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Details about  Latin Rulers of Constantinople 1204-1261AD Byzantine Coin Jesus Christ i36156

Latin Rulers of Constantinople 1204-1261AD Byzantine Coin Jesus Christ i36156

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Aug 31, 2014 10:00:53 EDT
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Item: i36156

Authentic Ancient Coin of:

Byzantine - Latin Rulers of Constantinople 1204-1261 A.D.
Billon Trachea Large module 24mm (1.94 grams) Thessalonica  mint: 1204-1261 A.D.
Reference: Sear 2056
Bust of Christ.
Emperor standing.

The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople (original Latin name: Imperium Romaniae, "Empire of Romania") is the name given by historians to the feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. It was established after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 and lasted until 1261. The Latin Empire was intended to supplant as titular successor to the Roman Empire in the east, with a Western Roman Catholic emperor enthroned in place of the Eastern Orthodox Roman emperors. Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, was crowned the first Latin emperor as Baldwin I on 16 May 1204. The Latin Empire failed to attain political or economic dominance over the other Latin powers that had been established in former Byzantine territories in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, especially Venice, and after a short initial period of military successes it went into a steady decline. Weakened by constant warfare with the Bulgarians and the unconquered sections of the empire, it eventually fell when Byzantines recaptured Constantinople under Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261. The last Latin emperor, Baldwin II, went into exile, but the imperial title survived, with several pretenders to it, until the 14th century.

Arms of the Latin Empire of Constantinople

The original name of this state in the Latin language was Imperium Romaniae ("Empire of Romania"). This name was used based on the fact that the common name for the Roman Empire in this period had been Romania (Ῥωμανία, "Land of the Romans").

The names Byzantine and Latin were not contemporary terms. They were invented much later by historians seeking to differentiate between the classical period of the Roman Empire, the medieval period (label the Byzantine Empire) and the late medieval Latin Empire, all of which called themselves "Roman." The term Latin has been used because the crusaders (Franks, Venetians, and other westerners) were Roman Catholic and used Latin as their liturgical and scholarly language. It is used in contrast to the Eastern Orthodox locals who used Greek in both liturgy and common speech.

Byzantine Empire (in red) after the Treaty of Nymphaeum in 1214. The borders are very uncertain.

By arrangement among the crusaders, Byzantine territory was divided: in the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae, signed on 1 October 1204, three eighths — including Crete and other islands — went to the Republic of Venice. The Latin Empire claimed the remainder, and did exert control over areas of Greece, divided into vassal fiefs: the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Principality of Achaea, the Duchy of Athens, the Duchy of the Archipelago and the short-lived duchies of Nicaea, Philippopolis, and Philadelphia. The Doge of Venice did not rank as a vassal to the Empire, but his position in control of 3/8 of its territory and of parts of Constantinople itself, ensured Venice's influence in the Empire's affairs. However, much of the former Byzantine territory remained in the hands of rival successor states led by Byzantine Greek aristocrats, such as the Despotate of Epirus, the Empire of Nicaea, and the Empire of Trebizond, which were bent on reconquest from the Latins.

The crowning of Baldwin and the creation of the Latin Empire had the curious effect of creating three so-called Roman Empires in Europe at the same time, the others being the Holy Roman Empire and the remnants of the Byzantine Empire (the direct successor of the ancient Roman Empire), none of which actually controlled the city of Rome, which was under the temporal authority of the Pope.

In Asia Minor

Capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

The initial campaigns of the crusaders in Asia Minor resulted in the capture of most of Bithynia by 1205, with the defeat of the forces of Theodore I Laskaris at Poemanenum and Prusa. Latin successes continued, and in 1207 a truce was signed with Theodore, newly proclaimed Emperor of Nicaea. The Latins inflicted a further defeat on Nicaean forces at the Rhyndakos river in October 1211, and three years later the Treaty of Nymphaeum (1214) recognized their control of most of Bithynia and Mysia.

The peace was maintained until 1222, at which point the resurgent power of Nicaea felt sufficiently strong enough to challenge the Latin Empire, by that time weakened by constant warfare in its European provinces. At the battle of Poimanenon in 1224, the Latin army was defeated, and by the next year Emperor Robert of Courtenay was forced to cede all his Asian possessions to Nicaea, save Nicomedia and the territories directly across Constantinople. Nicaea turned also to the Aegean, capturing the islands awarded to the empire. In 1235, finally, the last Latin possessions fell to Nicaea.

In Europe

Unlike in Asia, where the Latin Empire faced only an initially weak Nicaea, in Europe it was immediately confronted with a powerful enemy: the Bulgarian tsar Kaloyan. When Baldwin campaigned against the Byzantine lords of Thrace, they called upon Kaloyan for help. At the Battle of Adrianople on 14 April 1205, the Latin heavy cavalry and knights were crushed by Kaloyan's troops, and Emperor Baldwin was captured. He was imprisoned in the Bulgarian capital Tarnovo until his death later in 1205. Kaloyan was murdered a couple of years later (1207) during a siege of Thessalonica, and the Bulgarian threat conclusively defeated with a victory the following year, which allowed Baldwin's successor, Henry of Flanders, to reclaim most of the lost territories in Thrace until 1210, when peace was concluded with the marriage of Henry to Maria of Bulgaria, tsar Kaloyan's daughter.

At the same time, another Greek successor state, the Despotate of Epirus, under Michael I Komnenos Doukas, posed a threat to the empire's vassals in Thessalonica and Athens. Henry demanded his submission, which Michael provided, giving off his daughter to Henry's brother Eustace in the summer of 1209. This alliance allowed Henry to launch a campaign in Macedonia, Thessaly and Central Greece against the rebellious Lombard lords of Thessalonica. However, Michael's attack on the Kingdom of Thessalonica in 1210 forced him to return north to relieve the city and to force Michael back into submission.

In 1214 however, Michael died, and was succeeded by Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who was determined to capture Thessalonica. On 11 June 1216, while supervising repairs to the walls of Thessalonica, Henry died, and was succeeded by Peter of Courtenay, who himself was captured and executed by Theodore the following year. A regency was set up in Constantinople, headed by Peter's widow, Yolanda of Flanders until 1221, when her son Robert of Courtenay was crowned Emperor. Distracted by the renewed war with Nicaea, and waiting in vain for assistance from Pope Honorius III and the King of France Philip II, the Latin Empire was unable to prevent the final fall of Thessalonica to Epirus in 1224. Epirote armies then conquered Thrace in 1225–26, appearing before Constantinople itself. The Latin Empire was saved for the time by the threat posed to Theodore by the Bulgarian tsar Ivan II Asen, and a truce was concluded in 1228.

Decline and fall

After Robert of Courtenay died in 1228, a new regency under John of Brienne was set up. After the disastrous Epirote defeat by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokotnitsa, the Epirote threat to the Latin Empire was removed, only to be replaced by Nicaea, which started acquiring territories in Greece. Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes of Nicaea concluded an alliance with Bulgaria, which in 1235 resulted in joint campaign against the Latin Empire, and an unsuccessful siege of Constantinople the same year. In 1237, Baldwin II attained majority and took over the reins of a much-diminished state. The empire's precarious situation forced him to travel often to Western Europe seeking aid, but largely without success. In order to gain money, he was forced to resort to desperate means, from removing the lead roofs of the Great Palace and selling them, to handing over his only son, Philip, to Venetian merchants as a guarantee for a loan.

By 1247, the Nicaeans had effectively surrounded Constantinople, with only the city's strong walls holding them at bay, and the Battle of Pelagonia in 1258 signaled the beginning of the end of Latin predominance in Greece. Thus, on 25 July 1261, with most of the Latin troops away on campaign, the Nicaean general Alexios Strategopoulos found an unguarded entrance to the city, and entered it with his troops, restoring the Byzantine Empire for his master, Michael VIII Palaiologos.

Titular claimants

For about a century thereafter, the heirs of Baldwin II continued to use the title of Emperor of Constantinople, and were seen as the overlords of the various remaining Latin states in the Aegean. They exercised effective authority in Greece only when actually ruling as princes of Achaea, as in 1333–83. Although they are generally regarded as titular emperors, the continued existence of Latin states in the Aegean that recognized them as their suzerains makes the term a misnomer; a more accurate description would be emperors-in-exile.

Organization and society

The empire was formed and administrated on Western European feudal principles, incorporating some elements of the Byzantine bureaucracy. The emperor was assisted by a council, composed of the various barons, the Venetian podestà and his six-member council. This council had a major voice in the governance of the realm, especially in the periods of regency, where the Regent (moderator imperii) was dependent on their consent to rule. The podesta, likewise, was an extremely influential member, being practically independent of the emperor. He exercised authority over the Venetian quarters of Constantinople and Pera and the Venetian dominions within the empire, assisted by a separate set of officials. His role was more that of an ambassador and vicegerent of Venice than a vassal to the empire.

The Latins did not trust the professional Greek bureaucracy, and in the immediate aftermath of the conquest completely dismantled the Greek economic administration of the areas they controlled. The result was disastrous, disrupting all forms of production and trade. Almost from its inception the Latin Empire was sending requests back to the papacy for aid. For a few years, the major commodities it exported from the surrounding region of Thrace were wheat and furs, as well as profit from Constantinople's strategic location on major trade routes. While the empire showed some moderate vitality while Henry was alive, after his death in 1216 there was a major deficit in leadership. By the 1230s, Constantinople - even with its drastically reduced population - was facing a major shortage of basic foodstuffs. In several senses, the only significant export on which the economy of the Latin Empire had any real basis was the sale of relics back to Western Europe which had been looted from Greek churches. For example, Emperor Baldwin II sold the relic of the Crown of Thorns while in France trying to raise new funds.

The Byzantine Empire (or Byzantium) was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the "Roman Empire" (Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileia Rhōmaiōn) or Romania (Ῥωμανία) to its inhabitants and neighbours, it was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State and maintained Roman state traditions. Byzantium is today distinguished from ancient Rome proper insofar as it was oriented towards Greek culture, characterised by Christianity rather than Roman paganism and was predominantly Greek-speaking rather than Latin-speaking.

As the distinction between Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire is largely a modern convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, but an important point is Emperor Constantine I's transfer in 324 of the capital from Nicomedia (in Anatolia) to Byzantium on the Bosphorus, which became Constantinople, "City of Constantine" (alternatively "New Rome").[n 1] The Roman Empire was finally divided in 395 AD after the death of Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395), thus this date is also very important if the Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) is looked upon as completely separated from the West. The transition to Byzantine history proper finally begins during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641), since Heraclius effectively established a new state after reforming the army and administration by introducing themes and by replacing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek.

The Byzantine Empire existed for more than a thousand years, from its genesis in the 4th century to 1453. During most of its existence, it remained one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe, despite setbacks and territorial losses, especially during the Roman-Persian and Byzantine-Arab Wars. The Empire recovered during the Macedonian dynasty, rising again to become a preeminent power in the Eastern Mediterranean by the late 10th century, rivalling the Fatimid Caliphate.

Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople and re-establishment of the Empire in 1261, under the Palaiologan emperors, Byzantium remained only one of many rival states in the area for the final 200 years of its existence. However, this period was the most culturally productive time in the Empire.[4]

Successive civil wars in the 14th century further sapped the Empire's strength, and most of its remaining territories were lost in the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars, which culminated in the Fall of Constantinople and the conquest of remaining territories by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century.

The designation of the Empire as Byzantine began in Western Europe in 1557, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of historical sources. The term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became the capital of Constantine. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ), and in 1680 of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, such as Montesquieu.[7] The term then disappears until the 19th century when it came into general use in the Western world.[8] Before this time, Greek had been used for the Empire and its descendants within the Ottoman Empire.

The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans (Latin: Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum, Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn, Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Arche tôn Rhōmaíōn), Romania[n 2] (Latin: Romania, Greek: Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía), the Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romana, Greek: Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Politeίa tôn Rhōmaíōn),[10] Graikía (Greek: Γραικία),[11] and also as Rhōmaís (Greek: Ῥωμαΐς).

Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions,[14] it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries' with its increasingly predominant Greek element.[15] The occasional use of the term Empire of the Greeks (Latin: Imperium Graecorum) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum (Emperor of the Greeks)[16] were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West.[17] The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor, was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. Needing Charlemagne's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome, Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself. Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West made use of the name Roman to refer to the Eastern Roman Emperors, they preferred the term Imperator Romaniæ instead of Imperator Romanorum, a title that Westerners maintained applied only to Charlemagne and his successors.

No such distinction existed in the Persian, Islamic, and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world it was known primarily as روم (Rûm "Rome").

In modern historical works, the Empire is usually called the Eastern Roman Empire in the context of the period 395 to 610, before Emperor Heraclius changed the official language from Latin to Greek (already the language known by the great majority of the population). In contexts after 610, the term Byzantine Empire is used more regularly.

Early history of the Roman Empire

The Roman army succeeded in conquering a vast collection of territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and much of Western Europe. These territories consisted of many different cultural groups, ranging from primitive to highly sophisticated. Generally speaking, the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanised and socially developed, having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture. In contrast, the western regions had mostly remained independent from any single cultural or political authority, and were still largely rural and less developed. This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries.

In 293, Diocletian created a new administrative system, (the tetrarchy). He associated himself with a co-emperor, or Augustus. Each Augustus was then to adopt a young colleague given the title of Caesar, to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner. After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, however, the tetrarchy collapsed, and Constantine I replaced it with the dynastic principle of hereditary succession.

Constantine moved the seat of the Empire and introduced important changes into its civil and religious constitution. In 330, he founded Constantinople as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, which was well-positioned astride the trade routes between East and West.

Constantine built upon the administrative reforms introduced by Diocletian.He stabilised the coinage (the gold solidus that he introduced became a highly prized and stable currency), and made changes to the structure of the army. Under Constantine, the Empire had recovered much of its military strength and enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity.

Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference, because the Emperor supported it with generous privileges. Constantine established the principle that emperors should not settle questions of doctrine, but should summon general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose. The Synod of Arles was convened by Constantine, and the First Council of Nicaea showcased his claim to be head of the Church.

The state of the Empire in 395 may be described in terms of the outcome of Constantine's work. The dynastic principle was established so firmly that the emperor who died in that year, Theodosius I, bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons: Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over the undivided empire.

The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West in the 3rd and 4th centuries, due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries. Theodosius II further fortified the walls of Constantinople, leaving the city impervious to most attacks. The walls were not breached until 1204. In order to fend off the Huns, Theodosius paid a tribute (purportedly 300 kg (661.39 lb) of gold).

His successor, Marcian, refused to continue to pay this exorbitant sum. Fortunately Attila had already diverted his attention to the Western Roman Empire. After he died in 453, the Hunnic Empire collapsed; many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople.

After the fall of Attila, the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace, while the Western Empire collapsed (its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the titular Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus).

To recover Italy, Emperor Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths, who had settled in Moesia. He sent the Gothic King Theodoric to Italy as magister militum per Italiam ("commander in chief for Italy") in order to depose Odoacer. By urging Theodoric into conquering Italy, Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate and gained at least a nominal form of supremacy over Italy. After Odoacer's defeat in 493, Theodoric ruled Italy on his own.

In 491, Anastasius I, an aged civil officer of Roman origin, became Emperor, but it was not until 498 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance. Anastasius revealed himself to be an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine I's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis, the coin used in most everyday transactions. He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax. The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 lbs (145,150 kg) of gold when Anastasius died in 518.

Justinian I, who assumed the throne in 527, oversaw a period of recovery of former territories. Justinian, the son of an Illyrian peasant, may already have exerted effective control during the reign of his uncle, Justin I (518–527). In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids. In the same year, Justinian survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots) which ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters, on his orders.[36] This victory solidified Justinian's power. Pope Agapetus I was sent to Constantinople by the Ostrogothic king Theodahad, but failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian. However, he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced, despite Empress Theodora's support.

The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage. Their success came with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued. In Ostrogothic Italy, the deaths of Theodoric the Great, his nephew and heir Athalaric, and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer Theodahad on the throne despite his weakened authority. In 535, a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily was met with easy success, but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance, and victory did not come until 540, when Belisarius captured Ravenna, after successful sieges of Naples and Rome.

The Ostrogoths were united under the command of King Totila and captured Rome on 17 December 546. Justinian eventually called back Belisarius to Constantinople in early 549 from Ravenna.[40] The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy (late 551) with an army of some 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes. Totila was defeated at the Battle of Busta Gallorum and his successor, Teia, was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alamanni, the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end. In 551, Athanagild,a noble from Visigothic Hispania, sought Justinian's help in a rebellion against the king, and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius, a successful military commander. The Empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius.[42]

In the east, the Roman-Persian Wars continued until 561 when Justinian's and Khosrau's envoys agreed on a 50-year peace. By the mid-550s, Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation, with the notable exception of the Balkans, which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs. In 559, the Empire faced a great invasion of Kutrigurs and Sclaveni. Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat. The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty which allowed them safe passage back across the Danube.

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The Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management was mandated by Congress in the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act to address risks that are regulated under the many laws aimed at protecting the environment and protecting the health and safety of the American people from potentially dangerous exposures to chemicals and other hazardous substances and objects in air, water, food, the workplace, and consumer products. Of the 10 members of the Commission, 3 were appointed by the president, 6 by the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate, and 1 by the president of the National Academy of Sciences.(1) The Commission's mandate(2) is summarized in the following phrases:

  • Assess uses and limitations of risk assessment.
  • Evaluate exposure scenarios for risk characterization.
  • Determine how to describe and explain uncertainties.
  • Enhance strategies for risk-based management decisions.
  • Review desirability of consistency across federal programs.
  • The Commission was also asked to comment on the conclusions of Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (NRC 1994a) (see appendix A.3) and to make recommendations about peer review.

    Congress decided to create the Commission when agreement could not be reached, during drafting of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, on the best way for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to determine whether any significant risks to human health will remain after technology-based controls are implemented to reduce hazardous-pollutant emissions from stationary sources and, if so, what to do about those residual risks. There was disagreement about the risk-assessment techniques and assumptions that should be used to estimate residual risks, about the benchmarks that should be used to distinguish between negligible and unacceptable risks, and about the risk-management methods that should be used to mitigate unacceptable risks. But the Commission's mandate was not restricted to evaluating air pollution, the particulars of the Clean Air Act, or the EPA. Rather, it was limited to "cancer and other chronic human health effects," so we did not address environmental problems, such as global climate change, ozone depletion in the stratosphere, or protection of wetlands and other habitats. We do note, however, that human health depends on a healthy environment, that the general approaches of health risk assessment are applicable to ecological risk assessment, and that benefit-cost analyses should assess all benefits, not just human-health benefits.

    Through its deliberations, the Commission developed a shared vision of sustainable goals for our environment, our economy, and our society. Like the National Commission on the Environment (1992) and the President's Council on Sustainable Development (1996), we seek a convergence of economic and environmental goals and actions. We recognize that special sensitivity is required to encompass the diverse socioeconomic status and cultural practices of this nation. We seek a comprehensive, risk-based approach that puts specific actions in a public-health and ecological context.

    As a result of public recognition of environmental problems and translation of that recognition into effective action, tremendous progress has been achieved during the last 25 years in improving air quality, water quality, safety at work, safety of consumer products (including drugs and foods), testing of new chemicals before they are introduced into commerce, cleanup and disposal of hazardous wastes, and scientific study of health effects and ecological effects of chemicals, radiation, and microorganisms. Improvements in public health historically have come primarily from environmental interventions, such as proper waste disposal and hygiene, quarantines, clean water, and vaccines. Although many federal environmental laws share a primary goal of protecting the public's health and the environment, most environmental statutes have been media-specific and have relied on regulatory approaches rather than public-health approaches.

    We know that the gains of the last 25 years can be sustained only by continued action, especially as the economy and the population grow and new technologies are introduced, and we believe that the effort to sustain them will be most effective if regulatory and public-health agencies work together.

    Risk is a combination of the probability of an event--usually an adverse event--and the nature and severity of the event. We deal with risks all the time in everyday life--risks to our health, our environment, our pocketbooks, our social relationships. Risk is time-related, from immediate consequences of various actions or lack of action to consequences over a lifetime for an individual and much longer periods for the whole society or the planet. We make decisions to avoid risks, to reduce risks, to reduce the consequences of events, and to insure against the financial consequences of risks. We tend to downplay some risks; we find others frightening. Of course, people vary in those assessments, and their actions or concerns tend to vary accordingly. Often, the people who face specific risks are different from the people who benefit from the events involved in the risks, leading to conflict and litigation over proposed actions. Risk assessment itself has become controversial because of its important role in the protection of human health and the environment.

    A generally accepted framework and nomenclature for health risk assessment was established in 1983 by a National Academy of Sciences committee report, Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process (NRC 1983). The now universally recognized four-step framework for characterizing the likelihood of adverse health effects from particular chemical exposures is described briefly below and shown in the context of scientific issues and regulatory impact in figure 1.1.

    Figure 1.1 Elements of risk assessment and risk management

    Source: Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (NRC 1994a). Reprinted with permission.

  • Hazard identification: Determine the identities and quantities of environmental contaminants present that can pose a hazard to human health.

  • Dose-response assessment: Evaluate the relationship between contaminant exposure concentrations and the incidence of adverse effects in humans.

  • Exposure assessment: Determine the conditions under which people could be exposed to contaminants and the doses that could occur as a result of exposure.

  • Risk characterization: Describe the nature of adverse effects that can be attributed to contaminants, estimate their likelihood in exposed populations, and evaluate the strength of the evidence and the uncertainty associated with them.
  • The Commission was directed to focus on what Congress called "chronic health effects", meaning effects that do not occur immediately--like injuries from falling off a construction platform--but that are the cumulative result of repeated exposures that might take months, years, or decades to become manifest as health problems. Risks from chronic exposures arise from activities associated with the use and production of food, energy, industrial and consumer goods, and from the wastes produced through daily living. We recognize that voluntary uses of specific consumer products are also major contributors to death and poor health. Cigarette-smoking leads the list by a wide margin, accounting for an estimated 400,000 deaths every year (McGinnis and Foege 1993). Use of alcoholic beverages accounts for about 100,000 deaths, and motor-vehicle collisions for about 25,000 deaths. As many as 60,000 deaths per year are estimated to be attributable to airborne fine particles. Many activities individually contribute little to overall public-health risks but substantially when viewed collectively. For example, 60,000 deaths per year have been attributed to occupational and environmental chemical exposures of all types.

    Of all causes of death, the most salient for most people is cancer; it is important to recognize that cancer has multiple causes and is not a single disease. However, cancer is not the only cause of health concerns associated with environmental pollutants. Reproductive impairments, birth abnormalities, asthma and other forms of airway hyperactivity, and effects on all the organ systems of the body warrant serious attention from a risk-management perspective. Even if those health effects have modest impacts on mortality, they are important determinants of our quality of life.

    Risk assessment goes beyond scientific observations of exposures and effects in people, animals, or test systems to try to answer social questions about what is unsafe. There is a difference between what can be studied experimentally or be observed directly and what represents policy-driven extrapolation based on scientific inferences and many assumptions. The 1994 National Research Council report Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment captured this combination of science and values in its title.

    We face a huge challenge to manage comprehensively the health risks associated with the vast array of pollution-generating activities in this country. Our regulatory agencies are expected to control, down to an extremely low level, the potential cancer risks, for example, associated with each of those individual activities; a limit of less than 1 extra cancer death from a particular chemical per million persons exposed over a 70-year lifetime is generally used for screening purposes and when exceeded, might serve as a justification for seeking exposure monitoring data to more accurately characterize risks. Risk criteria used in regulating occupational exposure to specific chemicals often correspond to about 1 extra cancer death out of every 1,000 workers exposed over a working lifetime. For noncancer risks, regulatory agencies aim to reduce exposures to below presumed thresholds for adverse effects.

    As directed by Congress and reinforced by the Clinton Administration, we have framed our analyses and recommendations from the perspective of risk management. How do we use the tools of risk assessment and of economic analysis and consider social and cultural information to make better, more-efficient, more-understandable, and less-costly decisions about reducing risks that are judged to be too high? How do we compare risks and risk-reduction actions of various kinds to determine which deserve higher priority? What are the community, public-health, and environmental contexts for formulating a particular problem, characterizing its risks, deciding what to do about it, and evaluating the impact of actions taken? It is crucial to reach out to affected parties and communities to obtain knowledge about the nature of past and present exposures and to understand their concerns and perceptions about the risks under discussion and related risks. Communication about risks is a two-way process.

    To address those questions, the Commission proposes a comprehensive risk-management framework for making decisions about reducing risks to public health and the environment. The process includes detailed consideration of risk and cost and provides a context for social and cultural considerations. One salient feature of the framework is its explicit involvement of stakeholders in decisions about how to reduce the risks that affect them--through consensus or despite disagreement--depending on the circumstances. Another salient feature is the integrated, multimedia approach the framework takes to address multiple risks instead of individual risks.

    This report is the product of the Commission's deliberations and evaluations since May 1994 and constitutes a response to concerns of those who provided testimony before the Commission(3) and issue papers prepared for the Commission by several experts.(4) Section 2 describes the framework and its application, setting the stage for the rest of the report. Sections 3 and 4 provide guidance on how to approach the risk and cost components of the framework. Section 5 addresses ways to improve risk communication and risk management. Section 6 provides recommendations for specific federal regulatory agencies and programs.

    This report is a draft intended to elicit public review and comment. The draft and the reports abstracted in appendix A.5 are available from the internet at http://www.riskworld.com. The Commission welcomes written comments addressed to its office at 529 14th St. NW, Suite 452, Washington, DC 20045--preferably by July 17, so that they can be considered in a public hearing on July 23 in Boston, but as late as August 9, so that they can be considered in the preparation of the final report. The Commission's final report will be issued in October 1996 and will be followed by additional hearings and presentations at meetings.

    1Biographies of Commission members are provided in appendix A.1.

    2A copy of the Commission's mandate is included as appendix A.2.

    3A list of the persons who testified at Commission meetings is included as appendix A.4.

    4Abstracts of the issue papers prepared for the Commission are included as appendix A.5.

  • Table of Contents

  • Next Section


The Soul of Painting -- Themes

this will take time and expertise.

oil paintings, Chinese paintings, watercolor, urban paintings, romantic
landscapes, you can still create sub-themes.

whatever it is that you desire.

of painting.

next Da Vinci or Michelangelo.

Important Information on Paintings for Would Be Painters

prehistoric people look lively and fresh.

colorfulness of the entire surroundings served as man's inspiration to recreate

outstanding artists were considered phenomenal. Great painters included
different styles as shown on their paintings.

Impressionism, Marbling, Mannerism, Modernism, Minimalism, Neoclassicism,
Wood Graining, and Theorem.

Maharashtra's Warli paintings, Orissa's Pata Chitra, and Rajasthan's Phad
many painting art works that you can check out.

understand the meaning of paintings. For instance, not all individuals

a suitable medium and work on your own painting.

Paintings are already part of human existence. People should learn to
developed and evolved for thousands of years.

Oil Painting -- To Collect or to Invest?

original classic paintings done by famous painters.

Precious oil paintings can be found in private collections and museums and
investing on oil paintings.

Original paintings are very expensive but now you can purchase oil paintings
companies that sell reproductions of the original paintings. The company simply
classics, you can also have your favorite photograph or cherished painting
translated into an oil painting. There are some companies that commission
like. Some companies allow price negotiations while others have already set
and most especially, one that will suit your budget.

like excessive humidity, extreme temperatures, and harsh sunlight can destroy
your paintings.

the paintings.

Watercolor Paintings -- Why You Should Try It

get satisfying results.

the papers needed is also not required.

doesn't smudge.

the piece dries up completely.

strokes, you can already fill large areas.

about accidents during watercolor painting because it can magically develop
start your painting and see what designs it can create.

your creativity for the rest of your life.

create more artistic and unique watercolor paintings. Never stop learning
you can use in your paintings.

Famous Paintings -- An Inspiration to Other Painters

renowned artists.

different parts of the world.

loved and became immensely famous in different periods.

decide which art painting is among the greatest.

and Madonna and Child.

children in art classes know their famous works.

one day their works will also become famous.

as long as the people around you loves your work.

Take the Country to your Home with Landscape Paintings

wonders that are awe-inspiring and simply breathtaking.

beauty of nature.

paintings in your home.

Not all original landscaping paintings have high prices. There are landscape
and your painting can be a classic.

themed room.

Nature Paintings: A Great Addition to Your Living Room

work, would you?

and cars bustling around the highways.

of nature in paintings.

someone else purchases it.

artists will use the internet to advertise their paintings that is available
painting you want right away.

away from the busy city and into the heart of nature.

Contemporary Painting -- What is it?

are one of the most expensive contemporary paintings because of its high
appreciated up to the present.

have to visit these different museums.

created abstract paintings with various themes. The colors used in contemporary
twentieth and nineteenth century paintings because it's worth every penny. If
contemporary paintings. These replicas are more affordable and looks just like
the original.

There are also centers exclusively for contemporary arts such as paintings and
you can find them in Cincinnati and Virginia.

your office. Contemporary oil paintings are truly expensive especially the

gallery or a certain company that can cater to your needs.

You can either purchase the paintings for investment purposes or for your
Visit the modern art galleries today.

Getting Your Image Immortalized Through Portrait Paintings

is the way to go.

early 1500s and is still in very good condition.

Rembrandt is another famous artist that creates portraits. Some other famous
Hermitage, and the Louvre.

with utmost realism.

artists today will be able to copy it.

realistic effect but most artists prefer oil painting as water color portraits
are often very hard to produce.

really quite do faces as well.

painting is finished.

are planning to get made.

Pablo Picasso Paintings And Releasing Your Inner Picasso

Picasso is one talented painter who is known to have invented abstract

This type of painting uses geometric figures to simplify or to exaggerate

paint like Picasso and decorate your home beautifully.

an image that cannot be seen in real life.

searching for Guernica and The Guitar Player.

time. This effect is what you are really after.

seen in real life.

different shades.

like a Picasso.

Leonardo da Vinci's Most Famous Paintings -- The Mona Lisa

greatest creations which millions of people all over the world from different
the hearts of people because of Mona Lisa's captivating smile.

commissioned by Leonardo's father. Despite the revealed facts, people still

theories have shown the model might be Aragon's Isabella or Constanza d'Avalos

is still very popular up to present.

The Cave Paintings of Trois Freres Helpless romantics dream of traveling to France for a number of reasons. The country is quite well-known for its romantic places and atmosphere. But did you know that there's more to see in France aside from the lovely romantic places? Yes, that's true and one is the cave paintings of Trois Freres. Not all individuals appreciate paintings. Oftentimes, it depends on the person's taste and interests. If you're interested in cave paintings, you can also find some of them in France. Trois Freres shows fascinating images about the people of prehistoric times. Visiting the cave is like exploring the world many years ago. You can learn a lot from the paintings, but only if you appreciate them. Though people lived primitively thousands of years ago, they seem to know quite a lot. They knew about the different patterns and seasons of life. The seasonal variations and their food supplies are the determining factors between living or dying. The cave paintings in France show this great knowledge about the ancestors of the French people. Translated in English, Trois Freres means Three Brothers. The paintings on the cave show indistinct images of animals and certain figures which experts believe to be a shaman. Trois Freres attracted international attention because of the depictions in the cave. The paintings are found in the far corners of the cave and so you have to go deeper to be able to get a good glimpse of such a work of art. The paintings have a graphical nature and was skillfully drawn. You can easily make out the figures to be beasts and cattle surrounding a high figure that reaches the cave roof. This central figure is about 70 cm or 2 1/2 ft tall and appears to be half human and half animal. The figure has deer antlers and wears a mask with an eye of an owl. Below the mask is a beard and the hands are hidden within bear paws or lion paws. The back of the figure can be compared to that of a certain animal and somehow it appears that the figure is wearing an animal skin of some sort. The figure has an erect penis covered by a fox tail. Experts called the figure 'Animal Master' and if you want to see the picture of the cave painting, you can go to France or you can search the net and simply type the words 'Trois Freres'. Find a link that will show you the painting itself. You can use any of the popular search engines in order to get a glimpse of the cave painting. If you try to conduct a research on the net, you can read many speculations and comments about the cave painting. The painting is like the sketchpad of the prehistoric people. Animals or beasts were drawn on top of one another. Experts believed that the paintings are more than 14,000 years old or even longer. Today, painters and other artists treat art as a process. It is the expression, recording, and reflection of the divine or inner nature of the artist. But did the primitive artists view art in the same way? Perhaps there's more to their drawings that what modern experts and artists can understand. You can find other cave paintings in Asia and in Europe. To better understand the paintings, just allow your imagination to take over. All About Tole Painting, Learning the Basics There are different kinds or types of painting and for the ordinary indivudal, it can be rather confusing. You probably have come across oil paintings, watercolor paintings, body painting, face painting, and many others; but did you know about tole painting? Tole painting is considered as folk art. It is the painting of wooden and tin utensils, furniture, and other objects in a decorative way. Objects may refer to metallic objects like coffee pots, kitchen utensils, and other household items. The wooden objects can be chairs, tables, chests, jewelry boxes, and even toy boxes. When did tole painting started? It all started in New England way back in the eighteenth century particularly in Pennsylvania. It was done by the German immigrants at that time. The same thing happened in Scandinavian countries and its Swedes, Danes, and Norwegian immigrants. The Germans concentrated more in tin and metal tole painting. On the other hand, Scandinavians worked on furniture and wooden objects. There is a slight difference in the patterns of these two traditions. Tole painting in today's modern times makes use of long-lasting, sturdy, and inexpensive acrylic paints. How is tole painting done? First, the wooden objects are sealed and then primed. After that, the object is sanded and the paint is decoratively applied. What makes tole painting valuable? Oftentimes, the skill in tole painting runs in the family. Therefore, the story and favorite patterns of the family are shown in the various tole paintings. The paintings are painted in freehand and it can be of humorous themes, various colors, family jokes, and illustrations of family stories. There are expensive as well as cheap tole paintings. It all depends on the quality of the utensil, the personalization, the art, the work, and the story. There is a great advantage in tole painting especially if it is your craft. For instance, if you come up with a not-so-good painting, you can easily sand it off and then repaint the utensil. Experts though can tell if a certain tole painting is repainted -- there is an indistinct background of a certain object. Repainting often occurs if the painter is still inexperienced. Some pieces of furniture, utensils, and similar objects are repainted because it is too valuable to the owner and they don't want to get rid of it and so instead, they have it repainted. Now, you can find tole paintings in various surfaces unlike before where you only see them in metal-ware and tin surfaces. If you want to learn more about tole painting, try to search the internet for important information regarding this type of art. If you do your research, you can find tole painting resources like project instructions, tips on how to do tole painting, and your needed supplies. There are online tole painting shops that you can visit that sell handmade and tole painted items. You choose a utensil, furniture, chest, chair, table, or other objects that are tole painted. You can easily purchase them online as long as you have a credit card. Be careful though when making online purchases; just make sure that the page is encrypted so that you can protect yourself from online scammers. Tole painting is becoming more popular nowadays. With the demand for tole painted items increasing, the price of such items can increase in the future. If you want, you can invest in tole painting and have a business of your own. You can even do the work yourself especially if you're artistic and creative. Japanese Paintings: Adding Elegance in Your Home Japan is known for its extraordinary customs and traditions. In everything the Japanese people do, there are rituals that look so elegant. Even the art of painting in Japan has its very own distinctive style. Influenced by the Chinese, you will see that Japanese paintings will give elegance and grace to any room. Even if the paintings aren't really that realistic, the colors used and the details look so exquisite. In the past, Japanese houses, especially houses of noblemen were adorned with paintings. You will see that the masterpieces of Japanese paintings are very popular nowadays that some can even reach millions of dollars in its price tag. The great thing about Japanese paintings is that it creates a certain grace to any room you put it in. It is very elegant to look at and the colors are fantastically well balanced that it provides harmony to the room that it is hanged on. Although some paintings in Japan are now influenced by Western style painting, it is still very distinctive and majority of the style comes from Japan and other eastern influences. If you want to add a certain elegance in your living room or in your office, Japanese paintings are the way to go. With it, you will be able to entertain your guests and also introduce the eastern culture. Because Japanese paintings are very rich in color and uses a distinct style, you will be able to see that the natural colors are so well-blended that it will have great effect on any lighting situations. Japanese paintings use warm colors and mix it with vibrant ones. Also, the great thing about Japanese paintings is that the lines are also very balanced accordingly that it will provide a great effect to the environment. Whether it is a nature painting or portrait that you want, you can be sure that Japanese paintings will be able to awe and capture its audience. Japanese paintings are so well made that it has captured the hearts of many people. By taking one look at a Japanese painting, you will see that it will create a sense of space and aesthetic beauty to any room you place it in. Popular types of Japanese paintings have subjects, such as landscapes, famous Japanese places, spectacular scenery, and everyday activities of Japanese people in the past as well as beautiful geishas or women. Japanese paintings will provide you with a sense of harmony and space. Just the sheer beauty of Japanese paintings is enough to capture your heart and will definitely make you want to own one. These are the things that you have to remember about Japanese paintings. If you really want an authentic Japanese painting, you will want to try visiting Japan. Here, you will see that there are a lot of paintings to choose from made by real professional Japanese artists. However, there are also some Japanese artists who make their work in the United States. Some can even make it in Japan and is available for sale online. Whichever you choose and whatever your taste is, you can be sure that Japanese paintings will have the right painting for you. With a Japanese painting hanging in your living room, you can be sure that it will not only awe your guests in astonishment of the sheer beauty of the painting, but also provide harmony and elegance to the room you place it in. What Abstract Painting is all About Perhaps you've seen a lot of paintings already and out of the paintings you've seen, you appreciate only a few of them. You see, there are different painting styles and techniques used by painters. One of these styles is abstract painting. When you say abstract painting, not many appreciate it probably because of its different style and not so ordinary appearance. But despite the oddness of such painting style, you should not judge it at first sight. Instead, you should try to understand why it was painted. Abstract painting started hundreds of years ago. There are famous abstract paintings housed in museums. Private collectors who love abstract painting also have some of them. Abstract paintings are good investments as well as collection items. You'll never know how much a certain painting would cost in the future and with the great awareness and appreciation of people nowadays for abstract painting, even you can't tell a paintings value. Some of the famous abstract painters were Picasso, Van Gogh, and Modigliani. Because of these artist's beautiful works, abstract painting became even more famous. Do you know what abstract painting is? This type of painting can be defined in various ways. Unlike traditional paintings, abstract painting doesn't portray reality. Before, painting was all about depicting a realistic or photographic expression of something or someone. However, abstract paintings are a lot different. The painting itself does not illustrate real objects. The shapes and colors shown in abstract paintings are non-objective and non-representing. The painting may refer to a person or to any other individual, anything, or even nothing. If you can't understand the meaning of a particular painting, you can ask the experts or even the painter about its meaning. Natural art lovers on the other hand, don't need explanations because if they love abstract paintings, they will understand clearly the significance of the painting. Try to look at an abstract painting. You will see bright, vivid, and bold colors. Aside from the colors, you will also note that the painting has biometric shapes. For art lovers, this is a beautiful and strange piece. Way back in 1940, Abstract Expressionism is a movement pushed through by the artists. The artists and painters supported abstract painting and they wanted the freedom of expression through the paintings they made. This made abstract painting more popular. The movement began in a particular school in New York and the movement was also called Action Painting. Among the American schools that joined the movement declared their independence from the artworks of European style. After this, abstract painting was pushed forward. In order to understand and appreciate abstract painting, you must know its humble beginnings. Even if abstract painting is quite odd, you should still learn to love it because its part of history and it is still a painting which expresses the thoughts and feelings of painters. You can get paintings like this in art galleries online and local art shops. Some are quite expensive but there are also cheap ones. You can get replicas of the original classic abstract paintings made by the famous painters by purchasing them in certain companies that commission this kind of painting style. Try to conduct a research about abstract painting. You can find many resources online so that you will understand more about this painting style. A painting is not always a representation of a specific object or person and that is exactly what abstract painting is all about. Andy Warhol Paintings: The Pinnacle of Pop In 1928, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania hosted the birth of a man that would soon change the face of modern art. Named Andrew Warhola, this was a man that was destined to rule Pop art and define its parameters, or most aptly, blur its lines. Andy Warhol paintings today are considered as priceless collectors item's and even replica's of his art work are considered as great additions to any home. What fueled Warhol's success was his paintings of pop culture and icons and this series began in the 1960's. His first series of paintings were silkscreen images of cans of Campbells soup. This representation of everyday items was what spurred the pop art movement then. Warhol was seemingly showing the people how obsessed they were with consumerism and gave those everyday objects an iconic feel. Aside from the Campbells Soup Cans, Warhol also used other brands and images like boxes of Brillo, Coke bottles and even the American dollar bill. The technique Warhol used, silkscreening, allowed him to do multiple images and use different colors and variances in the effect. This is what catapulted Warhol to stardom in the pop art world. Already gaining recognition for his work, Andy Warhol then moved on from painting consumer images to concentrating on subjects which depicted the images of the popular figures in America in that era. This is when the famous paintings of Marilyn Monore, Jackie Onassis and Elvis Presley came to be. By that time, Andy Warhol's paintings skyrocketed to popularity and he was producing paintings at a fast pace. Exhibits of his works were being done everywhere and even overseas. Every image that he portrayed in his works became instant icons and he's paintings was very much in demand. Warhol would soon use this new fund fame to cross the lines between commercialism and fine art, for which some people would wholeheartedly accept. Warhol's innovation in his works of art was by no means stagnant. Although he continued to make portraits of famous figures, moving on to Michael Jackson, Mick Jagger and others, he let go of his repetitive style that helped start his career. He still produced very colorful art works and moved on to different subjects that would shock yet delight the Art world. Warhol's paintings though were not entirely focused on the life of the rich and famous, he also dubbed with other themes and had some series of paintings as well that dealt with the social aspect of life. His series the death and disaster used heavily edited photographs and painted racism, electric chair executions, car accidents and such. Although these were not as popular nor as well accepted as his other paintings, the series still is a part of his genuine artistry. Andy Warhol's love for his pets also inspired a series of paintings dubbed as cats and dogs. An animal lover himself, Warhol painted cats that were photographed by a renowned cat photographer. And being a dog owner, he had two dogs at the least, he also produced images of his dogs. Today, many Andy Warhol paintings are in great demand and command prices amounting to millions of dollars. His birthplace in Pennsylvania houses the Andy Warhol Museum and many collectors from all over the world hang their prized Andy Warhol paintings on their walls. Discover the Pleasure Derived from Flower Paintings When we paint, we release some sort of energy within ourselves, we express our emotions and we share with other people how we perceive life as we see it with our own eyes. Also, paintings doesn't have to be exclusively enjoyed by the artists when we paint them, but more so, paintings are for the people who see them, to appreciate them and to understand the beauty of what surrounds us. Usually, when painters create their works of art, they get their inspiration from what they see, be it people, landscapes, trees, animals, flowers and almost anything there is that we see, and some times, what we don't see. Generally, painters see the beauty of nature and transfer this unto a canvas or any other medium. For those who love flower paintings, you are in luck because many artists choose this theme for their works of art. Still life and flower paintings are very popular themes and many homes have these types of painting inside. In fact, you will be able to choose numerous types of flora and find that there are paintings done about them already, albeit in different styles and moods, some can be bright and happy while some can be dark and droopy, this all depends on what the artist wants to convey. Aside from just an appreciative audience for flower paintings, all aspiring artists can use flowers as the themes of their first paintings. The great thing about choosing flowers as your theme is it would be hard to run out of subjects. With so many types of flora available, you can do a variety of flower paintings. In fact, with the orchid alone, you can choose from the many types of orchids there are. Also, flowers are very colorful so that means you can have a very vibrant looking work of art. What you need to understand is that painting flowers may seem very simple, but to make them look utterly magnificent, you need to learn how to play with your curves and lines to make them look vibrant and real. Play with the lighting as well so you can create a flower painting that seems like you could already smell the flower. If you want to learn how to paint flowers with the greatest of ease, there are many books and DVD's that you can refer to and discover the secrets in creating realistic looking flowers. If you want, you can also join art classes in your local area. If not, there are online art schools that can help you discover the fun world of flower painting. But why flowers? Each delicate curve, line, shape and color that goes into flowers is a challenge in itself. Nature has made the flowers to provide it with color in a natural way. Men have always been fascinated with flowers and this is evident in many homes as there is usually an image or two found inside of them. Sure photographs can be blown up and framed and can give a more realistic feel, but there's just something about flower paintings that can never be captured by the lens. Also, if you painted the flower yourself, you will derive a lot of satisfaction knowing that you have created your own personal masterpiece. Steps to Follow for Pumpkin Painting Little children are looking forward to Halloween. It is the time when they can play tricks on other kids and older people. Aside from that, they also get a chance to ask for candies and other treats from the different houses they visit. During Halloween, you will often see lawns decorated with pumpkins. If you would like to put pumpkins on your lawns, you will need designs for pumpkin painting. Decorating pumpkins is not that hard. When the Halloween season is already near, you can start looking for excellent decorating ideas. Make this year an extra memorable one. You can decorate the pumpkins together with your family and closest friends. There are fast ways to do this task, just read on and you will find out. First and foremost, you have to shop for a pumpkin that has a flat bottom surface. It doesn't have to be really flat; a bit flat surface will do even on one side. You will need this if you have kids joining the painting session. But if you're all older adults, any pumpkin will do. Once you've purchased the pumpkins, drop by a local paint or craft store. Buy acrylic paints because this is suitable for pumpkin painting. You can get the paints in bigger bottles, enough for the whole family. You can get different colors especially if you have kids helping out so that they can create their own crazy designs. Before you start the painting session, you must determine first the design. Teach the kids the steps in painting. You can create scary designs or even funny designs. You can find a lot of designs on the net even if you log on for just several minutes. You just have to type the words 'pumpkin painting' and the results will be displayed on the screen. You can even create faces of celebrities. This is rather difficult because you have to concentrate on the details of the face. You can put wigs and ties on that the pumpkins to accentuate the face of the pumpkin. To make a good face design on the pumpkins, you simply have to put the distinguishing feature of the celebrity and exagerate it a bit. You can also make other designs aside from the faces. You can make monster designs, animal designs and many others. Pick something that you're interested in so that it will be a lot easier to paint on the pumpkin. Aside from the acrylic paints, you need to buy paint brushes and small containers where you can mix and match the paints. Once you know the particular design, you can start painting. Sit in a circle and put some newspapers on the center. Put the paints, brushes, and other materials over the newspaper. Give each family member a pumpkin and then you can start painting. This is a very exciting activity for the whole family and among friends for the upcoming Halloween. You can put lights inside the pumpkin heads to make the design more visible at night. Do your pumpkin painting a day before Halloween. This way, you can prepare for your costumes, treats, candies, and other things that you will use for the special occasion. Enjoy pumpkin painting with your family and friends. This year's Halloween will surely be extra memorable. Useful Ideas for Face Painting for Beginners There are many styles and techniques used in painting. Some painters paint over canvas, stones, walls, paper, and many others. But did you know that face painting is gaining popularity over the years? Face painting started many years ago. In fact, ancient people already practiced face paintings like the Egyptians and many other tribes. Today, people love face painting. It gives them pleasure and at the same time, they are also having fun. If you want to learn face painting, you should make use of these ideas for face painting. If this is your first time to do face painting, you have to gather much information about the topic. You can read a face painting book or you can also watch videos that teach beginners how to do face painting. If you want, you can also search the net for useful information regarding this particular work of art. Study the information you've gathered. After that, go to an art shop and purchase paints, paint brushes, sponges, and other materials that you will use. If you want to improve your skills in face painting, you will have to practice. As the saying goes -- practice makes perfect. If you simply leave the paints, brushes, and all your other art materials lying around, you will not learn anything. During your vacant time or when you're just relaxing and doing nothing, pick up your brush and start painting. You have to have someone who you can practice with but just make sure that you practice with an older child or an adult. Having small children around is not a good idea as they have shorter attention span. They will only be fidgety and you can't do a good job. By having an adult or a much older child, you can practice without any complaints. The person should also be interested in face painting so that you will not encounter any problems and difficulty. When you're already face painting, apply only thin coats of paint. Don't apply a think coating or layer otherwise, the design will tend to crack and cake. If you need to apply two or more layers of paint, let the first layer dry first. Once the first layer is completely dry, you can now apply the second layer. To outline the shapes you're making, you can make use of makeup pencils. You can also purchase this in art shops. Don't try difficult designs like symmetrical ones. You can do this if you're already experienced. For starters, you can do animals because it is not very detailed when it comes to the designs on both sides of the face. Painting a butterfly is difficult because it is a symmetrical design. You have to wait until you're ready for that. Try to use your imagination. You can create small tattoos or stamps like spiders, snakes, lizards, and many others. You can use temporary tattoos as reference but make sure that you choose one that is appropriate for face painting. The internet offers many possibilities. If you're really artistic and you came up with unique ideas for face painting, you can make your own collections and build your own site. This way, you can create your hobby into a business. Face painting can remove stress and tension. Practice this excellent work of art. Once you've developed the skill, you can try the more difficult techniques or styles. Children's Face Painting Designs Face painting designs are becoming more and more popular these days. It is not only an activity for adults but also for young children. You can have a great time with your friends and other family members by doing face painting. If you want to learn face painting, you should practice often and while you're at it, you should practice on designs that everyone else likes, especially you and your child. Quarreling and teasing is ordinary among children. If you teach your child to do face painting designs which are not that popular, other children may tease him or her. So to avoid this circumstance, you have to research on the most requested and most popular designs for children face painting. It would take experience and extensive research to know the different designs that you can use for face painting among children. But that was years ago. Now, you will simply type the keywords that you want to research and you'll get instant results. For instance, you type 'children's face painting designs'. After several seconds, the results will be displayed and you will simply choose a link that will lead you to a certain website that dabbles with the designs you need. By researching online, you will be able to find out the popular designs amongst children and not only that; you can also find designs that suit adults and teens. You're quite lucky because you don't have to go through extensive research just to find out about the different designs that are available. For little girls, you can do designs like butterfly, princess, fantasy, fairy, bunny rabbit, lady bug, flowers, rainbow, witch, and cat. For little boys, you can do a spider design, monster, tribal, robot, skull, pirate, reptile, tiger, bat, and puppy dog. Those are just some of the designs that you can use. It may be hard at first because children can't paint accurately. It would greatly help if you can get a copy of the design online. You see, trying to imagine what the design would look like is hard for children. But if they have a reference or basis, they will surely be able to get the detailed features of the design. There are some websites that allow free downloads of the pictures of the designs and there are also those that charge a small fee. Oftentimes, you can get the best pictures and designs on paid websites rather than the free sites. But if you try to scour the free sites, you might be able to find a design that your child will like. It would also be best if you conduct your research together with your child so that he or she can join in the selection of the design. This will serve as your bonding time and who knows, you can create happy memories together that your child will remember for a lifetime. The interests of children can change easily so be ready with other beautiful and eye catching designs. But if you're just starting out, you can concentrate first in the first ten most requested designs. If your child can't paint the design alone, you can help him or her. As parents, you should also practice face painting because you can't possibly teach your child something that you don't know yet. The key to making great face painting designs is practice. So keep practicing and one day, you and your child will be an expert in face painting. Need Face Painting Examples for Your Kid's Party? It's amazing how our creativity seems to have no boundaries. Artistry has gone a long way and different mediums have cropped up. But when it comes to art, most people would think about big pictures by talented artists who someday would have a name as big as the price tag attached to their work. But artistry is not just for the highly talented, mostly, artistry begins with children and this is where its purity lies unchanged. Face painting is an art where people, with or without exceptional talent can have lots of fun. Parents and their children can have a fantastic bonding time together while their faces are being painted. For parties, both children and adults can go wacky over the many different designs that they can make use of. It is not just at children's birthday parties can you find face painting. Adult parties have them too and this happens most especially in Halloween. But that doesn't have to stop there. There are still many events and venues that you can have face painting as an activity or a contest, aside from the usual costume competitions, or maybe just plainly wanting to go and look your best or you're spookiest. Forget about monsters, fairies and underworld creatures, there are so much more to face painting than scary ghouls. Your creativity would only be limited by your imagination. But if you're stuck in a rut and can't seem to get any ideas on which design you want, then you will need some face painting examples. The great thing about face painting examples today is that you don't have to go to the library or to a bookstore to borrow or purchase face painting books to get your creative juices flowing. All you simply have to do is to log on to the internet and do a search for the numerous face painting examples that are offered in the websites that do offer them. Many of these face painting examples are given for free. You will be able to browse through their pages and see the designs they have. Usually the examples of these designs are already categorized by their themes. So if you're looking for an animal or say nature or clown designs, you will be able to find their examples in a jiffy. It's always advisable to know first the design that you are looking for. This way, you can directly go to the category that you are looking for and start choosing which one you think you will be able to copy or reproduce. If you just go in without any idea of what you want or need, you will be swamped by the thousands of face painting examples that are available and will have so much difficulty in choosing one. Also, try to choose that you think you will be able to do. If you pick a design that is too elaborate for your artistic skills, you may just end up frustrated and botch the job. Also remember to get the opinion of your child and let him or her help you choose, this should be fun for both you and your child. Remember, face painting should be fun as they are done for fun filled activities, don't be stressed out even when you are just beginning to look for a design or example. Go online and get your work over with in no time at all. Ideas for Halloween Face Painting Halloween is fun both for adults and young kids. If you've enjoyed painting pumpkins with your family and friends, you will surely enjoy face painting during this special occasion. You can scare the wits out of young kids and even adults if you paint scary faces once they knock on your door and ask the same old line -- 'trick or treat'. Here are some excellent ideas for Halloween face painting. Pumpkin -- you can paint a pumpkin on both sides of your cheeks. The pumpkin should be bright orange in color. The nose, mouth, and eyes can be painted in black. The outline and ridges of pumpkin design should be light grey. If you want, you can make your whole face look like a pumpkin. The base should be orange and for the cheekbones, you have to apply a darker shade of orange. Make a triangle shape over your eyes and paint it black. For your lips and nose, you must paint it black as well. Skull -- the skull design should occupy the whole face. The base should be white and after you've painted the white paint, you can paint a bright red color for the lips. Make an outline of fangs on both sides of your mouth in light grey. The fill should be white and the tip should be painted in red so that it will look like blood. Use smoky grey for the eye lids and exaggerate your eye brows with sweeping strokes in black color. Bat -- make a bat design over your whole face. Just like the skull design, use white color as base. Above your nose and your forehead, paint the face of the bat in black and light grey for the eyeballs. The body of the bat should be painted over your nose ending at the nostril's base. Use different shades of black for the body. The wings cover your eyes and your mid-cheek. You can paint some definitions by using light grey on the wings. Over your lips, paint exaggerated curls upward to the corners. Use your imagination and you can create a realistic bat design. These are just four great ideas that you can use. if you want, you can obtain other painting ideas online. There are many helpful websites you can visit to get some great ideas for Halloween face painting. Visit the different sites and if you're diligent with your search, you can find pictures of the designs. With a picture to refer to, it will be a lot easier to paint because you already have a clear idea of what the design will look like. Find a design that you like so that it will be easier to paint. You can even paint your own face if you like, but this will a bit difficult. Get the whole family involved and paint each other's face. But before anything else, you have to buy face paints, paint brushes, and other painting materials that you will need. You can purchase them in paint stores or in craft stores. Celebrate Halloween with your family and friends. Give life to this special occasion by doing some face painting. Just remember to wash the paint off your face before you go to sleep to avoid any irritations. Have fun this Halloween season by painting your face in different designs. Body Painting with Women Subjects Artists find the body of women as an intriguing and unique subject matter, well, this genereally gets the approval of a lot of men, artist or not. Because of this, body painting with women subjects has become popular especially in today's times. There is even a festival for body painting and painters from all over the world are looking forward to join these events. Body painting is considered a delicate art form. In fact, this kind of painting was developed many years ago. Tribes of our yesteryears performed body painting during special ceremonies. Some tribes do body painting merely for aesthetic purposes. However, our ancestors did not use paints like the ones sold in markets today. They used natural pigments and clay to do body painting. Today, body painting is still being practiced, particularly with Mehndi. This body painting form makes use of henna dyes and this is very popular in the western countries. An example is a semi-permanent henna tattoo. During the 1960's, body painting was very popular as an art form. Back then, the social acceptability of this art form was always in question and in fact, experts conduct endless discussions about it. More often, body painting involves nudity and because of this, the art form is questioned by the norms of the society. In body painting, you don't just use any kind of paint. The use of body paints is restricted to some guidelines -- the paint should be non-allergenic and non-toxic. Artists should only use paints that can be easily washed with water and ordinary soaps. As mentioned earlier, there are semi-permanent body paints like those used in Mehndi. It uses natural and synthetic henna. The natural shade is available in brown color while the synthetic is black. For safe body painting, one should use the natural henna or the brown dye. If you use the black synthetic dye, allergic reactions can occur. However, if you want to use the black dye, a patch test should first be conducted to make sure that it is safe to be used by the subject. So now you know a bit of body painting's background. If you want to practice body painting, you can enroll in certain classes. Presently, nudity in works of art is but natural. It is more acceptable now unlike many years ago. Women are no longer ashamed to be used as subjects in body painting. Besides, most women are paid with huge sums of money with a single session. For starters, you should practice body painting with someone that you're comfortable with. A friend or even a loved one can do but it will be a lot easier if you practice in a class so that you don't have to worry about the woman subject you need. Body painting is a special kind of art that requires years of practice before you can become an expert in the field. While you're still in the learning process, you have to continue your research. The internet can provide you with all the resources you need. You simply have to spend enough time to research and study so that you will know all the valuable information you need. You should be open to the possibility of nude body painting with women subjects. Your mind should be free from inhibitions so that you too can create a beautiful work of art. In time, you will be ready to join the festival for body painting where your skills can be recognized all over the world.


Transfer Fee Covenants and Homeowner's Associations

by Jason Story December 8 2010, 18:00
In August 2010, the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) proposed “Guidance on Private Transfer Fee Covenants” (No. 2010-N-11) that would prohibit Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Federal Home Loan Banks from purchasing mortgages with private transfer fee covenants. A private transfer fee is charged each time a property subject to such a covenant is sold. The fee is typically calculated as a percentage of the property’s sales price. These covenants are commonly used by homeowner associations.

FHFA’s stated reason for this decision was that these covenants “appear adverse to liquidity, affordability and stability in the housing finance market and to financially safe and sound investments.” FHFA was further concerned with the private income streams created by these covenants and whether all of the money collected was used for the stated purpose of the fees. Another concern was with disclosure of the fees since they can be hidden with other closing costs at the time of sale of a property. FHFA was also concerned with harm to the valuation of properties encumbered by these private transfer fee covenants. [More]

Real Estate

ASX-SGX Merger: What Should Matter?

by Claire Sheppard December 8 2010, 17:47
Currently, the Australian government is considering the merits of a proposed takeover by the Singapore Exchange Limited (SGX) of the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). The over-$8 billion deal has the goal of creating a dominant force in the Asian-Pacific region and a globally-salient exchange. In fact, the merged exchange would “create the world’s fifth-largest market operator by share value.” The discussion should be focused on the viability of the merger, especially the potential impact on investors, the region, and the world. Debates about the pros and cons would seemingly be productive to decide whether or not the deal would be the right path to take in regards to the ASX, an exchange that some say would become “irrelevant” without merging with SGX. The talks since the merger was proposed have devolved however to the levels of political infighting. In the current scrum of the Australian Parliament, a few themes have emerged as the hot issues, specifically: Singapore’s human rights record, the breakdowns of representation and ownership of ASX-SGX exchange, and Australian national interest. In deciding whether to combine exchanges should these concerns play a dominant role in evaluation and discussion over the raw data on the viability and projections for the combined exchanges? [More]

Is the SEC blind?

by Stuart Wallace December 4 2010, 18:07
How does the SEC determine where to deploy its resources? What criteria does the SEC use to decide which companies to monitor and which to ignore?

Answers to these questions and more were recently presented to the Illinois Corporate Colloquium by Cindy Alexander, an economist at the SEC. In her working paper, “Regulating Monitoring Under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act”(available here), Ms. Alexander and her coauthor Kathleen Hanley examine the usefulness of two factors used by the SEC in determining which companies to monitor: firm size and stock price volatility. Their findings suggest the answer to my title question is, decidedly, no. [More]

Undervalued Renminbi: Illegal or Inefficient?

by Shiyi Chen December 4 2010, 17:34
The Chinese exchange rate has been thought to be undervalued for a long time, and recently, it is facing more pressure from other countries, especially U.S., because of its “negative” impact on the world economy. As long as China is a member of the WTO, the dispute over its currency exchange rate shall be subject to the WTO Agreement and IMF rule, and the U.S. has tried to put legal pressure on China under these international agreements. However, there are several obstacles to success under such legal claims. On the other side, with the process of economic interpretation, the dispute has more impact on worldwide economic development, especially China, one of the largest markets.

In this article, I tried to analysis the issue from the following points. Firstly, the article discusses whether the Chinese currency (Renminbi) is undervalued or not based on the economic development of China in the past several years. Secondly, the article explains the possibility of pushing China to increase its exchange rate under relevant international agreements, and obstacles in doing so. Lastly, by looking at the problem from an economic aspect, the article weighs the potential positive impact and negative impact on China’s economy after increasing the exchange rate. [More]

The Social Network: Defamation or Right to Privacy

by Kasia Kaminski November 27 2010, 22:21
Facebook has become a fixture in pop culture, with over 500 million users to date. Its creator Mark Zukerburg has been thrust into the spotlight, seemingly not by choice, with the publication of such works such as Ben Mezrich’s “The Accidental Billionaires” and Aaron Sorkin’s The Social Network. While creating one of the most widely recognized social networking platforms in the last decade, Zukerburg always attempted to put his product in the headlines, not himself or his story. The unwelcome push of Zukerburg’s personal story by The Social Network was intended to portray him, according to Sorkin, as being a part of “a very angry and deeply misogynistic group of people…[not] the cuddly nerds in the 80′s…[people who are] very angry that the cheerleader still wants to go out with the quarterback instead of the men (boys) who are running the universe right now.” The dramatic change in the amount of privacy allotted to a person, and the liberty with which third parties can take, begs the question of what recourse is available, if any, to protect our name and our image. [More]

by Shannon Burkhead November 26 2010, 17:29
As the year comes to a close, many people are wondering what will happen to the infamous Bush Tax Cuts. There are three main possibilities for what could happen to the tax cuts: extend them for everyone, let them expire for everyone or let them expire only for the “rich,” while keeping them in place for everyone else. While many people are arguing their views back and forth, chances are whatever happens (or doesn’t happen) to the tax cuts won’t solve our economy’s overall problems. Many will agree that our economy is faulty at its best and utterly failing at its worst. While there is a lot of curiosity about what will happen at the close of the year, in relation to the tax cuts, there is a bigger picture. In order to really work towards improving our economy, it is necessary to look towards more stable and permanent changes. Further, in order to avoid a “two steps forward, one step back” sort of progress, we need to stop fighting each other every step of the way and start working together. [More]

Data, Information, and the Practice of Law

by James Clemmons November 14 2010, 21:10
The practice of law has changed substantially with the advent of computers, the Internet, and the “Information Age.” In many ways, these changes in the legal landscape are not surprising, as they roughly parallel those in the personal and commercial worlds. Much of the technology that has made its way into widespread use has focused on improving and streamlining existing methods. Though we certainly interact now in ways that we could not have 30 years ago, this has largely been within a scheme of roughly incremental changes – the word processor can act as a much more efficient typewriter, and hard drives can act as a very large file cabinet (or library). Court filings, collaboration, and record keeping, among many other tasks, have been streamlined; previously inaccessible sources of information are available even to those with the smallest budget; young law students may seem “dependent” on online services for their research, but they, in turn, don’t shudder instinctively at hearing the name “Shepard.” However, there is a deeper level of change occurring in virtually every area of commercial and academic pursuit. Some of the literally unprecedented advancement in data gathering, storage, and analysis is moving from behind the scenes into the forefront, and the potential pitfalls faced by the legal system in accommodating this already pose a risk of becoming a significant problem. [More]

Lumbermans v. Broadspire: Why an arbitrator should decide questions of procedural arbitrability

by Charles Ott November 5 2010, 14:11
On October 13, 2010, the Seventh Circuit handed down their ruling in Lumbermans Mutual Casualty Company v. Broadspire Management Service, Inc, LLC. In that case, the court reiterated its position that questions of procedural arbitrability are not for the courts to consider, but rather for arbitrators to assess. While this decision may seem dangerous at first glance, it is actually a well-reasoned approach that promotes arbitration. This article will consider why Lumbermans and other similar cases are rightly decided and promote desirable incentives in potential litigants. [More]

Protecting the Unprotected Domestic Worker

by Norma Manjarrez October 30 2010, 18:01
Domestic Workers are legally marginalized under current labor and employment law. They are currently unprotected under the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), and the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). Further, they are de facto excluded from protection under a number of laws, like Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which exempt employers who employ fewer than a specified number of employees. Section 2(3) of the NLRA explicitly excludes domestic workers from its protection because the term “employee” is defined to “not include any individual employed … in the domestic service of any family or person at his home” including nannies, housecleaners, caregivers, companions, etc. While some states have begun to take steps to remedy the situation, millions of workers still find themselves vulnerable to violations of basic labor and employment laws [More]

Shipping Jobs to India: Democratic Foe and Republican Ally?

by Samatha Breslow October 27 2010, 21:19
Democrats are notorious for criticizing Republicans’ support of worldwide American companies who “outsource” (i.e., move operations and workers) to nations like India. While Democrats’ opposition to outsourcing was initially meant to incite sympathy and support from voters on “Main Street”, it has begun to alienate wealthy and influential Indian-American voters, most of whom were previously supporters of Democratic candidates. This article questions the political and legislative support of outsourcing of jobs, particularly to India. [More]

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