Whites & Blacks
(and one Lie)

By Roger Roots

Senator Bilbo’s Warning

(Senator Theodore G. Bilbo, of Mississippi in 1947)

FACT #5: With an average I.Q. of  85, only 16 % of Blacks score over 100, while half the White population does. The Negro overlap of White median I.Q.’s ranges from 10 to 25 percent—equality would require 50 percent. (31) (27) (16)

FACT #7: The U.S. government’s PACE examination, given to 100,000 university graduates who are prospective prof essional or administrative civil-service employees each year, is passed with a score of 70 or above by 58 % of the whites who take it but by only 12 % of the Negroes. Among top scorers the difference between Negro and White performance is even more striking: 16 % of the white applicants make scores of 90 or above, while only one-fifth of  one percent of a Negro applicants score as high as 90—a White/Black success ration of 80/1. (27)

FACT #9: White/Negro I.Q. differences are constantly excused as results of environmental variations. but at least five studies that have attempted to equate socio-economic backgrounds of the two races indicate no significant change in relative results. as environment improves, the Negro does better but so does the White. The gap is not decreased. (26) In fact, extensive research by Dr. G. J. McGurk, associate Prof essor of Psychology at Villanove University, reveals that the gap in intelligence between Blacks and Whites INCREASES where socio-economic levels of both races are raised to the middle classes. (18)

FACT #15: American Indians, who of ten live in conditions far worse than American Blacks during their entire lives, still consistently outscore them on I.Q. tests. (3) (27)

FACT #16: The of fspring of interracial marriages tend to have lower I.Q.s than the white parent. (11) (26)

FACT #17: Among human races numerous studies have been made of the comparative weight of White and Negro brains with results that fell within the range of about an 8–12 percent lower weight for the Negro brain. Such studies have been conducted by Bean, Pearl, Vint, Tilney, Gordon, Todd, and others. (23) (27)

FACT #21: The name Homo sapien was first used by the 18th Century Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus. The word ‘sapien’ means ‘wise.’ The name was originally used to speak of the White man and synonymous with ‘europaeus.’ as a result, many later taxonomists and geneticists believed that Negroes and other races should be classified as different species. In fact, Darwin declared in The Descent of Man that the varieties of mankind are so distinct that similar differences found in any other animal would warrant their classification in different species, if not different genera. (39)

FACT #22: for his mammoth work, The Origin of Races, Prof essor Carleton Coon, President of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and the premier geneticist of the world, assembled massive evidence from geography, anatomy, genetics, physiology, comparative dentition, linguistics, archeology, and fossil records from 300 bone-bearing sites to verify his theory of pre-sapien racianation. In other words, Homo erectus was divided by race even before evolution into Homo sapien stage. (12)

The hair is black, crispy, and “woolly” in texture, it isflat and elliptical with no central canal or duct like the hair of Europeans.

The nose is thick, broad and flat, of ten turned up nostrils exposingthe red inner lining of the mucous membrane similar to an ape.

The arms and legs of the Negro are relatively longer than the European.The humerus is a trifle shorter and the forearm longer thereby approximatingthe simian form.

The eyes are prominent, iris black and the orbits large. The eye of tenhas a yellowish sclerotic coat over it like that of a gorilla.

The Negro has a shorter trunk the cross-section of the chest is morecircular than whites. The pelvis is narrower and longer as it is in an ape.

Negro skin has a thick superficial horny layer which resists scratchingand impedes the penetration of germs.

The cranial sutures are more simple than in the white type and closetogether earlier.

The ears are roundish, rather small, standing somewhat high and detachedthus approaching the simian form.

The Negro is more powerfully developed from the pelvis down and thewhite more powerfully developed in the chest.

The jaw is larger and stronger and protrudes outward which, alongwith lower retreating forehead, gives a facial angle of 68 to 70 degreesas opposed to a facial angle of 80 to 82 degrees for Europeans.

The hands and fingers are proportionally narrower and longer. Thewrist and ankles are shorter and more robust.

The frontal and paricial bones of the cranium are less excavated andless capacious. The skull is thicker especially on the sides.

The three curvatures of the spine are less pronounced in the Negrothan in the white and thus more characteristic of an ape.

The femur of the Negro is less oblique, the tibia (shin bone) morecurved and bent forward, the calf of the leg high and but little developed.

The heel is broad and projecting, the foot long and broad but slightlyarched causing flat soles, the great toe is shorter than in the white.

FACT #35: A Black person is 56 TIMES more likely to attack a White person than vice versa. (3) (32)

FACT #36: Black rapists choose White victims over half (54.9 %) of the time, 30× as of ten as Whites choose Blacks. (2) (32) (28)

FACT #39: Many people argue that high Black incarceration rates show that police center enforcement at Black crimes and ignore white-collar crimes. However, Blacks commit a disproportionate number of white-collar of fenses as well. In 1990, Blacks were nearly 3 times as likely to be arrested for forgery, counterfeiting, and embezzlement as Whites. (32) (6)

FACT #41: 46 % of inner city Black men between the ages of 16 and 62 are unemployed. (27)

FACT #45: The January 1986 issue of the journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, “Skin Color Preference, Sexual Dimorphism and Sexual Selection: a case of Gene-Culture Co-evolution?” by Peter Frost and Pierre Van der Herghe, stated that in any given race, the women tend to have lighter complexions than the men. Using standard ethnographic files from 51 societies on five continents which have recorded their preference for human skin color, the study found that 30 preferred lighter women and 14 preferred lighter women and lighter men. The cultures of India, China, Brazil and Bali, as well as the Arabs and Negroes regard the lightest women as the most beautiful—perpetuating the aesthetic appeal of the ivory-skinned, rosy-cheeked, blue-eyed, blond “nordic ideal” of feminine beauty—even though they themselves do not possess the genetic capacity to reproduce such an organism. Over time, the study said, the upper classes of all races have become lighter-skinned than their fellow countrymen because they have repeatedly skimmed of f fairer women from the lower classes. (Also see #11)

FACT #46: Scientific research on what constitutes human beauty, in which 300 judges of various backgrounds were shown portrait photographs and asked to rate the beauty of the individual’s face, has revealed that nordic Whites are universally recognized as the most attractive humans, even by Blacks. The judges were instructed to evaluate the faces solely on his or her “personal standards of beauty and not to consider popular norms.” The results of the study “Age, Sex, Race, and the Perception of Facial Beauty.” Developmental Psychology, 5, Nov., 1971, pp. 433–439, are reprinted below.

Age 7 white males white adolescent males
Age 7 black males white adolescent males
Age 7 white females white adolescent females
Age 12 white males white adolescent females
Age 12 black males white adolescent females
Age 12 white females white adolescent females
Age 12 black females white adolescent females
Age 17 white males white adolescent females
Age 17 black males white adolescent females
Age 17 white females white adolescent females
Age 17 black females white adolescent females
Adult white males white adolescent females
Adult black males white adolescent females
Adult white females white adolescent males
Adult black females white adolescent females

FACT #48: The Declaration of Independence, which contains the of t-repeated phrase “…all men are created equal…” was written by Thomas Jefferson, who owned about 200 slaves at the time and never set any of them free, including the mulattoes and quadroons. Jefferson’s words certainly had no reference to Negroes, who at that time had no place in American society except as property. (27) (38) (31)

FACT #49: The Constitution was written by and for “We the people” and dedicated to “ourselves and our posterity,” All of the 55 delegates that met in Philadelphia to draft the Constitution and all of the members of the 13 state conventions that ratified it were of the White race. (38) WEBSTER’S DICTIONARY of 1828 defines Posterity as:
2. In a general sense, succeeding generations; opposed to ancestors…

FACT #50: The 14th Amendment is invalid for the following reasons: It was never ratified by three-fourth of all the States in the Union according to Article 5 of the U.S. Constitution. Out of 37 States, 16 had rejected it. Many of the States who were counted as ratifying it, were compelled to do so under duress of military occupation. Any legal act entered into under force duress, and coercion is automatically null and void. The fact that 23 Senators had been unlawfully excluded from the U.S. Senate, shows that the Joint Resolution proposing the Amendment was not submitted to or adopted by a constitutional Congress. The intent of the 14th Amendment is repugnant to the original U.S. Constitution and the Organic Law of the land. It did not, and could not, repeal anything that was part of the Organic Law. Therefore the principles of precedent and stare decisis render it void. (23)

FACT #51: In Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of Sept. 1862 he said: “I have urged the colonization of the Negroes, (back to Africa), and I shall continue. My Emancipation Proclamation was linked with this plan (of colonization). There is no room for two distinct races of White men in America, much less for two distinct races of Whites and Blacks. …I can think of no greater calamity than the assimilation of the negro into our social and political life as our equal … Within twenty years we can peacefully colonize the Negro … under conditions in which he can rise to the full measure of manhood. This he can never do here. We can never attain the ideal union our fathers dreamed, with millions of an alien, inferior race among us, whose assimilation is neither possible nor desirable.” (27)

FACT #52: Lincoln actually proposed an amendment to the constitution that would’ve authorized congress to recolonize all freed Blacks back to Africa. On Aug. 15, 1962, Congress did appropriate over half a million dollars for that purpose. Thousands of Negroes had been shipped back when Lincoln was shot. (27)

The nations highest crime rates

Strictest gun control

Highest incarceration rates

Highest birthrate

Highest death rate

Highest rate of federal assistance per capita

Highest number of welfare recipients per capita

Highest rate of illegitimacy

Highest rate of ghonnorrhea and syphilis

Highest incidence of AIDS (33) (32)

FACT #65: By the time of King Tut (1370–1352 B.C.) even the ruling classes had been mongrelized and Egypt began a tailspin downward. Today, the once-mighty Egypt is very much a Third World country, having lost its art, its medicine, its architectural ability, and its position in world affairs. (10) (37) The absurd notion that Ancient Egypt was a product of Negro ingenuity is now being widely disseminated in the schools. Though scholars know this is a blatant lie, they justify the deception by assuming it will boost the “self-esteem” of Black children.

FACT #71: South Africa has more Black doctors, lawyers, prof essional people, and millionaires than all of the rest of the world combined. (8)

FACT #75-77: On Jan. 31, 1977, Martin Luther King’s FBI records were sealed by court order until the year 2027 because, as his wife said, “its release would destroy his reputation”. These records are rumored to contain instances of bizarre sexual perversion and homosexuality, and proof that King was under the direct orders of Soviet spies and financed by the Communist Party.

FACT #78: The Wall Street Journal (Nov.9, 1990) disclosed that Stanford University editors of The Papers of Martin Luther King Jr. have long known that King was guilty of plagiarism in his 1955 Boston University doctoral thesis, having lifted significant portions from the works of other writers and graduate students.

FACT #79: Martin Luther King frequently enjoyed prostitutes and paid for them with his church’s money. Still, Congress has voted to make King’s birthday a national holiday, in most places replacing Columbus Day or Washington’s Birthday as an of ficial observance.

FACT #82–84: Almost all Blacks who have been leaders in fields other than athletics or music have had some White ancestry: Fredick Douglas, W.E.B. Dubois, Booker T. Washington, George Washington Carver, Alex Hailey, Thurgood Marshall, Bryant Gumbell, Colin Powell, Carl Rowan, Ed Bradley, Doug Wilder, etc. According to Dr. E. B. Reuter, “…of successful and best known men that the Negro race has produced, at least thirteen- fourteenths are men of mixed blood. (27) (21)

FACT #100: The American taxpayers have spent over $2.5 TRILLION trying to upgrade Blacks since the 1960’s. (6)

FACT #101: QUOTES “The Negroes’ rude ignorance has never invented any effectual weapons of defense or destruction: they appear incapable of forming any extensive plans of government or conquest: and the obvious inferiority of their mental faculties has been discovered and abused by the nations of the temperate zone.” —Edward Gibbon, the great historian and author of THE DECLINE AND FALL of THE ROMAN EMPIRE, (V.III, pg. 277) “Wherever you find the Negro everything is going down around him, and wherever you find the White man you see everything around him improving.” —Robert E. Lee, to Col. Thomas H. Carter, May, 1965

  1. African Business Magazine, Dec. ’91
  2. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 92, pg 822+
  4. American Sociological Review, Vol 45, pg. 859
  5. Basham, A.L., The Wonder That Was India, Grove Press, New York, NY1954
  6. Buckley, William F. syndicated column, Jan. 5. 1993
  7. “But What about Africa?” Harper’s, May ’90
  8. “The Christian Heritage of South Africa Under Attack!”,Peter Hammond, Herald the Coming, Dec. ’92.
  9. Coon, Carleton S. The Origin of Races, 1962, Alfred A. Knopf
  10. Fagan, Myron C. How the Greatest White Nations Were Mongrelized—Then Negroized, Sons of Liberty Books.
  11. Fields, Dr. Ed, The Dangers of Interracial Marriage, PO Box 1211,Marietta, GA 30061
  12. Howells, William. Mankind So Far, Doubleday, Garden City, NY 1945.
  13. Harris, Marvin, 1981. Why Nothing Works. Simon & Schuster, NewYork, NY
  14. Jacob, A. White Man, Think Again! 1965, publ. by author.
  15. Jensen, Arthur R. Bias in Mental Testing, The Free Press, New York 1980
  16. Jensen, Arthur R. Straight Talk About Mental Tests, the Free Press.(Macmillan) New York, 1981
  17. McCall’s, May ’92, pg 76
  18. McGurk, Frank, “A Scientist’s Report on Race Differences.” U.S. News and World Report, Sept. 21, 1956. Washington, D.C.
  19. Pearson, Roger, Eugenics and Race, 1966, Noontide Press
  20. Pearson, Roger. Race, Intelligence, and Bias in Academe, Scott-TownsendPublishers, N.W. Washington, D.C.
  21. Pendell, Elmer, Sex Versus Civilization, Noontide Press.
  22. Putnam, Carleton. Race and Reason, 1961, Howard Allen Press, CapeCanaveral, FL
  23. Putnam, Carleton. Race and Reality, a Search for Solutions, 1967,Howard Allen, Box 76, Cape Canaveral, FL 32920
  24. Putnam, Carleton. A Study in Racial Realities, an address at the Universityof California at Davis, Dec. 17, 1964
  25. Scott, Ralph. Education and Ethnicity: The U.S. Experiment in SchoolIntegration, Scott-Townsend. Washington, D.C. 1989
  26. Shuey, Audrey H., The Testing of Negro Intelligence, Social SciencePress, New York, 1966
  27. Simpson, William Gayley. Which Way Western Man? 1978, National AlliancePress, Box 3535, Washington, D. C. 20007
  28. Social Forces, Vol. 69, pg.1+, Sept. ’90
  29. South Africa: Time to Choose Sides” Soldier of Fortune, Dec. ’89.
  30. Snyderman, Mark, and Rothman, Stanely. The IQ Controversy, the Mediaand Public Policy. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ 1990.
  31. Stell v Savannah-Chattham County Board of Education, U.S. DistrictCourt, Southern Georgia, May 13, 1963.
  32. Taylor, Jared, Paved with Good Intentions: The Failure of Race Relationsin Contemporary America. 1992, Carrol & Graf. New York, NY
  33. World Almanacs, ’88, ’89, ’90, ’91, ’92
  34. United Nations World Census, 1990
  35. Van Loon, Henrick, 1940, Van Loon’s Geography, Garden City Publ.
  36. The Voice, Feb. 27, 1990.
  37. Waddell, L. A. The Makers of Civilization, 1929, Angriff Press, Hollywood,CA
  38. Weisman, Charles A. America: Free, White and Christian, 1989, SFA, Box 766-c, LaPorte, CO 80535
  39. Weisman, Charles A. The Origins of Race and Civilization, 1990, SFA
  40. Weyl, Nathaniel. The Geography of American Achievement, Scott-Townsend,Washington, D.C. 1989.
  41. Martin Luther King (Man Behind the Myth) by Des Griffin.


Legacy Of Liberty

Revolutionary-Era Pastor John Leland Fought To Protect Religion From Government Interference

by Joseph L. Conn

The Rev. John Leland has some advice for American voters: When you go to the polls, avoid candidates who wear their personal piety on their sleeves.

“Guard against those men who make a great noise about religion in choosing representatives,” observed Leland. “It is electioneering intrigue. If they knew the nature and worth of religion, they would not debauch it to such shameful purposes. If pure religion is the criterion to [decide upon] candidates, those who make a noise about it must be rejected; for their wrangle about it proves that they are void of it. Let honesty, talents and quick dispatch characterize the men of your choice.”

Leland’s wise counsel could have been delivered this year. In fact, it was part of an Independence Day oration he gave July 5, 1802, in Cheshire, Mass. Leland, a minister and staunch religious liberty advocate, held forth that day on the importance of defending the Constitution.

“Be always jealous of your liberty, your rights,” he thundered. “Nip the first bud of intrusion on your Constitution…. Never promote men who seek after a state-established religion; it is spiritual tyranny the worst of despotism.”

In the pantheon of American heroes of religious liberty, Leland is often unjustly overlooked. He shouldn’t be. And since this year marks the 250th anniversary of his birth, it’s an appropriate time to recall his contribution to freedom of conscience.

Born in Grafton, Mass., on May 14, 1754, Leland left the Congregationalism of his youth to become an itinerant Baptist preacher. After visiting Virginia in 1775, he and his wife Sally moved to that state, and he soon became a prominent figure in both religious and political life.

Leland served as a member of the Baptists’ “General Committee,” a group formed in 1784 to agitate for religious liberty. He and other dissenting clergy fought alongside James Madison and Thomas Jefferson in the battle to overturn Virginia’s established Anglican Church and ensure equal rights for all.

Leland believed that government interference with matters of faith corrupted religion and violated individual freedom. According to scholar Edwin Gaustad, Leland declared that persecution, inquisition and martyrdom all derived from one single “rotten nest-egg, which is always hatching vipers: I mean the principle of intruding the laws of men into the Kingdom of Christ.”

The Baptist preacher insisted that religion is hurt more by government favor than it is by government oppression. Experience has informed us, he wrote, that “the fondness of magistrates to foster Christianity has done it more harm than persecutions ever did.”

Observed Leland, “Persecution, like a lion, tears the saints to death, but leaves Christianity pure; state establishment of religion, like a bear, hugs the saints but corrupts Christianity.”

Leland took these deeply held views into the political arena and helped win civil liberties we still enjoy today.

“The Baptists played a large part in securing religious freedom and the abolition of the State-Church in Virginia,” writes historian Anson Phelps Stokes in his Church and State in the United States, “and Leland was their most effective advocate.”

Thanks to the leadership of Enlightenment thinkers such as Madison and Jefferson and the grassroots organizing of devout believers such as Leland, Virginia in 1786 adopted Jefferson’s Statute for Religious Freedom. That monumental measure served as the guidestar for other states as they too adopted religious liberty, and it paved the way for the religious liberty guarantees in the U.S. Constitution.

Leland played an important role in securing the Bill of Rights. When the Constitution was first submitted to the states in 1787, many in Virginia and other states criticized the absence of a Bill of Rights. Leland and other Baptists were particularly angry that this draft of the Constitution included no guarantee of religious freedom, and they joined the rising chorus of opposition.

In an Aug. 8, 1789, letter to President George Washington written by Leland, the Baptists’ General Committee said its members feared that “liberty of conscience, dearer to us than property or life, was not sufficiently secured.”

Recognizing that the states might not ratify the proposed national charter unless these concerns were met, Madison assured Leland and his co-religionists that he would work to add a Bill of Rights if they would support ratification. The deal was accepted. Virginia ratified the Constitution, and Madison kept his promise. The First Amendment he helped craft forbids the government to make any law “respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”

In 1791, Leland moved back to Massachusetts, where he continued his religious and political work. In a pamphlet called The Rights of Conscience Inalienable, he railed against government interference in religion.

“Government,” he said, “has no more to do with the religious opinions of men than it has with the principles of mathematics. Let every man speak freely without fear, maintain the principles that he believes, worship according to his own faith, either one God, three Gods, no God or twenty Gods; and let government protect him in so doing, i.e., see that he meets with no personal abuse, or loss of property, for his religious opinions…. [I]f his doctrine is false, it will be confuted, and if it is true, (though ever so novel,) let others credit it.”

A firm Democratic-Republican in Federalist Massachusetts, Leland supported Jefferson’s candidacy for president in 1800. After his old ally was elected, the Baptist minister came up with a unique way to celebrate the occasion. On New Year’s Day, 1802, Leland showed up at the White House with a 1,325-pound wheel of cheese, the product of 900 cows. A placard that accompanied the tribute on its way down from Cheshire proclaimed it, “The Greatest Cheese in America for the Greatest Man in America!”

Jefferson was delighted with the Baptists’ gift, and fragments of the cheese were reportedly still being served at his table in 1804 (although one guest declared them “very far from good.”)

The U.S. Constitution and the presidential policies of Jefferson and Madison protected religious freedom at the national level, but at that time, states remained free to impose restrictions. Leland continued to lobby for full religious freedom everywhere, attacking religious establishments in his own state as well as neighboring Connecticut.

In 1820 in his Short Essays on Government, Leland demanded church-state separation and equal rights for all.

“Government should protect every man in thinking and speaking freely, and see that one does not abuse another,” he wrote. “The liberty I contend for is more than toleration. The very idea of toleration is despicable; it supposes that some have a pre-eminence above the rest to grant indulgence; whereas all should be equally free, Jews, Turks, Pagans and Christians.”

Leland’s views finally prevailed. In 1831, the Massachusetts legislature approved the separation of church and state, and two years later it was overwhelmingly ratified by popular vote.

Leland died on Jan. 14, 1841. The epitaph on his tombstone, which he composed, reflects the passions of his life: “Here lies the body of John Leland, who labored 67 years to promote piety, and vindicate the civil and religious rights of all men.”

In Revolution Within The Revolution, church historian William R. Estep says, “The order of these phrases is significant, indicating that Leland considered himself first and foremost a minister of the gospel and only secondarily a political activist.”

Whatever his priorities, Leland was a relentless friend of liberty and a church-state separation purist. He opposed Sunday laws, all special privileges for the clergy and any government aid to religion. He said Baptists did not want the “mischievous dagger” of government help. In 1788, he introduced a resolution at the Baptists’ General Committee meeting in Virginia denouncing slavery as “a violent deprivation of the rights of nature and inconsistent with a republican government” and urging the use of “every legal measure to extirpate this horrid evil from the land.”

Thus it is a shame that Leland’s inspirational life and noble work are nearly unknown to the general public today. The Virginia Baptist Historical Society (which provided assistance with this article) still celebrates Leland, but few people outside progressive Baptist circles know about him. At a time when television preachers and misguided politicians rail against church-state separation and individual freedom, a bracing sermon from Leland is very much in order.


Sunday, April 6, 2008

"RAYUDU" is a title of Central Andhra Kammas for centuries. Cinemas like Peda Rayudu, China Rayudu etc. and names like Alluri Sarva Rayudu (Jagirdar Family), Balusu Sarva Rayudu,(Jagirdar Family), Mullapudi Venkata Rayudu (Jagirdar Family), Yarlagadda Guruva Rayudu (Samastanadeesulu), Survaraya Sugars, Survaraya Textiles etc. illustrate Rayudus name usage by Kammas. Rayudu name derived from Nayakudu (Army commander). Central Andhra consists East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Khammam, Guntur, Prakasam and Nellore Districts. Some people of Central Andhra also use Rao, Chowdary as title. Chowdary is a hindi word & It is used as a title by lower castes as well as upper castes in Northern, Eastern and Western India . In UP burrial ground incharges also use chowdary as title. In some areas Chowdary means very lower caste.

According to one story there were 20 Chowdaries appointed by Maharastra Kings in Krishna and Guntur Districts. But there is no evidence for this claim. You can't find any inscriptional evidence to support this claim. In our view it is a fabricated story to use chowdary title. The 20 Chowadaries are actually Jagirdars of that area at that time.

Some half knowledged Kamma Groups from Tenali and Gudivada promoted this Chowdary title and spread across Andhra Pradesh in 21 st Century. However Chowdhary title is not advisable to Kammas. You can use Raj(not Raju)/Rayudu/Dev/Nayudu instead of Chowdary title. During British Rule some kammas were given "Rao Bahadhur", "Rao Saheb" titles by British then onwards kammas are using the Rao title with their names. Most of the Central Andhra Kammas use Rao Title, so like other castes. In the past most of the kammas used Nayakudu as title for 1500 years.

Population Figures on the basis of Nativity (Actual Place their Forefathers)
(a) East Godavari ---------------> 4,50,000
(b) West Godavari --------------> 5,50,000
(c) Krishna District ------------> 9,00,000
(d) Guntur ------------------------> 10,00,000
(e) Khammam District --------> 5,00,000
(f) Prakasam District ----------> 7,50,000
(g) Nellore District -------------> 3,50,000

Total Estimated Population is about 47,00,000, in and around Central Andhra, as of now. Out of this nearly 10 lacs people migrated from Central Andhra to Hyderabad, USA, Nizamabad, Karnataka, Chattisgad, Chennai, Nagpur, Uttarandra (Visaka, Vizianagaram, Srikakulam Distr. of AP) in 20 th Century.

There are several theories regarding Kammas origin. In our view nearly 50,000 army of CENTRAL ASIA, belong to Central Asian Castes, came to North India between 200 BC and 200 AD and settled in India or a branch of Sakas/Kushans/Kambojas who migrated to India between 200 BC to 200 AD and attracted to Bhuddism, Jainism, Indian Culture and settled here or they may be a group in Andhra Tribe which was described in Puranas. Their original caste/tribe name is unknown. They have no relation with Aryans. These Soldiers/Generals liked indian culture and converted to Budhism and married some North Indian women and settled in Ganga Valley. After some time due to some political reasons they moved to MP and there from they came to Krishna Valley and settled in Kamma Nadu (Krishna, Guntur, Prakasam Districts. of Andhra Pradesh). The Palnadu Kings (Chagi Anugu Raju Family), Kota Kings of Amaravathi told in inscriptions that they came from Jabalpur/MP and their forefathers were ruling in MP before 600 AD. During this period they married some Kapu women (farmers) of Kamma Nadu. That is why they were called as (Kamma) Kapus in some inscriptions. Slowly after some time these Kamma Kapus became Kammas. They worked as Governers, Small Rajas, Feudal lards, Village presidents etc. in Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna and Khammam, West Godavari districts under their own Vishnukundina Dynasty. Slowly they captured power in Kammanadu and other parts of Central Andhra. First kingdom of kammas in Andhra may be Vishnukundinas, Who ruled most of the Central Andhra over 250 years with Vengi, Amaravathi, Vinukonda as Capitals. After some time they left Buddism and Jainism and converted to Hinduism. Kammas are largely "Vaishnavs". You could find very few "Saivas" in Kammas even now. In Hindu puranas written by Brahmins centuries back there was a story written like this...
Once up on a time Wife of a king lost her ear ring (which is called in Telugu 'Kamma') to Enemies. She prayed goddess Lakshmi for help then few worriers come out from a basket (gampa) they went for the hunt of the "ear ring". some of them find that ear ring and killed the Enemies. They were called as Kammas by the king then onwards. Eventhogh it is a tale but it is telling us that kammas are soldiers/worriers by profession, Vaishnavs and Respectable caste for centuries.
Kammas become one of the rulers of Centra Andhra and Established the followings kingdoms during the period 3rd century AD to 20 th century AD..

(1) MADHYA PRADESH KAMMA DYNASTY: It is evident from the inscriptions of Palanati Kings and Kota Kings that there were small kamma kingdoms in Madhya Pradesh. They may be existed for 1oo to 200 years in Madhya Pradesh between 100 AD to 300 AD. Palanati Kings said that they came from Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, Kota kings also said that they came from Madhya Pradesh and their forefathers were ruling there. These all incidents are giving scope to assume that there were small kamma kingdoms in Madhya Pradesh. Due to attacks by local Kshatriya kings they may migrated to neighboring Andhra Pradesh.

(2) VISHNUKUNDINA DYNASTY : After coming to Andhra Pradesh Kammas worked as Governors under Satavahana kings and took control over Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna Districts. After getting full control over Kamma Nadu Kammas established indipendent kingdom called as Vishnukundina Dynasty and ruled for 250 years between 370 AD to 630 AD. Later capital was moved to Vengi with that some kammas migrated to West Godavari District with the kings. Vishnukundinas were written as "......Brahmana Kshatriya Tejamukalavaru.........." in inscriptions, that means they are not Brahmins or Kshatriyas. This inscription is available now also for reference. Usage of Telugu Language in their inscriptions also indicate that they are not Kshatriyas or Brahmins. Because at that time all the Brahmin & Kshatriya Kings made their inscriptions in Sanskrit/Brahmi lipi. Local people only claimed kshatriya status like Vishnukundins, Kakatiyas, Velanati Chodas, etc. Verma title is used by many non kshtriya communities like Brahmins, Sudras, etc. You all know that even Brahmin Rulers also used Varma title in Andhra Pradesh. Kota kings, Velanati Chodas, Kondapadamati kings also used Verma title at that time and also clearly declared themselves as Sudras in some inscriptions.

(3) MUSUNURI NAYAKS : Musunuri Nayaks ruled nearly 100 years in Andhra Pradesh between 1300 AD to 1400 AD, from Raja Nayakudu to Sabbhinati Nayakulu between 1300 AD to 1400 AD. At the beginning they ruled small parts near Eluru, later they made Rekapalli (Khammam District) as their capital, later shifted to Warangal & Karimnagar. Musunuri is Surname of Musunuri Nayaks. Some people say that Musunuri is not a surname, but it is not correct, no Ruler earlier called with Place name in inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh. And also at that time they were not ruling Musunuru, they were actually ruling Warangal or Rekapalli. So they should be called as Rekapalli Prolaya Nayakudu or Warangal Prolayanayakudu!.

(4) KORUKONDA DYNASTY: Korukonda kings are close relatives/family members of Musunuri Nayaks. Musunuri Kings made Korukonda kings as governers to Korukonda Kingdom before that they were ruling in Khammam District. East and West Godavari and some parts of Krishna District were ruled by them for 100 years. During this time kammas migrated to East Godavari District.

(5) KOTA DYNASTY : Kota family is one of the ruling clans of kammas. These Kota family first ruled some where in Madhya Pradesh during 200AD to 650 AD. Along with Kammas migration they came to Amaravathi Area of Guntur District and established a small kingdom under Chalukya Kings. They ruled parts of Guntur District as Provincial Governers from 650 AD to 1300 AD under Chalukyas and Kakatiyas. They were supporters of Vengi Chalukyas and Kakatiyas. They fought many wars for Vengi Chalukyas and Kakatiyas. They were written as "Sudras" in inscriptions like other Kamma kings. Kota Betha Raju is the known great ruler of Kata Dynasty.

(6) DIVISEEMA DYNASTY: Diviseema kings ruled the land between Vuyyuru and Bandar in Krishna District and Velanadu for some time between 1100 AD to 1300 AD. Jayapasenani, who was Gajasainyadhakshudu of Kakatiya Kings, born in this family. He wrote a book on Dance. He also invented one dance programme.
(7) PALANATI DYNASTY : They ruled Gurajala and Macherla Provinces in Guntur District between 1100 AD and 1200AD. After that Chagi Gannamanayakudu of this family ruled near Vinukonda for some time.

(8) RAVELLA DYNASTY : They ruled the area between Udayagiri and Podili between 1350 AD and 1650 AD as provincial governers under Vijayanagar Kingdom. They were one of the battle forces of Vijayanagar Army. They fought with Golkonda kings and Velama kings of Telangana onbehalf of Vijayanagar Empire.

(9) YARLAGADDA DYNASTY: They ruled the land between Vuyyuru and Avanigadda from 1600 AD to 1950 AD as Samasthanadeesulu under British.

(10) VASIREDDY DYNASTY: They ruled the land between Jagayyapet and Chirala from 1650 AD to 1850 AD as Samasthanadeesulu under Hyderabad Nawabs and British.

(11) SAYAPANENI DYNASTY: They ruled the land between Podili and Srisailam between 1450 AD to 1850 AD as Samasthanadeesulu under Vijayanagar Kings, British.

(12) KOPPULA DYNASTY : They ruled the land between Pitapuram and Tuni between 1350 AD to 1550 AD.

(13) SURYADEVARA DYNASTY: They ruled the land surrounding Repalle - Rachuru between 1400 AD to 1700 AD.

(14) DASARI DYNASTY : They ruled the land surrounding Purushothapatnam, etc. for 100 years.

(1) Konda kings
(2) Dasari kings
(3) Alamandala kings
(4) Adapa kings
(5) Divi kings
(6) Raavi kings
(7) Balusu kings
(8) Medarametla kings
(9) Konidena Choda kings

Sakhamuri clan, Chirumamilla clan, Kommi clan, Devineni clan, Adusumilli clan, Gogineni clan, Edupuganti clan, Kalluri clan, Kommineni clan, Chitturi clan, Talluri clan, Kurapati clan, Devabaktuni clan, Mullapudi clan, Pendyala clan, Nallamothu clan, Nadendla clan, Atluri clan, Potluri clan, Kotha clan, Kosaraju clan, Paruchuri clan and many others.

Some Historical Heros/Provincial Governors/Kings :
1) Vishnukundina Madhava Verma
2) Kota Betaraju
3) Chagi Aluguraju
4) Musunuri Prolaya Nayakudu
5) Musunuri Kapaya Nayakudu
6) Musunuri Ganapathi Dev
7) Gurajala Muppa Bhupathi
8) Muppidi Nayakudu
9) Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayakudu
10) Dadiganna Senani
11) Jayapa Nayakudu
12) Kota Dodda Beemudu
13) Vasireddy Sadasiva Rayudu
14) Manchikonda Ganapathi Nayakudu
15) Ravella Tippa Nayakudu
16) Ravella Timma Nayakudu
17) Sayapaneni Shayappa Nayakudu
18) Sayapaneni Venkatadri Nayukudu
19) Suryadevara Timma Nayakudu
20) Balusu Sarva Rayudu
21) Yarlagadda Guruva Rayudu
22) Devineni Erra Nayakudu
23) Pochi Nayakudu
24) Pothi Nayakudu
25) Pinnama Nayakudu
26) Kota Rayudu

Note : In Andhra Pradesh Verma title was not limited to Rajus, It was used by many sudra communities and Brahmins from 1 AD to 1400. for example Velanati Chodas, Kota kings, Vishnukundina, Salankayanas, Ananda Gothrikulu etc.

Some people think that Kakatiyas as kammas. But it is to be validated. In our view Kakatiyas belongs to "Nagulu" who were relatives of Pallavas. During Pallavas ruling in Central Andhra these "Naga tribe" people came from Tamil Nadu and ruled some parts in Central Andhra later migrated to Telangana and established Kakatiya kingdom. They belong to ST community. Bastar kings are also Kakatiyas. Kakatiya family descendents are still living in Chattisgarh. They are not claiming kamma origin. But some Kammas worked as Army leaders, Generals, Soldiers, Tax Collectors in Kakatiya Dynasty. After the fall of Kakatiya Dynasty these Army leaders formed a Kamma group under Musunuri Nayaks (Kammas). After the fall of Musunuri Nayaka Dynasty they settled in East Godavari and West Godavari, Khammam, Krishna etc. Districts. Even though Kammas ruled some parts of Central Andhra as Samantha Rajas/Jagirdars/Jamindars most of them worked as Provincial Governers, soldiers, Army Leaders, Village presidents. Some of them took agriculture as their profession and settled in villages as farmers and feudal lards. Raju caste is emerged from Chalukya, Chola, Kamma kings, Reddy kings and some Oriya kings only. We could see caste wise division in Andhra Pradesh during the time Palanati war. That is a concrete evidence for castes existence before 1100 AD. It could not happen in one day or one year, so We suppose that castes were pre-existed before 1000 AD in Andhra Pradesh. During Chalukya kings rule kammas worked under them as Governers, Governes, Soldiers, Nayaks and participated in wars against Rastrakutas and helped them in protecting their kingdom. We think that there is lot of Kamma history that is to be unfold.
Some Important Rulers of Andhra Pradesh :
(a) Satavahanas --> According to some historians they are north indians belongs to some Maharastra caste/Foreign Caste/Brahmins. They ruled some time from Maharastra and some time from Andhra Pradesh. They are not telugu people.
(b) Chalukyas --> Chalukyas came from Karnataka (Near Goa) to Andhra Pradesh and ruled nearly 400 years. After the fall of Chalukya kingdom they ruled small provinces later mixed with Raju caste.
(c) Cholas --> Cholas came from Tamil Nadu ruled 100 years later they mixed with Raju caste. Telugu Chola kings who ruled different parts of Andhra pradesh came from this Chola family. Araveeti family of Vijayanagar also emerged from Chola kings only.
(d) Reddy kings --> Reddys came from Maharastra, they may belong to hindi people/aryans. They ruled andhra for 100 years. They constitute 10% of Telugu population.
(e) Velama kings --> Velamas may come from Bihar to Andhra Pradesh they constitute 3.5% of Telugu population. They ruled Telangana for 125 years.
(d) Yadav kings --> Vijayanagar kings of Hampi, Sri Krishnadevarayulu, etc. are yadavs. They ruled entire south india.
(e) Choda kings --> Choda /Cholas came from Tamil Nadu and ruled 150/200 years and mixed with Raju community. Cholas are very famous kings of Tamil Nadu. They ruled some time here and left to Tamil Nadu. Those who born to Cholas here ruled some parts as provincial governers and merged with Raju community.
Kammas used Verma and Nayakudu as title between 1 AD to 1000 AD. Some Vishnukundinas and Kota kings used verma titles. Eventhough Kota kings, very rarely, used Verma title they were given Sudra Status in Inscriptions in Temples of Guntur Dist. Kammas accepted that Sudra Status becaused they are not Aryans and Kshatriyas but used Verma title to show their power only. After 1000 AD kammas used Nayakudu, Rayudu title (few people), Ayya title till 20th century. You cannot find any Chowdary title before 20th century. In 20th Century kammas started using Chowdary, Rao titles. That is why I think that these Rao and Chowdary titles would not fit to kammas.

Some Kammas migrated to Rayalaseema and Tamil Nadu during Vijayanagar Rule ( between 1300 AD to 1700 AD) and settled as Nayakkars and Kamma Nayudus. These Kamma Nayudus, Kamma Nayakkars worked as Soldiers, Military Commanders in Vijayanagar kingdoms and later established the following kingdoms in Rayalaseema and Tamil Nadu
(a) Madurai Nayaks
(b) Kandi Nayaks
(c) Tadipatri/Gandikota Nayaks
(d) Melkalathuru Nayaks (Old Arcot Dt)
(e) Kurivikulam Nayaks (Tirunelveli Dt)
(f) Ilavarasanandanan Nayaks (Tirunelveli Dt)
(g) Neikarapatti Nayaks (Dindugal Dt)
(h) Arkadu Rajas (Chengalpattu Dt)
(h) Polygars of Ananthapur, Chitoor, Bellary, Koppal, Kolar, Chitradurga Districts.
(i) Polygars/Rajas/Jagirdars of Tamil Nadu
(j) Amaranayakulu in Rayalaseema & Karnataka under Vijayanagar Dynasty (1400 AD - 1700 AD). Amaranayakulu maintain huge military (10000 to 100000) & Nayamkaram (some province) for their military expenses. (Ex: Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayakudu, Peddasani Akkappa Nayakudu, Adeppa Nayakudu, Kama Nayakudu, Kotikam Nagama Nayakudu, Kotikam Vishwanadhanayakudu, Kurasani varu, etc.)

After the fall of Nayak kingdoms Kamma Nayaks setteled in Tamil Nadu, Rayalaseema, Karnataka. Now there were nearly 40 lakhs Kamma Nayudus/Nayakkars in the states of Tamil Nadu (21 lacs - 3% fo TN population), Karnataka (8 lacs) and Rayalaseema (12 lacs). Chandra Babu Naidu, Ex CM AP, Paritala Ravi Ex Minister, Vigo, President MDMK, Katta Subrahmanyam Ex Minister, Karnataka are among famous Kamma Nayudus.

So many castes are claiming Krishnadevaraya ancestary but it is not true. Actually Tulu Vamseekulu are Yadavs by caste and came from Karnataka's Tuluvanadu. Sangama & Saluva Dynasties of Vijayanara Kingdoms clearly said that they belong to Yadav community. Tuluva Dynasty founder Tuluva Narasa Nayakudu was appointed as Care Taker and Army General of Saluva Dynasty when the king was a minor. You can easily understand that how can Yadav Kings can appoint Non Yadav as incharge and care taker at that situation. In fact some Yadavarayalu dynasty ruled Chandragiri for 300 years from 12th century to 14th century before Vijayanagar Empire beginning. They used Rayalu title. This Tuluva Dynasty may belong to this Yadavarayalu family or Tuluva Dynasty of Tuluvanadu, a place in Karnataka. Some people say that Srikrishnadevarayalu mother's surname is "Chagi" and she is believed to be a kamma. Araveti family is Telugu Chola Kshatriya family. When Vijayanagar Yadav kings were unable to control muslim attacks they had given up their kingdom to Araveeti Chola Rajas with a marriage alliance.

Some other castes like Balijas, Mudirajus, Some Tamil castes claim Mudurai Nayaks ancestry. But none of them is looking correct. Their claim is to be verified. Some people are saying that there are some village records (Kaifiats), written on 'Talapatras' by a Village Headman or Karanam, of Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh written in 18/19th century as evidence. But nobody is showing the original copies of that records. How can 18th /19th century Anantapur District village people could know about 16th Century Hero Viwanatha Nayakudu and his caste ?. That may be fake story because so many Kaifiats with fake stories were already found by many archiologists & historians.
The people sorrounding Madurai believe that Madurai Nayaks are Kammas. Most of the kammas neighbouring Madurai tell that Madurai Nayak 's caste as kammas. There is no single inscription that telling about Madurai Nayaks caste in Tamil Nadu. But so many castes claim their ancestry. Actually there is no inscriptions / evidence is available to tell that Kapus have dynasties in Andhra Pradesh earlier, I don't think that they have any dynasties in Tamil Nadu. Books like Rayavachakam which was written during the time (1550AD - 1650AD) of Madurai Nayak kings rule is also giving information that there were Kamma Governors but there was no mention of Kapu governers at that time. So Madurai Kings should be Kammas only. Famous Telugu Research Scholar and Historian Dr. Tirumal Ramachandra, a brahmin by caste, also said that Madurai king Tirumala nayakudu belongs to Kamma caste. Tanjore Nayaks may be Yadavs and Chenji Nayaks may be Boyas. Chitradurgam & Rayadurgam Nayaks were also Boyas according to Andhra Pradesh Jamindaries and Samasthanams book written by Acharya Tumati Donappa. If you study all the marriage alliances of Madurai Kings and their family members from 1530 AD to 1740 you can easily find out their caste by observing to which caste they mostly married their kin.

Eventhough Kammas ruled and enjoyed political power and military power they lost all and most of the kammas now living as middle class people. Poverty and decreasing population is the main problem of kammas now. Kammas population is slowly decreasing due to having one or two children. 90% of Kammas are Very Poor and Middle Class people, only 10% of Kammas are rich. 100 years back they had large land holdings. Due to Land reforms and population their land holdings reduced to 2 acres / 3 acres per head. You can fin hardly few kammas in Government Jobs, Land lords now. Kammas are Socially Farward Caste but Economically Backward Caste in South India. Kammas don't have huge land holdings like Reddys, Kapus, Moduliars, Nairs, Lingayats because they are soldiers by profession. They should be included in EBC list. Unemployment and Underemployment is in rise in Kammas. Communities like Brahmins, Reddys are getting higher salaries and key posts in various sectors/jobs. But you can find very few kammas having higher salaries and in key posts. You can't find kamma job holders in companies owned by Reddy, Kapu, Brahmin and Kapus. But Kamma Industrialists give most of the jobs to Non-kammas, i.e. Reddy, Brahmins, Kapus, etc., castes that is also making kammas backward. After Independence (1950 AD) some Kamma women also spoiled kamma caste name and fame by doing things like Illegal activities, fake 498 A cases, Marrying low caste people, Divorces, Prostitution etc. in want of Money and Jobs. Great Leaders and Women of Kamma Caste sacrificed their lives to protect kamma caste Reputation in Society but now some kammas are doing reverse to that.
Nandamuri Taraka Ramarao (NTR) - Screen legend and former Chief Minister of Andhra pradesh, a great leader born in Central Andhra Kammas. NTR found Telugu Desam Party which is a political party of kammas forever. NTR helped kammas in many ways. He had given a new direction to kammas to live in this modern world. His sudden death is a set back for Kammas. Infact Eenadu Group (owned by Ramoji Rao Cherukuri) published NTR marriage with lakshmi parvathi and family dispute issues in a big way in their Eenadu Paper. That may created differences among NTR and Nara Chandra Babu Naidu and TDP Leaders and NTR Family?. The series of stories published in Eenadu about Lakshmi Parvathi Dominence in TDP may created lot of trouble to NTR. These issues may be a cause for NTR's death!.
Nandamuri Balakrishna: Balaiah is a son of NTR. Now he is coming to politics to uplift poor and to continue NTR Policies. NTR once declared that Balakrishna will be TDP CM candidate after his death. NTR fans wish that Balakrishna should start his own Media (News paper/TV channel) and come to politics.
Legends/Heros born in Kamma Rayudus:
(2) Shobhan Babu : The son of Uppu Suryanarayana Rao. He was popularly called "Andhra Andagadu" and great personalty. The highlight of Shoban Babu's career was the three consecutive Film Fare awards he won between 1974-1976. Babu was only the second actor (after Dilip Kumar) to receive three consecutive Filmfare trophies.
(3) Mullapudi Harichandra Prasad - MD Andhra Sugars, Andhra Petro, etc. Member of Parliament, Helped thousands of Kammas.
(4) Undavalli Arun Kumar : He is MP and Congress Party Leader born in East Godavari in Great Political Family. He has saved lakhs of Kamma Depositors from Margadarsi Financiers (Eenadu Group company) giving timely intimation to RBI, State Govt, Central Govt and People. Infact most of depositors in Margadarsi Financiers are Kammas. They deposited hundreds of Croroes. Infact people and media is telling that Ramoji Rao collected these deposits illegally. We don't know whethere it is correct or not but if Ramoji Rao fails to repay the amount thousands of Kammas loose their livelyhood. Some may even commit suicides. In that way Undavalli saved number of kamma lifes and crores of their money. Kammas are really great full to him.
(7) Narla Tata Rao - Legend in Electrical technology; Chairman of APSEB.
(9) Dr Mullapudi Venkata Ratnam - Noted Cardio thoracic Surgeon. Founder of Mullapudi Cardiac Research Center in Hyderabad.
(10) Prof.Myneni Hari Prasada Rao - Padma Vibhushan recipient. Famous nuclear physicist.
(15) Dr. B.S. Rao - Chaitanya Educational Institutions.
(16) K.V.R. Chowdary - S.R.M.T Industrial conglomerate comprising Road trasport, Motor manufacturing and TATA dealership for South India.
(17) Dr. M.V.V.S. Murthi - Industrialist, Founder of VBC Group and Founder/President of GITAM.
(18) Lokesh Machines Limited - Mullapudi Lokeswara Rao.
(19) Satya Narayana Chowdary Yalamanchili - Sujana Group Of Industries (Padmini fans, Power generation, Heavy Engineering etc).
(20) Venkataswamy Nannapaneni - J. V. R Constructions
(21) Colonel Ranga Rao Narne - Narne Estates
(22) Anjaneyulu Kakkera - Magna Super Markets
(23) Dr. Jayaram Chigurupati - Zenotech Labs
(24) Krishna Prasad Chigurupati - Granules India Limited; Manufacturing of Pharmaceutical Formulations Intermediates.
(25) Venkata Rao Muppana - Venkat Rao and Company - Constructions - Vishakapatnam and Goa
(26) Sridhar Kamineni - Oil Country Tubular (OCTL)
(27)Madan Mohan Yalamanchili- M D of Capital IQ India.
(28) Raj Koneru - and one of the Founders of Intelligroup.
(29)Sudheer Koneru - Sum Total Systems
(30)Madhavi Uppalapati - Prithvi Information Solutions
(31)Valluripalli Prabhu kishore - Varun Motors.
(32)Yarlagadda Harish Chandra Prasad - Malaxmi group - Infrastructure/Power generation.
(33) Daggubati Rama Naidu - Film Producer who produced more than 100 films, MP
(34) Rayapati Sambasiva Rao - ZP Chairman and Jai Lakshmi Group chairman, MP
(35) Devineni Rajasekhar - who fought for Kammas freedom, liberty from Anti Social Elements. Freedom fighter of Kammas, Minister
(36) Karanam Balaram - Kammas freedom fighter, MLA
(37) Kodela Siva Prasad - Kammas Freedom Fighter, MLA, Minister
(38) Akkineni Nageswara Rao - Film Actor Dada Sahab Palke Award Winner
(39) Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu - Ex BJP President
USA - Enterprenuers :
(1) Murali Atluru - Diversified Technology Consultants(Privately owned $33 million company) - Environmental Engineering consulting.
(2) Sudhakar and Srikanth Raavi - Sonic Systems(USA).
(3) Srini Madala - Softsol USA Inc.,
(5) Ramesh Kodali - OBT Global, Consulting & Management Firm.
(6) Sachin Tummala - Corpus Inc, IT solutions firm
(7) Chand Akkineni - Softpro Systems,Software solutions,High-end techmology base.
(8) Sri Myneni - Knoah Solutions, offshore outsourcing services (BPO).
(9) Venu Myneni - Radiant Systems Inc , Software Service organization
(10) Srikrishna Devabhaktuni - Tropos Networks, proven market leader in delivering metro-scale Wi-Fi mesh network products and services.
(12) Ashwani Jasti - Camo Technologies., multivariate statistical software space.
(13) Suneil Mandava - Mobile Aspects, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) solutions
(14) Krishna Yarlagadda - Hellosoft: (USA/India)., leading provider of high-performance communications software
(15) Prasad Mandava - Visual Collaboration Technologies, leading edge engineering services and software products for the science, engineering and manufacturing industriesRao Kamineni - Ritenet, IT and Telecommunications services
(16) Viswa Mandalapu - Vision Systems Group, IT solutions to Pharma Industry.Srinivasa R Arikatla - AJEL Technologies, IT services
(17) Jalaiah Unnam- AS&M Inc., research and engineering firm specialized in advanced technologies.Nagesh Challa - Ecrio Inc, Instant communication solutions
(18) Suresh Katta - Saama Technologies, business intelligence solutions
(19) Chowdary Yalamanchili - CNC Investments, Ltd,assets currently valued in excess of $1.5 billion.Sean Yalamanchi - Info Vision Consultants, global software and engineering services
(20) Ramu Yalamanchi - Sona Networks , Inc.Venu Myneni - Radgov, IT solutions
(21) Ravi Tripuraneni - Aviation Technologies International, Aircraft Development.Babu rao Mandava - Indotronix International Corp., IT solutions.
(22) Raj Atluru - Konarka Technologies Inc, power plastic Manufacturing
(23) Sudhakar Kosaraju - The Crescent Group, Healthcare Group.Raj Kosaraju - Maxil Technology Solutions Inc, Innovative Information Technology solutions
(24) Srinivas Kudaravalli - Key Solutions, Inc. IT services firm and Application Service Provider.
(25) Ramesh Cherukuri - Statdata Inc, high quality, low cost medical transcriptionMadhu Kodali - Kodenet Inc, IT firm.
(26) Rao Yarlagadda - KAS Rugs- Floor coverings,Textiles.
(27) Sai Devabhaktuni - Loral Space & Communications- satellite services and satellite manufacturing
(28) Suresh Vallabhaneni - Adagesoft Corporation,IT servicesSuresh Kottapalli - iSpace,BPO Solutions.Manohar Chapalamadugu - Mantra Group Inc
(29) Hari K. Valluru and Kiran Vallurupalli - Redsalsa Technologies, IT services providerVinai Kolli - Team F1 Inc.,leading-edge, high-performance embedded networking and security software components for wired and wireless applications
(30) Babu Mandava - Beceem Communications, semiconductor solutions for the wireless broadband market
(31) Ashok Atluri - Zen Technologies, High-end multimedia weapons simulator for security forces
(33) Raj Kumar Velagapudi - Sold Innova solutions to Nes Technologies of Israel for $25 Million
(34) Gopi Chand Tummala - MD of TeraSoftware Pvt Ltd.
(35) Raj Gollamudi - Venture Capitalist.
(36) Ram Yalamanchili - TANA Regional Vice President, Founder of Discover Travel
(37) Rao Cherukuri - Capricorn Pharma, Maryland.
(38) Kamal Gogineni - Techquest International, leading provider of global infrastructure management solutions
(39) Srini Anumolu - TRUST REALTY, Real Estate in Virginia.
(40) Sarath Boyapati - Alphasoft Services, CADUBAI
(1) Koneru Rajendra Prasad - Trimex Group (Dubai/India); The Middle East & Indian Subcontinent's largest industrial raw mineral conglomerate.
Sources :
(1) Hundreds of Books (including encyclopedias) written by various others
(2) Some Web sites, Blogs, etc.
(3) Guntur, Prakasam, Krishna inscriptions copies
(4) Views expressed by Telugu people in Tamil Nadu


Chemical components

Mineralogical components

Textural features

Crystallinity categories of igneous rocks
crystallinity rock term
entirely crystalline holocrystalline
crystalline material and subordinate glass hemicrystalline or hypocrystalline
glass and subordinate crystalline material hemihyaline or hypohyaline
entirely glassy holohyaline or hyaline

Categories of rock grain size
terms in common use general grain size
igneous rocks
in general
fine-grained <1 mm <1 in.
very coarse-grained >2 cm >12 in.

Grain size

A major part of rock texture is fabric or pattern, which is a function of the form and outline of its constituent grains, their relative sizes, and their mutual relationships in space. Many specific terms have been employed to shorten the description of rock fabrics, and even the sampling offered here may seem alarmingly extensive. It should be noted, however, that fabric provides some of the most useful clues to the nature and sequence of magmatic crystallization.

The degree to which mineral grains show external crystal faces can be described as euhedral or panidiomorphic (fully crystal-faced), subhedral or hypidiomorphic (partly faced), or anhedral or allotriomorphic (no external crystal faces). Quite apart from the presence or absence of crystal faces, the shape, or habit, of individual mineral grains is described by such terms as equant, tabular, platy, elongate, fibrous, rodlike, lathlike, needlelike, and irregular. A more general contrast can be drawn between grains of equal (equant) and inequal dimensions. Even-grained, or equigranular, rocks are characterized by essential minerals that all exhibit the same order of grain size, but this implied equality need not be taken too literally. For such rocks the combination terms panidiomorphic-granular, hypidiomorphic-granular, and allotriomorphic-granular are applied according to the occurrence of euhedral, subhedral, and anhedral mineral grains within them. Many fine-grained allotriomorphic-granular rocks are more simply termed sugary, saccharoidal, or aplitic.

Rocks that are unevenly grained, or inequigranular, are generally characterized either by a seriate fabric, in which the variation in grain size is gradual and essentially continuous, or by a porphyritic fabric, involving more than one distinct range of grain sizes. Both of these kinds of texture are common. The relatively large crystals in a porphyritic rock ordinarily occur as separate entities, known as phenocrysts, set in a groundmass or matrix of much finer-grained crystalline material or glass. Quite commonly in many volcanic rocks, phenocrysts are aggregated. When this is observed, the term glomeroporphyritic is used to describe the texture, and the aggregate is referred to as a glomerocryst. In some cases, such glomerocrysts are monomineralic, but more commonly they are composed of two or more minerals. Based on chemical composition, texture, and other criteria such as isotopic analysis, it has been demonstrated that some phenocrysts and glomerocrysts were not crystallized from the host magma but rather were accidentally torn from the country rock by the magma as it rose to the surface. When this has occurred, these phenocrysts are referred to as xenocrysts, while the aggregates can be termed xenoliths. The size of phenocrysts is essentially independent of their abundance relative to the groundmass, and they range in external form from euhedral to anhedral. Most of them are best described as subhedral. Because the groundmass constituents span almost the full ranges of crystallinity and granularity, porphyritic fabric is abundantly represented among the phaneritic, aphanitic, and glassy rocks.

The sharp break in grain size between phenocrysts and groundmass reflects a corresponding change in the conditions that affected the crystallizing magma. Thus, the phenocrysts of many rocks probably grew slowly at depth, following which the nourishing magma rose to the Earth’s surface as lava, cooled much more rapidly, and congealed to form a finer-grained or glassy groundmass. A porphyritic volcanic rock with a glassy groundmass is described as having a vitrophyric texture and the rock can be called a vitrophyre. Other porphyritic rocks may well reflect less drastic shifts in position and perhaps more subtle and complex changes in conditions of temperature, pressure, or crystallization rates. Many phenocrysts could have developed at the points where they now occur, and some may represent systems with two fluid phases, magma and coexisting gas. Appraisals of the composition of phenocrysts, their distribution, and their periods of growth relative to the accompanying groundmass constituents are important to an understanding of many igneous processes.

Important textural types

The articulation of mineral grains is described in terms of planar, smoothly curved, sinuous, sutured, interlocked, or irregular surfaces of mutual boundary. The distribution and orientation of mineral grains and of mineral grains and glass are other elements of fabric that can be useful in estimating the conditions and sequence of mineral formation in igneous rocks. The following are only a few of the most important examples:

Directive textures are produced by the preferred orientation of platy, tabular, or elongate mineral grains to yield grossly planar or linear arrangements; they are generally a result of magmatic flowage.

Graphic texture refers to the regular intergrowth of two minerals, one of them generally serving as a host and the other appearing on surfaces of the host as striplike or cuneiform units with grossly consistent orientation; the graphic intergrowth of quartz in alkali feldspar is a good example.

Ophitic texture is the association of lath-shaped euhedral crystals of plagioclase, grouped radially or in an irregular mesh, with surrounding or interstitial large anhedral crystals of pyroxene; it is characteristic of the common rock type known as diabase.

Poikilitic texture describes the occurrence of one mineral that is irregularly scattered as diversely oriented crystals within much larger host crystals of another mineral.

Reaction textures occur at the corroded margins of crystals, from the corrosive rimming of crystals of one mineral by finer-grained aggregates of another, or as a result of other features that indicate partial removal of crystalline material by reaction with magma or other fluid.

Pyroclastic texture results from the explosive fragmentation of volcanic material, including magma (commonly the light, frothy pumice variety and glass fragments called shards), country rock, and phenocrysts. Fragments less than 2 millimetres in size are called ash, and the rock formed of these is called tuff; fragments between 2 and 64 millimetres are lapilli and the rock is lapillistone; fragments greater than 64 millimetres are called bombs if rounded or blocks if angular, and the corresponding rock is termed agglomerate or pyroclastic breccia, respectively. Commonly, many of these pyroclastic rocks have been formed by dense hot clouds that hug the ground and behave much like a lava flow and hence are given the name pyroclastic flow. Most of these flows are composed of ash-size material; therefore, they are called ash flows and the rocks deposited by them are called ash-flow tuffs. A more general term for rocks deposited by these flows that does not specify size of fragments is ignimbrite. Ash-flow tuffs and other ignimbrites often have zones in which the fragments have been welded. These zones are termed welded tuffs and display a directive planar texture (called eutaxitic) that results from compaction and flattening of pumice fragments. Such pyroclastic flows were responsible for many of the deposits of the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington State, U.S., on May 18, 1980. Most eruptions eject fragments that are borne by the wind and deposited subaerially (on the land surface). These deposits are said to be ash-fall tuffs and are recognized by their lamination (formation in thin layers that differ in grain size or composition). They commonly blanket the topography in contrast to the ash-flow deposits, which flow around topographic highs and which are completely unsorted.

Finally, crystal zoning describes faintly to very well-defined geometric arrangements of portions within individual crystals that differ significantly in composition (or some other property) from adjacent portions; most common are successive shells grouped concentrically about the centres of crystals, presumably reflecting shifts in conditions during crystal growth.

Structural features

The structure of an igneous rock is normally taken to comprise the mutual relationships of mineral or mineral-glass aggregates that have contrasting textures, along with layering, fractures, and other larger-scale features that transect or bound such aggregates. Structure often can be described only in relation to masses of rock larger than a hand specimen, and most of its individual expressions can be closely correlated with physical conditions that existed when the rock was formed.

Small-scale structural features

Among the most widespread structural features of volcanic rocks are the porelike openings left by the escape of gas from the congealing lava. Such openings are called vesicles, and the rocks in which they occur are said to be vesicular. Where the openings lie close together and form a large part of the containing rock, they impart to it a slaglike, or scoriaceous, structure. Their relative abundance is even greater in the type of sialic glassy rock known as pumice, which is essentially a congealed volcanic froth. Most vesicles can be likened to peas or nuts in their ranges of size and shape; those that were formed when the lava was still moving tend to be flattened and drawn out in the direction of flow. Others are cylindrical, pearlike, or more irregular in shape, depending in part on the manner of escape of the gas from the cooling lava; most of the elongate ones occur in subparallel arrangements.

Spherulites are light-coloured subspherical masses that commonly consist of tiny fibres and plates of alkali feldspar radiating outward from a centre. Most range from pinpoint to nut size, but some are as much as several feet in diameter. The relatively large ones tend to be internally complex and to contain concentric shells of feldspar fibres with or without accompanying quartz, tridymite, or glass. Spherulites occur mainly in glassy volcanic rocks; they also are present in some partly or wholly crystalline rocks that include shallow-seated intrusive types. Many evidently are products of rapid crystallization, perhaps at points of gas concentration in the freezing magmas. Others, in contrast, were formed more slowly, by devitrification of volcanic glasses, presumably not long after they congealed and while they were still relatively hot.

Lithophysae, also known as stone bubbles, consist of concentric shells of finely crystalline alkali feldspar separated by empty spaces; thus, they resemble an onion or a newly blooming rose. Commonly associated with spherulites in glassy and partly crystalline volcanic rocks of salic composition, many lithophysae are about the size of walnuts. They have been ascribed to short episodes of rapid crystallization, alternating with periods of gas escape when the open spaces were developed by thrusting the feldspathic shells apart or by contraction associated with cooling. The curving cavities commonly are lined with tiny crystals of quartz, tridymite, feldspar, topaz, or other minerals deposited from the gases.

Some glassy rocks of silicic composition are marked by domains of strongly curved, concentrically disposed fractures that promote breakage into rounded masses of pinhead to walnut size. Because their surfaces often have a pearly or shiny lustre, the name perlite is applied to such rocks. Perlite is most common in glassy silicic rocks that have interacted with water to become hydrated. During the hydration process, water enters the glass, breaking the silicon-oxygen bonds and causing an expansion of the glass structure to form the curved cracks. The extent of hydration of glass, indicating the amount of perlite that has been formed from the glass, depends on the climate and on time. In a given area where the climate is expected to be consistent, the thickness of the hydration of the glass surface has been used by archaeologists to date artifacts such as arrowheads composed of the dark volcanic glass known as obsidian and made by early native Americans.

Numerous structural features of comparably small scale occur among the intrusive rocks; these include miarolitic, orbicular, plumose, and radial structures. Miarolitic rocks are felsic phanerites distinguished by scattered pods or layers, ordinarily several centimetres in maximum thickness, within which their essential minerals are coarser-grained, subhedral to euhedral, and otherwise pegmatitic in texture. Many of these small interior bodies, called miaroles, contain centrally disposed crystal-lined cavities that are known as druses or miarolitic cavities. An internal zonal disposition of minerals also is common, and the most characteristic sequence is alkali feldspar with graphically intergrown quartz, alkali feldspar, and a central filling of quartz. Miarolitic structure probably represents local concentration of gases during very late stages in consolidation of the host rocks.

The term orbicular is applied to rounded, onionlike masses with distinct concentric layering that are distributed in various ways through otherwise normal-appearing phaneritic rocks of silicic to mafic composition. The layers within individual masses are typically thin, irregular, and sharply defined, and each differs from its immediate neighbours in composition or texture. Some layers contain tabular or prismatic mineral grains that are oriented radially with respect to the containing orbicule and, hence, are analogous to spherulitic layers in volcanic rocks. The minerals of most orbicules are the same as those of the enclosing rock, but they are not necessarily present in the same proportions. The concentric structure appears to reflect rhythmic crystallization about specific centres, commonly at early stages in consolidation of the general rock mass.

The normal fabric of some relatively coarse-grained plutonic rocks is interrupted by clusters of crystals with radial grouping but without concentric layering. A characteristic plumelike, spraylike, or rosettelike structure is imparted by the markedly elongate form of the participating crystals or crystal aggregates, which seem to have developed outward from common centres by direct crystallization from magma or by replacement of preexisting solid material.

Large-scale structural features

Many kinds of larger-scale features occur among both the intrusive and the extrusive rocks. Most of these are mentioned later in connection with rock occurrence or are discussed in other articles, but several are properly introduced here:

Clastic structures

These are various features that express the accumulation of fragments or the rupturing and dislocation of solid material. In volcanic environments they generally result from explosive activity or the incorporation of solid fragments by moving lava; as such, they characterize the pyroclastic rocks. Among the plutonic rocks, they appear chiefly as local to very extensive zones of pervasive shearing, dislocation, and granulation, commonly best recognized under the microscope. Those developed prior to final consolidation of the rock are termed protoclastic; those developed after final consolidation, cataclastic.

Flow structures

Pillow structures

These are aggregates of ovoid masses, resembling pillows or grain-filled sacks in size and shape, that occur in many basic volcanic rocks. The masses are separated or interconnected, and each has a thick vesicular crust or a thinner and more dense glassy rind. The interiors ordinarily are coarser-grained and less vesicular. Pillow structure is formed by rapid chilling of highly fluid lava in contact with water or water-saturated sediments, accompanied by the development of budlike projections with tough, elastic crusts. As additional lava is fed into each bud, it grows into a pillow and continues to enlarge until rupture of the skin permits escape of fresh lava to form a new bud and a new pillow.

These are special types of inclusions that are intimately related to their host rocks and in general are relatively rich in one or more of the host-rock minerals. They range from small pods to extensive layers and from early-stage crystal accumulations formed by gravitational settling in magma to very late-stage concentrations of coarse-grained material developed in place.

Zonal structures

These are arrangements of rock units with contrasting composition, or texture, in an igneous body, commonly in a broadly concentric pattern. Chilled margins, the fine-grained or glassy edges along the borders of many extrusive and shallow-seated intrusive bodies, represent quenching of magma along contacts with cooler country rock. Other kinds of zones generally reflect fractional crystallization of magma and are useful in tracing courses of magmatic differentiation, as will be noted later.

An interesting type of zonal structure is an orbicular configuration that has alternating light and dark repeating bands in an oval arrangement found in some diorites and granodiorites. Pegmatites also often have zonal structures due to fluctuations in fluid composition. This results in “pockets” that may contain gems or other unusual minerals.

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World’s Most Expensive Steaks

We’ve been posting recently about some of this planet’s most expensive restaurants. Today, we’d like to point you in the direction of a single expensive item: Steaks.

If one is a true steak connoisseur, there is nothing better, or more expensive, than Wagyo steak. What’s so special about it? The cows are fed beer and massaged daily. The result is a melt-in-your-mouth steak with “an ungodly amount of fat.”

So, what would you guess is the going rate for a bite of this meaty perfection? Try $33 an ounce at Bradley Ogden in Las Vegas. That’s a mere $264 for a yummy, eight-once serving.

Still hungry? Or have you just lost your appetite as I have done?

If the above photo is still making you salivate, check out this article detailing other great Wagyo steak deals to be had around the world. And just remember, those cows died happy.


Tag archives for Hanna Snarberg

Choose Your Own Adventure: Valentine’s Day

With Valentine’s Day just around the corner, you might be in the process of mapping out a romantic trip with the one you love. And that process may seem daunting. Should you go with something romantic, fun, or quirky? Take a deep breath: here are four questions that will guide you in the right direction as you plan your special day.

Where ‘The Little Prince’ was Born

Twice As Nice in France

Imagine arriving in Nice (the regional capital of the French Riviera) and only having 24 hours to see the city. What would your priorities be? What would zoom to the top of your must-see list? Is it even possible to get a feeling for such a multifaceted city in so short a time?

Why not give it a try? I did. And it wasn’t so bad (though I did want to stay). Here’s how it went.

Cannes Done Right

The belle of the French Riviera slides into the spotlight each May when the crème de la crème of actors, directors, agents, and jet-setters descend on the city for the Cannes International Film Festival. But beyond the red-carpet glitz and glamour, what else does this city by the sea have to offer? Lots.

Here’s a tiny taste.

Marseille, Mon Ami

I have to come clean: the headline isn’t mine (it’s the opening line from French chansonnier Charles Aznavour’s classic song “Allez vai Marseille”), but I used it because I cannot agree more. I visited France’s second largest city earlier this summer and all I can say is that this beautiful, historic city went straight to my heart.

Oslo…From Under An Umbrella

Sweden’s Cinderella City

Everyone’s heard of Stockholm, but what about Gothenburg?

If you’re planning a Scandinavian escape this summer, think about hitting Sweden’s idyllic West Coast instead.


Measuring Political Risk Just Got Easier

February 28, 2014

Political risk is a fascinating yet not entirely objective field. As a result, it's hard for financiers and businesses to systematically or accurately incorporate political risk into decision-making. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has grown by a factor of 25 from 1980 to 2010, making it imperative that we get accurate measures of country risk. That's why a new NBER working paper may prove an important step forward.

The paper's authors take the spread between one country's sovereign debt yields and U.S. Treasury bonds and, using risk rating data and an assortment of economic variables, extract the political risk component. The result is the "political risk spread." Each country gets assigned a number reflecting its risk. In the chart below, you see how the authors apply this measure to countries without sovereign spread data—in other words, places for which we didn't have a good way to measure political risk before.

On average, political risk accounts for one-third of sovereign debt spreads. In fact, it's the most important determinant of credit risk. Political risk also appears to have a large and measurable impact on investment. In a typical country, a 1% drop in the political risk spread leads to a 12% rise in net FDI inflows.

This political risk measure can also predict adverse events that could impact investment. In the chart below, you see the probabilities of political risk for select countries over the next ten years.

In light of this study, it seems that current methods used by businesses and financial firms to measure political risk exposure are flawed. Most analysts are unsure just how much sovereign debt yields are influenced by political risk, so they use various workarounds to get a ballpark measure. A measure, as this study finds, that overstates discount rates of future cash flow by 2-5%, a result that is "potentially leading to substantial misallocation of global investment."

It will be interesting to see how this measure could be used to hold political leaders to account for their policy decisions. As the authors find, "The cost of particular future policy actions that are known to increase political risk spreads can now be directly quantified."

International investors and multinational corporations now have a useful benchmark for measuring their political risk, which in turns helps in managing that exposure. The authors also see a benefit in digging deeper into the political risk spread to find out how much it's affected by, say, ethnic tensions or government instability. Using their methodology, this is finally possible.


Optimized Compile for Fast Execution

Optimized Compile for Fast Execution

I am trying to create an executable of a short test program that carries out an exponential arithmetic over a very large number of loops. The purpose is to test the speed of execution of the Compaq compiler. Initial results using optimized settings seem to indicate that this ompiler created executable is about 1.6 times slower than the Lahey LF95 compiler. However, I have seen an article that implies that the Compaq compiler created executable should improve in speed if I used the following setings:

df %1 /fast/opt:5/link/stack:64000000

The question is - How to use these settings in the Visual Fortran window

Replies would be greatly appreciated

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Ignore the /link/stack switches - they don't affect performance. I gather you were looking at the Polyhedron site.

Project..Settings..Fortran..General. Set optimization level to "Maximum Optimizations" - that's /opt:5. Then go to the Optimization section of the settings and check the box "Generate most optimal code" (/fast).

Steve - Intel Developer Support

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- Term Papers and Free Essays

Russian Revolution

Autor:   •  December 3, 2010  •  977 Words (4 Pages)  •  330 Views

Page 1 of 4

In 1917 the most important Russian Revolution event occurred; this milestone was the emancipation of women; when women's oppression was overcome. This was the first time the complete economic, political and sexual equality of women was put on the historic agenda. The main priority was not only to defend women rights but to also defend human rights and liberties. They also wanted to support family as a community not only from the public but also from the government. The equality of family rights and duties of the men and women were also just as important.

Before the Russian Revolution, Russian women were exploited during the industrialization development. Women were condemned to be physically exhausted from production, while being oppressed by men. They were not aware of the limits that were imposed on their individual development or their fundamental social rights. Women would spend their time confined to their home and were restricted to the general society if they weren't their family. In the article by Elissabetta Rossi she states "Gender oppression starts to be perceived as a limitation of women's freedom when the capitalist mode of production asserts itself, and with it the use of machines

becomes widespread. This is because these machines completely undermine independent (or household) production and allow working class women to seek a role outside their home. "This caused the women to stand up and defend their interests to gain the same amount of rights as men. This was the beginning of the struggle of women's emancipation.

The Bolsheviks (known for seizing power in Russia during the Russian Revolution & for founding the Soviet Union,) were involved in this revolution. With the help of Lenin and Trotsky (socialist politician &influential politician in the early days of the Soviet Union) they imagined a development of industry and planned a nationalized economy, which gave women the opportunity to work outside of the home. They also established a democracy that allowed them to have a full role in political and social life.

They had to take several procedures to make this goal happen such as the releasing of women from the traditional confinement of domestic chores. This act caused the society to blame the Bolsheviks for breaking up homes and relationships. On the other hand women were allowed to make the decision to form other relationships with the society. Shortly after the revolution educational and professional opportunities opened up for women. Although this was a good thing which they worked for, this made their life more difficult because they still had to be the mother and house wife when they returned home from work. Although the husband would be around the wife still did twice as much work than they did.

During this time there were about 85% of women between the ages of 20- 55 who worked full-time therefore they were left with the responsibility of finding childcare for their children. The government operations were not affordable or available for a lot or working class women so they were left to depend on the elderly women in their family to care for their children while they worked.

Russian has

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