At The Institute of Myofunctional Studies, we use Myofunctional Therapy to treat 3 different kinds of patients: dental patients, speech patients, and patients with eating difficulties. The following symptoms are present in one or more of these categories – sometimes all of them!

Dental Patients

A dentist or orthodontist will refer patients with an overbite, underbite, or crossbite if they have a deviated swallow that is impeding the progress of their dental treatment. The following symptoms may indicate a dental case in need of treatment:

Malocclusion is a misalignment of the teeth. Orthodontists work to provide a patient with the proper form of the teeth and jaws but that may not be enough. If a patient does not correct a deviated swallow or “tongue thrust” it can slow down or cause relapse of orthodontic treatment. This happens when there is too much pressure from the tongue against the inside of the teeth coupled with an unequal amount of facial muscle pressure from outside the teeth. When orthodontists find it difficult to correct alignment, it may be because the patient has a deviated swallow interfering with the purpose of the braces. Many orthodontists use a variety of appliances to discourage incorrect tongue placement, however this cannot retrain the tongue and brain to form a new habit of correct placement. Relapse of a malocclusion will occur if a swallow is not normalized before removing braces. Some orthodontic patients are not diagnosed with a deviated swallow until after the braces come off and their tongue is still pushing against the teeth and forcing them out of alignment.

Periodontal Disorder

Periodontal Disorder is a condition relating to or affecting tissues and structures surrounding and supporting the teeth. Myofunctional Therapy treatment can be used to compliment dental treatment for this disorder. The constant pressure of the tongue against the dentition can weaken the tissue that surrounds and supports the teeth.

Temporo-Mandibular Joint (TMJ) Pain / Myofacial Pain / Bruxism

(TMJ) Temporo-Mandibular Joint Pain, Myofacial Pain and Bruxism are conditions of the jaw often caused by the grinding and clenching of the teeth due to oro-facial muscle weakness. Myofunctional Therapy aimed at strengthening the facial muscles and alleviating the bruxing behavior, in conjunction with appropriate dental intervention, will relieve myofacial pain. Correcting an abnormal swallow allows some pressure to be released, which can possibly keep Bruxism from becoming full-fledged TMJ.

Thumb-Sucking / Nail Biting

Thumb-sucking and nail biting are noxious behaviors that encourage the downward resting posture of the tongue, furthering the deviate swallow pattern. Myofunctional therapy provides specific regimens to help the individual break these detrimental habits so that a correct swallow pattern can evolve.

Speech Patients

Speech patients are often referred to the Institute by other therapists, doctors, and previous patients. Children and adults may have difficulty in producing intelligible speech. When a child has spent a long time in speech therapy without success it may be determined that myofunctional therapy can resolve their issues.

Speech Disorders

Speech Disorders are disorders that have oral muscle and swallow difficulties that require an adjunct treatment of myofunctional therapy, and they include:

  • Cleft lip and palate
  • Hyper nasal vocal quality
  • Dysarthria, which is a motor speech disorder that may affect phonation, articulation, feeding, intelligibility of speech, respiration and swallowing.

Articulation Difficulty

Articulation difficulty is incorrect production or substitution of speech sounds. This may affect as little as one sound or multiple sounds. The most commonly affected sounds with a deviate swallow at the core of the difficulty are “s”, “z”, “r”, “l”, “sh”, “ch” and “th”. Very often the “t”, “d”, “l”, and “n” sounds will be made in a dentalized posture because of the downward tongue resting posture resulting from a tongue thrust. This may affect the teeth after orthodontics, or cause less intelligible speech in conversation. Children and adults may tend to sound less intelligible in connected speech resulting from a downward tongue resting posture. Parents will say their child mumbles or has a “mush mouth”.

Oral Apraxia

Oral Apraxia is a term widely applied to children who do not develop verbal speech at an appropriate age. Oral apraxia or dyspraxia of speech affects motor planning and sequencing difficulties that impact the ability to produce speech on demand. Individuals with oral apraxia do not develop a normal swallow pattern, which contributes to oral muscle weakness. Correcting the swallow pattern and/or developing oral muscle strength allows for the mobility and correct placement of the tongue for then teaching the correct motor sequence for each speech sound.

Multi-Category Patients

The following symptoms may present themselves in any patients with eating difficulties, dental problems, or speech issues.

High-Arched Palate

High-arched palate is a raised palate occurring from the absence of the tongue against the roof of the mouth during early development – the tongue does not have the opportunity to flatten out the palate. This may lead to breathing issues, malocclusion, difficulty creating pressure for eating certain foods, and misarticulated speech sounds. This condition is less likely to occur with the early development of a correct swallow pattern.

Mouth breathing

Mouth breathing is the result of a downward resting posture of the tongue and an open mouth posture for breathing. When occurring on a daily basis this will affect a patient’s overall health, body strength, posture and appearance. Provided there are no intervening medical causes, correcting a deviate swallow will allow for closing of the mouth to create nasal breathing. This can also be corrected after medical intervention such as the removal of tonsils and adenoids.

Swallowing Difficulty

Swallowing difficulty is lacking the ability to swallow in a normalized pattern. This can hinder a person’s ability to breathe easily, eat, and speak correctly. Lacking proper mechanics will affect eating and diet, form of the teeth, stomach comfort, ear aches, and reflux. Swallowing difficulty also may result in excessive belching, stomach discomfort, and inability to swallow pills.

Weak Lip Structure

Weak lip structure may result in asymmetry of the lips due to oral facial muscle weakness. It can contribute to lack of anterior oral muscle support for the occlusion. Often a thicker or more protruded lip is visible. Without proper lip resistive strength and lip compression strength, it is difficult to maintain the lip closure necessary for dental support, creating a balanced smile, nasal breathing, and developing negative pressure for a correct swallow. If the oral facial muscles are not strengthened appropriately, the teeth can shift.

Poor Oro-facial Muscle Development

Poor oral facial muscle development may result in asymmetry of the face muscles not resulting from nerve damage. It can present as low facial tone, lack of definition of cheek muscles, under-eye droop lines, and in general a "droopy" facial appearance. Myofunctional therapy enables strengthening of the lip and masseter muscles to improve these conditions. Often it may be combined with oral motor techniques such as oral facial muscle massage.

Facial Grimace when Swallowing

Facial grimace when swallowing occurs as a counter force to the tongue in a reverse or tongue thrust swallow pattern. It is a means to maintain the tongue in the mouth at the moment of swallow. The lips appear tight, and sometimes downward in the corners. Facial grimace can develop unwanted facial creases and lines over time. Individuals that do not create a facial grimace will often protrude the tongue through the lips at the time of swallow.

Ankylosed or Shortened Lingual Frenum

Ankylosed or Shortened lingual frenum or labial frenum commonly called “tongue-tied” limits the mobility of the tongue. If the tongue cannot fully function a deviated swallow is likely to be present. These cases often require the lingual frenum be clipped in order to restore the functionality of the tongue. Myofunctional therapy would be necessary to train the patient to have controlled tongue movement and a correct swallow pattern.

Protrusion of the Tongue when in Repose

Protrusion of the tongue when in repose is seen when a patient is unable to maintain adequate lip closure. The tongue rests downward and forward in the mouth. This will impact the development of the anterior teeth. the tongue appears bulky and too large for the mouth (which it may not be) and affects general facial appearance. Generally, this is not a well-toned tongue and can also impact the clarity of speech.

Overdeveloped or Tightened Mentalis Muscle

Overdeveloped or tightened mentalis muscle is usually a bulbous and protruded chin muscle. This develops over time as a result of trying to maintain lip closure when a shortened upper lip exists and lip closure does not occur at midline. A tightened mentalis muscle is usually presented as a wrinkling of the chin muscle at the time of swallow or attempts at mouth closure.


Recent Highlights

Sheba the Cheetah

East Africa is a glorious destination where a tapestry of cultures merge to overwhelm the senses. In this particular area, the smiles of the Maasai greeted me and a young Samburu boy took me on a walking safari. Luckily, the sun was at its peak and wild animals were too hot and lazy to even sniff in my direction.

On the other hand, animals were very keen to approach me back at the lodge. Nestled into a couch in an open living area at the Sirikoi House (at Lewa Conservancy) I sipped a cup of tea, in my own world as I relished the beauty. The owner of the lodge is a conservationist and has adopted a number of wild animals, rearing them from infancy. Earlier that day I delighted in feeding a baby giraffe milk from an over-sized bottle, and giggled as wild birds chased me around the property in hopes of getting my last morsel of bread. This, for a New York City girl, was already quite wild.

Wild. Until a cheetah pounced onto the couch where I was quietly enjoying a cup of tea. I sat frozen as he began to nuzzle me, pleading for some attention. I did what any obliging and terrified person would do and scratched him behind his ears.

Sirikoi House (at Lewa Conservancy) is a piece of heaven where the human and animal worlds reside peacefully.

East Africa, Lewa Conservancy

East Africa
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Share on StockTwits

Informatica (NASDAQ:INFA) CEO Sohaib Abbasi unloaded 22,296 shares of Informatica stock on the open market in a transaction dated Tuesday, May 20th. The shares were sold at an average price of $37.09, for a total transaction of $826,958.64. Following the completion of the sale, the chief executive officer now directly owns 317,989 shares in the company, valued at approximately $11,794,212. The sale was disclosed in a filing with the SEC, which can be accessed through this link.

Informatica (NASDAQ:INFA) traded down 0.05% during mid-day trading on Wednesday, hitting $36.77. 367,008 shares of the company’s stock traded hands. Informatica has a 52-week low of $32.87 and a 52-week high of $43.79. The stock has a 50-day moving average of $36.94 and a 200-day moving average of $39.17. The company has a market cap of $4.037 billion and a price-to-earnings ratio of 43.80. Informatica also saw a significant growth in short interest during the month of April. As of April 30th, there was short interest totalling 1,995,198 shares, a growth of 44.8% from the April 15th total of 1,377,444 shares. Approximately 1.8% of the company’s shares are sold short. Based on an average trading volume of 1,369,812 shares, the days-to-cover ratio is currently 1.5 days.

A number of analysts have recently weighed in on INFA shares. Analysts at Bank of America upgraded shares of Informatica from an “underperform” rating to a “neutral” rating in a research note on Monday, May 5th. They now have a $37.00 price target on the stock. Separately, analysts at TheStreet downgraded shares of Informatica from a “buy” rating to a “hold” rating in a research note on Monday, April 28th. Finally, analysts at Deutsche Bank reiterated a “hold” rating on shares of Informatica in a research note on Friday, April 25th. They now have a $42.00 price target on the stock. Six research analysts have rated the stock with a hold rating and thirteen have assigned a buy rating to the company. The company has an average rating of “Buy” and a consensus target price of $45.94.


Goals and Objectives

  • Familiarize students with the history of human experience in at least three regions of the world.
  • Provide students with particular competence in their area of concentration including a factual base of information, familiarity with the important historiographical and interpretive concerns of historians of that area, and an ability to synthesize their understanding around recurrent historical themes.
  • Encourage an understanding of how different societies in different times and places have constructed class, race, and gender.
  • Encourage development of critical thinking skills – thinking that is rigorous, fair-minded, and nuanced.
  • Foster the research and writing skills that enable students to define a suitable topic, conduct thorough and resourceful searches utilizing traditional and new technological sources for relevant information, and express their findings in writing in a clear, persuasive, and interesting fashion.
  • Cultivate in students an understanding of the complex epistemological challenges involved in studying history.
  • Help students appreciate that a historical understanding of the human experience can contribute in vital ways to a responsible and reflective life as an engaged citizen in a rapidly changing and increasingly integrated world.


learn bones skeletal head

Craniosynostosis | Causes and Treatment

What is Craniosynostosis?Craniosynostosis

Craniosynostosis can be define as a disease that affects the growth of infant cranial structures, causing permanent disfigurement. The disease prematurely fuses sutures (joints) in the skull, thereby preventing growth in certain directions. This results in abnormal growth patterns, which can have serious effects on the shape of the head and facial features, and in severe cases on the development of the brain. The limitations on the growth of the cranium in specific directions results in compensatory growth in the allowed directions, i.e. the head will grow more in the unrestricted directions in an attempt to allow sufficient space for brain growth. However, this is not always successful and the growth restrictions caused by Craniosynostosis are sometimes so severe that they cause permanent eye damage and reduced intelligence and mental ability.

Affects and Causes

Craniosynostosis affects around 0.05% of new borns, approximately 10% of which suffer from Complex Craniosynostosis – in which more than one suture is affected. Some studies have found that a restriction on space inside the womb is a significant factor in future cranial bone growth. Furthermore, smoking and the use of recreational drugs during pregnancy increase the risk of the child developing Craniosynostosis. The disease also has a strong hereditary factor, with 8% of the children affected having parents with the same condition.

Surgery is currently the only treatment option available for patients suffering from Craniosynostosis. The aim of surgical intervention is to remove as many restrictions on the growth of the cranium as possible. This is done by excising the defective sutures and repairing the damage from any uneven growth that has already taken place. In order to minimize deformity, the surgery should take place as soon as the disease has been diagnosed, ideally when the child is only a few months old. At this stage the cranium is still flexible and can be remoulded by the surgeons. The older the child gets, the more inelastic and fragile the bone diseases becomes, rendering the surgery more complicated and dangerous.

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How Many Bones in the Human Body?

An adult has a total of 206 bones in their skeleton

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Background Info

Author Bio

Full Name: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley

Date of Birth: 1797

Date of Death: 1851

Place of Birth: London

Brief Life Story: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was the daughter of the philosopher William Godwin and the writer Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792). Shelley's mother died in childbirth and she was raised by her father. At age 18 Shelley ran off with Percy Bysshe Shelley, a leading British Romantic poet, who she married in 1816. The couple had a son, but after her husband died in a shipwreck in 1822, Mary Shelley fell into poverty. She continued to write fiction to support herself. Frankenstein (1818) was her first and by far her most successful work of fiction.

Key Facts

Full Title: Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus

Genre: Gothic novel

Setting: Switzerland, France, England, Scotland, and the North Pole in the 18th century

Climax: The Monster's murder of Elizabeth Lavenza on her wedding night to Victor

Protagonist: Victor Frankenstein

Antagonist: The Monster

Point of View: Frankenstein is told through a few layers of first person narratives. Walton is the primary narrator, who then recounts Victor's first-person narrative. In addition, Victor's narrative contains the monster's first person story as well as letters from other characters.

Historical and Literary Context

When Published: 1818

Literary Period: Switzerland and London, England: 1816–1817

Related Literary Works: The Gothic novel flourished in English literature from the publication of Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto, which established the genre in 1764, until about 1820. Gothic novels emphasized mystery and horror, and almost always contained dark forests, castles, the supernatural, trap doors, secret rooms, and other similar elements now familiar from "horror" movies. Yet while Frankenstein is one of the most famous novels in the Gothic genre, it was written at a time when the Gothic novel was slowly giving way to the literary movement of Romanticism, and the novel shares the Romantic emphasis on the "sublime" power of nature. In writing Frankenstein, Shelley also drew heavily on John Milton's seventeenth century Paradise Lost, an epic poem that traces humankind's fall from grace. The epigraph of Frankenstein is a quotation from Paradise Lost, in which Adam curses God for creating him, just as the monster curses Victor Frankenstein, his creator.

Related Historical Events: Most critics consider the Gothic genre a reaction to the "Age of Reason," a movement in 18th-century British and European art and politics that stressed the power of the human mind above all. Empowered by an unchecked faith in humanity, people set out to reshape society: The American and French Revolutions erupted, and the Industrial Revolution forced people into long grueling days in factories. The Gothic novelists aimed to represent the dark side that accompanied this age of apparent human progress. At a time when writers and thinkers had begun to believe in the "infinite perfectability of man," Gothic novelists portrayed human beings as woefully imperfect and at the mercy of far more powerful forces, such as nature and death.

Extra Credit

A ghost story. On a stormy night in June of 1816, Mary Shelley, her husband, and a few other companions, including the Romantic poet Lord Byron, decided to try to write their own ghost stories, but Shelley couldn't come up with any ideas. A few nights later, she had a dream in which she envisioned "the pale student of unhallowed arts" kneeling beside his creation—the monster. She began writing the story that became Frankenstein the next morning.

The Tale of Two Frankensteins. Shelley published the first edition of Frankenstein anonymously, perhaps due to her concern that such a grim and violent tale would not be well received by her audience if they knew her gender. She revised the novel and published it under her real name in 1831. Some key differences exist between the editions, namely that in the first edition, Elizabeth is Alphonse's niece and, therefore, Victor's cousin. (In the 1831 edition, the more popular version and the one used in this Outline, the Frankensteins adopt Elizabeth from another family).


Thank you for the link! Found one store in CT that carries it out, so happy!
High Porosity, Fine, Thin Density, Low Elasticity


Four Car Crash Closes Thoroughfare

A major artery into Grand Junction is shut down for more than two hours on Saturday after a four car pile up. The pile up caused Highway 50 and the 5th street bridge to be shut down as authorities reconstructed the accident.

An initial collision between two vehicles, happened in the northbound lanes of highway 50 near Unaweep avenue. However, due to the force of the crash the vehicles wound up in the southbound lanes which caused two more vehicles to be involved.

Five people were taken to St. Mary's Hospital, however, names ages or extent of injuries were not disclosed. The bridge was shutdown while the Grand Junction Police accident reconstruction crew determined the cause.

Traffic was diverted to the 29 road bridge and was allowed back on the Highway and the 5th street bridge shortly before 5 p.m.


Evolution of Reading Fluency: A Literature Review
by Chase Young

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Reading fluency has manifested itself in various forms and carried fluctuating weight on its remarkable historic journey to present research paradigms. The names have changed, the definition has transformed, and perception of its impact on the reading process has become more focused. Because of these changes, instructional practices have been implemented. Reading fluency’s constant presence has allowed researchers to better understand its function in reading education. How has fluency’s definition and role changed over the years?

This literature review was conducted using the ERIC database ranging from 1952 to 2005. The search terms used were reading fluency, reading process, oral reading, reading aloud to others, automaticity, and reading rate. Results ranged from 287 to 2,449 articles. The intention was to trace the history of reading fluency from the middle of the last century to present practice.  Each resource was evaluated for its part in reading fluency research by its impact on instruction and further research. One source was Oral Reading in the School Program (Hyatt, 1943).

Reading fluency began as elocution instruction for the purpose of pleasing oral discourse. The primary concern was not comprehension, only that the desired elocution was demonstrated. Reading fluency was not aimed at reflecting the control of other important aspects of the reading process (Hyatt, 1943). Oral reading was used frequently prior to the 1900s to entertain, but was neglected in favor of silent reading for half a century. After a long period of oversight, Smith (1952) and her colleagues sought to determine which reading skills required further research. Oral reading, they found, was one of them. This began the negotiations of what would later be known as reading fluency.

In the early 1960s, reading elocution was examined further to determine its impact on other aspects of reading. Researchers studied the significance of voice variation while reading. Oral reading elocution was known in the classroom as intonation. Noting its existence, Goodman (1964) conducted a linguistic study on the cues and miscues of 100 primary school readers; he observed an interesting phenomenon. Natural intonation came from comprehension of the text, and was portrayed through oral reading. Although many processes were in play, stress, pitch, and juncture manifested with meaning. One might suggest through practice and coaching, a student can eventually produce intonation. However, for it to naturally occur, the student must extract meaning from the text. Therefore, comprehension was deemed essential for fluency in the 1960s.

Although intonation is naturally derived from an individual’s comprehension (Goodman, 1964), intonation is still highly standardized when reading aloud. Prosody is unwritten, and is derived from a standard method of exposing meaning by voice variation. Therefore, students need a window into the proficient reader’s processes regarding the prosodic aspect of reading fluency. Society has created norms for proper pitch, stress, and juncture. As a result, individual interpretation may not affect a reader’s intonation. It can, however, systematically report a reader’s level of comprehension. Because prosodic reading is standardized, students need to be exposed to good examples of fluent readers. Teacher modeling of prosodic reading helps students internalize the characteristics (Farrell, 1966).

Chomsky (1976) realized the difficult task of teaching reading fluency and understood that reading fluency instruction needed additional methods. Audio recordings were played for five eight-year-old students as they read along in their corre
sponding books. The five students were identified as behind in reading by as much as two years. After four months of repeated readings with audio assistance, students were able to fluently read the previously frustrational texts with adequate oral fluency. Students involved in the study showed increased positive results on their school administered achievement tests, reading subtest (WRAT), Gates-McKillop Diagnostic Test, and assessment of their oral reading speed. Additionally, student confidence and motivation increased. The research created a new path to divergent ways of developing reading fluency. The late 1970s saw an increase in seminal works in reading fluency.

Following Chomsky’s (1976) work, repeated readings became a means to develop reading fluency, and remains one of the best ways to increase reading rate and word recognition. At first, the use of repeated readings was largely confined to helping students with learning disabilities. Repeated readings is not a complete literacy program, it was mainstreamed to help students’ word recognition automaticity based on research conducted by Samuels (1979). Students involved in the study selected relatively easy passages and repeatedly read them until the desired words per minute (WPM) was achieved. In this case, goals were set between 80 and 90 WPM. Critics believed students graphing their WPM to be a boring task, yet Samuels found students were motivated by the visual representation of their progress.

Samuels asserts, “for the purposes of fluency, speed rather than accuracy should be stressed” (p. 377). The statement was based on the loss of fluency in efforts to obtain 100% word accuracy. Understandably, students striving for perfection in word accuracy are constantly fearful of making mistakes; therefore perfection can act as a hindrance to their WPM goal, thus holding the student back from further readings. The repeated reading method increased reading rate and word recognition—two components of reading fluency. Dowhower (1991) will discuss the increasing neglect of prosody as fluency evolves into the early 1990s.

Parsing sentences into meaningful phrases requires knowledge of prosody. Prosody sounds nice, yet according to Kleiman, Winograd, and Humphrey (1979) has a larger impact than mere eloquence. “…The lack of prosodic information in written language contributes to the difficulty some children have in parsing written sentences” (p. 11). Prosody, although not correlated to fluency in the research, is a device used to help readers parse sentences into meaningful phrases which is a characteristic of a fluent reader.

Kleiman, et al., used 20 above- and 20 below-average readers in the fourth grade to determine the impact of prosody on the parsing of sentences. The “no-prosody” group was given the same passages as the “prosody” group. The “prosody” group received the passage of 48 sentences, and was also read each sentence twice by a professional speaker. The “no-prosody” was offered the same sentences without the oral reading model. The groups were asked to parse (using slash marks) each sentence into meaningful phrases. Though there was no significant performance differences between the above and below average readers, there was a significant difference among the separate groups. The “prosody” group, after listening to the sentences orally, parsed sentences more accurately than the “no-prosody” group. The knowledge of prosodic features was deemed beneficial in identifying meaningful phrases within sentences (Kleiman et al, 1979).

Not only was prosody linked to meaning-making (Kleiman et al, 1979), automatic word recognition was found to impact comprehension (Stanovich, 1980). In a complicated educational dichotomy of top-down and bottom-up approaches, Stanovich finds the middle ground asserting that interactive-compensatory models for reading fluency separate the proficient from the poor readers. Some believe that higher-level processes in reading (top-down) characterize fluent readers; others believe lower-level processes (bottom-up) are superior. The interactive-compensatory model suggests that fluent readers juxtapose between higher and lower level processes. For example, students compensating for deficient orthographic knowledge rely on context clues to indentify unknown words. Depending on the proficiency of compensatory skills, readers lacking automaticity can rely on speed to identify unknown words through context. Stanovich’s extensive review of the literature reveals that both rapid context-free word recognition and contextual recognition (i.e. reader expectancy) can aid the development of a fluent reader. This compensatory model could have been a response to the Reading Wars where phonics (bottom-up) and whole language (top-bottom) paradigms were affecting all aspects of reading, including fluency.
Despite increased research, fluency as a goal was still being neglected. From previous research we know fluency consists of word recognition, reading rate, and prosody. After a firm definition was widely accepted, it was time to turn research into practice. We could now assess good fluency, and poor fluency. However, poor fluency was often used only as an indicator of a poor reader. The assessment results failed to drive instruction. More devastatingly, when results were used, the necessary instruction was not delivered. In fact, teachers still regress to phonics instruction when they should be progressing to fluency instruction to help students become more prosodic and faster in their reading (Allington, 1983).

Allington (1983) notes the extensive research on fluency and the findings implying fluency as an essential piece of the reading process; he asks, “Why hasn’t oral reading fluency become a major focus of beginning or early remedial instruction?” (p. 556). From what seems like frustration, he uses the research to promote practice.

The goal is to move from word calling to phrasing, thus placing fluency on the far right of the developmental reading continuum. However, some readers do not make this shift. Allington (1983) focuses on classroom experiences only, discussing instructional circumstances to exemplify the development of reading fluency.

Four years later, Dowhower (1987) conducted a study with 89 beginning second graders. Dowhower wanted to know whether assisted or unassisted readings had a more positive effect on reading fluency. This time, however, not only was reading fluency (in this case: word recognition reading rate) measured, but also comprehension.

Dowhower (1987) used a time-series experimental design consisting of two randomly selected training groups. One group repeatedly read with assistance, the other without. The experiment was conducted over seven weeks, and reported that both groups reading rate doubled, reading accuracy increased from 89% to 95%. Comprehension also increased from 66% to 81%. Because there were no significant differences in the groups, repeated readings prevailed as an effective strategy to increase reading fluency regardless of assistance. As fluency increased, so did comprehension. Essentially, Dowhower demonstrated that repeating readings did more help students read fast.

The previous work in fluency had a large impact on remediation, but had difficulty finding its place in mainstream instruction. Rasinski (1989) noted the lack of fluency instruction in the classroom, and attributed it to basal reading programs. Special education teachers may have heeded Allington’s (1983), but mandated mainstream curriculum had not. How can teachers teach fluency when their curriculum does not allow for it? So, the 80’s ended with Rasinski (1989) empowering teachers to utilize the proven fluency models (Allington, 1983; Dowhower, 1987; Chomsky, 1976; Samuels, 1979), neglect “teacher proof” models, and actively consider ways to incorporate fluency instruction.

The 1990s began much like the 1980s. A neglected aspect of fluency was examined. Because reading fluency had been defined, it was easy to determine which aspects were being neglected. Dowhower (1991) returns, saying prosody is “fluency’s neglected bedfellow.” Ironically, Dowhower’s (1987) previous research did not measure prosody. This may have been because the lack of assessment measures. Reading rate was easily timed, word recognition was a simple computation, but prosody’s only measurable characteristic was phrasing (Kleiman, et al.) To correct this, Dowhower (1991) delineated the features of prosodic reading.

Scholars investigating prosody specifically in reading have identified at least six markers related to expressive reading. The following section describe these indicators: (a) presence or lack of pausal intrusions, (b) length of phrases between pauses, (c) number of appropriate and inappropriate phrases, (d) duration of final words of syntactic phrases, (e) the change of pitch at final punctuation marks, and (f) stress or accent. (p. 186)

Prosody, “the neglected bedfellow”, may have been so because of its complexity. However, each of the aforementioned markers can be observed in reading behavior. These complex tasks can be taught directly to students through modeling, phrasing and parsing, repeated readings, and audio assisted reading (Dowhower, 1991). At this point in reading fluency history, the definition is sound, the measures are available, and its impact on instruction has been demonstrated.

Fluency is now a well defined instructional necessity. Although the following statement was made by Rasinski (2000) at the dawn of our millennium, it needs to be revisited today. “Speed does matter.” Slow readers are often poor readers. The fear of producing a generation of “fast readers” may have been the reason for the original publication, but the fear still remains. There is more to fluency than speed, but speed cannot become the next neglected reading goal.

Slow reading necessarily results in less reading. It is also difficult for a slow reader to comprehend because the rate at which a slow reader moves through a text makes it difficult to hold on to the meaning. Finally, slower readers become more frustrated which lowers motivation. Finally, instruction must aim to create faster, more fluent readers. The fear of losing comprehension, neglecting prosody, ignoring word recognition because of reading rate was evident then and now. Still, reading rate cannot be neglected (Rasinski, 2000).

So far, reading fluency’s widely accepted definition is still intact. Although there were times when features were almost forgotten, researchers continued to prevent it from happening. In 2003, Kuhn & Stahl reviewed the developmental and remedial practices in reading fluency. They used Chall’s (1996) stages of reading development focusing on the fluency state. According to Chall the fluency stage ranges from late first grade to third grade students. Much of the research implies that fluency instruction is most effective in this stage. They also agree with Stanovich (1980) that reading fluency is more than automaticity in word recognition. This movement beyond word recognition as a sole indicator of reading fluency is also in line with the need for prosody (Dowhower, 1991) and reading speed (Rasinski, 2000).

Although Dowhower (1987) did not find a significant statistical difference in unassisted and assisted repeated readings, there was a small indication that assisted readings increased comprehension more so than unassisted. Kuhn and Stahl (2003) further assert that assisted readings are more effective. The review of fluency research and instruction was in agreement with previous research on the topic. Reading fluency is important, it can be defined and measured, and researched based instruction is working.

How important is reading fluency? According to Hudson, Lane, and Pullen (2005), “Reading fluency is one of the defining characteristics of good readers.” Each of the features of fluent reading can be linked to reading proficiency. Reading accuracy is linked to reading proficiency because it encompasses many reading skills. In order to accurately identify words students must utilize visual, semantic, and syntactic cuing systems. Students must have a strong ability to blend phonemes, recognize phonograms, and understand sound-symbol correspondence.

The second link is to reading rate. Reading quickly demonstrates a student’s mastery of word recognition displayed by fluid and effortless reading. Students have developed rapid word recognition skills, and apply it to text. Readers move swiftly across the page leaving cognition free for comprehension (Hudson, et al., 2005).

Finally, prosody is linked to proficient reading. Prosodic readers demonstrate an understanding of morphemic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic systems to read with expression (Hudson, et al., 2005). This expression and intonation is also linked to comprehension (Goodman, 1964). The key player in each of these links is the notion that reading fluency is related to comprehension. The characteristics of reading fluency, effortless word recognition, reading in meaningful phrases, reading at an appropriate rate, and prosodic reading, if done automatically, allow cognition to be focused on comprehending the text (Hudson, et al., 2005).

As an infant, fluency was never named. Many times it was stripped of its acquisitions, questioned, and neglected. After a long battle, fluency’s role in reading can only be described as integral. The aspects of fluency can be explicitly instructed, and precisely assessed. Fluency can be used to aid in comprehension, as well as assess it. How has fluency’s role in reading education changed? It defines proficient readers, and is incorporated into the balanced literacy program (Rasinski, 2004). Reading fluency is composed of accuracy, word recognition, and prosody; by no amount of neglect can it ever be taken away thanks to the diligence in reading fluency research.

Chomsky, C. (1976). After Decoding: What? Language Arts, 53, 288-296.

Dowhower, S. L. (1987). Effects of Repeated Reading on Second-Grade Transitional Readers' Fluency and Comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 398-406.

Dowhower, S. L. (1991). Speaking of Prosody: Fluency’s unattended badfellow. Theory Into Practice, 30, 165-176.

Farrell, E. (1966). Listen, My Children, and You Shall Read… English Journal, 55, 39-45.

Goodman, K. (1964). A Linguistic Study of Cues and Miscues in Reading. Chicago, IL: American Educational Research Association

Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why how? The Reading Teacher, 58, 702-714.

Hyatt, A.V. (1943). Oral reading in the school program: Its history development from 1880-1941. New York: Teachers College Press.

Kleiman, G., Winograd, Humphrey. (1979). Prosody and Children’s Parsing of Sentences. Washington D.C.: National Institute of Education.

Kuhn, M. R., Stahl, S.A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 3-21.

Rasinski, T. V. (1989). Fluency for everyone: Incorporating fluency instruction in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 42, 690-693.

Rasinski, T., Padak, N. (2004). Beyond consensus—beyond balance: Toward a comprehensive literacy curriculum. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20, 91-102.

Smith, N., Grany, L., Bray, W., Wood, K., & Anderson, H. (1952, Jan/Apr). Areas of Research Interest in the Language Arts. Elementary English, 3-36.

© 2011 Chase J. Young. All rights reserved.


Key Facts

Length: Up to 33 metres
Range: Global distribution, except for northern Arctic Ocean and Mediterannean Sea
Threats: Acoustic disturbance, pollution, ship strikes
Diet: Mainly plankton

Blue Whale

Latin: Balaenoptera musculus
Gaelic: Muc-mhara-mhor

Physical Description

At up to 33 metres in length, the blue whale is thought to be the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth. Calves can measure seven metres in length at birth. Upon surfacing, the splashguard in front of the blowhole is normally the first area to break the surface, which is followed by a powerful, columnar blow ten metres tall. The relatively small, curved dorsal fin is seen well after the blow as it is positioned far down the back of the long, tapered body. The huge tail fluke is often raised out of the water when the animal dives.  Blue whales are actually a mottled light grey colour, but they appear blue under the water.

Habitat and Distribution

Blue whales can be found throughout all of the major oceans and occur in both coastal and oceanic waters; the only exception is the far north of the Arctic Ocean. It is thought that blue whales undertake seasonal migrations between feeding and breeding grounds although the exact movements are not well understood. Records of blue whales in Hebridean waters consist of several strandings but no live sightings.

Blue whales are normally seen alone or in small groups and occasionally associate with other whale species. In some areas they have been observed breaching, although this is an activity normally only attempted by calves. They produce powerful, low frequency sounds that can travel for hundreds of miles through deep water; these may be used for communication and/or navigation.

Food and Foraging

Feeding almost exclusively on zooplankton (mainly krill), they lunge into dense patches of prey and consume as much as 5500 kg of food each day. The prey is filtered from the seawater through large baleen plates before being swallowed. Other species may be incidentally consumed with plankton such as small fish, squid and crustaceans.

Status and Conservation

It is estimated that there are 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide, but as few as 400 animals may occur in the North Atlantic. As with many other whale species, the blue whale is still recovering from population depletions caused by commercial whaling. A possible threat to blue whales off the UK coast are the loud noises produced during offshore oil and gas exploration and drilling, which may interfere with the low frequency vocalisations made by the whales. Other threats include pollution, marine litter (entanglement and ingestion) and ship strikes. Blue whales are protected under UK and EU law, principally under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 and by the 1992 EU Habitats and Species Directive.


Rotating Question Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer

Would extraterrestrial civilizations know that there is life on Earth?

If there are intelligent lifeforms out there, what are the chances of them being aware of life here on Earth? (No, I am not scared of extraterrestrials invading Earth for resources :-). I'm just curious.)

We really don't have any way of knowing this for sure because we have no idea of the number of intelligent civilizations out there, or where they are. However, we can say something about the conditions that would be required for them to know that we exist.

In order to know that there is life on Earth, an extraterrestrial civilization would probably at least need to be technologically advanced enough and have good enough astronomical instruments to "resolve" Earth from the Sun -- that is, to take an image of our Solar System in which Earth appears as its own separate point of light, not completely washed out by the Sun's light. This is very hard to do -- we certainly can't resolve Earth-like planets around faraway stars yet! (However, certain space missions that are just now in their planning stages have this as their goal; for example, the Terrestrial Planet Finder.)

If they were able to resolve the Earth and take a spectrum of its light (i.e. look at how much light of each color they were receiving), they would be able to tell that Earth was hospitable to life, by determining its temperature and the presence of large amounts of water on the surface and oxygen in the atmosphere. They might even be able to figure out that there is life on Earth in the form of vegetation -- chlorophyll, the chemical in plants responsible for photosynthesis, has a relatively distinct spectral signature known as the "red edge."

As for the question of whether extraterrestrial civilizations might be aware of intelligent life on Earth, most of them probably would not. Our civilization has only been sending detectable signals of our existence into space for a very short time. The television broadcast during the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Germany is often regarded as the first time that humans produced a radio signal that was strong enough to be easily detectable from other stars. (If you've ever seen the movie Contact or read the book, you probably already know this because it's an important part of the plot.)

This means that we've only been sending out detectable signals for the last 70 years or so. Since the signals we send out travel at the speed of light, they would only have been able to reach stars within 70 light-years of us, and only extraterrestrial civilizations located within this distance would have been able to receive evidence of our technology. This is a very small region of space -- it covers maybe a few thousand stars out of the 100 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy! Therefore, if there are other intelligent civilizations spread throughout our Galaxy, the vast majority of citizens who live in them would not know of our civilization's existence (barring the possibility that they had some way of surpassing the speed of light barrier, of course).

October 2003, Dave Rothstein (more by Dave Rothstein) (Like this Answer)

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Well, we will no doubt leave someone out, but it won't be intentional.
A big — and finally thawed — thumbs up to the various people whose jobs and responsibilities kept them busy day and night during the winter storm, dubbed Pax, while many others huddled comfortably at home.
That certainly includes the various arms of the public safety sector, such as law enforcement, EMTs and fire crews. The thumbs up also goes out to hospital staffers, utility crews, emergency preparedness officials, dispatchers, state Department of Transportation employees.
Again, we don't mean to leave anyone off the list. Suffice it to say we all should appreciate the dedication and due diligence exhibited by those whose job it is to maintain safety and try to keep our lives as normal as possible during inclement weather.

While on the weather topic, we'll also have to give a thumbs up to many residents throughout the Lakelands who heeded the advice to stay off the roads and remain safely at home. There were a few who couldn't resist taking to the roads in their cars for what was nothing but a sight-seeing trip, but for the most part it appears people exhibited some common sense about venturing out. As a few people noted on social media, you know the situation was bad when the king of big box stores shuttered its doors.


Welcome to an exciting neuro-emotional approach that utilizes a traditional Christian biblical perspective and interpersonal neurobiology, quantum theory, and epigenetic principles to discover and neutralize neurological imbalances at the cellular level.

Retracing Sequence Method (RSM) utilizes new cellular biology developments that are based on applying empirically supported principles of finding and removing neurological imbalances related to the physiology of unresolved stress, thereby allowing new, positive neural nets, systems, and structures to be created due to the brain’s neuro-plastic abilities. It is important to understand Retracing Sequence Method does not cure and is not counseling, but works collaboratively with clients to help resolve negative emotional stressors and improve mental, physical, spiritual, and relational ease and wellbeing.

“Retracing Sequence Method”, “RSM”, and “Real Healing Creates Real Change” are trademarks of Nightengale LLC.


yankees jeter fist bump tbi

The catch: Unlike MLB.com's regular MLB.TV out-of-market streaming service, you'll need to subscribe to cable (or other pay TV service) to watch in-market games online. Put another way, this will be a complement to your cable service, not a replacement. That measure is in place to keep money flowing into the local sports networks -- like the Yankees' YES network -- which pay a lot of money for TV rights.

You'll also probably have to pay extra for the service, though that's likely to be decided on a team-by-team basis. We assume that MLB.com -- which has invested millions into its streaming infrastructure -- will handle the tech side of the service.


The Noah of Scriptures

Everyone is talking about the new Noah movie, wondering if its better described as anti-Christian or pure entertainment. The movie collector of critical ratings Rotten Tomatoes has it in the mid 70 percent for critics and in the 40 percent for viewers. The box office has mixed audience result with a respectable showing of over $40 million during the opening weekend. Movies might give promise with such high earnings, but they live or die in the second and following runs. If word of mouth continues to be negative among the most interested possible viewers (Christians), then curiosity and lack of competition gave it the first boost of money. There is far from any guarantee it won’t turn out a bomb. Muslim nations have already given it the banned treatment.

What is supposed to be so bad about the Noah movie for those who don’t like it? For starters, it is considered way too off story from the Bible. Noah is in it, an ark with animals is present, and a flood happens. Besides that, according to negative critics, nothing else is close to correct or even the spirit of the account. He ends up a jumble of crazy, environmentalist, near abortionist, murdering anti-hero. Not even believers would protest an intervention to have him committed. The bad guys are morally questionable, but mostly a bunch of industrialists who like to hunt and eat meat. A critic from the science fiction blog io9 tried to make a case for its spiritual pedigree, but made things unintentionally worse for those Christians who would be the most unconvinced. They would see too much para-Biblical references over the very short Bible narrative.

This brings up the question of what the Noah story really is in the Biblical account. At first I was going to do a bunch of quotes and then solemnly explicate the text. That would be the traditional way of writing a blog argument. An equal concern is if there is enough in the Bible to make a story worthy of a two hour night at the movies. This is as much about creativity and imagination as bad exegesis. Those who support the Noah treatment point to The Ten Commandments for an example of making things up that aren’t found in the text. True enough, as I have my own criticisms about how Moses was portrayed in rather white washed fashion after his conversion. There is a difference because much of what is in the text became part of the film. Not so much, apparently, the Noah movie.

I am going to write a story outline using what can be known from the Bible, Book of Moses and other JST, Book of Jubilee, Book of Enoch, and a small amount of commentary. The end of the story will have a reference list for those who want to check sources and decide for themselves. The intended outcome should evidence that there is enough in the text to make a great film without complete distortion. Obviously it will be from what an equally controversial Mormon point of view. Those who have watched the Hollywood version can decide how close this is to what they saw on screen. Continue reading

An Awful, Good Enough, and Great Movie

Seeking that Which Is Praiseworthy

I judge movies not just by production quality, but moral quality as well. I ask myself, “Does this film or book make me want to be a better person?” In a recent post, I presented cartesian chart as a conceptual tool to help others who feel the same way that I do. My point was not to position myself as any way superior to others, or to condemn or judge those who feel differently. I simply wished to present my personal approach to entertainment, with a tacit invitation to others to consider its merits. I hope to strike the same tone in this post as well.

In response to my previous post, some people asked, “How do you measure moral quality? Isn’t that pretty subjective?” The answer is yes, there is a lot of subjectivity in evaluating moral quality. However, as I was exploring the history of the MPAA rating system, I discovered something quite remarkable: a standard for evaluating movies that expressed almost precisely my personal feelings on what makes a movie morally good. I won’t claim that this is by any means perfect, but I think it covers some of my most common complaints about contemporary movies and TV shows. Let me see if I can explain this clearly. Continue reading

[Cross Posted from Sixteen Small Stones]

Continue reading

The Adjustment Bureau

<Spoiler Warning> Continue reading


Mike Holmes: Kitchen cabinets come of age

Mike Holmes, Postmedia News

When I approach a kitchen reno, the first thing I’m looking at is space — we want to maximize it as much as possible without compromising structure. But I also need to make sure that the kitchen works for the homeowner. It has to be functional and it has to make sense. And the kitchen cabinets play a big part in that.

Your kitchen cabinets serve two purposes: storage, and access to that storage. As far as I’m concerned, if you can’t access your pots, pans and plates then your cabinets are not doing their job, they’re not working for you. And to me that’s unacceptable.

As far as storage goes, your upper kitchen cabinets should have a minimum depth of 12 inches (30.5 centimetres). Plates and dinnerware are getting bigger now. It’s important that you make sure your kitchen cabinets can store everything you need them to and that the cabinet doors can open and close properly.

You must also be able to access everything in your kitchen cabinets safely so you don’t get hurt trying to reach for something.

I know of some homeowners who open a bottom kitchen drawer or cupboard and step on the shelf inside just so they can reach the top shelf of an upper kitchen cabinet. That’s dangerous.

Most kitchen cupboards and cabinets aren’t made strong enough to support the weight of a person — and sometimes they’re not even properly installed. You risk breaking your cabinets and hurting yourself in the process.

Or how about those kitchen cabinets above the refrigerator? You have to be really tall to access anything in them without doing some extreme stretching or crazy stunts.

Considering our aging population, a kitchen’s functionality and accessibility is becoming more and more important. That’s why more and more kitchen manufacturers are coming up with all kinds of solutions to make kitchens more accessible.

For example, lowered light switches, countertops and cabinets can make it easier for someone older or with a disability to navigate around the kitchen if they are in a wheelchair. I’m also starting to see kitchen cabinets that are electronically operated, where all you have to do is touch the surface of a drawer or cabinet and it automatically opens.

There are also pantries that, instead of shelves, have drawers that can be pulled out so you don’t have to reach in. They also have cabinets with doors that are pulled out like a drawer instead of swinging open. You can also get kitchen cabinets with shelves that can be pulled out, lowered and raised. Some specialized kitchen installers can even add a hydraulic device to your current kitchen cabinets that lowers and raises them.

What’s around the corner?

When it comes to accessibility and kitchen cabinets, the biggest problem area is the corner of base cabinets. These areas can offer a lot of storage space but it’s not easy to access. In some cases, you almost have to climb into the cabinet to reach anything in the back.

Can you imagine a senior or someone with a disability trying to access that space? They can’t. And if they tried they could get seriously injured.

The old solution was to stick a Lazy Susan in there, but that doesn’t always make the most of the space that’s there. So now we have “magic corners.” These are cabinets that were designed to take full advantage of the storage space and make it more accessible.

The way they work is that instead of just a regular storage space — the carcass of the cabinet — inside the carcass you have compartments. These compartments usually look like metal baskets that sit on tracks, so they can be pulled out rather than you reaching in. They make it very easy for anyone to access anything in that back area.

If you’re on a budget, you can buy the units and install them into your cabinets yourself — they’re sometimes called “blind corner units.” But the units alone can still cost around $600. It won’t be as sophisticated as custom, but it might be a DIY project worth looking into.

A really good kitchen cabinet manufacturer takes full advantage of a small space.

That’s why I always push for custom kitchen cabinets. Yes, it’s more expensive than just standard cabinets you can get at a big box store. But if you go with a pro, not only do you get what you want, more importantly, you get what you need.


Northern Pacific Railroad influenced early development of South Hill

South Hill Historical SocietyJuly 9, 2014

According to land transfer records, settlements on South Hill started in the 1870s. Land was purchased by some pioneers but most of the early settlers used the Homestead Act to acquire real estate at almost no cost.

During the 1870s, however, only a handful of people were recorded as moving onto the Hill. It was in the 1880s that the influx increased significantly. And, when settlement began to increase, a noticeable pattern also developed. Clusters of farms came into existence rather than being generally distributed across the area. This bunching came about because of land grants to the Northern Pacific Railroad.

The Northern Pacific Railroad (NP) was a transcontinental line intended to connect the northern Midwest to the Puget Sound. It was chartered in 1864. To help pay for its construction, Congress authorized land grants to the company extending for 40 miles on both sides of the proposed undertaking. The NP did not reach the Puget Sound area until the 1880s. Its path into Tacoma, from the east, came across the Cascade Mountains, through Stampede Pass, and down the western slopes of the foothills to the Puyallup River and then on to Tacoma. When the route was approved, all of South Hill was included in the railroad’s land grant allocation.

South Hill was surveyed in 1872 and assigned the Township number 19. A Township is 36 square miles, divided into one-mile areas called Sections. The railroad’s land grant authority assigned to it every other Section in the townships within its allotment. So, on South Hill the railroad claimed ownership to Sections 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.

As the Hill was heavily timbered at the time, the railroad sold most of its ownership rights to Weyerhaeuser, a tree harvesting company. These areas were not available for settlement, therefore, until after it was commercially logged. Many maps of the Hill show property ownership by the Weyerhaeuser Logged-Off Land Company, the organization that acquired the land after it was cleared. It took several decades for all this land to become available to settlers.

Pioneers could buy, or use the Homestead Act, to acquire land on the half of South Hill not given to the railroad, about 18 square miles in Sections 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. So, during the 1880s clusters of farms and settlements were established on this land since it was all that was available. Section four was a cluster, settled mostly in the mid-1880s. In modern terms, it is the area above the city of Puyallup about where the South Hill Mall is located. Section six was also a crowded area, settled mostly in the 1880s and located off Canyon Road near Summit. Section 10, located at about the intersection of 112th Street and Meridian filled up in the late 1880s. Included in this group was the original Kupfer family, which gave the location its name — Kupfer’s Corner.

The Hill was settled gradually over several decades. But the railroad land grant program influenced just how the development progressed.

Carl Vest, PhD, is the Research Director for the South Hill Historical Society. He is a founding member of the society and can be reached at

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untitled by melissasauve on Flickr.

Does anybody ever think about how badass Madam Pomfrey is?

She never asks questions. Remember the time Hermione turned into a cat? She made sure no one saw her. She regrew a whole arm’s worth of bones in one night. She can mend bones in a second. She even kicks out Dumbledore on some occasions. Just think about how many students get injured in Hogwarts every year and she just fixes them back up like new.

We all just need to take a second and thank Madam Pomfrey.

"…Here and there, the children could see traces of the enormous home they had loved: fragments of their grand piano[…]" - The Bad Beginning
Violet, Klaus, and their mother sitting together. Klaus is too young to focus on the lesson, but he enjoys being with his mother and sister. Sunny hasn’t been born yet, of course. uvu

*** by lord the air smells good today

© theme


Honest Jons logo

Pipa master Wu Man and her Uyghur, Tajik, and Hui collaborators explore connections between the musical worlds of China and Central Asia.

From 1959, on-the-spot recordings of New York street-kids improvising with drums, bottles and sticks, making up songs, raps and mini-dramas.

Tough, pioneering, female Appalachian bluegrass.

A dizzying kind of Dixieland gamelan, played on Indonesian, Chinese, and sometimes European-derived instruments.


Go ahead. Pick this rattle up.

A palmful of gratitude feels amazing....

It’s a joy watching a person’s initial reaction to an innerSpirit Rattle. The appearance of found treasure first causes curiosity. Their rustic look creates an impression of an ancient civilization, like an artifact unearthed from a primitive Indian camp ground around the Rio Grande.

But once someone holds a rattle in the palm of their hand, and then they shake it… they’ll never give it up. It is a powerful connection that’s difficult to explain.

Our small ceramics studio is located in a land far far away. Alpine, TX is close to Big Bend National Park, an isolated and rugged area in the middle of the vast and peaceful Chihuahuan Desert, and near the mysterious Marfa Lights.

There’s arguably a unique energy springing from our under-populated and far flung part of the world. The vast and desolate landscape has a curious way of reinforcing faith, dredging up unknown inner strength, and sparking a deep appreciation of even the smallest things in life.

Think. Feel. Spread.

This feeling is a gift that maybe ~just maybe~ is captured inside the thin shell of each handmade innerSpirit Rattle. Perhaps it’s an aura that seeps in, or a sticky essence picked up while being made one-by-one in a land once inhabited by American Indians and the African American Buffalo soldiers.

Follow the instructions printed on the card, and in no time at all just the sight of your innerSpirit Rattle will trigger spontaneous gratitude.

Shaking one produces calming sense of peace by clearing the clutter in your head, creating natural mindfulness of the present moment, and generating a worry-free mind FULL of energizing gratitude.

It’s impossible to be grateful and worried at the same time. Go ahead. Try it.

Use to rattle your worries away, or (if you insist) just to keep your papers from blowing away.

a palmful of gratitude

made in alpine tx from clay made in austinClick to find a J. Davis Studio innerSpirit Rattles Retailer


ORC6355 Anthemius, gold solidus, VF Unsold at $1,500.00 Jul-11-00 Seller oldromancoins.com Anthemius, 467-472, AV solidus, (4.26g) Rome Mint, D N ANTHEM IVS P F AVG Helmeted and draped bust facing, holding spear and shield. / SALVS R EIP VBLICAE Anthemius and Leo I standing facing side by side, holding between them cross on globe and each holding spear, star between them, CORMOB in exergue. RIC 2825 var. C7. VF, some light marks on obverse fields. Obverse break ..ANTHEM-IVS not in RIC for this reverse.


You all know that each title in the Chronicles has a chess theme; that's partly because of the overall design of the Chronicles themselves - the game of chess as an analogue of the game of life.

Dorothy Dunnett


Gallicanism,  a complex of French ecclesiastical and political doctrines and practices advocating restriction of papal power; it characterized the life of the Roman Catholic Church in France at certain periods.

Despite its several varieties, Gallicanism consisted of three basic ideas: independence of the French king in the temporal order; superiority of an ecumenical council over the pope; and union of clergy and king to limit the intervention of the pope within the kingdom. Though the word was coined in the 19th century to identify the position opposing Ultramontanism, which emphasized papal authority, the doctrine itself had its roots in early French nationalism, especially in the organizing action of Charlemagne in the 8th and 9th centuries, and came to conscious flower in the 14th century.

The struggle between Philip IV the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII (1294–1303) demonstrated in striking fashion the conflict over the nature of the royal and papal powers and their relationship. The next century and a half saw the development of the conciliar theory, according to which a general council draws its powers directly from Christ, even the pope being subject to its decisions. In this context two important events took place. First, during the attempts to end the Great Schism, when rival popes were established at Avignon and Rome, King Charles VI, following a national synod of bishops in 1398, decided to withdraw obedience from Benedict XIII, the pope of Avignon, without recognizing Boniface IX at Rome because he was no longer functioning for the common good of the people. Second, in 1438, during another national synod, Charles VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, a declaration of 23 articles affirming that the pope was subject to a general council and that his jurisdiction was conditioned by royal will. Though the popes from then on constantly urged the revocation of the pragmatic sanction, they did not succeed until 1516, when it was replaced by a concordat conceding the French king’s right to nominate bishops.

By the end of the 16th century two kinds of Gallicanism, political and theological, could be distinguished. Political Gallicanism could be further divided into parliamentary and royal; royal Gallicanism designates the policy of the French kings in matters ecclesiastical, and parliamentary Gallicanism indicates the demands of the courts and legislature in dealing with church affairs.

The most notable champion of parliamentary Gallicanism was the jurist Pierre Pithou, who published his Les Libertés de l’église gallicane in 1594. This book, together with several commentaries on it, was condemned by Rome but continued to be influential well into the 19th century.

The best expression of theological Gallicanism was found in the Four Gallican Articles, approved by the assembly of the clergy of France in 1682. This declaration stated: (1) the pope has supreme spiritual but no secular power; (2) the pope is subject to ecumenical councils; (3) the pope must accept as inviolable immemorial customs of the French Church—e.g., the right of secular rulers to appoint bishops or use revenues of vacant bishoprics; (4) papal infallibility in doctrinal matters presupposes confirmation by the total church. Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet drafted the declaration in Latin and defended it in a conciliatory preamble. Though the articles were condemned at Rome by Alexander VIII in 1690 and were revoked in France by Louis XIV in 1693, they remained the typical expression of Gallicanism.

Not all the French clergy were Gallican; the French Jesuits, in particular, were fervently Ultramontane. The 18th century, with its Rationalist attack on the very foundations of Catholicism, weakened the French concern for Gallicanism, and the Revolution left it enervated. Napoleon, though he favoured the clerical Gallican Party, had no strong interest. The first Vatican Council (1869–70) dealt a final blow by formally declaring the Ultramontane position.


Harrison Ford is back in space for Ender's Game, and when we sat down with the actor, we wanted to know what made him want to revisit the setting of some of his most iconic movies. The actor also talked about the dimensions of his character, Colonel Graff, and he gave us a surprising answer for why his young costar Asa Butterfield didn't need him as a mentor.


A site for free help-yourself legal resources

Child Custody in California

Since child custody laws are regulated by the individual states, the laws can vary significantly from state to state.  However, there are some general concepts that anyone with children should be aware of.  In California, the determining factors as to who shall maintain custody of a child are laid out in Section 3011 of the California Family Code.

Types of Custody

Legal Custody refers to the right and responsibility of a parent to make decisions relating to the health, education, and general welfare of his or her child.  This means that the parent who has legal custody will choose where the child will go to school, what religion he or she will be exposed to, and any and all medical decisions.

Some unmarried couples have joint legal custody over their children.  This means that both parents to whom the joint legal custody refers have the legal authority to make such decisions.

Physical Custody refers mostly to the right and responsibility to choose where the child will live.  The parent who has physical custody is responsible for the day to day care of the child, but it should be noted that the non-custodial parent still has the responsibility to provide financial support, which may be judicially mandated in a courtroom.  The non-custodial parent will also have visitation rights.

Joint physical custody is a situation where the children maintain two residences – one with each parent.  There is generally a close to equal division of time that the child spends with each parent, but sometimes careers and other considerations make that impractical.

One of the most common conflicts to arise when dealing with child custody is when one parent wants to relocate with the child.  It may be the case that the custodial parent has a career opportunity or a new relationship that leads them to a distant location.  When this type of situation occurs, there are several legal considerations to take into account.

First and foremost, the “best interest of the child” standard always applies in any custodial proceedings, and really in any dispute that will affect the welfare of the child.  With the issue of relocation, the burden is always on the relocating parent to show that the move serves the best interest of the child.

The court takes several other things into consideration in addition to the “best interest of the child” standard.  If the child is both old enough and mature enough to comprehend the decision, his or her opinion will be taken into account.  It is also more likely for the court to approve of a move over a shorter distance than a longer one. Another obvious consideration is the motivation for the move.  If the parent is moving because of a great career opportunity, the likelihood that the court will show approval is higher than if the move is primarily to suit the relocating parent’s new romantic relationship.

A relocating parent should do everything in his or her power to accommodate the non-relocating parent.  Courts do not look favorably upon deceit and withholding information in situations like this.  Because the court is primarily concerned with the child's well being, the relocating parent needs to have a plan for the child in the proposed, new location involving schools, day care, and most importantly, the means to maintain contact with the non-relocating parent.

Due to the variable nature of child custody battles, there is never a general answer that can be applied to every situation.  There are many free California resources that can aid you to better educate yourself about the best way to approach your particular situation.  Click here to find a child custody attorney in your area.

help please!!

What do I do if my childrens father willingly gave up his parental rights and I have legal and physical custody and I chose to relocate but since he got wind of it he is trying to get them back just so I would have to go back. He is an unfit person and I have kept my kids from him for that reason. If I have not been served with papers yet and do not appear in court will they automatically give him his rights back? My children are already enrolled in school and physical activities. .would the court disturb the life they feel safe in?

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Dr. Wysong

For those who know me only for Wysong products, the wide range of topics I have written on since the 1960s may be surprising. Those who don't read carefully and attempt to understand by categorizing, impose labels and causes such as 'creationist,' 'evolutionist,' 'atheist,' 'agnostic,' 'religionist,' 'liberal,' 'conservative,' and so on. However, as commonly understood, none of these attributions are true.

So, if the above labels don't fit, what is the purpose of writing on subjects that seem to depart from what is expected of me? Consider that no person genuinely concerned about the fate of humans and the planet (which I am) can possibly restrict their thinking or activities to one thing. We live in an infinitely connected world where no one act creates only one result.

In exploring why we face the problems we do with health, I have found fundamental flaws in the way humans think. For one, we insist upon imposing our beliefs on the world rather than open mindedly seeking truth and letting reason and facts lead. Secondly, even when obvious solutions are apparent, we almost never change our behavior until crisis strikes. We get too comfortable with our routines, conveniences, and the beliefs we construct to assure us all is okay as things are. The believer may be happy, but the doubter is wise.

Every salubrious discovery ever made has resulted from applying good reasoning and facts (science) to problems. But before that can occur, a person must have a true open mind, which means not being unalterably married to any idea. Unfortunately, this open mind business is the hardest of all human tasks. Instead we clog our brains with preconceptions, beliefs, faiths, media indoctrinations, family lore, and education that create almost impenetrable biases. As a consequence, the crowd is usually far distant from where the truth lies.

Unfortunately the masses adopt ideas not honestly earned by patient inquiry but stolen by listening to the voice of prejudice and poison. The bias resulting from untested belief propped up with little more than the strength of conviction and calcified by stifling doubt, is the most serious and ubiquitous plague to ever infect humans. It is the cause of virtually every ill -- physical, mental, social, political, and environmental -- we visit upon ourselves. That's because any belief that has not been tested by reason and facts causes us to depart from reality (truth). The further we distance ourselves from reality, the more trouble we get in. We can "believe" that we can fly and ignore the truth of the law of gravity. When we jump off the cliff flapping our arms, we soon learn that truth and belief are not the same thing.

As we look about us we see failed health and disease on the increase in spite of trillions and trillions of dollars spent to vanquish it. But we also see the same failed thinking resulting in a world economy on the verge of collapse, social degradation, religious bigotry and terrorism, environmental degradation, and a population more concerned about who will be the next American Idol than whether their children will be able to put a coherent sentence together once they come out of high school. We sow with our arrogant beliefs, reap with tears. We just keep jumping off cliffs.

It necessarily follows that seeking the truth on all human matters (even the hot topics it is not "polite" to talk about) is important since they can directly or indirectly affect our health, quality of life, and even whether life as we have come to know it will be possible. Everything, when understood in the contextual web we find ourselves in, is a health issue and therefore fair game to anyone wanting to improve the human condition. In other words, of what value is learning how to optimize your health with nutrition, if religious terrorism dismantles society, or political decisions cause the collapse of currency and your inability to purchase food or heat your home?

Nothing that humans do or that impacts them is isolated from beliefs about such varied topics as personal responsibility, politics, economics, religion, life, death, ecology, animal rights, origins, ethics, education, history... and thinking itself. Should leaders in society and those who provide services and products be accountable in terms of their beliefs? Certainly. Beliefs govern thinking and thinking governs actions. It is the thoughts that start the evil; the body merely repeats the impressions that have been made upon it by the mind.

The truth can only rise to the top in the open marketplace of the exchange of ideas. To not question is one long sin. Especially is this so in our information age when every two days as much information is created (five exabytes) as was amassed from the dawn of civilization up to 2003.

We all have the preeminent duty to open-mindedly pursue truth and accept it no matter what treasured idea it dismantles. After over a half century of adult life experience, exploring and thinking about all I could, I have found this belief to be the only safe place if one wishes to be truly honest with oneself and malleable to ongoing discovery. So, if there is no objection to open-mindedness, facts, and solving problems before they arise, then there should be no objection to anything I have written.

For those interested in exploring the wonderful hope that open minded thinking brings, exposing beliefs to the fierce light of free and fearless questioning, and understanding specifically how various beliefs and ideologies impact human health and welfare, I invite you to my various writings, books, and websites (including the more challenging and noncommercial AsIfThinkingMatters.com site).


Zambia: Agro Sector - Key to the Future

The agriculture sector plays a crucial role in stimulating economic growth and ensuring the attainment of national food security for any nation.

In Zambia the success of the agriculture sector sets in motion the efforts towards attaining and sustaining national economic growth.

The Zambian Government has over the years been heavily subsidising the agriculture sector as a way of ensuring that the country attains national food security.

Although some experts say there is need for Government to come up with deliberate policies which would protect the agriculture and other sectors.

They say agriculture which has for decades been the source of non-diminishing resources is a pillar of the diversification of the country's economy from copper dependence.

Agriculture and Cooperatives Minister Emmanuel Chenda says Government has continued with subsidies on the food production in the country which started in 2003 to ensure that national food security was attained and make both small-scale and commercial farmers self-reliant by selling their produce.

Mr Chenda said although the country has over the years faced challenges in making farming a self-reliant industry, it has attained national food security.

He said that what the country's agriculture industry required was coming up with value addition industries so that the farmers could provide primary resources needed.

Produce should be locally produced before meeting the needs of various industries and the export market, unlike a scenario where maize is being exported without any value addition.

There is a huge market now being created by the Democratic Republic of Congo, which has a larger section of its population now facing staple food crisis after South Africa suddenly stopped maize exports to that country offering a trading opportunity for Zambia.

"As Government we want to formalise maize exports to the country so that as a country we can get the much needed foreign exchange and Government revenues but what we need is value addition to our agriculture produce in order to maximise the country's gains from the agriculture industry," Mr Chenda said.

This year 2,852,687 tonnes of maize were harvested by farmers throughout the country beating the national maize requirement by far.

Agriculture and Livestock Permanent Secretary Siazongo Siakalenge said K1,321,136,649,000 had been disbursed to farmers who supplied maize to the FRA.

Mr Siakalenge said the balance of K34,520,251,000 which was outstanding by then would be disbursed soon to pay all the remaining farmers.

National Food and Nutrition Commission (NFNC) chief nutritionist Freddie Mubanga says the country is on the right track as far as improving the general agricultural sector output and attaining national food security.

The country needed to adequately address the country's nutritional needs through agriculture diversification to end the national food security bias towards promoting carbohydrates and energy foods.

Zambia has over the recent past been recording a bumper harvest of maize, cassava and rice crops whose production was being promoted by the Government which every year buys the farmers harvest of the crops.

The NFNC is optimistic that the Government would use the newly signed Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) to attract investors to develop fish farming, livestock farming, horticultural and value addition in the agriculture sector.

Alliance for Commodity Trade in Eastern and Southern Africa chief executive officer Chungu Mwila says Zambia is centrally located and in a better position to use the export of agriculture products to support the food-insecure communities in Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) region promoting food security.

Mr Mwila said the overall food and nutrition security in the region shows a deficit of about 603,000 tonnes of its cereals.

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa executive secretary Carlos Lopes says though Zambia is doing relatively well in its economic indicators, the absence of key growth catalysts is a source of concern.

Dr Lopes says it is worrying that Zambia has remained dependant on copper exports and has a high production cost, poor infrastructure, as well as costly and unreliable rail services.

The agriculture sector has immense opportunities for sustainable development, given the prevailing macroeconomic and political stability, favorable business environment, foreign investor goodwill and rich natural resources.

Dr Lopes advises the Zambian Government to intensify making agriculture a key role in economic diversification apart from seeing to it that fiscal reforms enhance domestic resource mobilisation.

The Government has started undertaking a series of programmes to sustain national food security and ensure agriculture sector is placed in a position to stimulate wealth creation through linkages with other sectors of the economy.

Efforts have also been made towards the development of farm blocs, technological transfer and the development of arable land.

Agriculture Deputy Minister Luxon Kazabu says under the CAADP agenda, Zambia is in the process of developing investment plans intended to provide an appropriate strategic framework for the agriculture sector during the period 2013 to 2017.

Mr Kazabu says once the plans are developed, they would provide strategic direction towards addressing key issues in the agriculture sector and bridge gaps that have been identified.

The Government wants to create more jobs in the agriculture sector.

The donor community should support the Government's quest to transform the agriculture sector to make it more responsive to the country's development agenda.

The Government is now set to position itself to use the agricultural sector's power to transform the economy by addressing food security, raising rural incomes and supporting the emancipation of women and children.

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Speak Up

My 9-year-old daughter is a bit shy. She’s loud at home, and with her friends, but usually not in class or in other environments. I often implore her, “speak up, I want to hear, everyone wants to hear, what you have to say.” Her teachers have commented that she needs to find her voice and speak out. It’s different from my experience as a kid. I was talkative and chatty. Adults used to ask me to stop asking questions and stop talking.

This year my daughter is in a 4th/5th mixed class at a public school. They’re studying US history, and they began with the history of how Columbus mistreated (“was so mean to people he didn’t even know!” exclaims my daughter) the people he met when he “sailed the ocean blue.”

The class is now studying Native American history. They divided into groups of 4 kids with each group assigned a tribe to study. Her group is studying the Nez Perce (Nimíipuu). She’s fascinated. She’s read/devoured 3 books about the Nez Perce and highlighted and notated a book on her Kindle. Recently she recited a bunch of quotes from Chief Joseph to me (“Do you want to hear my favorites of all the things I read about Chief Joseph?”). I was surprised.

Yesterday morning, on our walk to school, she described how her group only wants to put a big picture of Chief Joseph in the middle of their presentation board. “But he wasn’t the only chief,” she said, “there were other chiefs and so many other people. A tribe isn’t just one chief. A tribe is everyone in the community. He was a leader but you’re not a leader without a community. How do I convince my group that the Nez Perce are not just one chief?”

Oh, kid. You have to speak up.

She moved on to talk about how Chief Joseph died of a broken heart, “so is that natural causes? Or is it murder? Is it natural to die of a broken heart? How does someone die of a broken heart? How does the heart break?”

I don’t know.

This morning her teacher told me that yesterday my daughter stood up and quoted Chief Joseph to the class. She spoke up! The surrender speech is what my daughter loves. She memorized a portion of this and recites parts of this regularly:

She’s speaking up and speaking about injustice. Warm fuzzies.

I Don’t Miss Paper Books

It’s still pretty common that a friend of mine is taken aback when I say I don’t miss paper books. How many years until that’s more common than uncommon? My 9yrold daughter reads both on screen and paper and she loves highlighting and bookmarking on screen. Three years ago she wasn’t reading on screen.

I’ve been reading since I was 3 years old. I grew up in a house without TV or much mass/popular media (not my choice, of course!). I was friends with librarians at schools and the town’s public library. I checked out stacks of books every week. My goal was to own a lot of books when I grew up (my family didn’t own a lot of books and I admired houses with huge bookshelves full of books). I went to college, I got a job, I acquired books, and I loved living with books.

The experience of reading was always a mix of the images and scenes in my head, the sensation of the weight of the book, and the physical space of the page currently read. I associated plot twists in the book with where the page was in the stack of pages. There was as much a physical sense of content as there was a mental and emotional sensation.

Over the past few years I’ve given away almost all of my hardback and paperback fiction and nonfiction books. I gave them away because we live in a small house in a city and my reading was almost all on a screen. Three years ago I wrote about my experiences in paperless reading. At that time (January 2011) I was reading books both in paper and on screen, and I was starting to read more only on a screen.

I’ve noticed that reading a book on a device has given me a different, and more desirable, experience of engaging with the story or the content. The story and the characters are now all alive in my head, invading and influencing my stream of daily thoughts, as pure content not associated with (or sometimes constricted by) a physical sense of place-in-pages and heft of a stack of paper.

The downside for me, of reading books without paper, is that I don’t pay attention to my place in the book and some books end before I’m ready for them to end. That never happened, of course, with a hardback or paperback because I physically knew my place in a book.

The only type of book I don’t read, yet, on screen is graphic novels. I still buy, and read, and then give away, graphic novels. I haven’t yet cottoned to the experience of reading a graphic novel in an app on a device. How much longer until those will be just as easy to read and enjoy on a screen? Or have I missed an improvement in reading graphic novels in an app? Please tell me!

What’s New?

I installed 4 app updates on a Samsung Galaxy S4 today and glanced at “What’s New” for each of the apps. When I glance at “What’s New” I’m usually looking for bug fix information, but I rarely see that. Today the 4 apps with updates available on this device were Path, Google Maps, Twitter, and Facebook.

For the updates I installed today, Google and Path mention bug fixes (Thank you! But what bugs were fixed?). Facebook writes about features and functionalities and permissions. Google advertises “navigating your world faster” while Path is about “trust” and “stay close” and “share life” and “complete control.” Oops, Path, your description says you maintain a 5star rating but in the Play Store your average rating is now 4.5.  Twitter’s  list of features is helpful to me, and, while using the updated app, I noticed at least one bug fix. I wish companies would be more proud of bug fixes by publicizing them.

Google maps Android app description of what's new in the play store Path Android app description of what's new in the play store Twitter Android app description of what's new in the play store Facebook Android app description of what's new in the play store

I miss detailed Release Notes that used to come out with software and applications. They were good references for users and consumers and customers who are looking for more information (or just looking for an answer to “Did they finally fix that bug? Yes?! Yay!”).

I wish the app company’s people, who write the content for their app in the app/play store, would keep the user in mind when writing “What’s new” or when writing the description. What do you think they want to know? Have you ever asked or observed them? When I read these descriptions, I wonder.

Get to know some of the people who use your app.


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Wednesday, 8 December 2010

A Conservative, Christian Case for Gay Adoption.

The core element in this argument is familiar: adoption by same sex couples should be permitted, "because the best interests of the child" means the best parents available - not some theoretical, ideal myth. Sometimes the best available just happen to be gay or lesbian. What is different about this is that the argument comes from a declared conservative Christian, who makes no secret of her belief that homosexuality is a sin. But, she makes clear, as we are all sinners, her personal belief about the parents is no reason to act against the welfare of their children, to withhold standard courtesies and neighbourliness from the parents.

From Blogher :

Tuesday, 7 December 2010

The Fall of Rome, Reality Based History – and Gay Adoption

The vocal opponents of family equality are fond of making sweeping statements (in flagrant disregard of the evidence) about how marriage has "always" been between one man and on woman, how the proponents of equality are "redefining" evidence, quite ignoring the ways in marriage has been constantly redefined in the past - not least by the Christian churches. A variation on the theme has been that homosexuality has destroyed great civilizations, such as that of Rome. Illinois state Rep. Ronald Stephens has repeated this claim, blaming "open homosexuality" for the fall of Rome.

In a fun, sane response in the Chicago Sun-Times, Neill Steinberg dismisses the claim, basing his response on, well, historical fact, not what he calls Stephens' talking points. His most important observation is that the best known extensive study of the fall of Rome, Edward Gibbons "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", concluded that Roman civilization collapsed not because of homosexuality, but because of - guess what? Christianity.

Would that be a argument to ban Christianity today, for fear that it could cause the collapse of modern Western civilization?

The point I want to make is not that Gibbons was either right or wrong, but to heartily endorse Steinberg's larger point, that grand claims about the lessons of history really ought to be checked against the facts. This is certainly true in the secular sphere, but also in religious discourse. The often -repeated Vatican claims of Catholic "constant and unchanging tradition" are a smokescreen, often used to used to hide the importance of recently introduced changes, as Martin Pendergast noted recently, writing about gradualism in Benedict's theology.

But today, I do not want to explore this theme of the Church's constantly changing tradition. Let's just enjoy, instead, Steinberg's thoroughly delightful response to rep Stephens' ignorance. Here are some extracts:


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