Ken Livingstone's approach to climate change was counterproductive. Johnson's green policies must resonate with ordinary people

For the first time in British politics, a mainstream candidate for high office, Ken Livingstone, put climate change at the heart of his campaign. Yet, against expectations, he lost. But while it has been said that majoring on green issues was partly the reason, I believe it was his approach to environmentalism that turned people off.

By reducing the complex environmental challenges we face to the single issue of carbon, the mayor lost sight of the broader environmental concerns of ordinary people. He understood the fundamental importance of climate change. But because he failed to link it to people's lives, there was a backlash.

The congestion charge, for instance, was undoubtedly brave, but it attracted criticism. Not even the mayor's own agency, Transport for London, claimed the charge would cause significant reductions in CO2. What began as a solution to congestion and emissions soon took on the appearance of a punishment.

If instead, the mayor had guaranteed that all of the money raised would be invested in alternatives to the car, and if he had applied the increased charge only to cars bought after its introduction, then people would probably have accepted it.

So the first advice I have for the new mayor, Boris Johnson, is that his green policies must be congruent with people's real lives. He must develop an environmentalism that actually resonates.

Congestion and rising emissions can both be tackled in ways that add to, rather than detract from, our quality of life. Take dedicated school buses, for example. Nearly a fifth of all traffic on the roads in the morning is accounted for by the school run. In North America, more than half of all children travel to school by bus. We need a similar programme in London.

The new mayor should also make use of the Thames. It is the equivalent of a six-lane highway running through the middle of London but has been scandalously underused for both freight and passengers. An improved river service could be funded by cancelling the wholly unnecessary motorway-style bridge Ken Livingstone proposed to build across the Thames at Thamesmead, saving £400m and enormous amounts of new car traffic.

We cannot significantly reduce emissions without also addressing the issue of energy – how we use it and how it is generated. A pound invested in energy efficiency buys seven times more energy solution than a pound invested in nuclear power. For example, we know that retrofitting old homes could lead to a 60% reduction in CO2 from the housing sector by 2050.

Livingstone had what he called a "major programme" for the subsidised retrofitting of homes and GLA buildings, but the domestic element of this was worth a couple of million pounds at most; not enough to do more than a fraction of homes, and the "subsidised" price charged was often higher than the usual market rate.

Johnson needs to expand both the domestic and the institutional aspects of the programme – which can be self-financing, over time, through lower energy bills – and work out how the domestic element can be leveraged.

Livingstone did useful work on the hugely important technology of decentralised energy, power generated in mini power plants close to where it is to be used, allowing the heat involved in the process to be captured and saving up to two-thirds of all electricity lost by complicated long-distance distribution networks. These kinds of systems already flourish in other parts of the world, notably the Netherlands.

London should also adopt a version of the highly successful German system of paying homeowners for energy that they return to the grid, which makes microgeneration an investment decision, not an ethical one. A single town in Bavaria with 200,000 people generates more solar power than the whole of the UK.

These are key issues. But, as ever, an environmental policy that focuses only on carbon can often deliver anti-environmental consequences. A policy, for instance, that makes it harder for people to park on our high streets often simply diverts customers to nearby supermarkets with their ever-available free parking. The effect is the erosion of the very shops that help to define our communities, and the new mayor must create a more level playing field between small traders and large operators. Either parking regimes should be relaxed for town-centre parking or, less likely, imposed for out-of-town and superstore parking.

The death of our independent retailers is a growing problem. In the past six years, London is estimated to have lost more than 7,000 of them. But is also an area where Johnson can introduce significant policy change.

For example, he has real power in strategic planning. He can impose a pan-London ban on any further large-scale shopping centre and supermarket development, since it creates enormous demands for car and HGV transport, as well as undermining the viability of traditional high streets. Sub-post offices are the cornerstones of many shopping parades, so Johnson must go through with his legal challenge to post office closures.

The mayor should also, as far as he can, impose a presumption against change of use – from pubs or small shops to residential, for instance. As a landlord and a service provider, he must end discrimination against small shops. Where developments may not fall within his "strategic" powers, the mayor should consider sponsoring local referendums to exert pressure on councils and the dreaded planning inspectorate.

Food is another issue that combines quality of life and the environment. As we know, poor diet is a factor in rising NHS expenditure and probably even in antisocial behaviour and crime. If our schools had a bias in favour of sustainable local produce, we'd see the market flooded with good quality food. We'd also see a significant reduction in the amount of fuel used to ship and fly food around the world.

However, the sad truth is that every one of these policies risks being for nothing if we continue to pursue Livingstone's crazy population growth objective. In the medium term, Livingstone envisaged a city of 8-8.5 million people. The effect of this increase will be felt in many ways, not least housing. At the moment, this pressure is increasingly being relieved by building over suburban gardens, classified by the government as mere "brownfield" land. The latest figures show we are losing the equivalent of an area twice the size of Hyde Park. The reason we've seen the immigration of hundreds of thousands of eastern Europeans is that our own people lack the skills we require. Developing London's existing human potential must be the right way forward.

London's problems should be seen in a wider context. We have allowed a disproportionate amount of economic activity to become centralised in and around London, which adds to the pressure on housing, even while other parts of the country are experiencing the emergence of ghost towns. The alternative is better transport links across the country to enable businesses to flourish throughout. Britain has less high-speed rail infrastructure than Belgium, and dramatically less than France. The new mayor needs to lobby with all his might for the construction of reliable and effective links between our cities.

Far from being marginal, the environment is the Clapham Junction of politics: a place through which many mayoral priority lines run, from housing to employment to crime. By driving forward this agenda, Boris Johnson can answer Londoners' longing for a better quality of life. London may be a much richer city than it was, but it is also a less happy one. Any mayor who changes that will truly be worthy of re-election.

This is an edited version of an article appearing in The Million Vote Mandate: The Challenges facing Boris Johnson, a report published by Policy Exchange and Localis. To read more, click here.


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With the innovative and visionary project of spreading Brazilian culture to other cultures, Brazil Dance World was born in Toronto, Canada in 2005. It has offered Brazilian dance classes and performances until 2014 and organized unique events such as the  Brazilian Beat: Canada Dance Congress. The Brazilian Beat was the first non-profit event in Canada that aimed to promote Brazilian dance and to unify and showcase the work of Brazilian dance professionals from Toronto and from other parts of the country. Recently, Brazil Dance World has started to work on amplifying the benefits it has promoted to its community. Innovative projects will be implemented from 2016, aiming to strength the Brazilian artistic community in Toronto.


Pork tongue asado

casaveneracion.com pork tongue asado

Pork tenderloin and rolled pork loin are commonly used in cooking “asado”. So, I wanted to be different; I used pork tongue. I did it before, but as the base for a fried rice recipe. This time, I cooked it as an entree. The basic ingredients and techniques are the same as the fried rice recipe; the variations are mainly in the amount of seasonings, spices and liquid. While very little sauce was required in preparing the “Pork Tongue Asado Fried Rice”, this dish required more liquid at the end of the cooking time since the pork tongue was supposed to be served in its own sauce.

Ingredients :

3 pcs. of pork tongue, cleaned and washed in vinegar
1 whole onion
1 whole garlic
1 tbsp. of minced garlic
1 onion, diced
1 thumb-sized piece of ginger, julienned
1 star anise
1 bay leaf
6 peppercorns
1/4 c. of dark soy sauce
1/8 c. of sugar
1 tbsp. of cornstarch
1 tbsp. of cooking oil
2 tbsp. of Hoisin sauce
salt and pepper
1/2 tsp. of sesame seed oil

Cooking procedure :

Wash the pork tongue under running water. Remove all visible fat, catilages, etc.

Place the vinegar in a glass bowl. Add the pork tongue. Using your hands, “wash” the pork tongue in the vinegar until any sliminess and unpleasant smell is gone. Another alternative is to boil the pork tongue in the vinegar with 1 c. of water. Once it boils, remove the pork tongue and discard the water and vinegar. With a knife, scrape off the outer skin of the tongue. Rinse the tongue.

Place the tongue in a clean casserole and cover with fresh water. Add the star anise, bay leaf, whole garlic, whole onion, peppercorns, soy sauce and sugar. Bring to a full boil. Remove scum as it rises. Lower heat and simmer for 1 to 1-1/2 hours or until tender when pierced with a pork. Transfer tongue to a plate and cool completely. Cool the broth as well.

Cut the tongue diagonally into 1/4-inch slices. Set aside.

Using a clean cloth (like muslin), strain the broth. You will need 1-1/2 cups. Add water if there is not enough broth left. Stir the cornstarch into the strained broth.

Heat a skillet or wok. Add the cooking oil. Saute the minced galic and diced onion. Add the sliced tongue and stir-fry over high heat until the meat starts to brown. Pour in broth-cornstarch mixture. Bring to a boil. When sauce is thick and clear, add hoisin sauce. Lower heat and simmer for about 30 seconds. Turn off heat and stir in sesame seed oil.


Astronomers have been puzzled by powerful radio-wave bursts that appear for only a few milliseconds, but emit as much energy as the sun does over the course of 300,000 years.

What could create that much energy? According to a new study published in Science, one likely candidate is a neutron star collapsing into a black hole, an event recently dubbed a blitzar.

"When the black hole forms, the magnetic field will be cut off from the star and snap like rubber bands," explains astronomer Heino Falcke in New Scientist.

Another leading theory is that the radio-wave bursts come from magnetars, which are highly magnetic neutron stars.

The waves could also be caused by two colliding neutron stars, evaporating black holes, or an entirely new type of astrophysical event, according to James Cordes, an astronomer at Cornell University.

The intense bursts were first discovered six years ago. Recently, astronomers found four of them while sweeping the sky with the Parkes radio telescope in New South Wales, Australia.

The resulting study now concludes that they are probably common occurrences, appearing as often as every 10 seconds. Despite the fact that these bursts appear all the time, only six of them have been observed.

That is because telescopes can only observe small patches of sky, meaning “you have to look for a long time before seeing many,” Dan Thornton, an astronomer at the University of Manchester, tells Discovery. “This is why we have only detected a handful so far.”

Unlike most radio waves we detect, these came from beyond our Milky Way galaxy, originating between six billion and nine billion years ago. That would make them around half as old as the universe itself.

Scientists are hoping that the radio-wave bursts can help shed light on what kind of gas fills the gaps between galaxies.


Israel has the third highest price in the world for gasoline, according to a Bloomberg survey published last week, and the situation is unlikely to improve anytime soon.

Globes reported on Thursday, that the price of self-service 95 octane gasoline, which is government-controlled, could rise from the current NIS 7.70 per liter to as much as NIS 8.25 per liter on September 1, due to the rise in the price oil and the VAT hike, which will come into effect on the same day.

Norway tops the "Bloomberg Ranking", at $10.19 per gallon in the second quarter, 4.4 percent more than in the preceding quarter. However, Norway ranks 52nd in pain at the pump, because of the country's high average daily income of $272. It is followed by Turkey, at $9.41 per gallon, but 7th in the pain at the pump ranking, because the average daily income is $30 per day.

The price per gallon of premium gasoline in third-placed Israel is $9.28, and the pain at the pump rank is 31st: "The average daily income in Israel is $87, and it takes 11% of an average day's wages to buy a gallon of gas," says Bloomberg, which did not include Israel in its previous survey.

"Gas prices have led to widespread discontent and political demonstrations over the cost of living. Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu has intervened to prevent prices from rising with the global price of oil, most recently when he lowered price 2.9% on June 1, according to the Energy and Water Resources Ministry."

Bloomberg added, "While the country taxes gas, it simultaneously subsidizes oil. Israel paid about $565 million in subsidies in 2010, a relatively small contribution to the world's $409 billion in global fossil-fuel subsidies."

Hong Kong and the Netherlands are in fourth and fifth place in the "Bloomberg Gas Price Ranking." Venezuela is at the bottom of the rankings, with consumers paying $0.09 per gallon of gasoline. Above it are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Egypt.


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Vocabulary Word

Word: ambush

Sentences Containing 'ambush'

2012 looks to be a busy year for Ambush Entertainment.
2nd/7th Cav and the ambush near LZ Albany.
After the ambush, "Na-tio-tisha" led his band of warriors northwest through the Tonto Basin.
Although the Crusader force consisted only of 375 knights, Saladin hesitated to ambush them because of the presence of highly skilled generals.
As he reflects on his isolation from the world, he overhears Ueda and the rest of the heads of the Yoshioka plot to ambush him.
Both methods can discourage pursuit while the raid or ambush force withdraws Mining and Improvised explosive devices.
Crowe meets with Maddox to swear that he did not set him up for Dekker's ambush.
Despite seemingly being affiliated with the Godwins, however, Sialeeds incinerates a Godwin ambush of the Prince's force.
Dr. Polaris is one of the villains waiting to ambush the Freedom Fighters in a warehouse south of Metropolis in the beginning of "Infinite Crisis".
Having beaten off the ambush, the British continued their withdrawal to Bushehr.
He told Trakeena about the location of the Silver Goblet, then escaped and set up an ambush for her.
Helu had been caught off guard by Su's ambush and suffered a large amount of casualties.
HMS "Ambush" was the latest "Astute"-class boat to be commissioned.
In 1407, Theiddat, who was with a special group of Hanthawaddy forces who were waiting to ambush Minkhaung, gave a warning to his brother at a critical moment, allowing him to escape.
In fact Logan had not been one of the guards but one of the men in the ambush party.
Jade appears to test Liu Kang and attempts to seduce him, later leading the other Earthrealm warriors to an ambush.
Kenyon saved Castle's life by killing several enemy soldiers and dragging Castle to safety after he was wounded in an ambush.
Louis Ambush of the National Professional Soccer League.
Minkhaung escaped death on the warning by his brother Theiddat who was with Pegu troops to ambush him.
Rather than approach him, and knowing he was there to ambush him, Higgins simply went home.
Santana's successor, on his death in an Indonesian ambush in 1998, was by Taur Matan Ruak.
Schenck quickly assembled a party of irregulars from family members and neighbors and set an ambush for the British as they returned from their mission.
Soon after, Collins was killed at an ambush at Béal na Bláth, County Cork.
The captured soldier said the rebels' victory on the bridge was due to an ambush on government soldiers as they were busy retreating, indicating that they had lost control over Misrata.
The Confederate forces under Colonel Stand Watie attempted to ambush a Union supply convoy led by Colonel James M. Williams.
The deputies guarding the brothers ran away, in league with the ambush party.
The gun taken from Constable Clements was found by security forces after the ambush.
The Inca general commanded to fortified the mountain pass at Vilcaconga where the Spaniards would have to pass, and managed to ambush them, with great losses for the invaders.
The newly revived Kirigi attempts to ambush Stick, but he is no match for the Chaste warriors, who collectively are able to defeat him.
The surviving members of Barton's posse who managed to escape the ambush and pursuit by the gang, fled back to Los Angeles.
They were unsuccessful in attempting an ambush of a Butterfield Overland stagecoach.
This Doctor Polaris was also among the villains in the ambush of the JSA led by Tapeworm.
This feud continued, and Treacheron tricked Trakeena into searching for a silver goblet, just so that he could ambush her once he was free from his cell.
Thorn and Supergirl later ambush and capture Ivy and turns her into the police.
Unfortunately the aliens ambush the ship, and use their unique methods to trick the survivors of the "Light Brigade" into failing their mission.

More Vocab Words

::: actuary - someone who advises insurance companies
::: bicameral - two-chambered as a legislative body
::: coiffure - hairstyle
::: misapprehension - error; misunderstanding; V. misapprehend


Pavel Hlushchanka

Pavel Hlushchanka

Scala Developer

Zhodino, Belarus

What's the difference

5 years experience of web applications development, last 2 years working only with Typesafe stack and related technologies. I have rich experience in designing and developing desktop applications using AWT/Swing/JavaFX. I have a Bachelors in Software Engineering from Belarussian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics. As remote developer i'm working more than one year. I am responsible and well-organized. I aspire continuously develop my skills, for ones of the main goals are a de…

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  5. Go Ask Alice ... Joel Reems
  6. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ... Viktor Krum
  7. The Hills Have Eyes ... Bobby Carter
  8. Just Ella ... Jed
  9. The Outsiders ... Sodapop Curtis
  10. The Perks of Being a Wallflower ... Charlie
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The most important thing to know about the causes of depression is that we don’t really know the answer to this question. It is generally believed that all mental disorders are caused by a complex interaction and combination of biological, psychological and social factors. This theory is called the bio-psycho-social model of causation and is the most generally accepted theory of the cause of disorders such as depression by professionals.

Some types of depression run in families, suggesting that a biological vulnerability can be inherited. This seems to be the case with bipolar disorder. Studies of families in which members of each generation develop bipolar disorder found that those with the illness have a somewhat different genetic makeup than those who do not get ill. However, the reverse is not true: Not everybody with the genetic makeup that causes vulnerability to bipolar disorder will have the illness. Apparently additional factors, possibly stresses at home, work, or school, are involved in its onset.

In some families, major depression also seems to occur generation after generation. However, it can also occur in people who have no family history of depression. Whether inherited or not, major depressive disorder is often associated with changes in brain structures or brain function.

People who have low self-esteem, who consistently view themselves and the world with pessimism or who are readily overwhelmed by stress, are prone to depression. Whether this represents a psychological predisposition or an early form of the illness is not clear.

In recent years, researchers have shown that physical changes in the body can be accompanied by mental changes as well. Medical illnesses such as stroke, a heart attack, cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and hormonal disorders can cause depressive illness, making the sick person apathetic and unwilling to care for his or her physical needs, thus prolonging the recovery period. Also, a serious loss, difficult relationship, financial problem, or any stressful (unwelcome or even desired) change in life patterns can trigger a depressive episode. Very often, a combination of genetic, psychological, and environmental factors is involved in the onset of a depressive disorder.


July 3, 2015

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ADVISORY COUNCILS, FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM: Three support committees that provide feedback to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System to assist in its assorted regulatory responsibilities, including Federal Advisory Council, Thrift Institutions Advisory Council, and Consumer Advisory Council. The Federal Advisory Council is a broad ranging council comprise of commercial bankers. The Thrift Institutions Advisory Council is comprised of representatives of thrift institutions. The Consumer Advisory Council is comprised of consumer credit representatives.

Visit the GLOSS*arama

Macroeconomic problems arise when the macroeconomy does not satisfactorily achieve the goals of full employment, stability, and economic growth. Unemployment results when the goal of full employment is not achieved. Inflation exists when the economy falls short of the stability goal. These problems are caused by too little or too much demand for gross production. Unemployment results from too little demand and inflation emerges with too much demand. Stagnant growth means the economy is not adequately attaining the economic growth goal. Each of these situations is problematic because society is less well off than it would be by reaching the goals.

Unemployment arises when factors of production that are willing and able to produce goods and services are not actively engaged in production. Unemployment means the economy is not attaining the macroeconomic goal of full employment.

While attention is usually focused on the unemployment of labor, such as the time Pollyanna Pumpernickel was laid off from her job at the OmniMotors Car Company, any of the four factors of production can suffer unemployment. For example, The Wacky Willy Company might be operating one of its Stuffed Amigos factories at half capacity or Herb Haberstone might leave a section of his farmland uncultivated.

Unemployment is a problem because:

  • Less output is produced and thus the economy is less able to address the scarcity problem.

  • The owners of unemployed resources receive less income and thus have lower living standards.

Inflation arises when the average price level in the economy consistently and persistently increases. In other words, prices generally rise from month to month and year to year. With inflation the economy is not attaining the stability goal.

Inflation is an average increase in prices, with some prices rising more than the average, some rising less, and some even declining. As such, not every member of society is likely to experience exactly the same inflation.

Inflation is a problem because:

  • The purchasing power of financial assets such as money declines, which reduces financial wealth and lowers living standards.

  • Greater uncertainty surrounds long-run planning, especially the purchase of durable goods and capital goods.

  • Income and wealth can be haphazardly redistributed among sectors of the economy and among resource owners.

The Business Cycle

Unemployment and inflation tend to vary with business-cycle instability. At some times, unemployment is less of a problem and inflation is more. At other times, unemployment is more of a problem and inflation is less. Consider how these two problems connect to the two primary phases of the business cycle.
  • Contraction: The contraction phase of a business cycle is characterized by a general decline in economic activity. Aggregate demand is less, meaning less output is produced, and thus fewer resources are employed. For this reason, unemployment tends to be a key problem. However, because markets are more likely to have surpluses than shortages, inflation tends to be less of a problem.

  • Expansion: The expansion phase of a business cycle is characterized by a general rise in economic activity. Aggregate demand is higher, production is greater, and more resources are employed. Demand for production often outpaces the ability to supply the production. Under these circumstances, because markets are more likely to have shortages than surpluses, inflation tends to be the primary problem. However, with robust production and jobs aplenty, unemployment tends to be less of a problem.

Stagnant Growth

The third problem of stagnant growth arises because the supply of aggregate production is not increasing at a desired pace or is even declining. An increase in the total production of goods and services is generally needed to keep pace with an increase in the population of society and expectations of a rising living standard. Stagnant growth exists if total production does not keep pace. This means the macroeconomic goal of economic growth is not attained.

Reasons for stagnant growth can be identified with a closer look at the quantity and quality of the resources used for production.

  • Quantity: The available quantities of the four factors of production--labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship--can restrict the growth of production.

    The quantity of labor is based on both the overall population and the portion of the population willing and able to work. Should either decline, then growth is not likely to keep pace with expectations. If, for example, Edgar Millbottom decides to quit his job and spend his time doing nothing but vegetating on his parents living room sofa, then the total quantity of labor declines.

    The quantity of capital depends on the amount of investment expenditures relative to the depreciation of the existing capital stock. If investment expenditures should decline or depreciation increase, then the economy is less likely to grow. If, for example, restrictive government regulations and high taxes discourage The Wacky Willy Company and similar manufacturing companies from building new factories, then the total quantity of capital declines.

  • Quality: The quality of the four resources can also lead to stagnant growth. The two most noted resource quality influences are technology and education. The lack of technological progress, which could result from allocating fewer resources to scientific research can limit increases in the quantity of resources. Along a similar line of reasoning, allocating fewer resources to education can also limit resource quality.

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MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS, AmosWEB Encyclonomic WEB*pedia,, AmosWEB LLC, 2000-2015. [Accessed: July 3, 2015].

Check Out These Related Terms...

     | unemployment | inflation | macroeconomic sectors | macroeconomic markets | macroeconomic theories |

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     | macroeconomics | macroeconomic goals | full employment | business cycles | business cycle phases | stability | economic growth | factors of production |

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ISLAM, Dr M Zulfiquar Ali (University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh) by bim75537

Diverse Rites of Passage of the Terrace Ethnic Communities:
A Study of Barind Tract in Northwestern Bangladesh

The paper discusses the diverse rites of passage that two terrace ethnic
communities observe in their everyday lives from birth to death. The paper
targets their life stages, from conception, birth, and childhood to elder status
and death, through their adolescence and adulthood. It also endeavors to
point toward the changes in their life cycle from the mundane to miraculous
events occurring in the interplay of their biological development and cultural
rites. The paper, primarily based on data gathered through observation, focus
group discussions, oral histories, and case studies, elucidates the cultural
diversities between the rites of passage of two ethnic communities in close
proximity and identical geographic environment. Finally, the paper adopts
cultural advocacy in making suggestions for ethnic cohesion in adapting to the
changes occurring in their subsistence that affect their rites of passage.

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Marubeni Corporation

Marubeni is a general trading company covering the following sectors: food materials, food products, textiles, materials, pulp and paper, chemicals, energy, metals and mineral resources, transportation machinery, power projects and infrastructure, plants and industrial machinery, finance, logistics and information industry, and real estate development and construction. It has 57 overseas branches and offices and 30 overseas corporate subsidiaries with 61 offices, for a total of 118 offices in 65 countries/areas.


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Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations (Anglais) Broché – 21 septembre 2000

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Little long, but very thorough overview 28 avril 2005
Par M. J. Kielecki - Publié sur Amazon.com
Format: Broché
Symbiosis by Surindar Paracer and Vernon Ahmadjian is an extensive view into the remarkable world of symbiotic relationships across all different organisms throughout the varying Kingdoms. The topics covered range from viral and bacterial pathogenesis, the symbioses possible in the origins of the Eukaryotic cell and fungal relationships between plants, animals, and fungi. Also covered are the symbiotic relationships that compose parasitic infections, animal parasitism, plant-pollinator relations, behavioral and social symbioses, and finally, co-evolution. The book does an excellent job in separating the levels of symbioses as they span through the varying bacteria, protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals. Also, brief examples of previous research are given as well as numerous references to these experiments.

The first topic discussed in Symbiosis is that of viral associations with differing organisms such as humans, insects, and fungi. An in depth approach is taking discussing the multiple taxonomic variations found in the seven main viruses. Pathogenesis such as HIV in humans is touched on as well as the replication methods that viruses use in order to infect their hosts. After the viruses, the bacteria and their effects on animals, protozoa, and other bacteria are approached. The topics approached include predatory bacteria and the parasitism of amoebas within human intestinal tracts. Bacterial bioluminescence as found within many marine species of fish and squid are explained as well. Finally, the topic of rumen microbial ecosystems is approached and a thorough explanation of the bacterial association is explained. The topic of bacterial pathogenesis touches upon the topics of Salmonella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and E. coli. The detail covered in the text includes both the possible origins of the varying bacteria and the molecular compositions of the varying species.

The symbiotic relationships found among plants are discussed including the Nitrogen fixing bacteria found within legumes and other plants. Other plants affected by symbiotic relationships include the Bryophytes and Cycads. Due to these organisms extended history, the extent of time that a symbiotic relationship has been shared is clear and impressive. The angiosperms are touched upon briefly dealing with such diseases as vascular wilts, soft rots, scabs, and cankers.

An interesting chapter focuses mainly solely on the Serial Endobymbiosis theory and similar symbiotic cell theories such as the Hydrogen Hypothesis. In extreme detail these topics are diagrammed and explained as how the mitochondria and chloroplasts have found there where within other cells. Also included in this endosymbiosis theory are the acquisition of microtubules for movement, peroxisomes, hydrogenosomes, and even the nucleus of cells. An interesting viewpoint is explored as the host cell being analogous to that of an intracellular ecosystem.

A book cannot be written on symbiosis without dealing with the fascinating world of fungi. In Symbiosis the fungal associations found between protozoa and animals are discussed first. The intriguing topic of predatory fungi is explored in great depth including the multitudes of trap types that fungi used. The world of insects and their relations with fungi is touched upon as well discussing the wood wasp and scolytid beetle. The fungal gardens maintained by some of these creatures for nourishment as well as some wasps and ants are of extreme interest. The chapter immediately following tackles fungal associations found in fungi, algae, and especially plants. The topic of lichens is explained, exampled, and discussed in great depth including types of lichens, distribution, dispersal and reproduction, as well as the recognizing mechanisms between fungi and algae/cyanobacterium, case pending. After lichens are thoroughly discussed the topic of mycorrhiza is approached and discussed in great depth including vesicular and arbiscular forms as well as ectendomycorrhiza and ericoid mycorrhiza, dealing with coniferophyta and heather families, respectively. Some topics of fungal associations with plants are approached and interesting methods such as castration of the plant and devastating rust, smut, and mildew diseases.

The next world explored encompasses protozoa and there mutualistic and parasitic relationships on plants, animals, and other protozoa. The topic of ruminant symbioses is revisited with ciliates as well as that found within the tadpoles of amphibian genus Opalina. A fascinating occurrence found in both Opalina and other organisms is the ability for the parasite to correspond with the life cycle of the organism. The largest portion of the chapter deals with malaria and the mechanisms involved in the complex transfer and history of the disease. This chapter supplies excellent diagrams and life-cycle charts to plot the life cycles and mechanisms used by the protozoa and the insects or animals they inhabit. The marine world is briefly approached in the relationships among sea sponges and anemones as well as jellyfish. Some of these marine species have changed their behavior drastically in order to maximize the photosynthesis of their endosymbiotic partners such as the Cassiopeia xamachana or upside down jellyfish. Many cases are given of the photosynthesis adaptations in the marine and intertidal world of these creatures.

The stomach churning chapter of animal parasitism is certainly one to make you second guess your future food choices. This chapter deals specifically with flukes, nematodes, tapeworms, and parasitoids and goes into great depths of the organisms, their methods, and the eventual unfortunate outcomes of their hosts. As with previous chapters the extensive diagrams allow the reader to properly understand the conveyed paths used by the worms in their travels through intermediate host and into their desired system. The fascinating topic of parasitoids is approached and the insect-worm relationships are viewed in some depth including the famous fig and wasp situations of mutualism and co-evolution.

Dealing with the angiosperms the topic is brief, but concise. This chapter is an excellent lead into the final chapter of co-evolution as it deals with tree-ant symbioses as well as the extremely co-evolved world of plants and pollinators, and the sycamore fig-gall wasp association is touched in greater deal. The final portion of the chapter deals with parasitic plants such as the dodders, mistletoes, and the world's largest flowering plant, the Rafflesia arnoldii.

Possibly the best topic of the book was saved for last dealing with behavioral and social symbiosis and co-evolution. The topic of cleaning fish is dealt with in great deal as well as the modifications that can be found in host-parasite interactions. Social parasitism found in wasps, ants, and termites is discussed as well as that of cowbirds and their highly developed brood parasitism shared with cuckoos. The book ends with an overview of the molecular and genetic approaches to viewing symbiosis. Although it gets somewhat dense at this point it is important to understand the relationships found between genetic polymorphism and its common occurrence among individuals who share symbiotic relationships.

On the whole, Symbiosis does an excellent job of covering the dense world of symbiotic relationships in a relatively short amount of space while still giving multiple examples, detailed drawings, and uncountable references for further investigation. This book is a definite read for any novice interested in the world of symbiotic relationships or any well developed biologist interested in learning more through brief examples and extensive references.


Genetic disorders by liaoqinmei

									Genetic disorders
Know all the mutations listed and some examples
          a.   Point mutations- a single nucleotide base is substituted for another (aka missense)
                SCA is an example of missense/point mutation
          b.   Non-sense mutation occurs when and amino acid codon is changed to terminator
                Beta thalessemia is an example of a non-sense mutation
          c.   Trinucleotide repeat mutations- amplification of sequence of 3 nucleotides (250-4000 repeats)
                Nucleotide repeat mutations- Fragile X syndrome
          d.   Frame-shift mutation occurs when 1 or 2 base pairs are added or deleted altering the reading
                Cystic fibrosis is a frame-shift mutation example
“CATCH 22” problem
     a.   22q11 deletion syndrome
     b.   C- congenital heart defects
     c.   A- Abnormal facies (dysmorphia)
     d.   T- Thymic hypoplasia (T- cell defects)
     e.   C- Cleft palate
     f.   H- Hypocalcemia
     g.   Connected with DiGeorge syndrome

Diseases caused by mutations in receptor/transport proteins
Familial hypercholesterolemia
    Very common (1 in 500 adults)
    FH is due to a mutation in the LDL receptor on the cell surface
    Heterozygotes and homozygotes and their different presentations

                                      Heterozygotes                       Homozygotes
LDL receptor                          Present but low                     Absent
Cholesterol                           High                                Very high
Symptoms                              Cholesterol on tendon sheathes,     Xanthomas in childhood, MI
                                      athersclerosis, CAD                 early (die 15-20 y/o)

Diseases caused by mutations in enzyme proteins
1.   Know that PKU, Galactosemia, Lysosomal storage disease and Glycogen storage disease are all due to
     mutations in enzyme proteins
2.   PKU-
      Lack phenylalnanine hydroxylase (PAH) so they can’t make tyrosine
      Mental retardation, pale skin/hair (little melanin)
      Early diagnosis is essential for avoidance of dietary phenyalanine to prevent mental retardation
3.   Galactosemia-
      Lack to galactos-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (galactose  glucose)
      Children will have hepatomegaly, spelnomegaly, juaundice, hypoglycemia, mental retardation and
4. Lysosomal storage diseases
      Tay- Sach’s- Hexoaminidase A
       a. death by age 2
      Gaucher’s – Glucocerebrosidase
       a. Type 1- adult onset
       b. Type 2- infant onset, deadly
      Niemann- Pick- Sphingomyelinase
       a. death by age 5
      Also know the presence of cherry red spots in the retina causing blindness is seen in Tay- Sach’s
       and Niemann- Pick disease
Glycogenoses (Glycogen storage disorders)
     Von Gierke’s- Glucose-6-phosphatase  glycogen builds up in the liver causing hepatomegaly
      and liver failure
     Mc Ardles- muscle phosphorylase- causing cramps after exercise
     Pompe’s- Glucosidase- cardiomegaly and eventual cardiac failure by age 2
Diseases caused by mutations in proteins that regulate cell growth
     Neurofibromatosis types 1 and 2
     Both are autosomal dominant
     NF1- aka von Recklinghausen’s disease
      Lesions include:
      a. Pedunculated nodules
      b. Multiple neurofibromas
      c. Pigmented skin lesions (Cafe au lait spots)
      d. Pigemented iris harmartomas (Lisch nodules)
      e. Most serious complications is transformation into a tumor called a Neurofibrosarcoma
      f. Due to chromosome 17 defect
     NF2- aka acoustic neurofibromatosis
      a. Chromosome 22 deficiency
      b. Bilateral acoustic neuromas
      c. Neurofibromas
      d. Cafe au lait spots

                      Disease                                         Protein defect
Marfan syndrome                                     Fibrillin
Osteogenesis imperfecti                             Collagen
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome                              Collagen
Familial hypercholesterolemia                       LDL receptor
Cystic fibrosis                                     Transmembrane protien regulator
Tay Sachs disease                                   Hexoaminidase
Phenylkeotonuria                                    Phenylalanine hydroxylase
Galactosemia                                        G1P uridyltransferase
Neruofibromatosis type 1                            Neurofibromin

Down’s syndrome
     Autosomal disorder and the most common chromosomal disorder
     Trisomy 21
     The most common cause is meiotic nondisjunction. Some scenarios:
      a. 95% of cases 47XX+21/47XY+21
      b. 4% (Roberstonian translocation) t(14;21)
      c. 1-2% (mosaics) 46XX/47XX+21
          i. mosaics show much milder symptoms
Sex chromosome disorders
     Kleinfelter’s-
      a. Male hypogonadism
      b. Most are 47XXY
      c. 15% are some form of mosaic (46XY/47XXY)
      d. Clinical signs include: small testes, infertility, mild retardation
     Turner’s syndrome-
      a. Female hypogonadism
      b. 55% are missing on X chromosome
      c. The remaining 45% are mosaics (46XX/45XO)
      d. Clinical signs include: Poor development of female secondary sex characteristics, broad chest,
          webbed neck , widely spaced nipples, primary amenorrhea due to rudimentary ovaries
Single gene disorders with atypical patterns of inheritance
    Fragile X syndrome
       a. abnormality of the X chromosome
          i. defect localized to Xq27.3 (this is the fragile portion that breaks off)
       b. Clinical features: large mandible, severe retardation, long face, enlarged testicles, This is the
          second most common cause of mental retardation
       c. Due to multiple tandem triplet repeat mutation via a mutation in the FMR-1 gene
    Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes
       a. PW- mental retardation- with obesity, small hands and feet
       b. AW- mental retardation- with inappropriate laughter (happy puppets)
Leber Hereditary Optic neuropathy- know the symptoms and cause
   a. Caused by a mutation of mitochondrial genes carried in the mother
   b. Expression is variable due to the maternal problems
   c. Causes degenerative neuropathy with progressive bilateral los of central vision and blindness
Genetic screening tests
    a.   Early detection of effected individuals - ie maternal alpha-feto screening for Down’s syndrome
         and newborn screening for PKU
          Alpha feto protein key in detection of DS and neural tube defects
    b.   Carrier detection
             i. Key in Tay-Sach’s disease (in Ashkenazi Jews), use the Hex A test (for hexoaminidase A)
                  because it can help decrease problems associated with the disease by 95%
             ii. Test mothers for AFP, HCG and unconjugated estriol for Down’s syndrome
             iii. Also done in Thalessemias and SCA
Principles in treatment of genetic disease
    a.   The three R’s
           i. Restriction
           ii. Replacement
           iii. Removal
    b.   Restriction- used in PKU (remove dietary phenylalanine), G6PDH deficiency (restrict drugs and
         antimalarials), Familial Hypercholesterolemia (remove dietary choelsterol)
    c.   Replacement- Used in hemophilia A (give pts factor A), Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (give pts
         alpha-1-antitrypsin, liver transplant in familial hypercholesterolemia, SCA/ADA deficiency (add
         bone marrow)
    d.   Removal- In Wilson’s disease (remove excess copper), in familial polyposis (remove the colon
         with polyps in it)

Disorders of the Immune system
HLA classes involved in disease
    a.   Ankylosing spondylitis- HLA-B27
    b.   Diabetes mellitus- HLA- DR3/DR4
Hypersensitivity diseases
    a.   Type I hypersensitivity
         1. Examples-
            a. Skin diseases- urticaria, eczema, acute dermatitis and angioneurotic edema,
            b. Anaphylactic shock- ex. penicillin shock, seafood allergy, etc
         2. Basic pathophysiology- IgE activation and degranulation of the mast cells
             Remember normally IgE is protective against parasitic infections
   b.  Type II Hypersensitivity
            a. Know all the subtypes
                 Complement mediated cytotoxicity
                     a. Cause: In this system complement is activated causing cell lysis
                            Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Erythroblastosis fetalis)
                            Goodpasture’s syndrome- Abs against basment membrane of the lung and
                                kidneys causing pneumonitis and glomerulonephritis
                            Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (transfusion reaction)
                 ADCC (Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity)
                     a. Cause: Lysis of Ab coated target cells by killer cells breaking Fc receptors
                           which engage the Fc portion of IgG
                     b. Transplant rejection
                     c. Tumor immunity
                 Antibody-mediated cellular dysfunction
                     a. Cause: Abs deregulate cell function withou producing cell injury
                     b. Grave’s disease- Abs bind TSH receptors causing hyperthyroidism
                     c. Myesthenia gravis- Abs bind ACh receptors blocking neuromuscular
                     d. Hyperthyroidism
                     e. Pernicous anemia
   c. Type III hypersensitivity (immune complex-mediated)
            a. Immune complex deposition is the problem, both local and systemically
            b. Local- Arthus reaction- this is a reaction at the site of antigen injection showing necrosis
                with necrotizing vasculitis
            c. Systemic- Serum sickness, poststreptoccocal glomerulonephritis, SLE, Rheumatiod
                arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, polymyositis
                 All cause acute inflammation, fibrinoid necrosis (damage of vessels leading to
            d.   ALL OF THESE ARE GLOMERULAR PROBLEMS because immune complexes get
                deposited in the glomerulus
            e. These do not cause pyelonephritis
   d. Type IV hypersensitivity (cell-mediated)
            a.   aka Delayed type hypersensitivity
            b.   The main problems is CD4 T-cell secreting cytokine
            c.   Examples- TB
            d.   Know the tests associtaed with TB
                  Mantoux reaction- erythema and induration following injection of tuberculin is an
                     indication of past TB, or BCG vaccination
                  Granulomatous inflammations
Transplant rejection
   a.   Allographs can cause and immune response (rejection) by types II, II, IV hypersenstivities
         HLA-DR is the most important factor in rejection
   b.   Hyperacute rejections – leads to ischemic infarction of the graft in hyperacute rejection mainly
        due to preformed anti-donor antibodies. Can cause fibrinoid necrosis in very severe cases
   c.   Acute rejection- includes type II,II, and IV hypersensitvities (humoral and cellular rections).
        Most commonly presents with renal failure
         Humoral rejection- due to deposition of Abs. This will cause necrotizing arteritis
         Cellular rejection- Extensinve interstitial mononuclear infiltration. This can cause focal
            tubular necrosis of kidneys
   d.   Chronic rejection- slow with progressive renal failure, no acute changes
   e.   GVH disease- know it happens when immunologically competent cells are transplanted into
        immunologically crippled recipients. CTL will damage recipient’s tissues
         Problems like this occur mostly in the liver, skin and gut mucosa
         Jaundice, skin rashes, diarrhea occur
         CTLs are T-cell infiltrating the organs in GVH disease
Autoimmune diseases
    a.   SLE- systemic lupus erythematosus
          Lots of other diseases will look like this thus all similar diseases are called collagen vascular
          Other collagen vascular diseases include: Rheumatoid arthritis, systemic sclerosis,
          Criteria for SLE: remember a few major ones: ANA antibodies, renal disease, butterfly rash
          Not all autoimmune diseases are collagen vascular consider: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Grave’s
            disease, Myasthenia gravis, Ulcerative colitis (all are non-collagen vascular
          HLA-DR2/3 are important with connection to SLE
          Damage to tissue occurs via type II and III hypersensitivity
            a. Fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries
          Death most commonly due to kidney disease- glomerular diseases such as
            glomerulonephritis due to Ab deposition on the glomerular basement membrane
          Associated conditions: Libman-Sack’s endocarditis, and other nephritis’
          Occurs mostly in females 1:10 ratio
          ANA Ab’s are detected in virtually all patients, the most specific test for SLE is anti-double
            stranded DNA
Immunodeficiency diseases
    Read thru them all
    Primary immunodeficiency
    a. Bruton’s disease- problem of agammaglobulinemia
           X-linked trait
           Absence of B-cells leads to recurrent bacterial infections
    b. Swiss-type/ combined immunodeficiency- both B and T lymphocytes are gone
           Caused by an ADA deficiency
           Young death (~2 y/o)
    c. Thymic hypoplasia- lack of T-cells (aka DiGeorge’s syndrome)
           22q11 deletion syndrome closely related to DiGeorge’s
           Failure of the thymus to develop
           Disabled CMI: viral, fungal and mycobacterial disease
    d. Most common primary immunodeficiency disease is isolated IgA deficiency
           Pulmonary and GIT infections common
           1:700 develop this
    Secondary immunodeficiency
    a. AIDS is 4th leading cause of death between 15 and 54
           3 methods of transmission: sexual, parenteral and mother to child
           Window period- 3-7 weeks for Abs to develop
           Test for HIV is ELISA- will not detect all HIV-2 infections
           Attacks immune and nervous system
              a. Attacks CD4 T-cells by binding with GP120
              b. Normal CD4:CD8 ratio is 2:1, but it will drop to 1:1 in AIDS
              c. >200 CD4/mL then diagnose full blown AIDS
              d. Read the box on page 12 and know the phases of AIDS
         Stage                                           Signs/Symptoms
Early acute               Decreased CD4 cells, viremia, and widespread seeding of lymphoid tissues
                          Seroconversion occurs after the window period
                          Non-specific symptoms (sorethroat, diarrhea, etc) which resolve in 3-6
Middle chronic            Group II-Asymptomatic
                          Group III- Possible general lymphadenopathy and low level HIV replication,
                              may last 7-10 years
Final crisis phase        Pneumonia, Diarrhea, multiple opportunistic infections, Kaposi’s sarcoma,
                              AIDS dementia, lymphomas common
      This is a disease in which amyloid, a pathologic proteinaceous substance is deposited
      extracellularly in a variety of tissues and organs producing pressure atrophy
       Some immune system problems underlie this disease
  b. Most common amyloidosis in the US- multiple myeloma causing primary amyloidosis and
      expressing the protein AL (amyloid light chains)
 Multiple myeloma will excrete Ig in the urine or light chains known as Bence-Jones proteins (causing
  c. ATTR- A prealbumin that is associated with Senile cardiac amyloidosis and hereditary
  d. B2 microglobulin- seen in patients with chronic renal failure getting dialysis. This cannot be
      removed and gets accumulated giving rise to carpal tunnel syndrome
  e. Secondary amyloidosis- seen in chronic infections such as TB, osteomylitis, and rheumatoid
  f. Organs effected by amyloidosis
       Kidney- most common site of damage and death
           a. amyloid in the glomeruli casues destruction
       Spleen- 2 patterns of deposition
           a. Small nodular deposits in spelnic follicles called Sago Spleen
           b. Large map like areas of deposits in the splenic pulp called Laraceous spleen
       Heart- becomes enlarged due to amyloid deposition leading to pressure atrophy
           (cardiomyopathy and CHF).

Amyloidosis seen                     Disease caused by                    Proteins seen
Primary amyloidosis                  Multiple myeloma                     AL
Secondary amyloidosis                Chronic inflammation                 AA
Hereditary/Senile cardiac            Familial amyloid                     ATTR
amyloidosis                          polyneuropathies
Hemodyalisis associated              Chronic renal failure                B2-microglobulins

13. Infectious diseases
a.   Chlamydial infection
              Causes urethritis and cervicitis (also prostatitis in males)
              Most frequent STD disease in the US with 3 million new cases (second to Gonorrhea)
              Mostly caused by C. trachomatis
              Newborns infected with it can also get inclusion conjunctivitis
b.   Keratoconjunctivitis due to chlamydial infections
      One of the leading causes of blindness
      Causes scarring and ulceration of the conjunctiva
c.   Lymphogranulmoa venereum (LGV)-
              STD
              Not common
              Lesions at the penis, vagina, cervix
              Occurs in 3 stages
         1. Small ulcer at site of infection
         2. Granulomatous lymphadenitis (buboes) and pus discharge
         3. Elephantiaisis, esthiomene
d.   Rickettsial diseases
              Typhus is a louse borne disease caused by Rickettsia prowazekii
         a. a typhus nodule is a small vessel lesion of the brain and other organs showing focal leukocytic
         infiltration and microglial proliferatoin
              Rocky mountain spotted fever is a tick borne infection
          1.Rocky mountain spotted fever (ricketsia ricketsii)
            a. Hallmark is the eschar (a rash)
            b. Meningitis may occur
e.   Mycoplasma-
      These are tiny organisms also called PPLOs or Eaton agents
      M. pneumonia accounts for 10-30% of all primary interstitial pneumonias
      Produces cold agglutinins
      Common in military recruits and institutions (prisons)
Bacterial infections
      remember gram positive and gram negative can both cause severe septicemia and shock
      Gram positive can cause Toxic shock syndrome (vaginal tampons)
      Streptococcal infections
       Have 2 patterns of disease: spreading of suppurative infections, and poststrep. hypersensitivity
           (causing glomerulonephritis, rheumatic fever, and erythema nodosum)
  d. Menigococal infections
 Severe septicemia
 Death
 DIC and hemorrhages in the adrenals causing a severe shock called Waterhouse-Friderichsen
     e. Gonococcal infections
 Causes sterility in males and females.
 PID leading to sterility (due to tubo-ovarian abscesses) in females and ectopic pregnancy
 Causes destruction of the epididimis in males causing sterility
 Can cause right upper quadrant pain around the liver called Fitz-Hugh-Curtis-Syndrome
  f. Gram negative rods cause:
 Endotoxic shock- a hypotensive shock due to bacterial endotoxins
 Nosocomial infections
 Remeber Legionella infections
          a. Caused by L. pneumophilia
          b. Causes DIC, shock, renal failure and most commonly respiratory failure
          c. Pontaic fever- a mild form, usually self limiting
     g. Legionella infections
           These are commonly respiratory infections caused by L. penumophilia and others
           The bugs are found in cooling systems
           2 disease presentations
            a. Pontaic fever- mild, self-limited febrile disease
            b. Legionnaire’s disease- severe pneumonia with a 15-20% fatality rate
           Legionnaire’s presents with dry cough, slow pulse, chest and abdominal pain. Eventually
            respiratory failure, shock, DIC and renal failure can occur
           May present as lobular pneumonia or confluent bronchopneumonia
Infectious diarrheas
     a.Typhoid fever
        Typhoid carriers are asymptomatic humans, they can develop the disease if they become
            compromised. Remember humans are the only reservoir
 It causes, toxic coagulation of the cardiac muscle,
 Neutropenia occurs due to bone marrow suppression
 Rose spots develop on the chest
  b. Lyme disease
        Tick borne infection (Borrelia burgdorferi)
        It is a spirochete
            a. Other spirochete infections include: Relapsing fever, syphilis, and Weil’s disease
        3 stages
            1. ECM- erythema chronicum migrans
            2. Chorea, myocarditis
              3.     Chronic debilitating arthritis
Sexually transmitted diseases
     a.   Syphilis

      Stage                                Symptoms                           Complications/resolution
Primary syphilis             Chancre- painless, eroded and indurated      Heals in 3-12 weeks
                              occur on penis, labia or cervic
                             Painless lymphadenopathy
Secondary syphilis           1-3 months post chancre
                             Well or with malaise
                             Skin rashes which are bilateral,
                             May show retinitis, meningitis

Tertiary syphilis            Cardiovascular- aortic aneurysm, aortic      Gummatous necrosis of the liver,
                              incompetance and narrowing of the            bones and testes.
                              coronary ostia
                             Neurosyphilis- tabes dorsalis and GPI
                              (general paresis)
                             Gummas

b.   Congenital syphilis
      Contracted via the placenta
      Causes late abortion, stillbirth
c.   Tuberculosis
      Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
          a. transmitted by inhalation, ingestion or skin inocculation
    Identified by Ziehl-Neelsen Stain
    Causes infective granulomas called tubercles (w/Langhans giant cells)
    Primary infection is mediated by a type IV cell-mediated hypersensitivity reaction, this plays a major
     role in caseating tissue destruction (large cavities in the lung)
    What is primary TB
      a. Granulomas called Ghon foci and enlarged hilar lymph nodes, together called Ghon complex are
         found subpleurally
    What is secondary TB
      a. Seen in people who have been previously infected, via a recativation
      b. Coin lesions with hemoptysis
    Some possible outcomes of TB
      a. May induce amyloidosis
      b. If the tubercle bacilli gain access to the blood they can form yellow-white lesions in distant organs
          such as the eye, bone marrow, spleen and liver. This is called miliary TB

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Public Release:  Multiple sclerosis: Damaged myelin not the trigger

University of Zurich

Millions of adults suffer from the incurable disease multiple sclerosis (MS). It is relatively certain that MS is an autoimmune disease in which the body's own defense cells attack the myelin in the brain and spinal cord. Myelin enwraps the nerve cells and is important for their function of transmitting stimuli as electrical signals. There are numerous unconfirmed hypotheses on the development of MS, one of which has now been refuted by the neuroimmunologists in their current research: The death of oligodendrocytes, as the cells that produce the myelin sheath are called, does not trigger MS.

Neurodegenerative hypothesis obsolete

With their research, the scientists disprove the so-called "neurodegenerative hypothesis", which was based on observations that certain patients exhibited characteristic myelin damage without a discernable immune attack. In the popular hypothesis, the scientists assume that MS-triggering myelin damage occurs without the involvement of the immune system. In this scenario, the immune response against myelin would be the result - and not the cause - of this pathogenic process.

Focus on immune system


The Nazis’ Chocolate Bomb

The term “Death by Chocolate” usually refers to a dessert recipe — chocolate cake served with chocolate ice cream, chocolate syrup, sometimes with chocolate brownies or chocolate candies or chocolate shavings on top. Chocolate, chocolate, and more chocolate. For most, Death by Chocolate seems like a wonderful idea. The Nazis agreed — but took the term more literally.

The likely target of the chocolate? Gizmodo states that the Nazis envisioned the British Royal family falling prey to the ruse, opening up a bar of chocolate only to find a very rude — and deadly — surprise.  According to the BBC, while explosives camouflaged as food were found on Nazi agents in Turkey, none made it to the UK. However, four similarly constructed cans of peas, en route to Buckingham Palace, did make it to Ireland before being intercepted.

Of course, it’s incredibly unclear as to why the Nazis believed that a member of the Royal family would be opening up their own cans of peas.

Bonus fact: Say or hear a word over and over again, and it may lose its meaning to you. Almost all of us have experienced it, and you may have experienced this after reading the first sentence of the first paragraph above. (Your brain, after a while, may have been unable to center in on the meaning of the word “chocolate.”) This happens due to “a psychological phenomenon in which repetition causes a word or phrase to temporarily lose meaning for the listener, who can only process the speech as repeated meaningless sounds,” as explained by Wikipedia. The name of that phenomenon is “semantic satiation.”

From the ArchivesWhen the Nazis Invaded America: Another Nazi saboteur plan that went awry.

RelatedA fake chocolate bar that is actually a calculator.


In nature, the shape of a gemstone is determined by its natural crystal structure and the conditions under which the crystal developed. To enhance the natural beauty of the crystal and to provide a safe shape for mounting, gem cutters form natural gemstones into precise shapes. These shapes typically include a number of flat, symmetrical planes, called facets, which reflect light to add sparkle and brilliance to the finished stone.

Gemstone cutting is based in science. Each gem material has a known refractive index which allows a gem cutter to determine how light rays will bend as they pass through the stone. Using this information a gemstone can then be precisely shaped to best enhance its natural beauty.

If a well shaped multi-faceted stone is viewed from above it will appear very bright across the entire surface. This brightness results from light rays being reflected directly from the top surface, as well being reflected within the gemstone and back to your eye. You cannot see through a well cut gemstone, even though the natural material is translucent, since almost all of the light is being reflected back to the viewer. [Obviously this is not the case with stones which are intentionally shaped with larger facets, such as a traditional emerald cut.]

If a gemstone is not as well shaped it will be possible to look down on the top surface and see through to the point at the bottom of the stone. This transparent effect is called a "window." Windows detract from the brilliance and color of a stone, since light be allowed to pass directly through the materials without reflecting back to the viewers eye.

Not all gemstones are faceted. For example, opals are suited to a smooth, rounded surface, and are often found with pleasing shapes which naturally highlight their internal flashes and sparkles. Other gems are formed into smooth, rounded shapes called cabochons. Some "cabo's" are also referred to as "star" gems due to the distinctive light pattern which appears as a result of inclusions in the stone.

Understanding cuts in Gemstones :-

When grading and appraising gemstones, cut may not be as influential as the other C's like color, clarity, and carat weight, but it is definitely an influencing factor when it comes to the gemstones overall beauty. To properly evaluate the cut of a given gemstone, you must not only study the face-up view or the surface or top view but study it from all other angles as well. An excellent cut can reduce loss on carat weight but enhance its looks to breathtaking proportions at the same time.

Common Cuts Used on Gemstones :

1. Brilliant Cuts :

A brilliant-cut gemstone usually has three flat polished surfaces per facet. They are positioned in such a way to radiate the best light from the gemstone. Gemstone cutters also make sure that the angles will enhance the brilliance of the gemstone. Brilliant cuts are mostly used for diamonds and transparent gemstones.

Some facets will have one or more shapes like stars, hearts, kites, and lozenges. Variations of the brilliant cut include the naivet or boat-shaped marquise, pear-shaped pendeloque, and oval shape. Oval shapes are suitable for gemstones with lower carat weight because they can make them appear bigger.

The most popular variation of all is the full-cut round brilliant. It has fifty-eight facets, presently the greatest count for brilliant cut gemstones. The single brilliant cut, on the other hand, has seventeen to eighteen facets. For gemstones used in earrings and pendants, the briolette variation is mostly used to provide it with circular cross-section teardrop shapes. Brilliant cuts with triangular dimensions are called trilliants while square brilliant cuts are also known as princess cuts.

2. Step Cuts :

Another popular cut for a gemstone is the step or trap cut. Step cuts are best used for colored gemstones because they possess four-sided table facets and girdles as well as parallel quadrilateral facets. The term step cut was used because this gemstone cut bears similarities with a staircase. Step cuts have fewer facets than brilliant cuts.

One well-known variation of a step cut is the baguette. It is rectangular in shape but with square corners. Emerald cuts are also quite popular. Its name was derived from its consistent use with emeralds. Emerald cuts remove the corners and form an octagonal shape. Clipping off the corners protect delicate gemstones like emeralds and facilitate setting of gemstones at the same time. Other popular variations for step cuts are window, table, radiant, and oval.

The best advantage of step cuts is its ability to enhance a gemstones color, making the color richer and appearing to have originated straight from the belly of the gemstone.

3. Mixed Cuts :

Mixed cuts for gemstones are mostly combinations of brilliant and step cuts. The crown or top portion of a gemstone will resemble a brilliant cut while the pavilion or bottom portion of a gemstone will receive a step cut. At times, the two cuts will appear side by side. Mixed cuts are also characterized by their rounded outlines. Many transparent gemstones like rubies and sapphires are often cut this way. Gemstones with mixed cuts are also commonly set in prongs.

Variations for mixed cuts include but are not limited to cushion, zircut, pear or teardrop, and oval.

4. Cabochon Cuts :

A gemstone with a cabochon cut will appear rounded on top and flat on the bottom. At times, gemstones will only appear in this cut. Height of a gemstones dome with a cabochon cut varies. The name is derived from the French term used for bald heads. Cabochon cuts are simplest to make, and that is why you will often see them used on affordable gemstones and those that will not benefit from faceting.

5. Fancy Cuts :

Any other cut besides those mentioned above is usually referred to as fancy. A checkerboard cut, for instance, will have a combination of a large table facet on top and a mixed cut. A rose cut will have a round girdle outline, flat base, dome-shaped crown, and facets of a brilliant cut.

When judging the cut of a gemstone, start by evaluating it face up. See if the gemstone shows uniform color distribution and radiates light in the best possible way. Gemstones cut with large windows are unappealing. Lastly, recheck all other angles and determine if the cut took both carat weight and looks into consideration.


Working Paper No. 10-03

Drill Baby Drill?

Karen Maguire
October 2010

This paper examines the role of federal elected political influence and market factors in determining the acres of oil and natural gas leases issued on Bureau of Management (BLM) lands in the western United States between 1978 and 2008. This paper seeks to determine if a political party and ideology of the federal political environment influence the number of acres that are leased and if there is disparate federal political influence in states that have a large amount of federal lands. Using a random effects Tobit model for a 17-state sample of the westernmost states in the contiguous United States, the findings indicate that more conservative Congressional and Presidential influence lead to additional leasing. The results are consistent across Senate committee leaders, Senate majority leadership, and the President’s office. The influence of politics on leasing is not found to be stronger in states with more federal lands,however.


GEZLONG transparent

Gezlong is the pioneer online travel platform in Turkey. It is a members-only site where travelers can find exclusive discounts for top tier hotels and tours from different parts of the world for a limited time. All the hotels and tours featured at Gezlong are seen and approved by world acknowledged travel editors.


Ellis Island MMO

Ellis Island is a Massively Multiplayer Online Game set in New York City that provides players with the experience of immigrating to the United States during the 1920s. The core focus of Ellis is the emergent progression of characters throughout play. A player’s character has a certain set of traits based on the nationality and background they choose at the beginning of the game. As the player progresses through Ellis Island and completes various quests and events of his or her choosing, the traits and qualities of the character change to reflect the outcomes of these endeavors. Players also choose an aspiration, which is a professional goal that they desire to reach. However, depending on the choices a player makes, he or she might wind up in a completely different line of work.

Several other systems in Ellis Island are designed to emphasize the immigrant experience:

  • Language - Players must gain proficiency in and communicate through various languages
  • Contacts - Players must make contacts, including characters (NPCs) and other players
  • Reputation - Players gain or lose reputation with their contacts, which affects how those contacts treat them
  • Social Conflict - A card game symbolizing an argument between two people. Players use Logic, Passion, Ethics, and Deception to build their argument while simultaneously picking apart their opponents’.

More Information Can Be Found At: EllisIslandGame.com


CSG Midwest
CSG Midwest

CSG Midwest

How can states better ensure that soon-to-be high school graduates are leaving their K–12 education systems ready to succeed in college or the workforce? For states, finding answers to that policy question has never been more important because of a continuing economic trend—jobs are demanding more and more skills and increasingly requiring some level of postsecondary training.

State officials and policymakers have been focused on college- and career-readiness for several years yet challenges still exist to graduate students with the skills and competencies necessary to obtain sustainable employment. 2015 promises to be another busy year concentrated on implementing best practices and enacting innovative policies that prepare America's youngest students for entry into school, create environments for all students including those at-risk, and offer a variety of experiences so students participate in work-based opportunities. In order to ensure a world-class education for all students, leaders will likely address these top 5 issues facing states this year.

On Thursday, Nov. 20 a group of state legislators and education officials met with staff from the White House Intergovernmental Affairs and representatives from the U.S. Departments of Education and Health and Human Services.  An update on the Administration's priorities, the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) and critical early education initiatives were discussed.


Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt

The illustrated Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt covers time period from the 3150 BC to 30 BC. Easily access the maps, timeline, information about the dynasties, pharaohs, laws, culture, government, military and more.
Fully illustrated with maps, art, and photographs.
Always have the guide available for a quick reference.

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LATEST: An Australian publication has issued an apology after it revealed British royal Prince Harry had been fighting on the army front line in Afghanistan. The 23-year-old, who is third in line to the throne, was deployed to the war-torn country late last year (07) but the British government issued a media blackout on the situation to avoid any potential kidnap plots involving the young royal. However, Australia's New Idea magazine insists when it ran the story in January (08) it was unaware of an agreement between the British Ministry of Defence and major news organisations not to disclose the prince's deployment, in order to protect him and his fellow soldiers. The royal was pulled out of the country following the report last month (Feb08). The magazine said in a statement, "We do acknowledge that our actions in publishing the story can be reasonably viewed as insensitive and irresponsible."


For example, Harry Styles takes a photo of him of his mom from when he was a toddler and advances it the present. The other people in the photos age along with the boy band member but don’t interact with them at all, until the end.  Liam Payne’s photo is him in formal wear with his family; Zayn Malik and his sister have their moment in his choice, while Niall Horan shares a musical moment  with his brother.

The track is the second single from One Direction's new album, "Midnight Memories," out Nov. 25.


UNISDR and China launch new urban resilience award

The award, which will be presented at a ceremony in Beijing, China on 12-14 December during the Second Mayors' Summit on Disaster Risk Reduction, comes at a time when cities across the world are facing more extreme weather events and feeling the pressure of rapid urbanization and population growth.

"The Resilient Cities Award aims to raise awareness of the importance of good planning in the face of urbanization and climate change, and advance the exchange of ideas, innovation, and investment in disaster risk reduction," said Helena Molin Valdes, Chief of the United Nations' Making Cities Resilient Campaign.

Dr. Dong Yanzhang, Executive Chairman of the WCSDA, added: "Beijing is an apt stage for this award given the huge urban expansion happening throughout China."

China is now home to the world's largest mega-cities, with more than 20 million people already inhabiting the nation's capital city of Beijing. Most of the emerging mega-cities are expanding into once rural and pastoral areas, creating further stress to eco-systems and raising concerns about future access to core resources such as clean water, food and housing.

About the Award
The Resilient Cities Award recognizes excellence in the adoption and implementation of the Ten Essentials for Making Cities Resilient, a 10-point checklist designed to help local governments assess their risks and initiate plans to improve their cities' resilience.

Applicants will be considered based on successful urban resilience efforts demonstrated through effective land-use planning, design, development, and infrastructure activities and investments that serve to reduce disaster risk.

Further consideration will also be given to efforts to raise awareness of disaster risk through successful organization and coordination between multiple stakeholders and the mobilization of funding and other resources, as well as the implementation of educational programs and training, and efforts to protect ecosystems and natural buffers to mitigate floods, storm surges and other natural hazards.

The Award Winner will receive complimentary travel and accommodation to Beijing, VIP access to the Summit and tour of the capital, a Resilient Cities 2012 Plaque, and global recognition as an international exemplar in urban resilience. The winner will also be invited to serve as a global ambassador on disaster risk reduction, engaging with multiple audiences and other city leaders at future forums and events.

Entries for the award are now being accepted and should be submitted to [email protected]. The entry deadline is 30 October 2012.

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