World’s 10 most dangerous volcanoes identified

Ioto Suribachiyama

Volcano enthusiasts have enlisted the help of a University of Manchester academic to come up with a list of the top ten most dangerous volcanoes in the world.

And the Japanese island of Iwo Jima, which was invaded by the US army during the Second World War, has been identified in the number one spot.

Published as a series of blogs on the Volcano café website, the list includes volcanoes which have a realistic chance of erupting in the next 100 years and which risk causing the deaths of 1,000,000 people or more. It includes volcanoes from all over the world, including South and Central America, Africa, Asia and Europe.

The point of the list is to try to highlight those volcanoes that are not studied very well, but which could pose a big threat to regional and world stability, should they erupt. Professor Albert Zijlstra, of The University of Manchester explains the motivation behind the list. He said: “There are parts of the world where monitoring of volcanoes is very poor, and many of these poorly watched volcanoes are close to populated areas.

“The last time such a list was made was 25 years ago and that list mainly included volcanoes that are accessible to study in developed countries. Our new list looks all over the world, including in less developed countries. We have created this list to try to highlight the need for better monitoring and preparedness in many areas of the world.

There hasn’t been a major eruption for 200 years, since Tambora in 1815 (“the year without summer”), and there has never been a large eruption in a modern, developed country. There is a chance of perhaps 1 in 3 that there will such an eruption this century. ”

The island of Iwo Jima is about twenty metres higher than it was in 1945 due to a growing magma chamber underneath. The beach where the American forces landed in 1945 is now 17 meters above the ocean surface. The island has been pushed up by 1 meter every 4 years since several hundred years. It is only a matter of time before the whole island explodes. Although few people live on Iwo Jima itself, a large eruption would cause a tsunami that could devastate southern Japan and coastal China including Shanghai and Hong Kong. The team estimates that in Japan the tsunami could be 25 meters high. The eruption of the similar sized Kuwae volcano in Vanatua in 1458 caused a tsunami 30 meters high in northern New Zealand, and lead to the cultural collapse of Polynesia.

After Iwo Jima the second most dangerous volcano has been named as Apoyeque in Nicaragua, which is next to its capital Managua, with a population of more than 2m. Apoyeque has the threat of an underwater eruption, which could cause a large lake tsunami, as well as the danger posed by the eruption itself. It has had major eruptions every 2000 years. The last one was 2000 years ago.

In third place is Campei Flegrei near Naples in Italy, which poses even more of a threat to the city than Vesuvius. It erupts less frequently than Vesuvius, but is much closer to the city and has the potential for much larger eruptions. The western suburbs of Naples, a city of 4.4 million, are build inside its caldera. .

Other volcanoes in the list are in Indonesia, the Philippines, Mexico, and Cameroon.

Henrik Lovën, previously a major in the Swedish army and keen amateur volcanologist, helps to run the Volcano Café site and contributed to the top ten list.

He said: “We want to raise awareness that there are many volcanoes that could erupt and that are not being monitored properly. Hopefully the people who live near the volcanoes in this list will get more help to help them prepare for an eruption.”

The full top ten list is:

  1. Iwo Jima, Japan. Candidate for a very large eruption. Affected: Japan, Philippines, coastal China
  2. Chiltepe/Apoyeque, Nicaragua. At risk: Managua
  3. Campei Flegrei, Italy. At risk: Naples
  4. Mount Aso, Japan. At risk: Kumamoto, Nagasaki
  5. Trans Mexico Volcanic Belt, Mexico. At risk: Mexico City, Pueblo, Toluca
  6. Gunung Agung, Indonesia. At risk: Bali
  7. Mount Cameroon (or Mongo ma Ndemi), Cameroon. At risk: Buea, Douala
  8. Taal, Philippines. At risk: Manilla
  9. Mayon, Philippines. At risk: Legazpi
  10. Gunung Kelud, Indonesia. At risk: Malang

Note: The above post is reprinted from materials provided by University of Manchester.


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NLS Science & Technology

1NLS Science & Technology download

NLS Science & Technology

The principles of Quantum Entropy Logic-NLS developed by modern day Russian
scientists reveal that biological structures have abioenergy field that includes magnetic
vortex oscillations recorded on a matrix. Pathological biological processes have
associated unstable magnetic vortex states (meta states). These same Russian scientists
developed the technology to isolate and record the unstable magnetic vortex states
associated with the corresponding biological processes. The NLS deviceis the most
advanced Resonance spectroscopy analysis,Quantum resonance analysis,Acoustic
resonanceanalysis,Tomography scanning available today.People have utilized this
knowledge for thousands of years in the ancientdisciplines of the Yoga-Chakra traditions,
the Chinese Medicine traditions andothers.
Assessment of the body is due to resonant amplification ofthe magnetic vortex states.
Each organ has a specific, frequency range of magnetic vortex states, which are
displayedin chart form. Any biological process, whether healthy or pathological has very
specific magnetic vortex oscillations. Theseare stored inthe computer memory and take
into account the severity, age, gender and other characteristics of the subjects.
The NLS device technology is classified as biofeedback technology. Data is collected by
resonance amplification of the magneticvortex states of the entire biofield matrix by using
trigger sensors. By using a computer driven instrument in a safe, noninvasive, painless
and effective way, information about the entire biofield matrix is displayed downto the
level of the chromosome biofield.
Thepatient sits in front of the computer monitor and wears headphones for 15-30minutes.
During this time there is a collection of information about the state of his/her biofield. After
this, various analyses are performed and summaries are displayed reflecting the energetic
health of the patient. Coloricons show various degrees of unstable magnetic vortex states
displayed on the computerscreens virtual model.
The holistic professional compares thecomputer displays to the similarity of the reference
biofield processes (healthy biofield, altered tissue biofield, infectious agent’s biofield) and
identifies the closest emerging biofield process or tendency.
At Singularity we are dedicated to helping people restore their health, and prevent
unnecessary degeneration, through the most advanced technology today. With a list of
over 1000 biofield anatomy parts, detailed descriptions of every pathological biofield
process, virus and bacteria biofields, suggested herb biofields, remedy preparation tool,
Meta-therapy, and many other parts, theNLS is simply amazing in its accuracy and detail.
The ultimate goal will be to help you increase relaxation, relieve pain, increase cellular
health and develop healthier, more comfortable life patterns while enhancing your biofield
matrix. The changes and possibilities will beup to you and your practitioner.
Theoretical and experimental development of this technology started in thelate 19th
century bya man named Nikola Tesla. It was further studied by scientist J. Lakhovsky,
who experimented with RFeffects on animals and plants. Later, the American researcher
R. Rife studied the effects of radio frequencies on humans.His analysis is included in the
software of the NLS Device.
The first biofield detection devices used manual data entry and manual detection. The
biofield matrix detection actively involved the operator whose brain through the use of
low-frequency vibrations was tuned into and resonant with the biofield magnetic vortex
states of the patient. In other words, the operator’s energetic state was coherently
synchronous with the patients and had a sensing-amplifyingeffect. Original results were
reported by the deviation of the L-shaped frame in the hand of the operator on a special
Fleyndera scale (thisscale is tiedinto the analysis software of the current Non-Linear
However, this method of biofield matrix detection was too subjective. This eventually led to
the creation of the first electronic L-shaped frames called trigger sensors. Trigger sensors
automatically sense the magnetic vortex states (biofield matrix information) of the patient.
Developers fed these signals into a computer database until over 100,000 patients with
over 1000 health processes had been analyzed and stored in the database. Distant
biofield matrix detection experiments werecarried out by VN Kravkov in the 20th century.
Under the guidance of Prof. B. Togatova, biofield matrix detection experiments were also
carried out on various semiconductor structures.
The NLS devicemethod of analysis was developed at the Russian Institute of Practical
Psychophysics. Every organand every cell has associated with it a biofield magnetic
vortex statewhich is storedin the computermemory and can be displayed on the
computer screen as a graph. These graphs represent the conditions of information
exchange between the organ biofield and the environment. Every pathologicalprocess
with distinctive age and sexhas its own distinctivebiofield graph stored in the computer
memory. After reading the biofield frequencycharacteristics of a patient, the system
compares the degree of their spectral similarity with biofields of healthy and pathologically
affected subjects, or the biofields of infection agents, to obtain theclosest biofieldprocess
or tendency. The culminationof all of this science led to the NLS. The NLS device is
capable of detectingthe biofield frequencies without human intervention, as well as,
balancing the biofield imbalances.
The Foundation of Quantum Entropy Logic Theory (Theodore Van Hoven, Nobel laureate
and SP Nesterov) celebrated their30 year anniversary in 2010. These are the scientists
that ultimately developed the underlying theoretical framework and analysis methods
used in quantum non-linear systems.
The operation principles of the NLS device system which belongto the biofeedback and
“brain machines” class are based on fundamentals of Nesterov – Van Hoven quantum
entropy logic theory.
According to quantum entropy logic theory informational exchange between systems is
carried out distantly, associatively and selectively due to the quantum (biofields) magnetic
vortex states having energy equal to the energy of a system’s elementary structurewith
destruction. Since E=MC2, if M is destroyed, it is converted to E. This E is the Entropy
(disorder). Principlesof entropy logic theory were confirmed in physical systems during
informationalexchange, where unstable magnetic vortex states developedwhen the
possibility of their physical destruction was greatly increased.
Intensity of informational exchange between two exchanging systems A and B is
increased when form of one of these systems is destroyed. So in health, when parts of the
physicalsystem are degenerating, being attacked by micro-organisms ordying is some
way, their Entropy is increased and so are their associated unstable quantum (biofield)
magnetic vortex states. The strength of any system is equal to amount of contained
information in it. Thatis why destruction of one system’s (A) form with parallelinformation
transferring to another system (B) represents information conservation law postulated by
quantum entropy logic theory.
Entropy logic theory states that these are physically true only in cases where A and B
systems are quantum and the aggregate of A and B can be described by one condition.
This provides the presence of initially existing informational exchange preceding
destruction of one system’s structures which within the context of entropy logic ties both
parts together in single quantum system, because in corresponds to the Einstein-
Podolsky – Rosen effect. So as an individual is both physical=A and it’s biofield=B (the
quantum part,) together they form an aggregate that isone condition.
Quantum entropy logic theory allows us to clarify many details of fundamental
psychophysical mechanisms which are used in long-range information transferbetween
two spatially diverse objects. The theory revealsmechanisms for forming associations,
information selectivity and other exotic information transfer mechanisms.
The system operates on the basic principle of initiating signal amplification at the
destruction of metastable structures. Where the physical structures are degenerative, the
biofield is weaker. Under the influence of external electromagnetic fieldsof the headsets,
the magnetic vortex states (moments) of the biofieldassociated with the molecular
currents of the brain neurocytes lose their pristine orientation. This is equivalent to ”
disorder of the spin frames of the delocalized electrons present in the degenerating
physical structures , which is the reason of occurrence therein of unstable magnetic vortex
states. Disintegration plays the role ofthe amplifier in the initiated signal. From the
physical point of view the system represents a system of magnetic oscillators (cadistors),
resonating at a particular wavelength which energy is equal to the energy of destruction of
the predominant biological links supporting the structural architecture of the examined
organism. The informationabout a particular condition of a biological objects biofield is
read non-invasively by a digital trigger sensor. Modern information technologies and
microcircuitrydetectthe weak fluctuationsof the signals, emanating out of the average
statistical noise characteristics of the fields, and convert them into a digitallyinto the
If, being based on the quantum chromokinetics rules, you present the entropy values of
any system as colors of a spectrum, such colors will vary from light yellow (atminimum
entropy values) through orange to red andpurple, almost black (at maximum entropy
values). Finer theoretical calculations performed by computer, allow signaling out a
number of stationary conditionscorresponding to certain entropy potentials, selectively
interacting with the emission spectrum.
By comparing the color gamma of the icons and their location on the organ computer
model, and also theirtime change dynamics, one can judge the processes of biofield
weakening and the associated destruction of biological structures in stability time
Each cell has its ownenergy of destruction typical forcertain intercellular molecular
linkages. Bychanging characteristics of the NLS device cadistor radiation, one can cause
destruction of intercellular structures links (and related spin orientations of bio-molecular
combinations) of any cells of organism tissues.
It is natural that the more unstable and correspondingly more damaged condition the
tissues have, the morepronounced the responsewill be according to quantum entropy
logic theory.
At the same time scanning frequencies will coordinate position of response which together
with value of response will draw general geometry of accumulated damages in an
organism. As soon as response is located by operation of psychophysical phenomena, we
additionally introduce a number of physical forces activating brain functions of
investigated persons, and also adjust it resonantly (visualization of located organs on a
screen of a computer, using the association principle).
Non-Linear Systems
NLS Theory-Gariaev
Physicsof Information Medicine

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Introduction: Smooth PWM LED Fading With the ATTiny85

This short Instructable details how to achieve smooth transitions in response to step changes in PWM value (see video above for comparison. Apologies for poor light levels, but it does get the point across). The code was intended to be used with back lit displays to give a more professional look and feel to changes in brightness levels. Not dissimilar to that of an iPhone, LG or Samsung etc. when the display blanks after a period of user inactivity.

What parts do I need?

System entry requirements;

You will also need the following parts (to set up the comparison and prototyping circuits);

  1. 2 off Arduino Uno R3 (second Arduino to prototype and debug more complex I2C Slave code),
  2. 2 off 20x4 LCD Displays with I2C interface fitted (See
  3. 2 off ATTiny85,
  4. 2 off PN2222 NPN BJTs,
  5. 2 off ZTX789A PNP BJTs,
  6. 4 off 1K resistors,
  7. 1 off push fit perf board for prototyping,
  8. 1 off 3mm LED (for prototyping fade),
  9. 1 off 320R resistor (for prototyping fade),
  10. Various interconnection wires.

What skills do I need?
To set the system up, use the source code (provided) and create the necessary circuitry you will need the following;

  1. A minimal grasp of electronics,
  2. Knowledge of Arduino and it's IDE,
  3. Some Patience.

Topics covered

  1. Brief overview of the circuit,
  2. Brief overview of the software,
  3. How to test your 'smoothed' PWM device and see it in action,
  4. Conclusion,
  5. References used.

Whilst developing an ESP8266-12E IoT device for my study I wanted to use a 20x4 LCD to display some ambient environment variables around my home (temperature, humidity, barometric pressure etc.). However in using the LCD it became obvious that just statically fixing the brightness of the LCD back-light wasn't the best design decision.

During times of low ambient light (in the evening) the LCD would create a lot of glare. To tackle this I attached an ambient light sensor to the IoT device which detected these changes and adjusted the light level accordingly.

However, this was a far from elegant solution given once the ambient light levels had dropped below a trigger point the display would immediately switch from one level of intensity to the next. This was further compounded by a regular flickering due to the ESP8266-12E servicing other high priority tasks and not PWM functionality.

Design decision

To improve the back-light transition response I decided to move this task to another processor. The only issue was how to communicate with this processor given I had already used all the available ESP8266-12E I/O.

Simple, I decided to use the I2C bus and make my own slave device using the ATTiny85.

What follows is the detailed design, implementation and testing.

Please see the following Instructables on configuring the Arduino IDE for ATTiny85s and programme them along with how to create an Arduino I2C Slave.

Programming the ATTiny85, ATTiny84 and ATMega328P : Arduino As ISP

Expand your Arduino's I/O with an I2C Slave device

Step 1: Circuit Overview

Detailed above is the circuit used to connect the ATTiny85 as a slave I2C device. Note the use of the 10K pull ups.

For your circuit replace RED LED with backlight of choice.

See Instructable Arduino I2C LCD Driver Library and Packman for further details on I2C interfacing 'I2C_LCD_With_Arduino.pdf'

I have also included a diagram depicting the pin out of the ATTiny85 from an Arduino IDE perspective.

Step 2: Software Overview

To successfully compile this source code you will need the following extra libraries;

ATTiny Core

Given below are two Arduino sketches.

  • Tiny85_I2C_Slave_PWM_1.ino

This code gives a linear PWM response to a change PWM value and was the prototype code framework.

  • Tiny85_I2C_Slave_PWM_2.ino

This code gives a non-linear (quartic) smooth PWM response to a given change in PWM value.

Code Overview

In each case, the I2C slave address is hardcoded into the ATTiny85 at compile time with the #define I2C_SLAVE_ADDR.

At start up the software configures up the I/O, I2C slave address and then loops waiting to receive a single byte from the I2C interface addressed to this device. Upon receipt of a byte, it is written straight to PWM1

In the case of the non-linear response the difference in current and new PWM values are computed and 'plugged' into a formula;

This is carried out every 15mS to incrementally change the PWM output until it reaches it's final value. Thus giving a gradual smooth response to a change in PWM value.

Arduino IDE Coding practicalities

Coding the ATTiny85 was tricky given there is no easy way to debug during development. For example when writing software for the Arduino Uno you will invariably use many printf statements. Printf on the ATTiny85 is not available (unless 'bit banged' resulting in the potential drop in performance). For anything other than simple code you could employ a 'bit wiggling' strategy (changing the state of a given I/O pin under a particular condition) but this too is limited.

The code in sketch 'Tiny85_I2C_Slave_PWM_1.ino' is quite simple so I debugged by trying the code live on the target (ie. programme the device, remove from programmer and insert into target circuit, observe functionality), however for 'Tiny85_I2C_Slave_PWM_2.ino' I modified the code such that the debugging could be carried out on a second Arduino Uno then ported across to the target ATTiny85 platform upon completion (as in the picture above). This latter method is known as cross platform development.

Step 3: Testing the Software

As mentioned above for the smooth transition PWM code to debug and test I used two Arduino Unos connected as I2C Master and Slave as in the Fritzing diagram above.

I created a few test sketches for the I2C Master;

  • ATTiny85I2CRegWriteTest1

Generates a random PWM value and sends to I2C slave device every 15 seconds

  • ATTiny85I2CRegWriteTest2, ATTiny85I2CRegWriteTest3, ATTiny85I2CRegWriteTest4

Generate differing fixed sequences of PWM values to I2C slave device approx. every 3 seconds

Which allowed me to fully exercise the Slave code to ensure it worked robustly.

For completeness I have also included the code I wrote to show the comparison between the linear and non-linear transitions below as in the video (Tiny85_I2C_Slave_PWM_Comparison1.ino along with the circuit diagram). The two displays have I2C to parallel interface device fitted.

Note : If you are having trouble communicating with devices on the I2C bus, try running the Arduino I2C Scanner sketch located here;

Step 4: Conclusion

Ok so I could have used an IC such as the MAXIM I2C DS1050Z-001+ Pulse Width Modulator, but I'm big fan of 'rolling my own' and besides I had a stock of ATTiny85 hanging around and it gave me an excuse to look at programming the ATTiny85 and writing code for an I2C slave. Also there would still be the requirement to regularly compute the light level values with an easing function, much better to distribute the processing load as I mention in the design decision.

Design Expansion

It should be noted, this design only uses one of the available PWMs, it wouldn't be too difficult to provision access to all unused digital I/O or even analogue I/P within the ATTiny85. Alternatively the spare I/O could be used to set the I2C slave address at power up.

Step 5: References Used

About This Instructable

More by SteveQuinn:IoT Mains Controller. Part 9 : IoT, Home AutomationWiFi IoT Temperature and Humidity Sensor. Part : 8 IoT, Home AutomationUsing ESP8266 SPIFFS
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14 Apr 2016

Count Your Bracelet Lines On The Wrist … How Many? Here’s What It Means!

Curved lines that separate the palm of the hand and the rest of the arm are the bracelet wrist lines that are also known as Rascette lines. These lines can have several meanings related to ones’ health to their prosperity and fame.

According to Metaphysics Knowledge, the number of bracelets also represents the longevity of your life. The more bracelets you have, the longer you will live. If the first bracelet is clearly marked and unbroken indicates 23 to 28 years of life while the second bracelet represents 46 to 56 years of life. The third bracelet line that appears on the wrist represents 69 to 84 years of life, and the fourth represents more than 84 years of life.
Very few people have the forth bracelet line. The most common number of bracelets is usually two to three.

Now take a moment, look at your wrist and count your bracelets. How many are there?

Here’s what it means…
The first wrist line is regarded as the most important bracelet. According to Metaphysics Knowledge,  a clear and deep line indicates that the person is in good health and is physically fit. If the first line is poorly formed and somewhat unclear, it indicates that one is indulgent and reckless.

The first bracelet line can also represent a particular health problem.

Women: If their first line curves upwards into the base of the palm or if it is in broken links this may signify gynecological problems – difficulty in giving birth or conceiving, absent menses.

Men: If their first line curves upwards into the base of the palm or if it is in broken links this may indicate that there may be problems with the prostate, urinary or reproductive problems.

The second wrist line usually indicates the wealth, prosperity and happiness of an individual. The Rascette would appear straight, in a single line without any gaps or chain links.

The third wrist line indicates the name and fame of the individual’s life.  If the line is straight and without any gaps or chains also indicates that the person is influential.

The fourth wrist line is considered a parallel of the third Bracelet Line and usually favors and strengthens it.


Physiatrists in Provo, UT

A physiatrist is a doctor who specializes in the rehabilitation and physiological treatment of patients with an illness or injury that affects movement.
These specialists have extensive knowledge of the nerves, muscles, bone, and brain. Physiatrists are also experts in pain medication.
Some common conditions that physiatrists treat are rheumatoid arthritis, neurological and spinal disorders and injuries, chronic pain disorders, like fibromyalgia, and musculoskeletal issues, like broken bones and torn muscles.
These physicians also often coordinate a team of other specialists in order to maximize the patient's recovery, such as occupational therapists, speech therapists, neurologists, orthopedists, and counselors.

There are 11 Physiatrists in Provo, UT.


Triangles: Everything you ever wanted to know about them

Sed pede ullamcorper amet ullamcorper primis, nam pretium suspendisse neque, a phasellus sit pulvinar vel integer.

A triangle has three sides and three angle

A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices.

The three angles always add to 180°

An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60°

Scalene Triangle

A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths. Equivalently, it has all angles of different measure. A right triangle is also a scalene triangle if and only if it is not isosceles.

Hatch marks

Hatch marks also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles and other geometric figures to identify sides of equal lengths

Copyright ©2017 Nazwa Firmy, All Rights Reserved.


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Tour Travel World

Top Tourist Places To Visit in Ghaziabad

About Ghaziabad

Known as the 'Gateway To Uttar Pradesh', Ghaziabad is a planned city that lies in NCR. This alluring city is counted amid the fastest developing cities in India. Ghazi-Ud-Din, a Muslim ruler was the founder of this city and named is Ghaziuddinnagar but renamed it by shortening to Ghaziabad. Today, it is an important industrial city that has well-established connections with roadways, railways, and metro.

The city of Ghaziabad is elevated 700 feet above the sea level. The land of its region is a flat terrain in a majority that is fed by the Hindon River. Ghaziabad is surrounded by Meerut in North, Gautam Buddha Nagar in South, Delhi in West, and Hapur in East. The climate of the city is described as a tropical humid. It encounters searing summers with an average temperature of 40°C. During the winter season, the median temperatures fall down and rest at 12°C. This city receives sufficient rain shower during the monsoon season.

There're a lot of attractions that can be seen in the city of Ghaziabad. Drizzling Water Park, RML Garden, Indraprastha Amusement Park, the local cinemas and, shopping malls are must-visit places in Ghaziabad.


Skip the auto shop - Our mechanics make house calls

P0811 OBD-II Trouble Code: Excessive Clutch Slippage

check engine light

P0811 code definition

The P0811 code refers to excessive clutch slippage.

What the P0811 code means

The powertrain control module has found that there is a problem in the clutch position sensor circuit, also known as the clutch start switch. This code will only affect vehicles that have a manual transmission. If it is present in a vehicle that has an automatic transmission, it is likely a problem with the powertrain control module.

What causes the P0811 code?

The following are some of the most common causes of the P0811 code:

What are the symptoms of the P0811 code?

Vehicles that have the P0811 code stored will often find that it is difficult to start the engine, or even impossible to start the engine. In other cases, the vehicle might start without the clutch depressed. In addition, drivers will notice that their Check Engine Light will turn on and the code will be stored.

How does a mechanic diagnose the P0811 code?

To diagnose the P0811 code, mechanics make use of their expertise and a device called an OBD-II scanner. The scanner connects to the vehicle’s onboard computer and gathers data regarding the codes and the vehicle. The information that the scanner provides makes it easier for the mechanic to diagnose the vehicle and to figure out the best ways to proceed with a repair to fix the code.

Common mistakes when diagnosing the P0811 code

One of the most common mistakes when trying to diagnose the P0811 is blaming the started/solenoid instead. Most of the time in these cases, it will actually be the clutch position sensor instead.

How serious is the P0811 code?

Although some people might not notice any issues with their vehicle when they have the P0811 code present, that’s not the case with most. Many times, it will be more difficult to start the vehicle. They might not be able to start it at all. You don’t want to struggle with your vehicle every time you try to start it. Make the time to bring your vehicle to a mechanic who can diagnose it and repair it for you.

What repairs can fix the P0811 code?

Here are some repairs the mechanics can use to get fix the P0811 code:

Additional comments for consideration regarding the P0811 code

Whether you have a brand new vehicle or an older vehicle, you need to make sure you are taking proper care of it. This means paying attention to the mechanical needs of the vehicle. If your car or truck has codes stored, even if it seems to be driving fine right now, it is important to take it to a mechanic. They can diagnose the vehicle properly and provide you with the repairs that it needs to stay on the road. Keeping the vehicle in shape should also give you more peace of mind while you are behind the wheel.

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Related questions

Q: I have a 2009 VW Jetta S 2.5L. Why does my car turns on but then it turns off after driving it for a bit/while?

These are the following definitions for the codes you've received: P0864 - Transmission control module (TCM) communication circuit -range/performance problem P0070 - Ambient Air Temperature Sensor - (possibly shorted but most likely not related) P0734 - Gear 4 Incorrect...

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FMP Production

Unreal Project: How it began

We started my level design by choosing a theme, in my case, I chose a Modern theme, I then sketched out my level design, including a market, station and motel and pathways.

Importing it to photoshop, I made a more refined version of my map using various textures from the internet including bricks for buildings, pathways and roads.

Used the photoshop image as a texture in Unreal so I would know where to place buildings, plus giving the project it’s own folder on the computer so I could properly save all the assets in an easily accessible place.

I have not created a landscape at the moment, I used a big rectangle for my level. I plan to change the environment when I finish making all of the models.

Also as the level takes place in a city environment there are few trees than there would be otherwise.

When you make a material you have to find the appropriate texture online, then use photoshop to make the image loop appropriately so when it is applied as a texture to models, it looks rather seamless and thus, a lot nicer.

In the Unreal engine there are several nodes used for adding shine and other such effects to textures, this helps my models, made in maya, to look more interesting, giving objects the correct texture, such as a shine or make it look rough or slimy.

All of my models were made using using all the different methods such as extrusion and Booleans.

I have made my own textures for models, using planar mapping to customize my UV’s I was able to properly link all the textures together.

My first model, the Motel was made using big rectangle, one of the basic shapes along with pyramids for the roof, later though, in order to make it easier for the textures to be applied the rectangles, I changed the large rectangles meant to be both apartments of the motel at once into smaller rectangles for each separate room in the motel, though now I have to make some extra shapes to fill around the motel because not all the apartments completely fill underneath the motels roof, I changed the UV maps of the apartment rectangles into squares so it was easy to manipulate the the shape so I could add doors and windows.

As for other Assests in my level, I plan to change the skybox into one that shows a more morning light, as well as some street lights and ambient city sounds.

My motel model had a few problems with clipping issues and the sign image not being properly flipped but they were soon fixed through maya.

Overall, I have enjoyed working on maya and the unreal project; they have been exciting experiences that I would not mind learning more about.


IP Source

Friday, 30 January 2015

A Game of Thrones: Royal Succession in Saudi Arabia

Strategic Assessment | Volume 17 | No. 4 | January 2015

A Game of Thrones:
Royal Succession in Saudi Arabia

The Formation of the Principles of Succession

To a large extent, maintaining regime stability in Saudi Arabia relates to the
transition of power among brothers rather than from father to son. It may
be that this custom has ensured successors with the requisite experience
to manage affairs of state, but it has also reduced the pool of potential
heirs, resulting in the possibility that Saudi Arabia’s aging leadership
may negatively affect the nation’s stability.
Concern about succession
struggles is not groundless, as the kingdom’s selection process is not
entirely institutionalized. Problems concerning succession of governance
in monarchies are not unique to Saudi Arabia – Oman too could face them –
but the status and importance of Saudi Arabia as the “custodian” of Islam’s
holy sites, its possession of the world’s largest oil reserves, and its role
as the leading political and military power among the Gulf’s Arab states
lends urgency to the Saudi situation. The advanced age and deteriorating
health of King Salman and the nomination of Muhammad bin Nayef as
the kingdom’s new deputy crown prince suggest that a transition of power
to the grandsons’ generation, or at least a decision on the identity of the
next heir, is closer than previously thought.

The formation of the process of succession in Saudi Arabia began
during the reign of the country’s first king and the founder of the modern
Saudi state, Abdulaziz, also known as Ibn Saud. When the modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932, the political structure relied primarily on the
personal loyalty of the leaders of the dominant tribes to the king. Ibn Saud’s
principal task was to turn a regionalized tribal entity into a modern state
with an effective central government. Attaining this goal also involved the
ability to transfer the reins of government in a way that would not jeopardize
the kingdom’s stability. In 1933, he declared Saud as his successor, clearly
intending to preserve the reins of control in the hands of his own family.1
To prevent intra-family power struggles, he announced already then that
Faisal would be the second in line to the throne after Saud.2 Ibn Saud’s
other sons were placed in key positions of the central government, ensuring
that when the time came, they would enjoy legitimacy as rulers and have
experience in managing the affairs of state.3 The desire for stability and
consensus was a key feature in the process of building the state’s institutions
and continues to characterize the kingdom to this day.

Ibn Saud died without leaving a law defining royal succession, but the
custom of power transfer among his sons was established, along with other
principles of power transfer. The subsequent transfer of power to Faisal also
entrenched the function of the ulama in providing the imprimatur to the
Saudi royal family’s decision. This custom not only provides the new king
with religious legitimacy to rule, but also represents a stamp of approval
of the historical alliance between the royal house and the Wahhabi strain
of Islam (even though the ulama, whose members are appointed by the
king, has never taken an independent stance on the transition of power
and has always given its approval to the candidate deemed acceptable in
the House of Saud family forum).

According to tribal custom, primogeniture was a decisive factor in
succession, a custom also deeply rooted in the succession of Saudi rulers.
Faisal, however, did not appoint his heir until 1965, a year after his own
ascension to the throne, so as to make sure that the next crown prince would
be worthy of the appointment. This decision entrenched the principle
whereby the eldest brother – provided he is qualified – is appointed as heir
apparent. Faisal divided authority among princes in specific disciplines
and provinces and created a balance of power within the royal family so
that the king functioned as the first among equals, and to a large extent his
power depended on the princes.4 Although this structure did not prevent
power struggles within the family, it did contribute toward stability. The heir
apparent, Khaled, ascended the throne in 1975 after Faisal’s assassination
and was crowned king the very same day. His younger brother, Fahd, had
been appointed deputy crown prince during Faisal’s reign and so ascended
the throne immediately upon Khaled’s death in 1982.
Power struggles among the sons of Ibn Saud erupted more than once,
as a result of the fact that they were not full brothers and leading to the
Strategic Assessment | Volume 17 | No. 4 | January 2015
Yoel Guzansky | A Game of Thrones : Royal Succession in Saudi Arabia
creation of political camps defined by family lines. The prominent branch
was the Sudairi, a group of seven princes born to the same mother and
considered the most influential group in the family elite (the name is that
of the tribe of their mother, Hassa Bint Ahmad al-Sudairi). Faisal worked
to create a balance among the family’s various branches and distributed
the high ranking jobs among them, including control of the armed forces.
Even now, the balance is largely intact: King Salman’s son (a Sudairi),
holds the defense portfolio, while Mutaib, son of the late King Abdullah,
commands the National Guard.

Attempts to Institutionalize the Process

In the early 1990s, Fahd began to formalize Saudi Arabia’s process of
succession. The stationing of US troops on Saudi soil and to some extent
Saudi Arabia’s support for the Israeli-Arab peace process that started in
Madrid ran into opposition from radical religious circles, which dared to
challenge the legitimacy of the House of Saud.5 This opposition pushed
the kingdom to establish an advisory council (albeit one without any real
power) and, for the first time, also enshrine in law the manner of transfer
of power. Paragraph 5 of the Basic Law of Governance (1992) determines
that the throne will pass to Ibn Saud’s sons and grandsons.6
Fahd determined that only Ibn Saud’s sons and their sons would be
able to serve as king and be appointed crown prince, thereby allowing – at
least on paper – the princes of the generation of Ibn Saud’s grandchildren
to claim the throne. Furthermore, Fahd made it clear that the king would
be chosen on the basis of his qualifications and abilities and not just by
age, as had been the custom.7 While this formulation enshrined the basic
principles in law, it did not spell out explicit directives or defined criteria
for what constitutes the most qualified candidate, leaving the selection of
the heir apparent an issue to be settled by the king and family consensus. In
the long term, the kingdom cannot avoid translating the law into practice,
even if the transition of power becomes more complicated as the crown
goes to the grandsons’ generation: balancing the interests of the different
family branches can be expected to become a much more delicate, complex
matter by virtue of the fact that the ambitions and interests of numerous
princes – whose patience is not necessarily a given – must be taken into
The deteriorating health of King Fahd, who suffered a stroke in 1995,
resulted in the reins of power being handed to Abdullah. Although Fahd’s
health did not allow him to manage the kingdom’s affairs in practice, the
rivalry between Abdullah and the Sudairi camp prevented him from earning
the loyalty of the princes and being crowned officially until Fahd’s death in
2005.9 Abdullah’s official reign was also marked by tensions between him
and the Sudairis when Abdullah, breaking with family tradition, chose not
to appoint a second successor until 2009, when Nayef was named second
deputy to the prime minister as a result of Sultan’s frail health and concern
that a vacuum in governance might be created.10

Abdullah continue to entrench the succession arrangements and
founded the Allegiance Council. Announced in 2006, it has 34 princes,
all sons and grandsons of Ibn Saud, in charge of helping the next king
choose his successor and arrange for the orderly transfer of power. The
council is also supposed to serve as an interim government in case both
the king and his heir die or are unable to function. One may also see the
establishment of the council as Abdullah’s attempt to limit the Sudairis’
influence: although they still hold many key positions in the kingdom,
they are restricted on the council, their numbers being identical to those
of the other representatives. In any case, however, the council represents
the formalization of the kingdom’s custom since the death of Ibn Saud,
whereby decisions on succession are made by the king after a consensus
is reached in the family forum.

Although he established the council, King Abdullah involved it only
sparingly in making decisions about his heirs. Indeed, upon establishing
the council, Abdullah declared it would begin operating only after his
own death, and therefore he was not obligated to consult it in appointing
the crown prince. Thus, Nayef’s 2009 appointment to second successor
to the throne seems to have been Abdullah’s own decision, without any
input from the council. When Nayef passed away eight months after his
appointment, Abdullah – in a rapid move intended to prevent strife and
project stability and continuity – declared Salman heir without asking for
the council’s approval.11 But in 2014, when Abdullah named Muqrin second
successor, the council was convened: the appointment was supported with
the votes of only some three-quarters of the council members.12 The fact
that many princes are still unhappy with the appointment is liable to place
obstacles in Muqrin’s way to the throne, and if and when he is chosen, they
may well make it difficult for him to function and try to curb his power.
Key positions in the kingdom are another source of political clout and
influence. Often, the holder of a senior position appoints his cronies as
deputies and successors so that it all becomes a family affair. This was
the case with the Sudairis who appointed one another, resulting in their
control of the defense and interior ministries for more than four decades.
The political power embedded in such positions could also explain why
Abdullah insisted on reserving the position of commander of the National
Guard for himself even after he was tapped to become deputy crown prince.
It is possible that he was worried that once Prince Fahd – who was the heir
apparent at that time – ascended the throne, he would oust him from that
position in favor of Sultan. The command of the National Guard and the
loyalty Abdullah achieved were a significant counterweight to the Sudairi
front and the regular army, then under Sultan’s command.
The transition to the grandsons’ generation may well prove a complex
process. The traditional power centers, such as tribal connections, would
seem to be less significant now than they were in the past. The many
grandsons and the division into many sub-branches within the family are
therefore a potential threat to the kingdom’s stability.

The Challenges of Succession

Until recently the key challenge facing the Saudi royal household as it
sets out to appoint future successors is the aging of the first generation of
Ibn Saud’s offspring. The current king, 80-year old Salman, is ill, and the
potential pool of successors among Ibn Saud’s sons is shrinking, forcing
Saudi Arabia to prepare for the scepter being passed to the grandsons. The
Basic Law of Governance laid the constitutional foundation for this move,
but the process itself is liable to be complex and may involve renewed
power struggles within the family.

Increasing the uncertainty is the fact that the process lacks transparency.
Decisions are made within a small family forum and the announcement
by the royal family comes only after the decision is made. An analysis of
the situation and assessments of potential successors can therefore only
be undertaken on the basis of the small amount of information leaking out
of internal discussions and a survey of candidates currently holding key
positions. Furthermore, any analysis must also consider other candidaterelated
data of equivalent weight, such as lineage, health, support among
the princes, maternal origins, and closeness to the king. In the past, the
ability to reach a consensus within the small family forum, numbering
several dozens of princes, was the key to maintaining governing stability
in Saudi Arabia. By contrast, the number of Ibn Saud’s grandsons is now
in the hundreds.

At the same time, one cannot say that the Saudi leadership is reaching
this historic crossroads totally unprepared. Provisions to transfer the reins
of government to the next generation began more than two decades ago
when the Basic Law of Governance was passed, underscoring that the royal
household is aware that the transition is liable to represent a stiff challenge.
Furthermore, in recent years several princes of the grandsons’ generation
have been promoted to ministers and governors of important provinces.
As the number of grandsons serving in senior positions increases, so does
the number of political power centers in the kingdom: every governor or
minister wields extensive authority in his field, representing a political
camp of his own (figure 1). These developments are liable to increase
competition for appointments and positions at all echelons of the political
system in Saudi Arabia, and not only for the throne itself. Still, despite
the large number of Ibn Saud’s grandsons, only a few have the requisite
experience and stature to be considered potential successors. Of Ibn Saud’s
grandsons, the only two in truly significant positions are Interior Minister
Muhammad bin Salman, 30, the defense minister and chief of his father’s
royal court (appointed in 2015), and Prince Mutaib bin Abdullah, 63, who
in 2013 was appointed to command the National Guard, the kingdom’s
most important security establishment.

Since the start of the regional upheavals, perhaps out of fear of their
implications, Abdullah has made several important appointments.13 In
addition to promoting his son Mutaib to the rank of cabinet minister,
Abdullah appointed his third son, Abdulaziz, to serve as deputy to Foreign
Minister Saud al-Faisal. Al-Faisal, Saudi Arabia’s foreign minister since
1975, is also not in the best of health, and the king hopes that Abdulaziz
will take al-Faisal’s place when he steps down. Another son, Mashal, was
appointed governor of Mecca, the most important province in Islam and the
second most important province in the kingdom. His seventh son, Turki,
a fighter pilot by training, was made governor of the capital city of Riyadh
in 2014. This pattern of appointing relatives is standard. Kings appointed
their sons the moment they ascended the throne: Faisal appointed his
sons Saud, Turki, and Khaled to key positions, ensuring their high status
to this day. The sons of Sultan, Nayef, and Salman also came to occupy
senior positions thanks to their fathers’ stature. Thus, Abdullah’s recent
appointments may be seen as an attempt to provide the royal family with
satisfactory, experienced candidates who can, when the time comes, fill
the void left by Ibn Saud’s aging sons, but also – and primarily – his desire
to give his sons an edge in the future struggle for the crown after his death.


Jan 30, 2010

What is a Heart Attack?

Heart With Muscle Damage and a Blocked Artery

The most common heart attack signs and symptoms are:

  • Shortness of breath may occur with or before chest discomfort.

Jan 28, 2010

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome:
Acquired means you can get infected with it;

* having sex with an infected person
* sharing a needle (shooting drugs) with someone who's infected

* PCP (Pneumocystis pneumonia), a lung infection;
* KS (Karposi's sarcoma), a skin cancer;

Jan 27, 2010

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis.

But air that is not fully saturated with water vapour (100% relative humidity) will dry the surfaces of cells with which it comes in contact. So the photosynthesizing leaf loses substantial amount of water by evaporation. This transpired water must be replaced by the transport of more water from the soil to the leaves through the xylem of the roots and stem.

Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the "engine" that pulls water up from the roots to:
- supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total)
- bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf
- cool the leaf
Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

1. Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the opening of the stomata (mechanism). Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the leaf.

2. Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature rises. At 30°C, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20°C.

3. Humidity
The rate of diffusion of any substance increases as the difference in concentration of the substances in the two regions increases.When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.

4. Wind
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by drier air.

5. Soil water
A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.

The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been estimated that over the growing season, one acre of corn plants may transpire 400,000 gallons of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches deep. An acre of forest probably does even better.

Plant Tissue Systems

The tissues of a plant are organized into three tissue systems: the dermal tissue system, the ground tissue system, and the vascular tissue system.

Dermal Tissue System - Epidermis, Periderm (in older stems and roots)
• protection
• prevention of water loss

Ground Tissue System - Parenchyma tissue, Collenchyma tissue, Sclerenchyma tissue
• photosynthesis
• food storage
• regeneration
• support
• protection

Vascular Tissue System - Xylem, Phloem
• transport of water and minerals
• transport of food

Jan 23, 2010

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal condition . The liver, the kidneys, and the brain (hypothalamus, the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system) help maintain homeostasis. The liver is responsible for metabolising toxic substances and maintaining carbohydrate metabolism. The kidneys are responsible for regulating blood water levels, re-absorption of substances into the blood, maintenance of salt and ion levels in the blood, regulation of blood pH, and excretion of urea and other wastes.

Humans are warm-blooded, maintaining a near-constant body temperature. Thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Heat is mainly produced by the liver and muscle contractions. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. In order to deal with these climatic conditions, humans have developed physiologic and cultural modes of adaptation.

Temperature may enter a circle of positive feedback, when temperature reaches extremes of 45°C (113°F), at which cellular proteins denature, causing the active site in proteins to change, thus causing metabolism stop and ultimately death.

Humans regulate their blood glucose with insulin and glucagon. These hormones are released by the pancreas.

When blood sugar levels become too high, insulin is released from the pancreas, lowering the blood sugar levels. On the other hand, when blood sugar levels become too low, glucagon is released, increasing blood sugar levels.

If the pancreas is for any reason unable to produce enough of these two hormones, diabetes results.

Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of bodily fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the body's water content; that is it keeps the body's fluids from becoming too dilute or too concentrated. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move into one solution from another by osmosis. The higher the osmotic pressure of a solution the more water wants to go into the solution.

The kidneys are used to remove excess ions from the blood, thus affecting the osmotic pressure. These are then expelled as urine

The body's homeostatic control mechanisms, which maintain a constant internal environment, ensure that a balance between fluid gain and fluid loss is maintained. The hormones ADH (Anti-diuretic Hormone, also known as vasopressin) and Aldosterone play a major role in this.

If the body is becoming fluid-deficient, there will be an increase in the secretion of these hormones (ADH), causing fluid to be retained by the kidneys and urine output to be reduced.

Conversely, if fluid levels are excessive, secretion of these hormones (aldosterone) is suppressed, resulting in less retention of fluid by the kidneys and a subsequent increase in the volume of urine produced.

If you have too much Carbon dioxide(CO2) in the blood, it can cause the blood to become acidic. People respirate heavily not due to low oxygen(O2) content in the blood, but because they have too much CO2.

Jan 22, 2010

Fluid Exchange Between Capillaries and Tissues

Together, blood plasma and interstitial fluid make up the extracellular fluid (ECF). Plasma constitutes 20%, while interstitial fluid constitutes 80% of the ECF. The distribution of extracellular fluid between these two compartments is determined by the balance between two opposing forces: hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure.

Causes of Oedema

     a) Kidney disease can result in the loss of plasma proteins in the urine.
     b) Liver disease can decrease the synthesis of plasma proteins.
     c) A protein-deficient diet will decrease plasma proteins.
     d) Severe burns result in a loss of plasma proteins (albumin) at the burn site

     a) Left heart failure. The left half of the heart drains blood from the lungs. When the left ventricle fails to adequately pump blood, venous pressure in the lungs increases. This increases in hydrostatic pressure causes an increase in the rate of filtration of fluid out of the capillaries and into the interstitial compartment. As a result, the lungs fill with fluid, a condition called, pulmonary oedema.

4. Blocked Lymphatic Vessels. If lymph vessels become blocked, then lymph fluid will not be drained from the affected area and the area will swell. Any condition that causes blockage or removal of lymph vessels can lead to oedema. Examples of this condition include:

     a) Filaria round worms are transmitted to humans by some species of mosquitoes. The worms migrate to the lymph vessels and block them. This causes dramatic swelling of the affected area, a condition called elephantiasis.

Jan 21, 2010

Time Management

"Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the things that you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not." - Thomas Huxley

How many times have you planned to do something only to procrastinate or fail to carry out the plan? While there are many explanations for your failure to implement your plan, analysis of this failure has to start with the plan itself. Even if you do not want to do the work, to be successful it is necessary to stay motivated and make yourself do what needs to be done. Many students often say they will "try" to do the work, but unfortunately the definition of "try" in daily English means: "Forget it - I really don't want to do this and I won't do it. Further, when asked of my progress, I will employ excuses that relieve me of the responsibility to change the behaviour." All of these problems occur in school life. The good news is that you can employ effective time management strategies to overcome these obstacles and be successful throughout your career. These include planning, implementing the plan, and evaluating the plan.

Life in school has many distractions that can keep students from managing their time and keeping up with their studies. For example a boy named Nicky. Partying Nicky has tendencies to procrastinate and not manage his time wisely. In short, he is going to fail his subject if he does not shape up and plan his work and activities. Nicky needs to understand there are three main objectives that he must stick to or else his planning will fail. The first is to be ready for an exam 2-3 days before the test is administered. Second, use his daytime hours for studying, because he realises he wants to be with his friends in the evening. Lastly, he needs to distribute his studying hours so as not to cram. To plan his time successfully, he should compare his academic studies to a full-time job, thus leaving his night time hours for fun time. This will help him maintain a healthy balance between work and fun.

After Nicky plans his time he must implement the plan. To implement his plan he needs to stick to his daily and weekly schedule. One way to do this is to identify precise products he will produce during specified time periods. When he completes a task, he crosses it off the list. He should plan to study between classes, when the ideas are still fresh from the class. Further, he should visualise completing the task successfully. Visualisation, properly applied, is a powerful strategy. He should also keep in mind - two hours of studying during the day for every one hour of class time is far more beneficial than cramming for six hours the night before the exam.

Lastly, Nicky needs to monitor himself and his work. For example, he could pretend he is the employer at a large manufacturing corporation. According to his plans and how well he implemented them, he must decide if he should receive a reward as a productive employee, or if he would be fired for poor performance. Put another way, Nicky could monitor himself by answering the following questions each night:

"If he worked in a corporation and he was the President, would he hire himself the way he behaved today?"

"Am I proud of my performance today?"

Effective Time Management strategies lead to success; ineffective Time Management strategies lead to failure. It's that simple. Time Management strategies help students to stay motivated and on top of their deadlines for projects, help eliminate procrastination, and help to balance academic and fun time to maintain a healthy lifestyle in school.

Jan 17, 2010

Camner nak study Bio nie???

1. Slow down !!
The flow of a biology book is not like the flow of a novel. A novel can be read effortlessly, smoothly and rapidly, but biology books cannot. If you are reading a novel and are somewhat distracted, you can still get the idea of what it is about. When you are not concentrating on biology you will get very little out of it, and it will seem more difficult than it really is.

2. Every word counts.
Biology books are usually not repetitive, so there is little chance of picking something up from reading on. Writers of biology texts believe that extra words and repeats get in the way of clarity.

3. It is best to tackle each chapter at least three times.
The first time you should skim the chapter, noting topic sentences, words in bold print, all tables, diagrams and summary charts. This is best read before the class. The second reading should be in more detail, studying each area and not proceeding until each section is understood. Reread each section as many times as necessary until you understand its meaning. Mastery can take minutes or hours or days. The last major reading is for writing down terms and definitions and important concepts (see #5 below).

4. Talk to yourself as you read.
Explain what you have read aloud and make up your own examples to better understand what you have read. Rereading the material aloud, especially in your own words helps clarify the information. Hearing yourself makes a lot of difference.

5. Words and symbols of biology have specific meanings.
Each time you come to a new term or concept, cover up the text and see if you can express the idea aloud in your own words. Write down all the words you do not know. Emphasise words in bold type. Whenever possible write out the definitions in your own words. Strive for understanding the definitions so that you can easily state them in your own words; you are more likely to remember them that way. By saying it out loud and writing it, you are more like to recall it later, when needed.

6. Study all diagrams and charts.
They condense a lot of valuable information. Cover up and see if you can visualise them.

7. Write as you read.
• During your first reading write nothing in the text.
• Do not highlight ¬ it slows down reading and it is often used as an excuse for not concentrating.
• In a later reading, call attention to important words or phrases by underlining them (do not overdo this). Complete sentences or paragraphs should be bracketed and not underlined.
• Write summarising statements to yourself in the margin.
• Make notes to yourself right in the text.
• Note questions that you need to have clarified.

8. Record all key points on a separate sheet.

9. If there are study questions at the end of the chapters, be sure you can answer them. They are good practice for the exam.

10. Make flash cards with terminology and concepts.

11. Keep testing yourself on a separate sheet of paper.

12. Without looking back, write out and say aloud the important points.

13. Create tasks for yourself as you read the text.
After reading an example and working it out for yourself, try to think of other examples that would fit the idea being discussed.

14. Use more than one book on the topic you are studying whenever possible.
Pick books that appeal to you. If you are very verbal, a book with long explanations is likely to be most helpful. If you are more visual, you might choose a book that has more illustrations.

15. Read the chapter before, and again after, class.
You will get the most out of class if you have read the material before the teacher presents it. Even if you feel that you understood the material in class, read it over again in the text. The more you review it the more likely you are to recall it.

16. If possible, have a friend or family member quiz you on your notes and text information.
Done regularly, this commits more information to long-term memory.

Jan 16, 2010

Somethin to do with blood

The structure of blood vessels.

The composition of mammalian blood.

Differentiation of blood cells. Some of the pluripotent stem cells differentiate into lymphoid stem cells, which then develop into B cells and T cells, two types of lymphocytes that function in the immune response. All other blood cells differentiate from myeloid stem cells.

Blood clotting

Atherosclerosis. These light micrographs contrast a cross section of (a) a normal (healthy) artery with (b) an artery partially blocked by an atherosclerotic plaque. Plaques consist mostly of fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle cells infiltrated with lipids.

Additional info

  • Arteriosclerosis is any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of large arteries and arterioles (small arteries). It is often due to hypertension.

  • Artherosclerosis is a hardening of an artery specifically due to an atheromatous plaque. Atherosclerosis is the most common form of arteriosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is characterised by a thickening of the intima with plaques that can contain lipid-laden macrophages ("foam cells"). The plaques contain free lipid (cholesterol, etc.) and are prone to calcification and ulceration.

Jan 14, 2010

Partial solar eclipse tomorrow!

Same as last year, the main show is not the partial eclipse, but the annular one which begins its path in Africa and passes through Chad, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and Somalia. After leaving Africa, the path crosses the Indian Ocean where the maximum duration of annularity reaches 11 min 08 s. The central path then continues into Asia through Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and China.

A partial eclipse is seen within the much broader path of the Moon’s penumbral shadow, which includes Eastern Europe, most of Africa, Asia, and Indonesia.

In Malaysia, the first contact – when the Moon first “touches” the Sun – begins around 3:01 pm. The Moon will then slowly cover up part of the Sun until maximum eclipse at 4:26 pm, when the Sun is 39 degrees above the horizon. Around 5:38 pm, the Moon leaves the Sun’s disk and the show ends.

During maximum eclipse, 28.6% of the Sun’s disk (area) will be obscured by the Moon, although 40.9% of the Sun’s diameter is obscured. That’s the different between eclipse obscuration and eclipse magnitude.

So now, how to observe this event safely?

There are few ways. You can project the image of the Sun onto a piece of paper or a wall either by using pinhole projector or telescope, or use a solar filter either the glasses type or attached it in front of a telescope. Only then, you can observe the Sun safely. You don’t really need a telescope to enjoy this.

Please bear in mind that although the Sun will be partially covered, the remaining of the crescent Sun will still be intense enough to damage your eyes. It is NOT safe at all to look at the partial Sun directly.

Jan 12, 2010

You Can Be Whatever You Want To Be

There is inside you all of the potential to be

whatever you want to be...

all of the energy to do whatever you want to do.

Imagine yourself as you would like to be,

doing what you want to do,

and each day, take one step towards your dream.

And though at times it may seem too difficult to continue,

hold on to your dream.

One morning you will awake to find

that you are the person you dreamed of...

doing what you wanted to do...

simply because you had the courage

to believe in your potential

and to hold on to your dream.

~Donna Levine~

Davydenko pips Nadal to win Qatar Open

Nikolay Davydenko saved two match points as he made a remarkable recovery to beat Rafael Nadal 0-6 7-6 6-4 in the Qatar Open final..

After failing to win a game in the opening set, and trailing in both the second and third, the Russian fought back strongly to overcome the world number two in one hour 43 minutes.
Third seed Davydenko, who defeated the world's top player Roger Federer in the semi-final, produced 52 winners against the second-seeded Spaniard's 37 to claim the trophy.
The world number six thought he had no chance after losing the first set without winning a game but a battling performance improved his head-to-head record against Nadal to 5-4.
"After losing the first set 6-0, I thought I had no chance of winning," said the Russian. "In the beginning, he was on top and I had to fight for every point. However, as the match wore on, Rafa lost his concentration and made too many mistakes.
"Really, I wasn't sure of winning till I had three match points. If I can make such a remarkable turnaround after failing completely in the first set that definitely means my confidence is high. I'm happy I could stay focussed at crucial stages."

The victory takes Davydenko's unbeaten run to nine matches after he won the ATP World Tour Finals in London in November.
Nadal tried to look for positives as he prepares for the defence of his Australian Open title later this month.
"I'm happy with the way I performed. I played unbelievable tennis in the first set. That just shows I'm back to my best, maybe, like how I played in 2008. It's a huge morale booster," he said.
"After losing the tiebreaker (10-8), I don't know what went wrong. I lost to one of the best players in the world," Nadal said, adding it was too early to comment on his title prospects at the Australian Open.
Davydenko said beating Nadal and Federer at the Australian Open would be a completely different challenge.

Jan 11, 2010

In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system.
There is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is more correctly termed hemolymph. One or more hearts pump the hemolymph into an interconnected system of sinuses, which are spaces surrounding the organs. Here, chemical exchange occurs between the hemolymph and body cells. In insects and other arthropods, the heart is an elongated tube located dorsally. When the heart contracts, it pumps hemolymph through vessels out into sinuses. When the heart relaxes, it draws hemolymph into the circulatory system through pores called ostia. Body movements that squeeze the sinuses help circulate the hemolymph.

The mammalian cardiovascular system : Note that the dual circuits operate simultaneously, not in the serial fashion that the numbering in the diagram suggests. The two ventricles pump almost in unison; while some blood is traveling in the pulmonary circuit, the rest of the blood is flowing in the systemic circuit.

Located beneath the breastbone (sternum), the human heart is about the size of a clenched fist and consists mostly of cardiac muscle. The two atria have relatively thin walls and serve as collection chambers for blood returning to the heart, most of which flows into the ventricles as they relax. Contraction of the atria completes filling of the ventricles. The ventricles have thicker walls and contract much more strongly than the atria—especially the left ventricle, which must pump blood to all body organs through the systemic circuit.

The cardiac cycle. For an adult human at rest with a pulse of about 75 beats per minute, one complete cardiac cycle takes about 0.8 second. 1 During a relaxation phase (atria and ventricles in diastole), blood returning from the large veins flows into the atria and ventricles. 2 A brief period of atrial systole then forces all remaining blood out of the atria into the ventricles. 3 During the remainder of the cycle, ventricular systole pumps blood into the large arteries. Note that seven–eighths of the time—all but 0.1 second of the cardiac cycle—the atria are relaxed and are filling with blood returning via the veins.

 A region of the heart called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. Composed of specialized muscle tissue, the SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium, near the point where the superior vena cava enters the heart. Because the pacemaker of the human heart (and of other vertebrates) is made up of specialized muscle tissues and located within the heart itself, the vertebrate heart is referred to as a myogenic heart.
The SA node generates electrical impulses much like those produced by nerve cells. Because cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled (by the intercalated disks between adjacent cells), impulses from the SA node spread rapidly through the walls of the atria, causing both atria to contract in unison.
The impulses also pass to another region of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, a relay point called the atrioventricular (AV) node, located in the wall between the right atrium and right ventricle. Here the impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second before spreading to the walls of the ventricles. The delay ensures that the atria empty completely before the ventricles contract. Specialized muscle fibers called bundle branches and Purkinje fibers then conduct the signals to the apex of the heart and throughout the ventricular walls.

The impulses that travel through cardiac muscle during the heart cycle produce electrical currents that are conducted through body fluids to the skin, where the currents can be detected by electrodes and recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG).

Jan 9, 2010

Animal and Plant Cells

TSA/V Ratio

Geometric relationships between surface area and volume. In this diagram, cells are represented as boxes. Using arbitrary units of length, we can calculate the cell’s surface area (in square units), volume (in cubic units), and ratio of surface area to volume. The smaller the cell, the higher the surface–to–volume ratio. A high surface–to–volume ratio facilitates the exchange of materials between a cell and its environment.

Plant Tissues

Meristematic tissue is located in

Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts of the plant. Link to discussion of water and mineral transport in the xylem.

Xylem vessels arise from individual cylindrical cells oriented end to end. At maturity the end walls of these cells dissolve away and the cytoplasmic contents die. The result is the xylem vessel, a continuous nonliving duct. The vessels carry water and some dissolved solutes, such as inorganic ions, up the plant.

The main components of phloem are
-sieve elements and
-companion cells.

-growing tips of stems and leaves
-fruits, tubers, corms, etc.

-leave the plant by transpiration or
-increase the volume of the cells or
-move into the xylem for recycling through the plant.

Jan 4, 2010

World's tallest skyscraper

Blazing fireworks and dazzling lights marked the inauguration of the world's tallest tower, Burj Dubai.

The needle-shaped concrete, steel and glass tower, described by its developer as a "vertical city" as it dwarfs existing skyscrapers, boasts new limits in design and construction.

Emaar Properties, the partly government-owned developer, has maintained the suspense over the final height of the skyscraper, saying only that it exceeds 800 metres (2,625 feet).

But it revealed on that the tower will have over 200 floors, only 160 of which will be inhabited, while the remaining floors will be for services.

Burj Dubai has a total built-up area of 5.67 million square feet, including 1.85 million square feet of residential space and over 300,000 square feet of prime office space, Emaar said. Related article: History of Dubai mega projects

This amounts to 1,044 apartments and 49 floors of office space, served by 57 lifts.

A hotel carrying the Georgio Armani logo will also occupy part of the tower.

Bill Baker, a structural and civil engineer and partner in Chicago-based Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), which designed the tower, said Burj Dubai has set a new benchmark.

"We thought that it would be slightly taller than the existing tallest tower of Taipei 101. (Emaar) kept on asking us to go higher but we didn't know how high we could go," he said.

"We were able to tune the building like we tune a music instrument. As we went higher and higher and higher, we discovered that by doing that process... we were able to reach heights much higher than we ever thought we could.

"We learned quite a bit from Burj Dubai. I would think we could easily do a one kilometre (tower). We are optimistic about the ability to go even higher."

A spiralling Y-shaped design by SOM architect Adrian Smith was used to support the structural core of the tower, which narrows as it ascends. Higher up it becomes a steel structure topped with a huge spire. Related article: The world's highest towers.

To reach the final stages, concrete was propelled to a height of 605 metres (1,996 feet) -- a world record.

Jan 3, 2010

Exam Format for STPM Biology

Candidates are required to enter for Papers 1, 2, and either Paper 3 or Paper 4.

Paper 1
- 50 compulsory multiple-choice questions are to be answered.
- 50 marks (to be scaled to 60)
- 1¾ hours

Paper 2
Section A:
- 4 compulsory short structured questions are to be answered.
- 10 marks per question (40 marks)
Section B:
- 4 questions are to be answered out of 6 essay questions.
- 15 marks per question (60 marks)
- Total: 100 (to be scaled to 120)
- 2½ hours

Paper 3
School-based Assessment of Practical:
- 13 compulsory experiments are to be carried out.
- (20 marks)
- During school term

Practical Syllabus
School-based Assessment of Practical (Paper 3)

School-based assessment of practical work will only be carried out during the school term of form six for candidates from government and private schools which have been approved by the Malaysian Examinations Council to carry out the school-based assessment. Individual private candidates, candidates from private schools which have no permission to carry out the school-based assessment of practical work, candidates who repeat upper six (in government or private schools), and candidates who do not attend classes of lower six and upper six for two consecutive years (in government or private schools) are not allowed to take this paper.

13 compulsory experiments (including three projects) are to be carried out by candidates and to be assessed by subject teachers in schools. Candidates are required to carry out the projects individually or in groups as stipulated. Details of the topic, aim, theory, apparatus, and method of each of the experiments are with the teachers.

Students will be supplied with a work scheme before the day of the compulsory experiment so as to enable them to plan their practical work. Each experiment is expected to last one school double period. Assessment of the students’ practical work will be done by the teacher during the practical session and will also be based on the students’ practical report. The assessment should comply with the assessment guidelines prepared by the Malaysian Examinations Council.
Reference Books

1. Audesirk, T., Audesirk, G. & Bayers, B.E., Biology: Life on Earth, (6th ed.), Prentice-Hall, 2002.

2. Campbell, N. A. & Reece, J. B., Biology, (6th ed.), Benjamin Cummings, 2002.

3. Clegg, C. J. & Mackean, D. G., Advanced Biology: Principles and Applications, John Murray, 2000.

4. Green, N. P. O., Stout, G. W., & Taylor, D. J., Biological Science 1 & 2 (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1990.

5. Jones, M. & Jones, G., Advanced Biology, Cambridge University Press, 1997.

6. Solomon, E., P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W., Biology, (6th ed.), Thomson Learning, 2002.

7. Starr C. & Taggart R., Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, (9th ed.), Von Hoffmen Press, 2000.

Exam Format for SPM Biology

Paper 1 (4551/1)
- Objective questions
- Multiple choice
- Each item consists of four choices of answers; A, B, C and D
- 50 questions (answer all)
- Total marks : 50
- Duration : 1 hour 15 mins
- Coverage of context : all area of learning

Paper 2 (4551/2)
- Section A : Subjective questions
   Section B : Essay writing
- Subjective : 5 items (answer all) - 60 marks
  Essay : 4 items (choose 2) - 40 marks
- Total marks : 100
- Duration : 2 hours 30 mins
- Coverage of context : all area of learning

Paper 3 (4551/3)
- Q1 : Structured - based item (33 marks)
  Q2 : Open response item (17 marks)
- Total marks : 50
- Duration : 1 hour 30 mins
- Coverage of context : Experiments

There you are, the SPM Biology Paper.
I'll share with you all next time the techniques in answering (especially Paper 2 and 3).
Most of the students are not familiar with the techniques and end up getting average marks.

Jan 2, 2010

What is Biology?

What is biology? Simply put, it is the study of life -- life in all of its grandeur. From the very small algae to the very large elephant, life has a certain wonder about it. With that in mind, how do we know if something is living? Is a virus alive or dead? What are the characteristics of life? These are all very important questions with equally important answers.

Characteristics of Life

Living things include both the visible world of animals and plants, as well as the invisible world of bacteria. On a basic level, we can say that life is ordered. Organisms have an enormously complex organization. We're all familiar with the intricate systems of the basic unit of life, the cell.

Life can also "work." No, not the daily employment variety, but living creatures can take in energy from the environment. This energy, in the form of food, is transformed to maintain metabolic processes and for survival.

Life grows and develops. This means more than just getting larger in size. Living organisms also have the ability to rebuild and repair themselves when injured.

Life can reproduce. Have you ever seen dirt reproduce? I don't think so. Life can only come from other living creatures.

Life can respond. Think about the last time you accidentally stubbed your toe. Almost instantly, you flinched back in pain. Life is characterized by this response to stimuli.

Finally, life can adapt and respond to the demands placed on it by the environment. There are three basic types of adaptations that can occur in higher organisms.

Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in the environment. Let's say you live near sea level and you travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms go away when you go back down to sea level.

Somatic changes occur as a result of prolonged changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you were to stay in the mountainous area for a long time, you would notice that your heart rate would begin to slow down and you would begin to breath normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.

The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused by mutation). These changes take place within the genetic makeup of the organism and are not reversible. An example would be the development of resistance to pesticides by insects and spiders.

In summary, life is organized, "works," grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli and adapts. These characteristics form the basis of the study of biology.

Basic Principles of Biology

Cell Theory: all living organisms are composed of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life.

Gene Theory: traits are inherited through gene transmission. Genes are located on chromosomes and consist of DNA.

Homeostasis: ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.

Thermodynamics: energy is constant and energy transformation is not completely efficient.

Subdiciplines of Biology

The field of biology is very broad in scope and can be divided into several disciplines. In the most general sense, these disciplines are categorized based on the type of organism studied. For example, zoology deals with animal studies, botany deals with plant studies, and microbiology is the study of microorganisms. These fields of study can be broken down further into several specialized sub-disciplines. Some of which include anatomy, cell biology, genetics, and physiology.

The Lymphatic System

Closely connected with the blood and circulatory system, the lymphatic system is an extensive drainage system that returns water and proteins from various tissues back to the bloodstream. It is comprised of a network of ducts, called lymph vessels and carries lymph, a clear, watery fluid that resembles the plasma of blood. Some scientists consider this system to be part of the blood and circulatory system because lymph comes from blood and returns to blood, and because its vessels are very similar to the veins and capillaries of the blood system. Throughout the body, wherever there are blood vessels, there are lymph vessels, and the two systems work together.

How Are the Spleen and Lymphatic System Necessary for Living?

The entire lymphatic system flows toward the bloodstream, returning fluid from body tissues to the blood. If there were no way for excess fluid to return to the blood, our body tissues would become swollen. For example, when a body part swells, it may be because there is too much fluid in the tissues in that area. The lymph vessels collect that excess fluid and carry it to the veins through the lymphatic system.

This process is crucial because water, proteins, and other molecules continuously leak out of tiny blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues. This lymph fluid has to be drained, and so it returns to the blood via the lymphatic vessels. These vessels also prevent the back flow of lymph fluid into the tissues.

The lymphatic system also helps defend the body against invasion by disease-causing agents such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi. Harmful foreign materials are filtered out by small masses of tissue called lymph nodes that lie along the network of lymphatic vessels. These nodes house lymphocytes (white blood cells), some of which produce antibodies, special proteins that fight off infection. They also stop infections from spreading through the body by trapping disease-causing germs and destroying them.

The spleen also plays an important part in a person's immune system and helps the body fight infection. Like the lymph nodes, the spleen contains antibody-producing lymphocytes. These antibodies weaken or kill bacteria, viruses, and other organisms that cause infection. Also, if the blood passing through the spleen carries damaged cells, white blood cells called macrophages in the spleen will destroy them and clear them from the bloodstream.

Basic Anatomy

The lymphatic system is a network of very fine vessels or tubes called lymphatics that drain lymph from all over the body. Lymph is composed of water, protein molecules, salts, glucose, urea, lymphocytes, and other substances.

Lymphatics are found in every part of the body except the central nervous system. The major parts of the system are the bone marrow, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the tonsils. Other organs, including the heart, lungs, intestines, liver, and skin also contain lymphatic tissue.

Lymph nodes are round or kidney-shaped, and range in size from very tiny to 1 inch in diameter. They are usually found in groups in different places throughout the body, including the neck, armpit, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and groin. About two thirds of all lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue are within or near the gastrointestinal tract.

Lymphocytes are white blood cells in the lymph nodes that help the body fight infection by producing antibodies that destroy foreign matter such as bacteria or viruses. Two types are T-cells and B-cells. Some lymphocytes become stimulated and enlarged when they encounter foreign substances; these are called immunoblasts.

The major lymphatic vessel is the thoracic duct, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest. It runs up through the chest and empties into the blood through a large vein near the left side of the neck. The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right side of the neck, chest, and arm, and empties into a large vein near the right side of the neck.

The spleen is found on the left side of the abdomen. Unlike other lymphoid tissue, red blood cells flow through it. It helps control the amount of blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells.

Normal Physiology

Lymph drains into open-ended, one-way lymph capillaries. It moves more slowly than blood, pushed along mainly by a person's breathing and contractions of the skeletal muscles. The walls of blood capillaries are very thin, and they have many tiny openings to allow gases, water, and chemicals to pass through to nourish cells and to take away waste products. Interstitial fluid passes out of these openings to bathe the body tissues.

Lymph vessels recycle the interstitial fluid and return it to the bloodstream in the circulatory system. They collect the fluid and carry it from all of the body's tissues and then empty it into large veins in the upper chest, near the neck.

Lymph nodes are made of a mesh like network of tissue. Lymph enters the lymph node and works its way through passages called sinuses. The nodes contain macrophages, phagocytic cells that engulf (phagocytize) and destroy bacteria, dead tissue, and other foreign matter, removing them from the bloodstream. After these substances have been filtered out, the lymph then leaves the nodes and returns to the veins, where it reenters the bloodstream.

When a person has an infection, germs collect in great numbers in the lymph nodes. If the throat is infected, for example, the lymph nodes of the neck may swell. Sometimes the phagocytic cells may not be able to destroy all of the germs, and a local infection in the nodes may result.

Because the lymphatic system extends to the far reaches of the body, it also plays a role in the spread of cancer. This is why lymph nodes near a cancerous growth are usually removed with the growth.

Diseases, Conditions, Disorders, and Dysfunction's

Because the lymphatic system branches through most of the parts of the body, it may be involved in a wide range of conditions. Diseases may affect the lymph nodes, the spleen, or the collections of lymphoid tissue that occur in certain areas of the body.

Disorders of the lymph nodes

Lymphadenopathy. Most lymph nodes in the body can't be felt easily unless they become swollen or enlarged. Lymphadenopathy is an increase in the size of a lymph node or nodes, most often as the result of a nearby infection (for example, lymphadenopathy in the neck might be the result of an infection of the throat). Less commonly (particularly in children), swelling of the lymph nodes can be due to an infiltration of cancerous cells. If lymphadenopathy is generalized (meaning that the swelling is present in several lymph node groups throughout the body), it usually indicates that the person has a systemic disease.

Lymphadenitis, or adenitis, is an inflammation (swelling, tenderness, and sometimes redness and warmth of the overlying skin) of the lymph node due to an infection of the tissue in the node itself. In children, this condition most commonly involves the lymph nodes of the neck.

Lymphomas. A group of cancers that arise from the lymph nodes, these diseases result when lymphocytes undergo changes and start to multiply out of control. The involved lymph nodes enlarge, and the cancer cells crowd out healthy cells and may form tumors (solid growths) in other parts of the body.

Disorders of the spleen

Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). In children, the spleen is usually small enough that it can't be felt by pressing on the abdomen, but the spleen can enlarge to several times its normal size with certain diseases. There are many possible reasons for this including various blood diseases and cancers, but the most common cause in children is infection (particularly viral infections). Infectious mononucleosis, a condition usually caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is one of many viral infections associated with an enlarged spleen. Children and teens with an enlarged spleen should avoid contact sports because they can have a life-threatening loss of blood if their spleen is ruptured.

Disorders of other lymphoid tissue

Tonsillitis. An extremely common condition, particularly in children, tonsillitis occurs when the tonsils, the collections of lymphoid tissue in the back of the mouth at the top of the throat, are involved in a bacterial or viral infection that causes them to become swollen and inflamed. The tonsils normally help to filter out bacteria and other microorganisms to aid the body in fighting infection. Symptoms include sore throat, high fever, and difficulty swallowing. The infection may also spread to the throat and surrounding areas, causing pain and inflammation (pharyngitis).

chemicals produced by white blood cells to fight bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances

Lymphocytes that become stimulated and enlarged when they encounter foreign substances

interstitial fluid:
fluid that leaks out of capillaries (the tiniest blood vessels) and bathes body tissues

lymph vessels:
channels or ducts that contain and convey lymph; also called lymphatics

pale fluid that bathes the body tissues, passes into lymphatic vessels, and is discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct; it consists of a liquid resembling blood plasma and contains white blood cells

lymph nodes:
organized masses of lymphoid tissue that are distributed along the branching system of lymphatic vessels; they contain numerous lymphocytes and other cells that filter bacteria, dead tissue, and foreign matter from the lymph that flows through them

white blood cells

white blood cells that remove damaged cells from the bloodstream

organ found on the left side of the abdomen; it helps control the amount of blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells

thoracic duct:
major lymphatic vessel, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest; lymph flowing through the duct eventually empties into a large vein in the upper chest and returns to the bloodstream.