement of Judgment Day. In science and mathematics, Alhazen worked to demonstrate that light travels in a straight line, and Sridhara, the Indian mathematician, first recognized the significance of the zero. It would be another 250 years before the importance of the scientific method would be established and Europe would be introduced to “zero” and to Arabic numerals.

In just the past century, the degree of progress achieved is extraordinary. One hundred years ago, the life expectancy was 46 to 48 years for whites, and non-whites were only expected to live into their early 30s. Pneumonia, tuberculosis, influenza, and childbirth were often fatal. People communicated by writing letters. The horseless carriage was proclaimed by Literary Digest to be a “luxury for the wealthy.” The gasoline-driven motor and the internal combustion engines were developed. The wireless telegraph was pioneered. The Wright Brothers flew the first “heavier than air craft.” Karl Landsteiner discovered three blood groups, later to be named A, B, and O. Max Planck proposed something he labeled “quantum” to explain the behavior of light. Freud published “The Interpretation of Dreams.” The stratosphere was discovered by Léon-Philippe Teisserenc de Bort. And Lydia Pinkham's Vegetable Compound was widely advertised as “The Greatest Medical Discovery Since the Dawn of History.” The compound, promising to remedy female complaints, and containing black cohosh, liferoot plant, fenugreek seeds, and other herbs in a 21% alcohol solution, continued to be sold for another 76 years.

As we approach the new millennium, the scientific community has been captivated, perplexed, and excited by the array of questions and issues on the horizon of scientific discovery. Each scientific discipline is considering which topics warrant study and public attention. The disciplines, as well as science as a whole, have enjoyed tremendous recent victories in discovery, innovation, and graduate education that have paid great dividends to the economy and made meaningful contributions to the state of knowledge. There are many successes to celebrate as we look forward to a new century and new millennium of scientific innovation.

Paradoxically, there are many reasons to believe that the legacy of success will not be perpetuated as we enter the next millennium. Indeed, like Alice in Wonderland (1) peering through the “looking glass” into a world that was not as it initially appeared, American science must examine our own situation more closely and ask whether it is time to celebrate our successes or to feel concern about our future. Our nation's scientific achievements may not herald a future of continuing excellence; rather, a broader and deeper view of our current status may portend the impending demise of our research enterprise. Specifically, the excellence of U.S. graduate education and the exciting and productive growth of our scientific enterprise over the past decades are at risk of being compromised if the scientific community does not turn its attention to the desperate need to enhance public understanding of our efforts and to promote improved kindergarten-through-college (K-16) education of our youth, some of whom will be the next generation of scientists.

H. G. Wells once said that “Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe.” In the case of U.S. science, we have entered that race. Although scientists often identify themselves by disciplinary area, researchers from all fields are brought together by similar training, processes, missions, and dilemmas. As a whole, then, there are broad and all-encompassing issues that demand the attention of the entire scientific community. Foremost among the shared concerns is the education of the nation's youth. It is clear that science is at a critical juncture, and that education is the principal factor responsible for the future.

It has become common, particularly for politicians, to decry the educational system in America. We continue to hear that “Johnny can't read,” and there is growing emphasis on the establishment of literacy programs for traditional students and for those who have graduated without the skills necessary to survive in the job market. While this general education focus is essential to the future of our nation, it is also critical to explore science and mathematics education, the academic areas most tied to job creation and economic growth. As a whole, American youth are not learning science well. Curricula and textbooks are highly variable, as is the preparation of science teachers. Student achievement scores are falling, and many of the best students are choosing other career paths. Additionally, students are often exposed to mythology and mysticism. There is a very real danger, therefore, that we are not attracting the most talented students or preparing and nurturing their interests and talents adequately for them to become the next generation of scientists and engineers.

Science Literacy for All Americans

One of the most frequently espoused goals of the American science enterprise is to “produce the finest scientists.” While the science community must attend to the development and education of our future scientists, we must not lose sight of the fundamental need to nurture the public's interest in science. Experience and education, both formal education and informal acquisition of knowledge, provide people with a lens through which to perceive the world around them. As the scientific and technological influences on society become more prevalent, it will become increasingly important to help the citizenry develop a scientifically sharp lens to the world. Science literacy, after all, will provide a clear vision and understanding of everyday events and the devices of the 21st century. A quality science education will ensure that the public develops an appreciation for science that will spawn their support for future research and innovation. Furthermore, an excellent general science education for all children will attract and inspire talented students to pursue further education and careers in science. For the next century, then, we must embrace the goal of guaranteeing that all of our citizens gain a basic understanding of science and technology, and that those who are talented and interested are properly prepared to pursue fulfilling careers in science and technology. If we expect the nation to support science in the national interest, we must promote a national interest in science.

LOSING THE WAR K-12 Science and Math Education

Over the past several years, we have witnessed evidence of the decreasing academic performance of our schools' children. This situation is most distressing when the academic performance of U.S. students is compared with that of students from other countries. While our world has moved on to ever more science and technology dependence, the basic education we provide for our children has handicapped them by not keeping pace in curriculum or pedagogy. We now routinely hear about the failures of our curricula, teaching materials, and classroom instruction, and our newspapers run stories about the disciplinary and safety problems that interfere with learning in our neighbor-hood schools. The erosion of kindergarten- through-high-school (K-12) education puts at risk not only the next generation of scientists but our whole national support system for scientific discovery.

In 1995, the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, TIMSS, was conducted as an overall comparison of the educational process and accomplishments of 50 countries (27). In a cross-sectional study, classroom activities and materials, and student achievement, were studied at about the 4th-, 8th-, and 12th-grade level.

In science achievement, at the 4th- grade level, U.S. students scored near the top of all nations tested. Yet the good news appears to stop with our youngest science students. U.S. students scored only in the average range in 4th-grade math and in 8th-grade science and math. Regrettably, 12th graders from the United States performed near the bottom of the international distribution in both science and math, as did U.S. students in advanced placement physics and mathematics. It appears, then, that the education system is failing to meet the needs of students at all levels, our most challenged students and our most gifted scholars.

TIMSS provided additional data to help explain some of the weak performance evident throughout the science education pipeline. First, the increasingly popular criticism that our educational system is “an inch deep and a mile wide” is supported strongly by the data.

For example, while our textbooks appear to be larger (literally) than those in most other countries, they are designed to cover many more topics but with far less depth. Textbooks in Germany and Japan cover between 8 and 17 topics for 4th-, 8th-, or 12th-grade science classes. By contrast, the average number of topics covered by U.S. science textbooks astonishingly ranges from the low 50s to the high 60s for our students. The coverage of this number of topics certainly is more information than students could meaningfully assimilate in the time frame provided by our academic calendar. In addition, it is repetitive and not thorough.

Compounding the problem is the general preparation of the faculty charged with teaching this broad array of topics in science classes. A significant portion of K-12 science teachers did not pursue science-related majors or minors in college. In the high-school grades, just over 60% of science teachers majored in science while in college. In the middle-school grades, under 20% were undergraduate science majors, and in grades 1 through 4, fewer than 10% of the science teachers had even an undergraduate minor in science or science education. Throughout the educational cycle, it would seem vital to have teachers who had a depth of experience and breadth of knowledge about their topics. It is only through true understanding and experience that teachers could become poised not only to impart critical knowledge and inspire intellectual curiosity, but also to convey a sense of excitement and enthusiasm about science to all students, from our youngest to our most advanced.

In the sciences, there has been considerable recent attention to the need to encourage more women and underrepresented minorities to pursue a course of study that would prepare them for careers in the sciences. The greatest resource that we have in the United States is our people, and one of the strengths of this resource is the diversity of experience, perspective, and opinion that our human capital brings to the table. Without attention to the value of diversity, we risk losing a cadre of talented minorities and women. The value of diversity in the scientific work force is evident from numerous anecdotes. Women and underrepresented minorities have influenced research questions, methodologies, and theories across the spectrum of disciplines (8). For example, in the medical and biological sciences, advances in such diseases as sickle cell, hypertension, and diabetes are often attributed to African American scientists, physicians, and advocacy groups asking new or more emphatic questions about these conditions. Similarly, women and persons with disabilities have stimulated great developments in areas related to their interests and personal experiences.

The attrition of underrepresented groups appears to begin early in the education pipeline. While in elementary and middle school, many potentially talented students choose or are directed to pursue curricula weak in science and mathematics. By the time these students apply to college, they either have not developed an interest in science and mathematics or their deficiencies essentially preclude them from following a course of study in these fields.

For minorities, many of whom attend disadvantaged schools, the problem may be more intractable owing to limitations in resources. Schools with high minority populations have fewer resources than majority schools. Across the academic spectrum, from classes in English through the sciences, there is a consistent pattern of high-poverty schools having a higher percentage of their students taking classes from less-qualified teachers (7, pp. 1-27). There are even differential levels of Internet connectivity, with higher poverty schools (that is, those with a greater number of students receiving free or reduced-price lunches) reporting a lower percentage of instructional rooms having Internet access (7, pp. 1-23).

Again, these students are less likely to be counseled to take the appropriate classes to meet the eligibility requirements for college, they tend not to perform as well on standardized college admissions tests, and many never matriculate to 4-year college campuses, let alone ever consider a career in science. The human potential lost through this inequity is incalculable.

In California, one of the states now mandated to ignore racial and ethnic background as a criterion for participation, the schools are quickly approaching a time when no racial or ethnic group will be a majority. White students now account for 34% of the state's kindergarten class, Hispanics represent 47.4%, African Americans comprise 8.2%, Asians 7%, and the remaining students hail from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. When one examines the kind of ethnic mix that is becoming more common across the nation, it is essential that the changing demography and linguistic skills be recognized as decisions are made about directing children into different academic tracks.

Through a persistent inattention to diversity, the United States is creating a society of “information haves and have-nots,” and a “digital divide” that is confounded with race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. This divide is depriving our nation and our global society of creative ideas, new perspectives, and vital contributions. Should this inattention continue, economists have predicted that it could leave a legacy of a divided nation and an overall reduced potential to our children.

Science Education in Conflict with Political and Personal Agendas

Taking a step back from the prescribed activities in the classroom, science education is facing an additional, more insidious threat. Science teachers across the nation, especially at the K-12 level, are facing a powerful and vocal minority of parents and community leaders who are distrustful of, and antagonistic toward, science. This negative attitude and distrust appear to be especially strong when scientific data conflict with religious beliefs.

The most familiar controversy in this respect is the growing challenge to the teaching of evolution that K-12 biology and science teachers are currently facing. Across the nation, there are stories of school boards prohibiting the teaching of evolution, of disclaimers printed inside textbooks, and of announcements asserting that evolution is merely a theory and should be viewed with skepticism. This summer, for example, the Kansas Board of Education decided to discourage the teaching of evolution and the Big Bang, and to eliminate questions about this topic from formal assessments of student achievement. In October, there were reports that the Illinois Board of Education had “slowly eliminated” the term “evolution” from its school standards and replaced it with the phrase “change over time.” Similarly, the Alabama State Board of Education offers a textbook disclaimer that reads, “Evolution is a controversial theory some scientists present as scientific explanation for the origin of living things, such as plants, animals and humans. No one was present when life first appeared on earth. Therefore, any statement about life's origins should be considered as theory, not fact” (9). Certainly, biologists consider evolution to be a theory, but one buttressed by a wealth of factual data. The above statement is a distortion of the current state of knowledge. It is sadly ironic that this action has been taken by the School Board in Alabama, the very state where E. O. Wilson, a preeminent evolutionary biologist, was born.

Three quarters of a century ago, our nation witnessed the Scopes Monkey Trial. Today, again, there are biology teachers who admit that they are so intimidated that they omit the topic of evolution entirely from their curriculum. Others teach the content, sometimes facing angry and hostile colleagues, students, and officials. Perhaps more surprising, a recent survey suggests that 24% of Louisiana biology teachers believe in creationism, and 29% believe that it is an appropriate topic to be taught in their high-school biology classes (9).

These actions limit a student's ability to seek knowledge, examine data, and reach conclusions on the basis of objective data rather than emotion. The practices of omitting or distorting scientific information have the impact of leaving students less prepared for the challenges that they face in their college classes. Perhaps even more unfortunate is that these omissions teach students that it is appropriate to ignore knowledge and to reject information before exploring issues or using data in formulating opinions.

Some Good News

The desire to improve K-16 science and mathematics education is hardly new. For many years, individuals and organizations have been working to improve our schools. Over the past few years, as the alarm has grown louder, a number of efforts have been initiated to address the problems that have been identified and discussed.

In many parts of the country, schools have become involved in significant and meaningful partnerships with industry, nonprofit organizations, universities, and government offices and agencies. Each of the partners has provided time, advice, and resources to projects across the nation. The government has invested time, staff effort, funding, and other resources. The National Science Foundation's Statewide Systemic Initiative, and its urban and rural sister programs, are excellent examples of the government wing of the science community reaching out to the K-12 community on a very large scale. Individual and coordinated efforts by professional organizations and scientific societies have provided leadership and guidance to the science education community. Two recent national efforts have helped to guide curricula and pedagogy in science education. A “bottoms-up” effort was spearheaded by the National Academy of Sciences (10) and included the participation of thousands of scientists and educators, and the AAAS Project 2061 (11) was a systematic effort to delineate the benchmarks that students should be expected to reach at different points of their education. As the standards and benchmarking movements have begun to affect the nation, most teachers have already begun to implement some of the recommendations, and many have become active participants in reforming K-12 education. Science and technology (S&T) museums are also forging remarkably effective partnerships with schools and with teacher training efforts. Among the most notable are the Smithsonian in Washington, DC; COSI in Ohio; and such California museums as the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the new Tech in San Jose, the Monterey Bay Aquarium, and the new Marine Discovery Center at the University of California, Santa Cruz. There is mounting evidence that these efforts collectively are having an impact.

Undergraduate Education

As students make their way through the current educational pipeline, the academic weaknesses to which they are subjected will accompany them through the gates of our universities. Many students enter college already deficient in the knowledge and skills of math and science, and many have never developed an interest in these topics. Perhaps worse, many students develop a fear of science and math during their primary and secondary education. Nevertheless, it is the responsibility of colleges and universities to ensure that all students leave school with a quality education that prepares them for the challenges they will face after graduation.

Many of the freshmen who enter college academically underprepared in science and math compound these weaknesses by pursuing a course of study that minimizes their contact with these areas of study. Undergraduate institutions often contribute to the problem by not constructing systematic requirements that would compel students to gain proficiencies in science and math. That is, the curricular requirements and guidance offered at many institutions allow or encourage students to maintain their deficiencies and avoid gaining new exposure and skills in these subjects.

For students who show a curiosity about science topics and issues, or who would like to take classes in an effort to broaden their interests, the attitudes of some faculty and counselors, along with widespread student perceptions, may interfere with enrollment. That is, student views of the work load and grading policies of many science classes may deter students from pursuing their interests. Reinforcing these negative attitudes, many universities use introductory science courses as “weed out” classes, intentionally imposing a more rigorous work load and grading policy. At some schools, for example, the failure rate in introductory biology and chemistry reportedly approaches 30 to 40%, a statistic that some administrators and faculty state with pride. Rather than entice students into the sciences, highlight the inherently fascinating aspects of our disciplines, and stimulate student interests, some faculty tend to make science classes a test of survival, thus ensuring flight from our fields. Throughout the pipeline, then, in our attempts to teach in a “rigorous” manner, we often make science classes an arduous and tedious experience, rather than an expansive, galvanizing one.

Graduate Education

As important as undergraduate education is, it is the U.S. system of graduate education that is credited with establishing and maintaining our nation's reputation for scientific excellence. After all, students flock from around the world to our graduate programs. Yet U.S. graduate education, while still the envy of the world, is also beginning to show persistent blind spots.

Although academics often pride themselves on being open-minded and flexible, a trait that is demonstrated daily in our approaches to science and scholarship, in many ways we are quite conservative in our approach to pedagogy and graduate training. Academia still highly values traditional academic research careers, and still touts specificity in doctoral training. There are many who believe that these practices may ultimately harm our students. We are living in a time of changing expectations and opportunities. Students are pursuing new and exciting career opportunities, and rather than explore these avenues with great pride, many are discouraged by a professorate that refuses to recognize the extraordinary new opportunities and changing landscape.

Employers in industry, government, and other nontraditional professions continually ask that academia provide doctoral-level students with a more expansive base of knowledge and the ability to apply and adapt skills and knowledge to new and emerging challenges. Breadth and flexibility, rather than specificity and rigid tradition, are prized in much of the emerging job market. Industry also looks for professionals who have leadership skills, who understand and embrace teamwork approaches, who have developed oral and written communication skills, who have gained knowledge about business structure and economic theory, and who understand cultural norms and mores. Graduate programs that address these needs are likely to be the outstanding programs of the future.

Alternative careers and broader training are now commonly discussed as necessary goals for the training of current and future graduate students. There appears to be a growing number of incoming graduate students who are interested in the new career paths and who look to their faculty advisors for guidance. Yet many faculty still believe that research faculty positions are the only careers worth pursuing, and they often speak to their students about alternative careers in a manner that suggests, explicitly or implicitly, that nontraditional careers are for the less-qualified, less-talented graduates. This stigmatizing of new and emerging professional opportunities will be increasingly troublesome for students and for graduate programs that wish to educate the scientific leaders of the future.

WINNING THE BATTLES Battles in Response to Crisis

It seems that scientists, by their very nature, are exquisitely responsive when there is an urgent call to arms. Indeed, many of the discoveries and advancements throughout history, as well as the successful budget battles, have come in response to moments of profound national need or perceived crisis.

In the 1860s, for example, the Land Grant Movement was the response to our nation's need for well-educated engineers and scientists to steer and manage the development of our land. The result, of course, is an enduring system of science-based, rather than religion-based, higher education. In World War II, scientists fought and won battles on a number of fronts, from the development of synthetic rubber and nuclear energy to advances in medical and behavioral sciences. The War provided scientists with the incentives, inspiration, public support, and the financial resources to pursue discoveries and innovations in the national interest, and against a tangible enemy. Forty years ago, the crisis was Sputnik. With the launch of the Soviet satellite, America's widely held belief that we were preeminent in science and education was shattered. Thomas N. Bonner wrote that the Russians had “punctured our magnificent conceit by making it clear that in a number of related areas of basic research and applied technology they have already outdistanced us….” Science and education had become the “main battleground of the Cold War” (12). The nation took notice of the value of science and invested in it, and the result was that the National Science Foundation (NSF) and others organized a total curriculum revision. Many of today's science leaders were the beneficiaries of these efforts. Among the crises that have energized the science community lately are the budget crises that we experience periodically. Yet, while science has achieved many victories, we have also lost some battles, including the discouragingly low percentage of our gross domestic product that is spent on nondefense research and development.

Battles of Discovery That Influenced Society

In the past few years, science has won a number of battles in the arena of discovery. As we look to the next century, it appears that we are in the midst of a platinum age of scientific discovery and innovation that will greatly influence society. Economists estimate that at least 50% of our nation's economic growth over the past half-century is the result of S&T advances. It is no surprise that scientific discovery has been such a profitable investment when one considers the emergence of multibillion-dollar industries that are directly linked to scientific breakthroughs. The biotech industry, information technology, new pharmaceuticals, and medical imaging all contribute to our economy in jobs, products, and services.

In addition to the financial dividends paid from these investments, discoveries have changed our daily lives. The developments in medical imaging have improved life expectancy and reduced the need for exploratory surgeries. The open, nonclaustrophobic MRI, x-rays, CAT scans, PET scans, and the like are the result of the investments in basic research in physics, chemistry, math, and computer science. Much of this research was initially funded with federal monies associated with the Department of Energy and the Department of Defense. Similarly, environmental sciences have seen a surge in activity, discovery, development, and public attention. Clean cars, the fodder of science fiction just a few years ago, are now seen routinely in many cities, and charging stations are available on public streets and airport parking lots.

As recently as the early and mid-1990s, most Americans had not heard of the Information Superhighway. Yet, the research that led to the Internet began in the 1940s as basic physics research. Now, decades later, telecommunications companies are laying “glass” cables, or fiber optics, around the globe, and indeed, these developments may soon become overshadowed by advances in satellite or microwave communications technologies. The Internet has already revolutionized communication, and its potential influence has not yet been fulfilled or even conceptualized. Our lives have changed forever with the immediacy of information access and transfer, and the ease of communication, that the Internet allows.

In the area of life sciences, Human Genome research is a cutting-edge area that is fascinating both scientists and the public. A common roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans, or C. elegans, has gained global celebrity with the recent publication of the nearly complete sequence of 97 million bases of its genome (13). The completion of the genome mapping sets biology on a new era of exploration and innovation. The recent scientific development will allow biologists to compare whole genomes across species, to explore the array of genes necessary for complex multicellular organisms to function, and to understand the functioning of individual genes and gene clusters and their evolution. Also fascinating to the scientific and nonscientific communities alike are the recent advances in cloning and genetic engineering. Again, the ultimate impact that these discoveries and advances will have on the daily lives of people across the globe is just now taking shape.

Battles of Public Opinion

An additional battlefield is that of public opinion. A variety of surveys suggest that the public is generally supportive of science. The Washington, D.C.-based organization Research!America has conducted and reviewed a number of the surveys. Their data demonstrate that, in many respects, science is winning in the court of public opinion, especially with respect to medical research. More than 80% of respondents to a national survey asserted that science and technology engender “satisfaction and hope” or “excitement and wonder.” The American public reportedly has a very high opinion of science, with more than 50% of those surveyed agreeing that scientists have “very great” prestige. People reportedly believe that the benefits of scientific research outweigh the harmful results, and in state-by-state surveys, the vast majority of respondents believed that the United States should maintain a leadership role in medical research.

In many respects, it is no surprise that the public proclaims its support for medical research, and for general science and technology. After all, advances in these areas are, in many respects, tangible and their value is easily understandable. Yet the data from Research!America also suggest support for basic research, an area that is not well understood by the public. Survey data from a selection of states indicate that there is broad public support for basic research and for federal spending to sponsor science at universities. These findings are heartening to those who understand that basic research, although it brings no immediate tangible benefits to the public, is the mechanism that advances the frontiers of knowledge and thus should garner support from the government and the public.

While the data suggest fairly strong and broad favorable public opinion about science, Research!America's information also illuminates what may be a central obstacle to the public support: It appears that the public has a very weak understanding of scientific principles and theories. Indeed, many Americans do not understand even the most basic scientific concepts. For example, only about 10% of respondents understood the term “molecule,” about 20% understood the term “DNA,” and half of those surveyed actually believed that dinosaurs and early humans lived at the same time. Similarly, fewer than half of the respondents knew that electrons are smaller than atoms or that the Earth orbits the sun once per year. Data such as these may underlie the apparent paradox that leads school boards to try to eliminate the teaching of evolution. In the absence of knowledge and understanding, political or religious rhetoric is persuasive.

Another widely read public opinion survey, this time focused on the medical and biotech sciences, was reported in the 11 January 1999 special issue of Time magazine on “The Future of Medicine” (14). This survey, titled “What people think,” reported public perceptions of research in the “Biotech Century.” These results, like those from Research!America, illustrate that the public has many positive perceptions about science, but that there remains underlying confusion and suspicion. On the issue of genetic information, for example, more than 60% of those surveyed indicated that they would like to use genetic profiling to determine what diseases they, or their children, might suffer from later in life, and if given the opportunity to use genetic information to decide traits for their babies, 60% would use the information to rule out fatal diseases, 33% would ensure greater intelligence, 12% would influence height or weight, and 11% would use the information to determine the gender of their offspring. Sixty-two percent of respondents supported government regulation of gene therapy used to prevent or cure diseases, and respondents were about evenly split on whether the government should regulate animal cloning, or have oversight of the use of genetic testing to select traits in unborn children. It was clear, however, that Americans overwhelmingly supported privacy of this information. More than 90% of respondents wanted to deny access to genetic information from insurance companies and employers.

As is well known, confusion often leads to distrust. When scientific findings appear confusing or contradictory, it is no surprise that people disregard them or doubt their veracity. The First Amendment Center in Nashville recently issued a report on the divide between journalism and science (15). One of the findings of their report is that the public, while positive in its assessment of the value of science and innovation, can be quite suspicious of motive, especially when they perceive a possible motive of financial gain. Thus, for example, the public tends to distrust claims by manufacturers that their newly developed products are safe. The Time survey also found the public to be suspicious of the motives of private industry. Respondents, for example, seem to distrust the safety of some products, such as food, produced through genetic engineering, and believe it should be labeled for consumer information.

After reviewing the data from Research!America, from the Time survey, and from the First Amendment Center, one might question what factors are contributing to the public misunderstandings and confusion about science. Contributing to public confusion may be the fact that scientists are socialized to criticize one another's work. This is done, of course, to promote better science through a process of constructive criticism and revision of hypotheses and methodologies. But when that criticism is aired publicly, it is often misperceived and misunderstood as a rejection of the previously reported scientific finding, rather than as a suggestion that refinements or limitations might be necessary. The public might respond with confusion, assuming that science is inaccurate or self-serving and that results cannot be trusted. Recent examples of scientific policy discussions that have been greeted with some public skepticism include the newly released obesity standards, appropriate age for mammograms, changes in global warming, and of course, the risks and benefits of Viagra.

What to Do

Like Alice in the “looking glass world,” the world of scientific achievement and potential may not be exactly as originally perceived. The successes and tradition of excellence that the United States has enjoyed for so long are not guaranteed to continue. Indeed, a closer look suggests that our potential for the future is being undermined by the deterioration of our base. By taking a closer look and developing a clear view, however, the scientific community is becoming better equipped to adapt to our environment. We have learned to pursue scientific inquiry and discovery despite bureaucratic complexities and hindering academic traditions. We have been able to improve the public's understanding of some areas of science, despite the low level of science literacy and the high level of distortion by the tabloid press. Just as Alice became effective in her world, we are coping rather well in ours.

It is time, then, that the science community focus widespread effort on repairing the education pipeline so that our base stops eroding and begins strengthening. In developing a plan for the future of science education, scientists should first focus our attention on the entities over which we have the most control: the colleges and universities. Attending our undergraduate institutions are our future scientists and engineers. But also sitting in our lecture halls and seminar rooms, and perhaps more importantly, are the future teachers, legislators, doctors, executives, lawyers, and community members. We need to reexamine and restructure undergraduate education to ensure that we are reaching all of these student groups.

Every student sitting in our classrooms has a need for science education. Conversely, every science student has a need for a well-rounded, broad education in the humanities and arts. We must ensure that all undergraduate students have science, math, and technical skills for the 21st century. We must guarantee that all science majors receive broad exposure to global and cultural issues, so that our scientists have a foundation in literature, art, international culture and foreign language, political theory and practice, and, definitely, written and oral communication to be truly effective in our emerging global society. We must also insist on science and math literacy in our professional schools. After all, it is in these programs that we have the greatest opportunity to touch the lives of budding professionals and help them to make the link between our science and their service.

We must improve and sustain graduate education. We, the faculty and administrators of our fine U.S. universities and colleges, have no excuse for not acting. This is our responsibility and no one else's. We must continue to provide the world's best scientific education, but we must also embrace the career trajectories of the future and nurture our doctoral students' aspirations, whether academic or nontraditional.

On the topic of graduate education, it is increasingly popular to assert that we are overproducing Ph.D.'s. The notion of offering too much education to too many people is absurd, especially in the emerging scientifically and technologically complex marketplace. The discussion, to date, has been driven by the fear of a shrinking academic job market. People are afraid that there will not be sufficient jobs if too many new doctoral-level scientists are trained. Instead of an overproduction of Ph.D.'s, it should be contended that there is an underemphasis on the value of the training that a Ph.D. education provides. Scientists are trained to observe situations, hypothesize plausible explanations, propose solutions to problems, collect and analyze data, communicate their findings, and advocate their positions. These skills, regardless of specific area of expertise, should allow scientifically trained individuals to succeed and excel in many positions in 21st-century organizations. Would it not be refreshing to see a scientist take his or her place in a governor's office (after all, a wrestler did it) or have more scientists on the floor of the House or the Senate? Would it not be appropriate for doctoral-level scientists to take more seats in the corporate board room? Leadership positions in every field could certainly benefit from the training, skills, and talents of scientifically trained executives. Thus, if we disregard the academic job market argument for a moment, the idea of limiting access to education makes no sense. After all, we live in a time defined by knowledge access and transfer, and one could argue that maximizing the education of all citizens who are motivated and capable could only have the effect of improving our nation's economic competitiveness and the quality of life of our citizens. When it comes to education, more is better.

Project 20/20: Scientists on School Boards

After pondering the positions of leadership that scientists are well suited to pursue, and after considering the array of educational problems facing our nation, I propose that the scientific community pursue a course of direct intervention that may best use the talents of scientifically trained citizens. We should begin a campaign to ensure that there is at least one scientist, engineer, or scientifically literate professional on every school board in America. For many years, the strategy of becoming involved in school boards has been pursued by a variety of grass roots organizations who see school boards as an opportunity to further their goals or agendas. Over the past couple of decades, for example, a number of creationists have positioned themselves on these education boards. The results of their actions are clear. There is a tremendous opportunity to be a positive influence by joining school boards. Board actions affect the widest possible sweep of the public by helping to determine such essential elements as curriculum reform, textbook choice, and pedagogy.

Scientifically literate individuals on school boards will have the value of improving vision for our schools. It is for this reason that I am referring to this plan as “Project 20/20” and I hope that it will result in the next generation receiving an education that will provide them with 20/20 vision of the world around them. We need to provide the entire citizenry with a lens that gives them a clear vision and understanding of their environment and their culture, which increasingly reflect the scientific, technical, and digital advances of our times.

We can start by identifying those members of AAAS who are already school board members. From there, we can begin to identify additional scientifically literate school board members. Finally, we can encourage more scientists to become active and pursue seats on their local boards.

Project 20/20 should be sustained and supported by AAAS. That is, across the nation, as scientists, technicians, teachers, or other scientifically literate and interested individuals take their seats on school boards, AAAS should be their home base. AAAS should provide the necessary information or advice to help these school board members enhance scientific content and accuracy for our schools. The Association should provide support and linkages for pedagogy, curricula, textbooks, assessment, and partnerships. And AAAS can provide programming time at its annual meeting to assist these individuals in networking with each other and pursuing a mutual agenda.

We all view the world through the lens of our culture and experiences. In the United States, and throughout much of the English-speaking world, our perceptions are guided by a common imagery that we gain from such popular sources as Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. Children spend more time in school than they do in any other activity throughout their development. Thus, education is perhaps the factor that grinds the lens with most influence. All people, from all cultures, perceive the world through the lens of their education and accumulated knowledge.

As we approach the next millennium, we must remember that we are living in a dynamic time in which our personal and professional lives change rapidly. Education for our children, and lifelong education for all of us, must be paramount in this evolving era.

An anonymous source has been quoted as saying, “In times of change, it is the learners who will inherit the earth while the learned will find themselves beautifully equipped for a world that no longer exists.”

Information about TIMSS and related science indicators can be found at the TIMSS Web site and at the Science and Engineering Indicators Web site

Is science under attack in your school district?

We want to know about it. Please write to AAAS at

Are you, have you been, or would you consider being a school board member?

AAAS would like to hear from scientists, and scientifically trained professionals, who are active in K-12 education. Please write us at so that we can learn about your experiences.

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The parties usually arrive at a settlement of all their property rights after negotiation. If settlement is not reached, the matter will be decided by the court after the trial is concluded. Again, you are advised that you must be absolutely sure that you understand and accept the settlement as written or placed on the record in open court, because property settlements may not be modified, except in cases of fraud, clerical error, mistake, or gross unfairness in the initial trial. If your property includes retirement or pension plans, your attorney, upon request, will explain your rights under the qualified domestic relations order procedures.

Property settlements in judgments may be enforced by execution, garnishment, show cause proceedings, etc. Your attorney will explain these procedures to you upon request.

In determining property issues, the court will usually consider the following:

  1. Length of the marriage
  2. Contributions of the parties to the marital estate
  3. Age of the parties
  4. Health of the parties
  5. Life status of the parties
  6. Necessities and circumstances of the parties
  7. Earning abilities of the parties
  8. Past relations and conduct of the parties
  9. General principles of equity
      Generally, the property of the marriage is divided 50-50.


Vineyard Sky ADVICE

I am often asked all sorts of questions regarding things such as the quality of materials, how to get the best fit and how to care for jewelry. This is where I will address many of these topics. If you have a question you don't find answered here, please call or e-mail me and I'll do my best to help you out.

Material Quality

It is important to understand a bit about the quality of what you are buying. I have often seen jewelry that looks pretty but made with inferior quality materials. I spend a great deal of time in the design and construction of each piece because I want the wearer to enjoy it for years to come. I use only fine quality materials. The metals I most often use are Sterling silver which contains 92.5 percent pure silver, or Turkish silver which has cadmium added. The addition of cadmium means that this has a brighter polish and is less likely to tarnish, these components are generally made by casting and are of a uniform size. I occasionally use Balinese silver which has pewter added lending a darker tone which gives emphasis to the intricate detail of these handmade beads. I also occasionally use Gold-filled beads and findings. All marked either 1/20 12K G.F., meaning that the piece is at least 1/20th 12K gold by weight.

As for beads, I again prefer to use those with a long-lasting quality. The handmade glass beads are properly annealed to ensure that they don't crack and break. Semiprecious stone or pearls are not dyed in some outrageous color that may wear off on skin or clothing. Do keep in mind that many semiprecious stone materials often have their color enhanced by various methods, usually involving heat. Freshwater pearl colors are also frequently enhanced by dying or irradiating. I deliberately don't buy pearls that are dyed in strong shades such as burgundy or blue. Even if they don't fade or change, I object to altering a pearl to that extent.

It is necessary to consider both the type of material and hole sizes when making strung jewelry. I most often use a threading material with a metal cable core such as Beadalon or Soft-Flex. Occasionally I also use silk or nylon thread especially if I'm knotting between beads or doing macramé. My choice of threading material is primarily determined to ensure longevity for the design as well as wearability.

While the need to have a well-loved and often-worn piece of jewelry restrung is not unusual, I prefer to choose materials that will last as long as possible. Bracelets or anklets are more likely to break than necklaces or earrings because they are worn on the end of a limb. Keep in mind that wearing any strung jewelry without taking it off subjects it to more wear and will make it necessary to repair sooner rather than later. If you like your jewelry, give it a rest. Over the years that I've been doing restringing I've found that the clients who are more likely to need their jewelry repaired often expose their jewelry to water, cosmetics, perfume, perspiration and sometimes hard-wear during sports or other vigorous activities.

Tips on Fit

When shopping on the website you'll note that I indicate lengths on all pieces. I tell you what type of necklace or bracelet closure (clasp) is used and whether it's adjustable. When your selecting something for yourself or as a gift, the lengths are listed to assist you in selecting the appropriate sizes.

It's most important to pay attention to the fit of bracelets because they are worn on the end of a limb where they are more subject to snagging on things. If you are unsure of your wrist size use any piece of string, yarn or cord to measure around your wrist then use a ruler to determine the number of inches. For a small bead design, such as those made with Austrian Crystal, you will want to add about a 1/2" of length to your wrist size. Add about 1" of length if the beads are larger in dimension, such as a double strand of vintage glass. If it is a gift you are after you may have to give the size your best guess. I'm happy to alter to accommodate. Even if a bracelet is on the large side it will be less likely to come undone if the clasp is a lobster claw or spring ring combined with a soldered (no opening) jump ring or chain. If the style you've selected has a toggle (bar and ring) type of closure it's especially important that it not be too big or loose. This type of clasp can come undone if the bracelet is too long. When a bracelet is fastened around your wrist you should be able to comfortably slide one finger under it. If there is room to slide two fingers underneath, or more, it is likely to come undone and possibly get lost.

Necklace sizes vary quite a bit but are easier to choose because unless it's a choker the fit is more flexible. Again to check to see what length you'd like, use a piece of string, etc. to measure around your neck, then check the number of inches on a ruler. It would be helpful to look in the mirror and if you are buying jewelry to go with a certain piece of clothing, wear that to see where the length will fall along the neckline.

Earring lengths can be as short as 3/4" and up to 3" long depending on the size and combination of materials. I most often use french hooks or lever-back earwires, and occasionally posts. The lever-back style is often combined with more expensive components because it is the most secure. All the earrings that I sell are packaged with a pair of rubber backs, if you use them they work really well. When selecting earrings to coordinate with a necklace, it usually looks best if you choose something that is not too long as it can have the appearance of being connected to the necklace. If you are coordinating with a bracelet, anything goes!

Jewelry Care

Your jewelry arrives in a small box accompanied by a zip lock bag that is specially treated to reduce tarnish. Using both of these will help protect them. If you are traveling with your jewelry it works well to roll necklaces and bracelets up in a soft cloth. That way they don't scratch one another. Keep your earrings from tangling by placing them in a small plastic vitamin box. These come in a variety of sizes and can easily found at most any drugstore.

Jewelry made with silver components rather than gold-filled is more susceptible to tarnish. This can be cleaned in a variety of ways. I often use one of the commonly found silver cleaners sold at the grocery store, such as Wright's. Use one that is made to clean silver flatware and follow their directions. If the piece has intricate detail you may find it helpful to use a soft bristle brush, baby toothbrushes or other tiny dental brushes work well. Rinse with warm water, avoid hot. To dry, I usually wrap or roll the piece in a soft cloth or towel and shake to help remove water from holes. The piece of jewelry can then be laid in a sunny window to further the drying process. To really restore the shine gently rub or buff with a soft cloth. For a quick fix you can use baking powder and a soft cloth to rub the surface of the silver. Be sure to shake all the powder off before wearing the piece again.
If you are unsure of the silver content of your jewelry, it's best to test in an inconspicuous area first. There are polishing cloths sold that are impregnated with chemicals, beware of using these on any jewelry which contains pearls or stones that may be soft, malachite for example. Avoid using Tarnex or similar products that will strip and whiten the silver, these are too harsh and may also harm other types of beads.

Please feel free to call or E-mail if you need help or have questions regarding fit, length or care of any of my designs.

Vineyard Sky Bead Design of Martha's Vineyard


Home Heating Options

Types of heating systems

Forced-air furnace

A forced-air system heats air in a furnace and uses a fan to force the warmed air through ductwork to the home's rooms.

As the warmed air is pumped into the room, it is mixed with the cooler existing air until the desired room temperature is achieved. At the same time as warmed air is being pumped into a room, some of the older, cooler air in the room is pushed into the return air ductwork to be reheated and recycled through the home.

The baseboard radiator or floor conducts heat from the heated fluid. This heat is transferred via radiation to the rooms' objects. As cooler air comes in contact with warm objects (including the radiator), it warms and rises, creating a convective loop, mixing to the desired temperature.

Heat pumps

Ground source (geothermal) heat pump

The term geothermal is sometimes used to describe a ground source heat pump system. However, a geothermal heat pump is actually a system that taps into really hot areas (hundreds of degrees) beneath the earth for district heating or electric generation. Areas of the world with geysers and active volcanoes, such as Iceland, utilize geothermal energy.

In this region, a ground source heat pump typically requires a supplemental heating system for below zero temperatures and later in the heating season when the latent heat in the ground has been exhausted. Get the facts on geothermal heat pumps vs. a high-efficiency natural gas furnace (PDF).

In addition, the payback on a ground source heat pump can exceed 25 years. Calculate for yourself with our geothermal calculator.

Air source heat pump (hybrid)

When temperatures are about 35 degrees or colder, an air source heat pump cannot deliver enough heat to the home and another heating system will be needed. In the summer, an air source heat pump operates just as an air conditioner does, taking heat from the home and pumping it outside. Learn more about air source heat pumps vs. a high-efficiency natural gas furnace (PDF).

Electric resistance heating


When a deceased one who owns a terrific amount of reports, home and properties dies without a will, the courtroom is usually where people run to apply for characters of supervision for a deceased house.

Though separation does not be recognized by Arizona, their state does offer a “no-fault divorce” legislation, which allows one partner to file for a divorce without giving reasons, including infidelity. In this case, the partner simply needs to show ” differences ” which the marriage can not be rescued any longer.

Prepaid insurance that is legal may indeed function as the response you’ve been searching for. The style is not compound, to get a monthly membership that is fixed, you get telephone entry to assistance from the lawyer. You spend a fixed sum in advance monthly to defray the cost of authorized services furnished in the foreseeable future. The services taken address many aspects of law, including researching deals that were authorized to property acquisitions bankruptcy, and breakup.

A Solicitor- One that solicits, especially one that attempts industry or additions. The main law official of department, or a metropolis, town but doesn’t behave as an advocate in court, in place of the Attorney. (English Law).

Many lawyers are located in exclusive training, where they focus on criminal or civil law. In criminal law, persons who’ve been incurred with offenses are represented by lawyers and dispute their scenarios in courts of law. Consumers are assisted by lawyers dealing with law that is civil with wills, trusts mortgages, games, and leases. Just public-interest is handled by different lawyers cases—civil or criminal—which might have an effect advancing beyond the individual buyer.


Start Industry in Egypt

The Egyptian economy has been historically agricultural, with cotton as the mainstay. Land prices are extremely high because of the shortage of arable land, and output of food is not sufficient to meet the needs of a 2.1% population growth rate as of 2003. Although Egypt has expanded its private sector in recent years, industry remains centrally controlled and for the most part government owned; since the 1950s, the government has developed the petroleum, services, and construction sectors, largely at the expense of agriculture.
Egypt's significant economic growth rate from 1975 to 1981, made possible in large measure through foreign aid and credits, had declined to about 5% by 1986. Revenues for 1985–86 from petroleum exports, Suez Canal traffic, tourism, and remittances from Egyptians working abroad were eroded in the wake of sharp declines in international oil prices and developments in the Iran-Iraq war. The inflation rate grew from less than 5% annually in the 1960s to nearly 23% by 1986, reflecting worldwide price increases and the government's deficit spending. Egypt's economic position was strengthened when the Gulf states and the United States rewarded the Egyptians for their role in forming the Arab anti-Iraq coalition, reducing external debt to about $40 billion in 1990.
Egypt at the time of the 1952 revolution was much further advanced industrially than any other Arab country or indeed any country in Africa except South Africa. Under the socialist Nasser administration, the government coordinated industrial expansion and the establishment of an industrial base. As a result, bureaucracy and a dependence on political directives from the government became common to Egyptian industry. Since the early 1990s the government has promoted privatization as a way to eventually increase industrial output.
Industry accounted for 30% of GDP in 2001. Major industrial products included textiles, chemicals (including fertilizers, polymers, and petrochemicals), pharmaceuticals, food processing, petroleum, construction, cement, metals, and light consumer goods. The clothing and textiles sector is the largest industrial employer.
Greater Cairo, Alexandria, and Helwan are Egypt's main industrial centers, producing iron and steel, textiles, refined petroleum products, plastics, building materials, electronics, paper, trucks and automobiles, and chemicals. The Helwan iron and steel plant, 29 km (18 mi) south of Cairo, using imported coke, processes iron ore mined near Aswan into sheets, bars, billets, plates, and blooms.
The petroleum industry accounts for 40% of export earnings, but there are concerns that by 2005–10 Egypt will have to import oil, as oil fields mature and domestic demand increases. Egypt's proven oil reserves in 1999 were estimated at 3.5 billion barrels. In 2002, the country had 9 oil refineries, and was producing 631,616 barrels per day of crude oil, down from 748,000 barrels per day in 2000. Egypt is encouraging oil exploration, but natural gas is becoming the focus of the country's oil and gas industries. In 2002, two multi-billion dollar liquefied natural gas projects designed to export gas to Europe were underway. A large natural gas field off the Mediterranean coast of the Egyptian city Damietta was discovered in 2002, with the field's reserves estimated at 530–1,060 billion cubic feet. Natural gas reserves in the country are estimated at 55 trillion cubic feet (Tcf).
Egypt's industrial sector has undergone major reforms since World Bank adjustment programs went into effect during 1991, privatizing and restructuring state owned enterprises. Some of the companies in important non-oil industries are technically in the private sector, but control still remains with the government.
eCommerce Services India


Sifting through Kos's charms

Behind the souvenir shop-lined streets and big hotels, you can still trace the island’s genuine character By Christina Sanoudou

For the foreign visitors who flock to Kos in their thousands every year, the island must look heavenly: clean beaches with good swimming conditions and easy access, a landscape ideal for walking and cycling, sunny skies almost guaranteed, historical sites dating from the Neolithic to Ottoman times, bars, clubs and cafes catering to all preferences and styles, and hotels just minutes from the beach at affordable prices for those booking through an international operator.

It is very likely that the scale of tourism development on the island has an offputting effect on Greeks looking for a summer holiday destination, especially as they don’t enjoy the benefits of charter flights and all-inclusive packages. That said, the fact that so few Greeks holiday on Kos does mean they get other perks, such as discounts on purchases and a free drink or glass of wine here and there, much as though they were visiting a Greek community abroad.

A piece of history

What makes Kos worth visiting is that despite its souvenir shop-lined streets, clusters of massive hotels and busy organized beaches, it has managed to retain something of its genuine character. In the old quarter of the main town, for example, Italian and Ottoman buildings abut ancient monuments such as the Agora, the Roman Odeon and the Stadium. There is the Nerantzia Castle, built by the Order of the Knights of Saint John to control the passage to the Holy Land during the Crusades. A plane tree that casts its shadow over Platanou Square is some 2,000 years old and local legend has it that Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, taught his students beneath it. A stroll through the streets of the picturesque villages of Kefalos and Zia reveals traces of traditional architecture. And, more notably, the island has a one-of-a-kind (for Greece) 13-kilometer bicycle trail linking some of its best beaches: from the windswept Faros to the protected wetland of Psalidi, on to Aghios Fokas, a beach with white and black sand.

There are also plenty of popular sites whose character is not threatened by mass tourism, such as the ruins of two early Christian basilicas on the beach of Aghios Stefanos, the forest on the outskirts of Zia where visitors can see wild peacocks, the hot springs of Thermes that spill out into the sea, and the beautiful hiking trails on Mount Dikaios.

Nothing, however, can rival a visit to the Asclepeion, even at high season. Built in the middle of a cypress forest – a tree that was considered sacred by the ancients – with a view over the Aegean stretching all the way to the coast of Asia Minor, the Sanctuary of Asclepius attracted thousands of pilgrims during antiquity – not just patients looking for cures, but also healers seeking to be mentored in the pioneering principles of modern medicine by the great Hippocrates himself.

The monumental staircase that conjoins the three areas of the sanctuary continues to awe visitors today just as it did the pilgrims of Hellenistic and Roman times. With a little bit of imagination you can imagine the cluster of cypresses in the background stretching as far as the eye can see, the columns lying on the ground standing up proudly and the water gurgling through the colonnades, keeping the atmosphere cool.


Thursday, September 4, 2014

Chocolate snowy mooncake

So , I tried my hand on baking this Mid-Autumn must-have , mooncake . Mid-Autumn Festival  is considered to be one of the most important events for the Chinese people . It is a  harvest festival that dates back thousands of years ago . Here in Hongkong , it's the time for family reunion , some kids totting their favorite cartoon character-shaped lanterns , moon gazing at the park and of course , giving , receiving and eating mooncakes .

You can't help but see mooncakes here this time of the year and boy , choices are dizzying ! From traditional mooncakes with different fillings to snowy mooncakes and ice cream-filled ones . I wanted to make a snow skin version last year after seeing some blogging friends' wonderful creations . I admit I like the various designs of the mould more than actually eating it lol

I was planning to buy the filling , baking supplies shops here have some amazing array of fillings but settled on making it . I used Christine's Recipes' mung bean filling recipe since I love the taste of one of Taipan's snowy mooncake with that kind of filling . It was simple but time consuming to make and since I got lazy while making it , I skipped one important part , pushing the cooked mung beans through a sieve , so instead of smooth pureé , mine came out with a bit bumpy texture .  Oh , I also reduced the liquid way too much , the result was a tad dry and crumbly filling but workable nonetheless . Luckily , it still tastes great , the sweetness is just enough and will try it again maybe , next year . And no skipping this time !

I commented on Jeannie's blog before that I want to try  Vicky's  mochi mooncake , the skin only , and she said that making mochi is sticky and I got a cold feet the night before my first attempt hee hee ! So , I used the recipe that I found before at Edith's old blog , Precious Moments  . The recipe is really simple to make , the dough is very easy to handle and the flavor is absolutely gorgeous ! If you're looking for one delicious snow skin , you must try this one !

The Hello Kitty mooncakes look meh , you can't see much its feature but the flower ones look pretty rad , right ?! You can see from the first photo that there's one mooncake that has a white cast ? It's actually frozen , I was planning to photograph it but it slipped off my mind *sigh*

Not so bad for my first foray on mooncake making  *pats back* lol

For the mung bean filling ( recipe adapted from Christine's Recipes )

200 grams peeled split mung beans
100 grams caster sugar
80 ml coconut milk
70 ml canola oil
pinch of salt
1 1/2 tablespoon wheat starch

* Rinse mung beans and soak at least 4 hours or preferably , overnight . Transfer beans into a large shallow pan , cover beans with 1 cm of water and steam in a wok over medium-high heat for 20-25 minutes or until it's easily smashed with your fingertips .

* Drain beans in a sieve and discard excess liquid . Use a large spoon to press the cooked beans through the sieve and you'll get a smooth mung bean pureé .

* Transfer the pureé into a nonstick pan , add sugar , coconut , milk , oil and salt , mix well . Cook over medium-high heat until liquid is reduced by about two thirds . Sift in starch , in 2 addition , stirring well after each .

* Reduce heat to low and cook , stirring constantly , for about 30-35 minutes . Transfer mixture into a bowl and let cool completely before using .

For the chocolate snow skin ( recipe adapted from Precious Moments )

Yield : 312 grams

130 grams water
70 grams caster sugar
50 grams bittersweet chocolate , at least 60 % cocoa , melted
10 grams cocoa powder , plus extra for dusting
10 grams chocolate paste

20 grams shortening
60 grams fried sweet ( glutinous ) rice flour

* In a small saucepan , combine water and sugar ; over medium heat , cook until sugar is melted . Take pan off heat ,  stir in the cocoa powder and paste , use a whisk and mix well .  Add in the melted chocolate and stir well to combine .

* Combine flour and shortening , mix thoroughly . Add it to the chocolate mixture and mix to form a dough then chill in the fridge for 30 minutes before using . You can chill the skin overnight .

To make the chocolate snowy mooncake : I used a 50-gram mould ( 30 grams filling and 20 grams chocolate skin )

Makes 15 pieces

* Weigh filling and skin into portions , form into small balls . Put adequate amount of extra cocoa powder into the plate . Dust the mould lightly with cocoa powder . Line a baking sheet with silicone mat .

* Roll one portion of chocolate skin between a sheet of plastic wrap , use a rolling pin or fingers to flatten it , about 1/8 cm thick ( rough estimate ) , dust your hands with cocoa powder and put skin into your palm , wrap in the filling . Place into the mould , press firmly on top of the lined baking sheet and release . Repeat with the rest until skin is all used up .

*  Chill in the fridge for at least 4 hours before eating or freeze mooncakes and thaw them in the fridge beforehand or at room temperature for 20-30 minutes .

  1. Anne, Like your dark chocolate snowskin moonckaes. Look pretty! Mine was too light, should have mix with some cocoa powder.
    Happy Mid Autumn Festival!

  2. I agree...your flower design mooncake looks so pretty:) Anne, You've worked so hard ..well done! Making mooncake is not for the lazy, like me!...so, I can only admire you:)

  3. Hi Anne,
    Your mooncakes looks fabulous! Kudos to you for making the filling from scratch! I'm not making any mooncakes, too lazy, and besides someone gifted us a box! :)

  4. Wow! I must say these look really good! I like the mungbean fillings! I remembered seeing this on Christine's blog and told myself I got to try it too but somehow forgotten about it...maybe I'll do it this weekend if I have the time:D So when are you doing the mochi ones:P

  5. 看起来很浓郁啊，真想咬一口！！！

  6. They are so pretty and I love the colour contrast between dark skin and light bean filling. Excellent!

  7. *clap clap* on your first homemade mooncakes! yeah, the flower one looks pretty, good work!

  8. Hi Anne!
    Oh how the time is flying by, it seems like yesterday that I was ooogling all these mooncake delicacy's. It's simply amazing how many varities there are. I think yours look absolutely stunning. I can't believe it is your first time make this variety. Well done!!! It would be so much better if I could just get one nibble, perhaps one day:) Thank you so much for sharing, Anne...

  9. Anne, I have never seen chocolate moon cake here. they look so cute!