All posts by Sabrina L

Using iPads in the Classroom

Teachers can utilize iPads in the classroom to greatly enhance the learning experience of their students by keeping them engaged and by teaching material in new ways. iPads have several useful features as well as a plethora of educational apps and uses, one of which is airdrop. Using airdrop, teachers can project wirelessly from their iPad what is showing on their screen. Teachers could open a note-taking app (like the free one Notability) and write notes or math problems on their iPad screen for students to see. What they write is projected in real time onto their projector screen. Thus, they can teach and write things “on the board” while walking around the classroom, checking on everyone and gauging their understanding. Also, when students are using the iPads in the classroom, the teacher can require them to turn on airdrop so that all their screens appears on the projector screen, deterring students from surfing the internet or going on apps that they are not supposed to.

Students could also load a powerpoint presentation onto the Google Drive app on an iPad (also free) and more readily present, changing the slides when they want to. The teacher is free to grade and enjoy their presentation, as are all other students (who no longer have to sit and change the screens).

Furthermore, students can use iPads or even their own phones to play games like Kahoot or participate in e-classrooms like through the Socrative app. Kahoot enables the teacher to make a fun, competitive game online, which students can then access through any mobile device and play together. This provides a fast-paced, engaging way for students to review material and for teachers to gauge their understanding. Socrative is similar in that you can see the realtime student responses and engage the entire class. However, Socrative is probably better for topics that require more thinking; as the upbeat game-showy atmosphere of Kahoot, while exhilarating at first,  could quickly become stressful if you are trying to solve math problems.

With the easy video-making apps available (mostly for free) on iPads, students can make videos in under 30 minutes and send them to the teacher so that the teacher can play them for the class. Our iPads have iMovie and Animoto, which can both be used for entertaining yet educational review or case study. For instance, a teacher could assign small groups topics to explain to the class in short, often memorable videos. No doubt this alternative method of introducing material would stick in students’ brains very readily.

Teachers could also use an automatically graded survey platform such as Google Forms or Survey Monkey to assess or probe pupils, who could use either their phones or iPads to answer the surveys. Since these grade and report their responses automatically, it saves teachers time and is a personal way for students and teachers to explore their understanding.

Another way teachers have used iPads in the classroom is by using them to talk about sensitive subjects like sexting that students might not feel comfortable speaking out about for fear of being judged by their classmates. One teacher used an app like Notability to conduct a class discussion. While she asked questions to direct the conversation, students wrote their responses on the app and held it up for her to see, and even the shyer students could contribute.

With two iPad carts in AHS and so many interesting and engaging ways to use them in the classroom, the variety of methods which teachers can use to edify their students is expanded vastly. The only thing left to do is to explore all of the tantalizingly easy-to-use approaches to using them in the classroom.

Burns, Monica. “Resources for Using IPads in Grades 9-12.” Edutopia. Edutopia, 13 May
Web. 29 Mar. 2016.

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Tools to Make Learning Easier – Google Classroom

With a computer in every classroom and access to one for every student at school and at home, Google Classroom provides a way for teachers and students to stay on the same page, encouraging learning and effective teacher-student communication. The video illustrates just how simple and helpful Classroom is for a student, from receiving the email to join the classroom to viewing assignments and due dates to emailing teachers and classmates with questions.

*For safety and legitimacy reasons, there is no way for a student or someone outside of a school or official organization to make a “classroom” (thus, this video focuses mainly on how Classroom looks to a student).

Citation add-ons in Chrome: Paperpile and Easybib

Paperpile is a free, easy to use, add-on in Google Chrome (especially in Drive and Docs). Basically, it is a citation device that allows users to research topics in a side bar and then easily make customized citations and annotations. While Paperpile is a highly professional tool and used by researchers and university students alike, it is simple enough and useful enough for high school and possibly younger children to utilize. It could also be useful for teachers working toward degrees (such as a Master’s).

Paper Pile Academic User Stats
Paperpile Academic User Stats, released by Paperpile.

For instance, when Paperpile is added into Chrome, should you need help navigating and using it, it provides a simple guide to help you get started, as well as many other resources.

Paperpile Quick Start Guide
Paperpile Quick Start Guide and beginning instructions in the research bar, screenshot

The simplicity and availability of Paperpiles would be useful both for students prone to forgetting to record their citations until the end of the paper to quickly research and save their citations in just a couple of clicks, staying in the document the whole time. Usually, myself included, students must go through the time-consuming process of researching something (in a book, a website, etc.) and then going to an external website to cite sources. While websites like or make citing sources much easier, it is annoying to have to leave the document and spend valuable time inputting sources. This is why many students forgo this process while writing, only to have to laboriously re-research their sources at the end. Students and teachers can save time by using Paperpiles or even the easybib add-on. Here is what the Easybib add-on bar looks like to the right of a document:

Easybib bar, screenshot
Easybib bar, screenshot

In addition, multiple add-ons can be acquired without cluttering the document. For instance, the bar on the right can be closed when not in use, ready to be accessed with just one click.

Ready to use add-ons
Ready to use add-ons, screenshot

These in-document citation add-ons are user-friendly and efficient, and can be easily downloaded free of charge right into the document. 1,399,188 people are using the easybib add-on at the time of publication, and there are 13,572 users of Paperpile. Both teachers and students could benefit from these Google Chrome add-ons.

Blog Post 1 Term 2: Independent Project Update

Since Term One, when I was extremely preoccupied with planning things for the Robotics Club, I have in Term Two focused much more on my independent project of learning Python with the aid of Jason Cannon’s book “Python Programming for Beginners.” Still, my progress has been slow-going, because I often spend a long time on new concepts exploring all the applications in attempting to commit the principle to memory. It also usually takes me a while to fully understand the proper usage of each new function or idea, so I try to write as many programs as possible using new concepts. For instance, in my most recent exploration of function usage, I wrote several versions of a basic body of code, each getting progressively more complex and incorporating more knowledge that I have learned so far.

Version One of the mad libs program
Version One of the mad libs program
Version Three (heavily revised) of the mad libs program
Version Three (heavily revised) of the mad libs program

And, as expected in learning to program and programming itself, it always takes several tries running the programs in Shell to refine the program and to filter out typographical errors: a missing indent, an extra letter or a missing parenthetical pair.

The first time an outside user tested the program by providing input; however, notice that it says to enter "a" adjective instead of "an", indicating an error in running the first function of the code.
The first time an outside user tested the program by providing input; however, notice that it says to enter “a” adjective instead of “an”, indicating an error in running the first function of the code.
Code with a missing parenthetical pair after the first 'if' statement
Code with a missing parenthetical pair after the first ‘if’ statement
Inserted parenthetical pair
Inserted parenthetical pair
Running the program in Shell - from failures to success!
Running the program in Shell – from failure to success!

In the short period of time that has been since Term Two began, my progress in programming Python has picked up in pace significantly, since it has become my main focus. I have learned much about patiently troubleshooting my code, and how meticulous one must be when using functions, booleans, and asking for user input. I hope to finish Cannon’s book by the end of T2, and hopefully start more complex programs.

The Impact of Computers in the Classroom

With the increase of the availability and applications of technology, the classroom is becoming more and more of an automated place. Students are able to access online tools to enhance their learning experience (using websites like Khan Academy) and teachers are able to quickly input students’ grades and attendance into online systems such as iPass.

Ashland Public Schools, for example, has a ratio of about two computers per student (“Massachusetts School and District Profiles”). In many schools, there is one laptop or device for every student to use in classroom activities and to take notes. This is helpful in the classroom setting because teachers are able to engage students in more activities to help them absorb information. However, many students at APS would agree that the amount of computers is sufficient, and there is no feeling of being cheated from the potential opportunities that other schools with a computer : student ratio of 1:1 have.

Many students are easily distracted by the glow of their computer screens and are able to access other, non-class related applications. Furthermore, countless studies have shown the benefits of taking notes by hand, as students are able to commit that information more readily to memory (Herbert). Handwriting notes contributed to “higher academic performance overall,” scientists found (Herbert). Students who mindlessly transcribed the lecture did not process or store the information nearly as well as the handwriting students.

Moreover, youths from all over the world where similar programs are in force are being faced with charges in stealing these devices, and “in 2008 . . . hundred of thousands of dollars [were] spent to replace equipment that went missing” (Snyder). Some students are not mature enough to maintain their laptops/devices. Hence, in schools where there are enough funds to give each student a computer, there should be a minimum age requirement of at least 10 or 11 years old. Schools would have to limit ownership to older and hopefully more mature students, or determine when students are mature enough to care for them. Another concern scientists have is the positive role handwriting plays in fine motor development, among other things, that would not be learned by just typing things into a computer (Bounds).

Teachers would have to get training in order to fix minor technical difficulties that frequently arise, even in AHS. Training would be essential because the time wasted having people fix minor technical glitches would cause the cost of the devices in time and manpower to outweigh the possible gains.

Additional pluses to surrounding students with as many computers as possible would be preparation for an increasingly automated workplace and college experience. It should be kept in mind that students still need to know how to function without computers, and just because there is a calculator that can add doesn’t mean that students do not need to know how to do arithmetic.

Works Cited
Bounds, Gwendolyn. “How Handwriting Trains the Brain.” How Handwriting Boosts the Brain. WSJ, 5 Oct. 2010. Web. 02 Nov. 2015.
Herbert, Wray. “Ink on Paper: Some Notes on Note Taking*.” Ink on Paper: Some Notes on Note Taking. Association for Psychological Science RSS, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 02 Nov. 2015.
“Massachusetts School and District Profiles.” Technology (2013-14). N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct.  2 2015.
Snyder, Tamar. “How to Keep School Laptops Safe.” How to Keep School Laptops Safe |      Edutopia. Edutopia, 1 Apr. 2009. Web. 21 Oct. 2015.

Google Groups: Classroom Applications

While students regularly use features of Google such as Drive, Slides, and Gmail to do schoolwork and allow them to access their work from home and school, Google offers many other useful apps that have academic applications. Furthermore, the school and district use Google Calendars on their website for students to reference when Orientation Day or Picture Day is, for example. Teachers also use Google sites to make their websites to post homework, upcoming assignments, and helpful links.

However, teachers and students, especially in Ashland Public Schools, do not use Google Groups at all. Google Groups allows users have discussions on forums through presentations and photos, among other forms of media. For example, many other high school clubs and even classes have their own, private discussions which people need permission to access. A teacher could post a discussion question and students could post responses for engaging, easy to grade homework. Even the summer before classes start, a teacher could add all the students in one class to a certain discussion and begin assessing their abilities through periodical discussions. In addition, students could do homework on the go, as Google groups is accessible through mobile devices. Foreign language teachers could also use this feature, because the language of the discussion is easily changed.

In conclusion, Google Groups has countless applications to the classroom in enriching students’ understanding and keeping them engaged in classroom subjects. Teachers are also afforded a better glimpse into the students’ progress and understanding. Students could have a wider variety of homework and extra credit opportunities through discussions, pictures, and videos.

General applications of Groups

General applications of Groups

Examples of academic applications in various classes and clubs
Examples of academic applications in various classes and clubs

—Additional Resources—
To get started:
Youtube video “How to Use Google Groups In The Classroom”
For more information:
“Keep Your Classes Organized With Google Groups.” Blattinet. N.p., 22 Feb. 2013. Web. 25 Sept. 2015.


Tag: Superhuman

The Ars Notoria: A rare ancient text said to teach superhuman abilities

The Ars Notoria is a rare ancient magical text that is said to perfect memory and master academia among other incredible things.

“…The Notory Art revealed by the Most High Creator to Solomon. In the Name of the Holy and undivided Trinity, beginneth this most Holy Art of Knowledge, revealed to Solomon, which the Most High Creator by his Holy Angels ministered to Solomon upon the Alter of the Temple; that thereby in short time he knew all Arts and Sciences, both Liberal and Mechanick, with all the Faculties and Properties thereof: He has suddenly infused into him, and also was filled with all wisdom, to utter the Sacred Mysteries of most Holy words…” – The Notory Art of Solomon.

The Ars Notoria – An Ancient Magical Book to Perfect Memory and Master Academia

Do you believe that there are ancient texts that help understand how humans function? Several sciences are known for avoiding many parts they cannot comprehend or explain, is it possible that this is one of them? Innumerable ancient books have been written in the past promising otherworldly powers to those who welcome its knowledge. People in the past firmly believed that ancient scripts offered magical powers and ways of altering the consciousness of those who read it.

But from where does this mysterious knowledge come from? In the distant past, not many people knew how to read, or interpret ancient (sacred) writings, which could have inherently, categorized some texts as mysterious and powerful.

“And know this; that if thou hast not the books in thy hands, or the faculty of looking into them is not given to thee; the effect of this work will not be the lesse therefore: but the Orations are twice then to be pronounced, where they were to be but once: And as to the knowledge of a vision, and the other virtues which these Holy Orations have; thou maist prove and try them, when and how thou wilt.” (source) –Ars Notoria The Notory Art of Solomon.

In the famous grimoire —a textbook of magic, with instructions on how to create magical objects like talismans and amulets and perform magical spells—called Lesser Key of Solomon, there is an ancient text called the Ars Notoria, or the Notory Art of Solomon. This ancient text can be traced back to the thirteenth century while some parts were written as early as the twelfth century.

While there were numerous ancient texts that promised otherworldly powers in the past, this one was different since it specifically focused on prayers, meditations and another oral exercise unlike other books, which focused exclusively on spells, potions, and rituals.

The oldest writings in the so-called Lesser Key of Solomon offer those who read and understand it, a silver tongue, perfect memory and unimaginable wisdom. However, since there has been numerous ‘unauthorized’ revision through the ages, its extremely difficult to evaluate its success and functionality.

The original texts were created in three different styles, including Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. It is said that King Solomon himself used the original writings of the Ars Notoria to become a wise, compassionate and talented rulers on Earth


Tag Archives: Isolation

Weider’s Principle of Isolation

Joe Weider introduced the principle of isolation into bodybuilding – laying the foundation for split system training. Isolation exercises don’t truly exist. Regardless of the type of exercise one way or another body momentum can be generated in muscles of the core as well.

For example, the bench press is a well known compound movement that works the chest, shoulders, and triceps. However, almost any Powerlifter will tell you how important lat involvement is, as well as leg drive. And even an isolation movement like front lateral raise uses the muscles of the forearm to grip the weight and core muscles for stabilization.

In fact, some bodybuilders such as Mike Mentzer claimed they didn’t even need to train certain body parts such as the calves, forearms, and abdominal muscles because of all the secondary stress placed on these muscles from other exercises.

However, in order to continue to push the muscles harder – as bodybuilders advance from beginner to intermediate and then to advanced – workouts need to be split allowing for isolation.

Basic beginner and intermediate routines, such as upper/lower body and push/pull workouts, rely heavily on large compound muscles as the objective is to work multiple muscles group in one workout.

As the routine transitions from intermediate to advanced, the program becomes split into smaller segments allowing more isolated work to be done in each area.

Extreme examples are when bodybuilders isolate each individual muscle group into a separate workout and train twice a day, such as Arnold Schwarzenegger when preparing for Mr. Olympia. This type of training is really advanced and involves training each muscle group with as many as 30 sets.

It is at this point the principle of isolation is most evident. Any overlaps in the muscles being worked would quickly result in overtraining.

So when choosing isolation exercises remember to pay attention to the secondary stress placed on other muscles and the arrangement of exercises within your training split.

Weider Training Principles

I remember learning about the Weider training principles back in my youth while lifting weights in my parent’s basement. The world has changed much since this time and Joe Weider is no longer with us but his mark in the fitness world will never be forgotten.

Joe Weider made many important contributions to bodybuilding including the well-known and almost taken for granted Weider principles.

The number of Weider’s training principles has grown over the years. Throughout this blog I attempt to discuss all of these principles in detail and will be adding them to the following list.

Weider Training Principles


Recipe | Red Velvet Cupcakes with Cream Cheese Frosting

Happy Thursday everyone. I hope you have all had a lovely week so far. :)
So, I finally learnt how to do the cup song. My friend tried to teach me but I failed.
Now I can, self-learned from youtube and it's actually so-freaking-easy once you get correct rhythm (really). Phew, I feel so extremely accomplish, haha.
Bad news of the week. I sprained my ankle! very, very bad. Tripped and fall down on a tar road. Bleeding here and there. I couldn't even go upstairs to my room lol.

Anyway, lama tak blog pasal recipe kan, why not today. I made red velvet cupcakes for Eid celebration using the recipe that I got from joysofbaking. Kaki sakit, jalan terhenjut-henjut pun still nak bake. Omg passion sungguh kau.

p/s I have tried making red velvet before but it was a cake, you can see the recipe here. So below is the recipe for cupakes version.

This recipe is for 24 cupcakes but since I used tall size muffin liner, I got 18 cups.

For cupcakes;
- 2 1/2 cup (250g) cake flour *cake flour is preferable but I just use all purposed flour*
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 2 tablespoon (15g) cocoa powder
- 1/2 cup (113g) unsalted butter
- 1 1/2 cup (300g) granulated white sugar
- 2 large eggs
- 1 teaspoon vanilla essence
- 1 cup (240ml) buttermilk
- 2 tablespoon liquid red food colouring
- 1 teaspoon white distilled vinegar
- 1 teaspoon baking soda

- Preheat oven 175'C.
- Line cupcake with liners. Set aside.
- In a mixing bowl, sift together your cake flour, salt and cocoa powder. Set aside.

1) Beat in butter until soft using electric mixture(1-2 minutes)
2) Add in sugar and continue beating until they are light and fluffy (2-3 minutes)
3) Add the eggs, one by one, beat well in each addition
4) Next, add in vanilla essence and beat well until they are mixed

5) In a measuring cup of buttermilk, add in red food colouring and whisk it.

6) With the electric mixture of medium speed, alternately add in flour mixture and buttermilk to your butter mixture. (In 3 additions). Maksudnya you put in 1/2 flour mixture -> all of your buttermilk -> the rest of the flour mixture)

7) Combine baking soda and vinegar in a small cup. Allow the mixture to fizz and QUICKY add into cake batter, fold your batter using spatula
8) Scoop butter into cupcakes liner filling 2/3 full
9) Bake cupcakes inside the oven (170'C) for 20-25 minutes or toothpick come out clean
10) Allow cupcakes to cool completely before frosting. You can put them in the freezer at least for an hour or overnight. This help to the process of filling and decorating your cakes easier.

Cream cheese frosting
- 227g cream cheese, room temperature
- 227g mascarpone cheese, room temperature (but I didn't put)
- 1 teaspoon vanilla essence
- 115g icing sugar, shifted
- 1 cup (360g) of whipping cream
- 1 teaspoon lemon zest (optional) //but believe me, adding lemon zest or 1 teaspoon of lemon juice will make your frosting tastes much better!

1) Using electric mixture, beat cheese cream with mascarpone cheese until smooth
2) Add in vanilla essence and icing sugar, keep beating until they are smooth
3) Gradually add in whipping cream and whip until the frosting is thick enough to spread. You can add in lemon zest too like what I did. Hehe
* kalau nak ubah consistency, like if you want your frosting to be thin, add in extra cream, thick - add in icing sugar.

Okay siap! enjoy

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The Borgias

S3 E5 The Wolf and the Lamb

Machiavelli ensures that Cesare's diplomatic mission to France is a success. Back in Rome, Bianca makes a drastic statement. Meanwhile, Lucrezia travels to Naples accompanied by her husband and Micheletto, and she plots against King Ferdinand, when she learns that the king will not recognize little Giovanni at court.


Types of mutations

iobadiaru's version from 2017-05-31 15:52

Question Answer
a change in one DNA base pair. the dna sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building a proteinnonsense mutation
changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a piece of DNA. the protein may not function properlyinsertion
chances the number of DNA base pairs by removing a piece of DNAdeletion
when a piece of DNA is abnormally copied one or more timesduplication

Question Answer
shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code for amino acidsframe-shift mutation
short DNA sequences that are repeated a number of times in a rowrepeat expansion
NEW codon still codes for the same amino acid, change in last of three nucleotides usuallysilent mutation
Radiation or chemicals that cause mutationsmutagens
Can be inserted either between genes or in genes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, they have the effect of a mutation, may change , turn on /off, the expresion of a gene , or not effect at alltransposons, can move to new location on a chromosome of jump to a new one

Question Answer
Sickle cell is caused by which type of mutation ?missense mutation
An example of carcinogens iscancer
Uncontrolled cell growth activated by mutagen carcinogens
DNA polymerase CHECKS to make sure each newly added nucleotide correctly base pairs with template strandproof reading
Enzymes repair errors that escape proof readingmismatch repair
Enzymes remove nucleotides damgaged by mutagensexcision repair


The intention of CUNA Performance Resources, LLC (ʺCUNA LLCʺ) in filing this application is to provide a trusted, hierarchical, and intuitive namespace for entities that have a meaningful nexus with the credit union sector. Such entities include but are not limited to, credit unions, credit union trade associations and leagues, credit union service organizations, regulatory bodies, and entities offering products and services aimed primarily at credit unions.

  1. CUNA Performance Resources, LLC
    CUNA LLC was formed in Wisconsin, USA, on January 15, 2004 and its sole member is the Credit Union National Association, Inc. (“CUNA Inc.”). CUNA Inc. is the premier national trade association serving Americaʹs credit unions. This not-for-profit trade group is governed by volunteer directors who are elected by their credit union peers. CUNA Inc. represents the interests of, and provides a wide variety of products and services to, approximately 90 percent of America’s 7,300 state and federally chartered credit unions.
    Credit unions in the United States have been a part of the financial services industry for more than one hundred years and currently hold almost one trillion dollars in assets. Credit unions are not-for-profit financial service cooperatives serving more than 90 million members in the United States alone. Globally, there are more than 50,000 credit unions in 100 countries, serving over 180 million people.
  2. Potential Business Models
    CUNA LLC is still analyzing potential use case options for the type of domain names that will be permitted to be registered and by whom. Specifically, CUNA LLC is relying upon CUNA Inc. and other members of the credit union sector to help develop a framework that will ensure that the credit union community is provided information and services in a safe and trusted environment. The current best thinking involves a two-stage roll-out.
    1. Stage One (3 months – 12 months)
      The primary use of the .CREDITUNION gTLD will initially be primarily defensive in nature, with CUNA LLC registering a small number of second level domain names to CUNA Inc. and select members of the credit union sector. This initial use will provide select IT and security personnel within the credit union sector the ability to run a number of tests to ensure seamless and secure access to various websites, and interoperability with various software and web-based applications. This will take at least several months, and up to one year.
    2. Stage Two (Following Conclusion of Stage One)
      Once appropriate security and stability issues have been satisfactorily addressed, CUNA LLC will implement the appropriate Sunrise and Trademark Clearing House Rights Protection Mechanisms and expand the allocation of domain names within the broader credit union sector as identified above. This phased roll-out will likely take place as soon as CUNA LLC makes a business decision that it is the appropriate time to expand the registration universe and use of the new domain name, but any final decision is subject to change depending upon a range of external factors. During this same period of time CUNA LLC, in consultation with the credit union sector, will evaluate potential strategies to integrate with and⁄or migrate traffic away from the current patchwork network of second level domains registered in various TLDs, to the new .CREDITUNION gTLD.
Jovenet Consulting,
Aug 24, 2016, 9:30 AM


Meaning Sage of the Sakyas, Shakyamuni Buddha is the historical Buddha who was born Siddhartha Gautama sometime around 2500 years ago in Lumbini and raised in a place called Kapilavastu, in what is now Nepal.
Shakyamuni Buddha

Shakyamuni Buddha is seen seated on a jewel-encrusted, golden throne. On the throne is an open Lotus and cushioned on the petals are two discs. One of the sun and one of the moon. The sun signifies wisdom, the moon signifies method. Only the very edge of the sun disc is visible. The combination of the Lotus, the sun and the moon represents the three principle aspects of the path to enlightenment which are renunciation, enlightened attitude and the right philosophy.
Lotus with Sun and Moon Disc

Conception and birth
Gautama is thought to have been born in Lumbini, in modern day Nepal and raised in the small kingdom or principality of Kapilavastu. According to the most traditional biography, the Buddha's father was King Suddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime; Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kaundinya (Pali: Kondanna), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha. While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas. The Buddha's community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

Early life and marriage

Departure and ascetic life

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realising that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way, a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish. Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, left after believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One." ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One.") He is often referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha, or "The Awakened One of the Shakya Clan". According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realised complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world," in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha. According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

Formation of the sangha
After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. They were apparently each given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then traveled to the Deer Park near Vārānasī (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first sangha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1000.

Travels and teaching
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Mahamoggallana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: "Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms" The Buddha is said to have replied:

Assassination attempts

Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!" The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own liberation with diligence." His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavamsa and Mahāvamsa, the coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese, the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Mahamoggallana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

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TITLE 40.1
Behavioral Healthcare, Developmental Disabilities and Hospitals

CHAPTER 40.1-25.1
Employee Criminal Records Check

SECTION 40.1-25.1-6

§ 40.1-25.1-6 Rules and regulations.

The director shall promulgate rules and regulations to carry out the intent of this chapter. The rules shall specify the types of jobs and positions which would require national criminal background checks and the rules shall specify those items of information appearing on a criminal records check which constitute disqualifying information because that information would indicate that the employment could endanger the health or welfare of patients, clients or residents. The rules and regulations shall specify that the department shall bear the responsibility for the cost of the national background checks. In doing so, the department shall consider and seek all possible avenues of reimbursement for these background checks. In no event shall the provider, the state or local police department or the applicant be responsible for any portion of the cost of the national background check.

History of Section.
(P.L. 2001, ch. 410, § 1.)


ICS Theory Group

Fall 2016: Theory Seminar
DBH, Room 1300, 1:00pm

Dec 2, 2016:

Pebble Game Algorithms and Sparse Graphs

Authors: Audrey Lee, Ileana Streinu

Speaker: Elham Havvaei

A graph is (k,l)-sparse if the number of induced edges in any nonempty subgraph with n' vertices is at most kn'-l. Testing (k,l)-sparsity can be performed in polynomial time when k and l are integers and 0 ≤ l < 2k via a family of mathematical games called the (k,l)-pebble games. Pebble game is played by moving "pebbles" or "markers" on a directed graph according to certain rules.


Thursday, November 23,  2017

Does Egypt Need a Magles al-Shura?

BY Gianluca Parolin

 If we believe that parliamentary majorities need to be limited, should that limitation (as stipulated in the constitution) be enforced by a specialized court (with all state powers appointing members that fulfill the requirements of kafâ’ah), or a more “political” body like a second chamber?  Or both?

Gianluca Parolin

The extremely low turnout in the recent elections for the Magles al-Shura, and the dim role that this Magles has played since its establishment in 1980 are generating a heated debate over the need for a second chamber in the new constitution.  Instead of focusing on the discouraging past record of the Magles, I argue that the choice should be based on any of the functions that a second chamber can perform, and on that basis design the future Magles’s composition and powers.  If none of the possible functions of second chambers is regarded as desirable, then the bicameral experience should be terminated.

Second chambers - comparative experiences teach us - limit the operation of the democratic principle, and they do so either by entrenching cleavage privileges or by compensating for undesired effects of equal representation.  Both sub-functions are utterly undemocratic, but let us not shy away from this consideration; the purpose of a constitution is precisely to limit the power of majorities and provide for effective accountability.  Is this what we want?

If we believe that parliamentary majorities need to be limited, should that limitation (as stipulated in the constitution) be enforced by a specialized court (with all state powers appointing members that fulfill the requirements of kafâ’ah), or a more “political” body like a second chamber?  Or both?Democracy is always at risk of turning into tyranny, and needs to be restrained - as both Plato and Aristotle warned us many centuries ago.  Second chambers can be either designed to avoid that risk or, conversely, to void the participation of people in government - as the record of the dissolved Magles al-Shura has proved.

Functions of second chambers changed dramatically when constitutions started being regarded as binding documents enforceable in courts.  Before that, chambers were the only institutional form of (political) limitation to the powers of the monarch.  Where no such limitation existed, the system was described as an absolute monarchy, whereas if chambers had rights to oppose government policies, the system was described as a limited monarchy or a mixed government, based on the various possible configurations of powers: monarchic, oligarchic, democratic.

At first, membership in parliaments - yet undivided into chambers - was based on entitlements, and was later extended to encompass other classes or orders within society (notably clergymen and townsmen).  Membership in both the English Parliament and the French Estates General was class-based and included noblemen, clergymen and townsmen.

When the lower class, the townsmen, started meeting separately and constituted a new body, what was left of previously general assemblies was identified as a second or upper chamber.

What advantages does a second chamber bring to the table, if it is just a replica of the first chamber?The offshoot of a first or lower chamber was in the English case occasioned by the King (Edward I, in the late 13th century), who saw the advantages of negotiating with the “lower” class - the commoners, hence House of Commons - on a separate basis.  In the French case, conversely, the offshoot was occasioned by the decision of the “lower” class - the townsmen or burgeoisie - to meet separately due to the deadlock in deliberations in the Estates General (on the eve of the French Revolution, in the late 18th century).

With the extension of voting rights, “lower” or first chambers strengthened their democratic legitimacy, whereas “upper” or second chambers maintained their role of conservative or moderating factors based on oligarchic legitimacy.  The more the intended conservative or moderating factor, the more the powers of “upper” or second chambers were equal to those of “lower” or upper chambers.  Where the agreement of both chambers was required for any bill to become law (egalitarian bicameralism), the limitation of the democratic principle by the oligarchic one was evident.

The Belgian constitution of 1831 serves as a good example of this instance of egalitarian bicameralism and served as a model for many constitutions, including the Ottoman basic law of 1876 and the Egyptian constitution of 1923.  Membership in the “upper” or second chamber was still based on class (requiring a minimum tax contribution), yet the element of representation was introduced (senators were no longer hereditary peers as in England, but were fully elected in Belgium and partially in Egypt - with the monarch still retaining appointment of two-fifths in the latter).  Oligarchic legitimacy, besides the tax contribution requirement, was also maintained by the higher age requirement to be a senator (40 years both in Belgium and in Egypt), and belonging to certain “classes” (tabaqât) in Egypt (including state officials, religious authorities, high members of the judiciary and the army).

Arguably, egalitarian bicameralism - by providing a safeguard against the democratic principle - paved the way for the extension of voting rights to reach universal suffrage because of its conservative or moderating functions.  Universal suffrage, in turn, strengthened the claims of people’s full participation in the decision-making process.  As the democratic principle started showing its full potential, the traditional political functions of second chambers were supplemented by legal limitations enshrined in codified constitutions and enforced by (specialized) courts.

A second chamber can be a useless replica of the first chamber, instrumental to full representative democracy, or a deceitful way of the executive to reign in the legislative.In the Middle Ages, constitutions used to be regarded as entailing little more than moral (read: political) obligations, and they were certainly “not fit for the tongue of any lawyer” - using one of the witty expressions of the early 13th century English jurist Henry de Bracton.  Over the centuries, however, constitutions started to be seen as “fit for the tongue of lawyers”.  Not just “any lawyer”, though.  It was clear that interpretation and enforcement of constitutions entailed political considerations that legal theorists did not deem appropriate for ordinary courts of law whose job was to simply “apply” the law - without interpreting it! When devising a centralized, specialized body to interpret and enforce the constitution, 20th century legal theorist Hans Kelsen structured a court whose members were men of law, but selected by state powers on political grounds.  The 1920 Austrian model, for instance, stipulated appointment by the Federal President, but on the basis of lists prepared by the government and the federal and national chambers of Parliament (one third of the court members each).

The emergence of specialized constitutional courts operating judicial review, arbitrating among state powers and deciding on charges brought against the Head of State introduced an enforcement system of the constitution that favored the legal over the political - a political balance previously guaranteed by second chambers.

However, the involvement of all state powers in the selection of members in such courts proves that political considerations were not overlooked, and the appointments can be regarded as political appointments.  It should be clear by now that constitutional courts started looking very much alike second chambers, and performed many of the same functions.

If we consider the decision on charges brought against the Head of State, such a function is performed in continental systems by a constitutional court (variously integrated) and in the Anglo-Saxon systems by the second chamber (House of Lords in England or the Senate in the United States).

The general decrease in the number of second chambers over the past few decades needs to be associated to the increase in the number of (specialized) constitutional courts.  Systems that have maintained a second chamber tend to be federal.  There is nothing ineluctable about any system of multi-level government not having a second chamber, however.  Federal systems can operate with a unicameral (federal) legislative body and a constitutional court adjudicating on federal/state conflicts.

Most federal systems, however, opted for the entrenchment of (territorial) cleavage privileges in a second chamber.  When states pool part of their sovereignty in the federalizing process, they also try to retain some control over the process in terms of privileges - privileges to have their position count irrespective of size and thus preventing their remaining, unpooled sovereign powers from being chipped away by larger states.

At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, smaller states of the Confederation, headed by Delaware, were worried that proportional representation based on the size of the state’s population would force them to succumb to the pressures of larger states and called for a system of equal representation.

The “Great Compromise” was a bicameral Congress in which the first chamber was based on proportional representation and the second chamber on equal representation - equal here refers to states, not citizens, of course.  Class-based representation has been supplanted by territorial-based representation, but the function of the second chamber as providing an entrenched position to particular, lesser constituencies holds.  Equal representation of states in the U.S. Senate irrespective of state population is a case in point.

Unequal representation of sub-federal (state) units in a federal body can be traced back to the historical dynamics of the federalizing process; second chambers capture and perpetuate a moment of the federalizing process in which sub-federal units wielded more powers than the federal one, and they were in a position of negotiating terms of joining the Federation. The dynamics at the European level are similar when considering the changing roles of Parliament and the Council in the legislative process.

In unitary states, second chambers - where maintained - can still perform the same moderating (political) functions that they had performed before the enforcement of constitutions in courts, but justification of their limitation to the democratic principle is in order.

Not an easy task.

If  second chambers draw their legitimacy from the same democratic principle of first chambers, then the replication argument seems not to be completely unfounded.  Why do we need two chambers that are manned in the same way?  What advantages does a second chamber bring to the table, if it is just a replica of the first chamber?  Can we allocate our resources more efficiently? If the added value is simply the induced reflectiveness of the longer process, single chambers can adopt reading procedures in committees and plenaries or multiple readings that guarantee that decisions are well thought-out, without a second chamber.

In the process of limiting class-based representation, most experiences of second chambers have either been discontinued, and where members are elected in a very similar fashion to first chambers the debate over discontinuation is ongoing (as in Italy).  Minor differences in age requirements for voters or candidates to second chambers do not appropriately dispose with the replication argument. The principle of aristocratic legitimacy seems to be dwindling also in its stronghold, where the hereditary peers summoned to attend the sessions of the House of Lords have been limited to 92 in 1999.  A blend of elected and appointed members seems to be one of the most popular ways in which second chambers are currently manned, but appointment easily lends itself to abuses and structurally allows the appointing authority an unwarranted power over the lower house. A power that can be used to limit the fully democratically elected house, as the experience of the Magles al-Shura has proved since 1980.

Does Egypt need a second chamber?  We are left with two preliminary questions.  If we believe that parliamentary majorities need to be limited, should that limitation (as stipulated in the constitution) be enforced by a specialized court (with all state powers appointing members that fulfill the requirements of kafâ’ah), or a more “political” body like a second chamber?  Or both?  The issue of the legitimacy deficit resurfaces here, and with no convincing solution.

Democratic legitimacy seems to be the only reasonable foundation, since the historical, class-based composition of a second chamber resting on aristocratic legitimacy seems to have lost all its appeal and its demise unavoidably underway, even in a traditionally conservative system like the British.  Modern democracy, however, is representative democracy.  Hence the second preliminary question.

Do we identify structural failures in the way representatives are elected?  Flaws in the representation process can be chiefly ascribed to the electoral or the party system.  Flaws in the electoral system can be addressed in the legislation regulating it, but one could argue that there are only a limited number of possible categories whose representation can be guaranteed by working on the electoral system alone.  If we think of quotas, for instance, how many sets of different quotas can we have?  One for women, one for workers, one for peasants, for instance?  The current system shows that when two groups are combined in a complex zebra-system, it still cannot guarantee that one group will not prevail over the other (workers over peasants, or vice versa).  If a third element is added to the equation - women, in our case, that third element is almost invariably sidelined.

Flaws in the party system that affect the representation of all groups in society are harder to address in legislation on the exercise of political rights.  Especially in a context of an impoverished party life as the one Egypt has lived in for decades.  Inability of parties to establish platforms and mobilize voters within a limited time frame seems to have favored political entities that could use pre-existing, established networks to mobilize voters in support of their (and other group’s) candidates.  Is the current party system unable or unwilling to adequately file candidates from all sectors of society and successfully support them?

If we indeed believe that there are structural failures in the way representatives are currently (s)elected, could a second chamber fill in the gap and guarantee the effectiveness of representative democracy?  If so, how?  And what powers should such a chamber wield?  These seem to be the questions that the constituent assembly will need to address.  First, by identifying what groups in society are effectively underrepresented or not represented at all in the existing chamber.  Second, by identifying a proper method of assuring representation of such groups - which might and should vary from group to group (the method applied to women cannot be the one applied to peasants, which in turn cannot be the one applied to workers, or to ethnic or religious minorities).  Methods of selecting members can vary from direct election with reserved seats, membership ex officio (based on a certain position held by an individual, as in the case of heads of unions or syndicates), or through selection within the identified vocational or corporate groupings.

Needless to say, unless well designed, these methods can lend themselves to abuses, as was the case with the peasants and workers list.  Presidential appointments should be limited to a minimum, or ruled out entirely.  If the function of such a second chamber is to complement the representation of the first chamber, then its powers should be commensurate with the degree of perceived complementarity of the second chamber.  More equal powers (egalitarian bicameralism) if the existing system fails to represent important sectors of society and ideological orientations; or less equal powers (inegalitarian bicameralism) otherwise - excluding the possibility of withdrawing confidence from government, for instance.

A second chamber can be a useless replica of the first chamber, instrumental to full representative democracy, or a deceitful way of the executive to reign in the legislative.  It will all depend on the answers given to the key questions raised above.  Answers that should be elaborated in the public debate before reaching the constituent assembly: constitutional design will flow from there, insha’allah.

Gianluca Parolin is an expert in comparative constitutional law and Islamic law. He is currently a law professor at the American University in Cairo and Cairo University

READ MORE BY:  Gianluca Parolin

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Editorial – The Nile

It’s simple really, if we don’t save the Nile, everything else we are debating, discussing, arguing about will be irrelevant. Continue Reading

An open letter to Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei

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Mish Fahem?

Mish Fahem?

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Removing the word "civil" from the Constitution will result in
 A military state
 A theocratic (religious) state
 A civil state
 Don''t care
Do you support holding football matches with fans attending?
 Don''t care


Most people think the train station in Powell was located on Depot Street. In fact, it sat on the west side of the tracks just north of state Route 750.

Construction of the Columbus and Toledo Railroad stations in Powell and Hyattville began in November 1876; they were completed in July 1877. Just a few years later, in 1881, that railroad consolidated with the Ohio and West Virginia Railway Co. and became the Hocking Valley Railroad.

A news article in the Powell Liberty Historical Society's collection at the Martin-Perry House quotes Powell resident Eddie Williams, who remembered when the Hocking Valley Railroad first came through Powell. Fewer than 100 people lived here then.

Ed Lentz, executive director of the Columbus Landmarks Foundation and a regular contributor to ThisWeek Community News with his "As It Were" column, described early railroads in central Ohio in a Jan. 19 column. He wrote that the newly completed Hocking Valley Railroad brought coal, wood and iron to shops and factories after the end of the Civil War.

Speaking to the fact that Columbus became a center for railroad activity is the knowledge that the city was called the "Buggy Capital of the World." There were 22 buggy factories in the city.

Note the buggy to the left of the Powell train station in today's image.

The historical society recently was given a description of a privately owned painting, "Train Station -- at Powell." Eugene Chase of Upper Arlington, who began painting with pencil, pen and oil in 1929, created the painting in 1987. At that time, he wrote, "It is so good to know that someone else whose roots are in Powell will own the painting of the Powell Train Station."

Chase had been interested in painting scenes of the Powell area because three generations of his family were born in Powell or had spent portions of their lives here. His great-grandfather, Joseph Staggers, came with his wife, Rebecca, from Iowa where he had served with the Union Army during the entirety of the Civil War. His brother, Frank, also came here; they both built homes about 2 miles west of Powell.

Joseph and Rebecca Staggers had five daughters. Cleora, Jennie, Daisy, Francis and Josephine all attended the one-room schoolhouse, called Bovee, as their farm was nearby. Josephine and Cleora later taught there.

Chase's mother, Mary Kirkpatrick Chase, attended the Bovee school as well.

In addition to the painting of the train station, Chase's depiction of the school is in the historical society's collection at the Martin-Perry House.

Chase signed more than 500 of his works to honor his wife with the phrase, "I love Julia Shea." He was among the winners of the Governor's art shows at the Statehouse in the 1970s and 1980s. Those oils focused on Columbus locations and the Great Depression. At that time, his bio indicated his paintings were in 150 private collections in 38 states and three foreign countries.

Chase was pleased to have had the opportunity to paint places related to his family's heritage. The Powell train station was torn down in 1967, but the Bovee school still stands, located today on the Columbus Zoo's property.

Carole Wilhelm is a member of the Powell Liberty Historical Society.


Is the self wrapped up in language or does the concept of the selfie exist outside of the word? GEORGE MORRIS engages in some self-reflection

Have you ever thought about how you think? Ever wondered if I know what you know? I know that you know, that I know that you know.

“What is a thought without a voice to voice it?” Reynolds (2010) asks. But another question is: ‘would we have any given thought if not for our language in which we construct them?’ Academics are often torn by the two potential answers to this question – either our thoughts are determined by the constraints of our language, or the thoughts can still exist outside the barriers of verbal communication. However, the pedantic linguists among us, such as Lund (2003) describe a ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ version of something called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – where all the brain straining commotion stems from. For example Whorf writes, “[w]e dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. Language is not simply a reporting device for experience but a defining framework for it” (1956). The ‘strong’ form of this theory, as described by Lund (2003) states, “language determines thought”, whereas the ‘weak’ form suggests “language influences thought”.  The language and thought can of worms cracked and spilled, it allows us to decide how we approach the vastly complex understanding of whether we believe language is a proverbial ‘straight-jacket’.

Bloom and Keil write: “nobody doubts that language can inform, convince, persuade, soothe, dismay, encourage and so on […]” (2001, p.351) to which Evans agrees arguing that “it is a truism, then, that language influences thought: we do so almost every time we use language.” (2014, p.193). In everyday life, the influence of language is evident – education, politics, work place, or even our romantic and personal lives. The way we function and interact with the world around us, and especially other people, is widely influenced by our language system. This view of language and thought is described as ‘determinism’ (Evans and Green, 2006). Lamarque writes that “[w]ithout language there would be no possibility of abstract thought or even perhaps self-reflection” (1997, p.1). The potentially depressing subject of ‘self-reflection’ could however lead to a different approach to the language and thought debate: what if language holds little influence on our thought? What if our cultural exposure and worldview play a part in our thought conceptualisation?

Pinker disagrees with the idea of determinism, arguing that “[t]he idea that thought is the same thing as language is an example of what can be called conventional absurdity […] there is no scientific evidence that languages dramatically shape their speakers’ ways of thinking…” (1994).  So in opposition to determinism is the idea that ‘universals’ (Evans & Green, 2006, p.54) exist and concepts of objects, actions or even numeric values would still be present in a linguistically void hypothetical society. Bloom describes human thought to be responsive: “[t]here is no such thing as thought. There is only behaviour. The things humans say, the operations they perform, the reactions they have, and the acts in which they engage constitute nothing more than an integration of the responses that they have been forced to make” (1981, p.4). Thought could be perceived by the universalists as a response to the world around them. If there is a need to do something or react to something happening then the thought process will occur. For example, in communities where language does not exist to describe colour it does not mean the concept is void – rather the community may have a description or unique phrase to determine the concept. Everett describes his research into the Pirahã tribe who use language to describe colour concepts in a different way to English speakers: “[e]ach word for colour in Pirahã was actually a phrase. For example, biísai did not mean simply ‘red’. It was a phrase that meant ‘it is like blood’.” (2013, p.257).

Furthermore, the invention of new words to describe new concepts also defies the notion of linguistic determinism. In modern society, the Oxford English Dictionary is continuously updated in order to ‘keep up’ with an ever-changing Web.20 society. With words like ‘selfie’ (a photo of oneself), ‘binge-watching’ (watching many or all episodes of a TV series in rapid succession), and ‘humblebrag’ (to make a modest statement that intends to draw attention to one’s admirable qualities) are now officially part of our modern vocabulary. Surely this could suggest that language is warped around culture and thought?

Personally, I believe that language does shape our day-to-day lives and thoughts, albeit influentially and not totally. Although we can influence and plant seeds of thought into our peer’s own worldview, we still need new language to describe our ever-changing culture… Or maybe the whole language and thought debate is just one big ‘facepalm’ (to cover one’s face with the hand as an expression of exasperation).

GEORGE MORRIS, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Bloom, A. (1981). The Linguistic Shaping of Thought: a study in the impact on thinking in China and The West. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates.

Bloom, P. & Keil, F.C. (2001). Thinking through language. Mind and Language 16(4) 351-367.

Evans, V. (2014). The language myth: why language is not an instinct. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Evans, V. & Green, M. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Everett, D. (2013). Language, Culture and Thinking. London: Profile Books.

Lamarque, P. (1997). Concise Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Kidlington: Elesevier Science Ltd.

Lund, N. (2003). Language and Thought. (1st ed.). London, United Kingdom: New York: Routledge.

Reynolds, R. (2010). Tribalism. Retrieved April 7, 2017, from

Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: United States of America. Penguin: Penguin Science.

Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, Thought, and Reality.

Are thought and language divorced from each other or destined for inextricable coupling? ISOBEL STANFORD acts as arbiter.

Language and Thought – the most controversial linguistic couple of the 21st century. The relationship between language and thought is certainly a highly debated topic in the field of linguistics. The relationship between language and thought can be defined in the sense that language is used both to communicate with others and to monitor our internal thoughts, or as Harley (2001, p. 1) notes, “in some form or another it so dominates our social and cognitive activity that it would be difficult to imagine what life would be without it’. But that’s exactly it. How would we be able to communicate our thoughts and feelings without language?

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is probably the most well-known theory of the language and thought relationship. We will begin with the fact that there are two versions of this hypothesis. The first is the ‘strong’ version (also known as linguistic determinism) which states that language determines thought. Seems like a good idea in practice right? Wrong. The theory is that the language we speak determines the nature of our thoughts, including ideas and concepts that we are able to have (Lund, 2001, p. 11). It also proposes that thoughts are possible in one language but may not be possible in another. Obviously this sounds like a ridiculous idea because different languages do not necessarily lead to different thoughts about the same concept. A perfect example is the German word ‘Schadenfreude’. Everyone has that little bit of evil in them that takes pleasure in the misfortune of others. Speakers of other languages recognise the concept without needing to have a word for it (Bryson, 1990, p. 4).

To put this into context a little, I will discuss the people of the Pirahã tribe. Everett (2005) noted that members of the tribe do not have numbers within their language. This means that they do not have the concept of being able to count. This side of the argument would say that this is because their language has determined their thoughts leading to them not being aware that numbers exist. If a language lacks a certain concept such as numbers, the question to be answered is whether or not lacking these concepts affects their lives in any way? It can be argued that if they do not know that this concept exists, they are not ‘missing out’ as it signals that they do not need this concept to live their lives. I mean it must be a good tactic to play down how many children you have!

The second is the ‘weak’ version (also known as linguistic relativism) which states that language influences thought. This means that language has a more subtle effect on thought and only influences what we perceive or remember about events or objects. This relates to the idea that if you have a word for something in your language you are more likely to recognise it and remember it than someone who does not have it in their language. Hunt and Agnoli (1991, p.377) have claimed that the hypothesis that language influences thought is so vague that it is unprovable. It seems that it is hard to distinguish whether studies relating to this identify whether perception or memory are being investigated.

Davidoff et al (1999) studied the Berinmo language of Papua New Guinea and identified a colour boundary in English (between blue and green) that does not exist in Berinmo. They also identified a similar colour boundary that exists in Berinmo (between ‘nol’ and ‘wor’) that does not exist in English. Those involved were asked to remember a colour over 30 seconds then to select it from two similar alternatives. The English speakers showed an advantage for blue-green decisions and Berinmo showed an advantage for nol-wor decisions. Davidoff et al (1999, p.204) claim that their results are “consistent with there being a considerable degree of linguistic influence on colour categorisation” and therefore support the weak side of the hypothesis.

Which side would you take in this controversial argument? I and many others are in support for the ‘weak’ side of the argument and this is simply because the ‘strong’ side is simply too abstract in what it believes. Linguistic relativism does have its drawbacks too though and these should not be forgotten. The arguments for the ‘weak’ side of the argument are exactly that – weak. The reasons for this are that there is a lack of tangible evidence for this form.

Language affects thought or thought affects language… Who really knows the answer to this million dollar question?

ISOBEL STANFORD, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Bryson, B. (1990). Mother tongue (1st ed.). London, United Kingdom: Penguin.

Davidoff, J., Davies, I., and Robertson, D. (1999). Colour categories in a stone-age tribe. Nature, 398, 203-204

Everett, D. (2005). Cultural constraints on grammar and cognition in Pirahã. Current Anthropology 46 (4). 621-646.

Harley, T., A. (2001). The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory (2nd ed.). Hove, United Kingdom: Psychology Press.

Hunt, E., and Agnoli, F. (1991). The Whorfian hypothesis: a cognitive psychological perspective. Psychological Review, 98, 377-389.

Lund, N. (2003). Language and thought (1st ed.). Hove, United Kingdom: Routledge.

Is language and thought just another chicken and egg situation? CHARLOTTE SCOTT ponders snow, colours and glass stains.

The relationship between language and thought has been debated for centuries by linguists. A good way of explaining this complex topic is to think of translating a joke into another language … no matter how hard you try, the joke is never complete until the very last detail. Linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf tried to make sense of the dilemma and were subsequently labelled the originators of what became known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis supports the notion that language strongly influences thought and “that language influences the way people perceive and think about the world” (Lund, 2003, p. 10). It is important to note that they did not formally write a hypothesis nor support it with empirical evidence. Other linguists built on the original ideas which were put forward by Sapir & Whorf to form the linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism hypotheses.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis (this can be very complicated) and two versions were recognised. “The ‘strong’ version is that language determines thought […] [and] [t]he ‘weak’ version is that language influences thought” (Lund, 2003, p. 11). The strong version includes many ideas and concepts that we have. Thoughts which are possible in one language may not be possible in another. If you have a word for something in your language, you are more likely to recognise and remember it. For example, “the Italians even have a word for the mark left on a table by a moist glass (culacino)” (Bryson, 2009, p. 4) whereas in English language we do not. Whorf (1956) noted that Inuits use a range of words for ‘snow’ to indicate its category. Try and pronounce the following examples: ‘katiyana’ – night snow, and ‘kiln’ – remembered snow (James, 2017). Lenneberg and Roberts (1956) criticised this theory as it was a circular argument which assumed that “because languages differ, thinking must differ” (as cited in Lund, 2003, p. 13). Think back to those wintery nights, how would you describe snow? Slushy, thick or thin? Does this demonstrate that in the English language we do have variations?

The weak version is broken down into two sections. Firstly, language influences perception and secondly language influences memory (Miller & McNeil, as cited in Lund, 2003, p. 14). Carmichael et al. (1932) supported the weakest form and they showed participants a series of nonsense pictures with a verbal label. This seemed to influence the memory of these nonsense pictures, showing the influence of language on the memory of objects. The second theory links to the way that different languages name and divide colours into categories. Berlin & Kay (1969) compared the basic colour terms that were used in 98 different languages. If a language had two terms they would use black and white but if a language had six terms black, white, red, yellow, blue and green would be used. They were used systematically and the 11 basic colour terms were called the focus colours. People usually pick out the same 11 colours regardless of the colour terms in their language. Can you name all the 11 colours or are you on the conflicting side of the debate?

On the opposing side is the linguistic determinism hypothesis. It is often referred to as “‘the prison house view of language’” (Mooney & Evans, 2015, p. 28). This theory claims that language and thought are separate entities and “[i]f a linguistic sign is not available for a particular concept, that concept is difficult […] for the speaker to imagine” (Mooney & Evans, 2015, p.28).  It is believed that different cultures are shaped by different social interactions and experiences. They would therefore have a language that reflects the perception of their habitat because our thought processes originate from the experiences of our culture. For example, “Italian is the language of love” (Evans, 2014, p. 192). This shows a distinct characteristic of languages due to the way their native speakers think. Political correctness (sorry to add another dimension at this late point) could be described as a social phenomenon. The society and culture we are born into may determine whether we think a word is offensive or not. This shows that we are shaping our language because of the world around us.

So how is language and thought connected? And does language affect how you think? At this rate language and thought will become another chicken and egg situation, so I think we will continue debating this for centuries!

CHARLOTTE SCOTT, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Berlin, B. and Kay, P. (1969). Basic Colour Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.

Bryson, B. (2009). Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin Books Ltd.

Carmichael, L., Hogan, P. and Walter, A. (1932). An experimental study of the effect of language on the reproduction of visually perceived forms. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 15, 1-22.

Evans, V. (2014). The Language Myth: Why Language is not an Instinct. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

James, P. (2017). Inuit Words for Retrieved 28 March 2017, from

Lund, N. (2003). Language and thought (1st ed.). London; New York: Routledge.

Mooney, A., & Evans, B. (2015). Language, society and power: An introduction (4th ed.). London: Routledge.

Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writing of Benjamin Lee Whorf. New York: John Wiley.

KATHERINE BRIDGE, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

JACK HOLLAND tries to distinguish dream from reality as he tackles linguistic relativity

The relationship between the language we speak and the thoughts we envision is rather hazy. In many ways it is like trying to remember a dream. You almost come to a conclusion, but you can’t quite finalise that last detail. Of the many sides to this debate, I aim to detail the belief that language determines or influences thought. This train of thought is often referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Before delving into the two forms of this hypothesis, it is important to note that the titular Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf are not the first to propose this argument, but they are arguably the most strongly associated with it.

The first form we’re going to look at is the strong form, also known as ‘linguistic determinism’ (or, more affectionately, the ‘prison house’ view of Language). Edward Sapir is considered a proponent of this form of the hypothesis, and he’s quoted as saying “The ‘real world’ is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality” (1958. P. 69). To dumb this down a bit (largely so that I can understand it), he’s basically saying that because different languages are, well, different, they can’t all possibly represent the same concepts. Let’s take a look at this in context.

Take an experiment that involved speakers from two different countries, straight lines, and squares. Then, according to McWhorter (2014: 5),  “show an English speaker – who says a long time – a line slowly lengthening toward an end point on screen, and then a square slowly filling up from bottom to top, and she’s better at guessing how long it will take the line to hit the end than for the square to be full”. Taking this experiment at face value, it seems obvious that linguistic determinism is relevant, and exists in the real world. To further support this, observations of Brazil’s Piraha tribe have shown that they don’t have numbers, and they also do not count. A proponent of linguistic determinism could reasonably argue that the lack of numbers in the Pirahas’ language has determined their thoughts (or should I say, lack of thoughts) involving numbers.

However, unfortunately for linguistic determinism, we don’t have to stop there. While there are differences in the times it took for different language speakers to guess how long the line or square takes to reach a certain point, these differences are practically insignificant. In fact, they’re so insignificant that it’s difficult for me to present it as an argument without feeling dishonest. We’ll come back to the Piraha tribe momentarily.

The second form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is known as ‘linguistic relativism’. Benjamin Whorf is strongly associated with this form (though some critics argue that he is misunderstood – the arguments never end!). Linguistic relativism argues that languages only influences thought, rather than determining it. Whorf states that “[t]he world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds – and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds” (1940: 213-14). Whorf is basically saying that as different concepts become apparent to us, it is the linguistic systems in our mind that sort and decipher them. This means that while language does not govern our thoughts, it organises and therefore influences them.

Earlier I mentioned the Piraha tribe. Well, it turns out “that the Pirahas’ lack of counting and their lack of number words are both caused by a cultural taboo against unnecessary generalisations beyond the here and now” (Everett, 2012. P. 256). To put it simply, while a linguistic determinist might (absurdly) argue that the Piraha can’t conceive the concept of ‘quantity’ because of their lack of words for it, a linguistic relativist might argue that their cultural taboo of generalisation has influenced the thought processes in their cognitive linguistic systems which in turn influenced their language, and their thoughts about quantity.

In case you haven’t guessed already, of the two forms of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, I (and pretty much everyone else) support the weaker form, as the implications of the strong form (1984, anyone?) are just plain unreasonable. Unfortunately, I have a problem with linguistic relativism too. Earlier I made a rather odd comparison to dreams. Well that’s because nobody can provide concrete evidence for the weak form. Any evidence or claims provided are often weak, and are themselves, debatable, and it just doesn’t leave a curious linguist with any satisfaction, a bit like eating at McDonalds.

It’s always close to convincing me, but nothing more.

JACK HOLLAND, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Everett, D. (2012). Language: The Cultural Tool. London: Profile Books.

McWhorter, J. H. (2014). The Language Hoax: Why the World Looks the Same in Any Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sapir, E. (1958). Culture, Language and Personality. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Whorf, B. L. (1940). Science and Linguistics. Technology Review, 35, 229-31, 247-8.

‘Can we count on language influencing the way we think?’ asks OLIVER TAYLOR

Does language influence thought? Can we think without any linguistic influence at all? These questions present two conflicting stances in the debate as to whether or not language and thought do indeed share a relationship.

People who generally believe that there is a relationship between language and thought will mostly agree with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. This hypothesis is usually split into two forms, strong (linguistic determinism) and weak (linguistic relativism). Linguistic determinism, being the strong form of the argument, views thought as being completely determined by language. With no concrete evidence to prove that thought is determined by language, the weak form of the argument exists as a view of language only influencing thought, and not completely governing it. To argue against this hypothesis is to believe that language and thought share no connection. With no way to prove or disprove an influence of language and thought, let’s take a look at some key arguments for and against this relationship with a more focused look at those against.

In his research into the language usage of the Amazonian Pirahã tribe, Everett (2013) argues that a lack of number words in their language may affect the way the Pirahã think. They in fact do not count because of this absence of language. It’s hard to imagine a world without any concept of counting. Surely even without language for it there are ways of conveying number. Everett (2013: 256) concludes that “the Pirahãs do not count because they do not have number words” stating that this conclusion “would support the Whorf hypothesis”. This statement seems kind of obvious and leaves me feeling very underwhelmed by the conclusion. McWhorter (2014) responds that it’s no mystery that a lack of numbers “in the language of one group makes them bad at math”. Of course without language for numbers the concept of counting is void. McWhorter (2014) goes further to state that “hunter-gatherers don’t need to count, and thus often their languages have no word for the number 307”. You can’t just showcase a particular group’s restrictions in language and claim that therefore because there is no understanding of concepts around that particular language usage, their thoughts are influenced by language. If the Pirahã have no use for counting in their language, maybe it isn’t as fundamental to their lives as ours.

Napoli and Lee-Schoenfield (2010) argue that “thought does not require language” by giving examples of thought that couldn’t possibly be formulated as language in the brain, scenarios “in which children did not use spoken or sign language”. One example is of a girl reaching for candy in a grocery store. When she is told that she cannot have it by the mother, she throws a tantrum, “her mother’s cheeks flame, and she gives the girl the candy” (Napoli and Lee-Schoenfield (2010: 51). Napoli and Lee-Schoenfield (2010) present the farfetched idea that because deaf children act in similar ways to other toddlers who are not “linguistically deprived” in scenarios like the example mentioned, they are able to think without linguistic input. I find this statement difficult to wholly agree with. There is no concrete way of truly knowing whether deaf children have developed without linguistic input just because they have not been diagnosed. We cannot know when a deaf child begins to interpret signs around them as a language, before conventional sign language is implemented into their life. Despite this obvious thought, Napoli and Lee-Schoenfield (2010) conclude that “there is no possibility […] that their thought is in a specific human language since they have not begun to acquire any specific human language”. It seems to me that they are just stating how things are with little evidence to support their claims.

With the problem being that “any influence of language on thought is difficult to prove or disprove empirically” (Deutscher, G. 2011: 20-22). I think we can only sit on the fence in this debate. The position of linguistic relativism seems a fair one to take as I believe language does influence thought to some extent, not completely. Since there’s no way to prove or disprove my position, it frustrates me to not be able to sufficiently argue it without holes being picked in backing theories, but I guess it’s better than having an extremist neo-Whorfian determinist view.

OLIVER TAYLOR, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Deutscher, G. (2011). Through the language lens: Why the world looks different in other languages. London: Arrow Books.

Napoli, D. J., & Lee-Schoenfeld, V. (2010). Language Matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

How far can language really influence our thoughts? EMILY PAGE investigates

There’s an on-going debate questioning whether our language can limit our thought processes. The distinct syntactic and lexical differences between different native languages are obvious, but do speakers of these languages think in different ways because of this? Ultimately, it’s a chicken-and-egg question – are we unable to think of things because we lack words for them, or do we lack words for things we don’t think about? It’s been proposed that an absence of vocabulary for a concept would inhibit our ability to think about it. But is language really hindering our ability to think to this extent?

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf believed they had all the answers with what became known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The strong version of this hypothesis  is known as ‘linguistic determinism’ i.e. that our thoughts are totally determined by our language, with the linguistic system as “the shaper of ideas” (Whorf and Carroll, 1956). Such a strong proposal would be needing some solid evidence. Whorf argued that due to Inuits’ prolific number of words for snow, they view it in a different way to English speakers who only have the one word – ‘snow’ (cited in Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo, 2011, p.283). Further support for linguistic determinism comes from the Pirahã tribe of the Amazon who apparently have no number word in their lexicon. Despite attempts to teach the Pirahã to count, they are unable to learn to do so. But if our language entirely determines our thoughts, then without it we would be unable to think? I’m not convinced, and neither is McWhorter (2014). He argues that English speakers do have more words for ‘snow’ such as ‘blizzard’, ‘sleet’, ‘flurry etc., and a hunter-gather tribe like the Pirahã have no need for the word ‘116’ or to do long division.

A more considerable, weaker version of the hypothesis is linguistic relativity. This is the idea that our language merely influences our thoughts and that the language spoken by a person guides the way they see the world (Beek, 2006). Evidence for this idea comes from how Russians distinguish light- blue (‘goluboy’) and dark-blue (‘siniy’), compared to the one term (‘blue’) which is held in English. A study asking English and Russian participants to match squares which were perceptually identical in colour, showed that having different terms for dark/light blue results in people differentiating those colours more quickly (Winawer, Witthoft, Frank, Wu, Wade, & Boroditsky, 2007). In terms of linguistic relativity, this shows that language does influence the way we see/differentiate colours. However, it goes without saying that McWhorter (2014) has a view on this. He makes the point that we all know the difference between light-blue and dark-blue, but we don’t need separate words for them. He also discusses the Namibia people of Africa who only have one single term for both ‘green’ and ‘blue’. They obviously know the difference between the two colours and found the idea of having two separate words ‘silly’. Support which I feel does have some scope in terms of linguistic relativity is Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams’ (2013) consideration of gender-marked languages. A study requiring German and Spanish participants to describe different nouns using English adjectives, showed how both nationalities described masculine-marked words using adjectives with masculine connotations, and vice versa. This is a clear demonstration of how language influences how we view things.

There is also huge support for the idea that there is no connection between language and thought. Pinker slates the Sapir- Whorf hypothesis, suggesting it is “all wrong” (1994, p. 57). Gethin (1999) points out how we are able to think about concepts which we have no words or symbol for. For example, the Ghanaian word for ‘moving hot food around in your mouth’ is ‘pelinti’ (Buzzfeed, 2015). Despite our lack of vocabulary for this concept, we remain able to think about it, it is just expressed with lower codability (how easily language can express a thought) (West & Turner, 2008). I can’t help but think it’s unlikely that language and thought have no connection at all since, as Gethin (1999) points out himself, without thought we would be unable to produce language.

For me, linguistic determinism can be written off as an improbable contribution to this language debate. Linguistic relativity seems a more significant proposal and the evidence for language influencing thought seems more likely. I personally believe that our language does affect how we see the world to an extent but our experiences and culture also play an important role. In my opinion, Birner offers the best explanation of the relationship between language and thought: “It seems likely that language, thought and culture form three strands of a braid, with each one affecting the others” (1999,

EMILY PAGE, English Language undergraduate, University of Chester, UK

Beek, W. (2006). “Linguistic relativism: Variants and misconceptions”. Retrieved 2 December 2015

Birner, B. (1999). Linguistic Society of America. [Weblog]. Retrieved 1 December 2015 (2015). BuzzFeed. Retrieved 3 December, 2015

Fromkin. V, Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2013). An Introduction to Language. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning

Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: Harper.

West, R., & Turner, L. (2008). Understanding Interpersonal Communication: Making Choices in Changing Times (2nd Ed). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning

Whorf, B. I, & Carroll, J. B. (1956). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings.  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Winawer, J., Witthoft, N., Frank, M. C., Wu, L., Wade, A. R., & Boroditsky, L. (2007).  Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the United States of America, 104(19), 7780-5.


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