The Statute of Limitations on Medical Malpractice Claims in New York

Doctors owe their patients a duty to provide medical treatment within certain standards of care. Doctors, hospitals, and other medical professionals can be held liable when treatment falls below these standards.

You have a limited time to file a medical malpractice claim in New York. Under the statute of limitations, a plaintiff has only 2 years and 6 months to file their claims. However, this time limit is subject to change depending on your unique circumstances. Children and certain people who did not realize their injuries until later may have extra time to file their cases. People with certain mental disabilities may also be able to toll the statute of limitations. It is important to speak with a lawyer about your case as soon as possible because it takes a lot longer to prepare a case than most people realize.

If you were harmed by a doctor’s negligence, you have a limited window of time to file your case and get compensation for your damages. Our New York personal injury attorneys are here to help you get your case filed on time. Call The Carrion Law Firm at (718) 841-0083 for a free case evaluation.

Statute of Limitations for Medical Malpractice Cases in New York

The law gives potential plaintiffs limited time to file civil lawsuits. Statutes of limitations impose these deadlines, and different cases may have different time limits. The statute of limitations for medical malpractice lawsuits can be found under CVP Law § 214-A.

For adults, the statute of limitations in medical malpractice cases is 2 years and 6 months from the date of the injuries. Statutes of limitations are often imposed as hard deadlines, but various caveats might make your deadline more flexible. Speak to our New York medical malpractice attorneys about the statute of limitations in your case right away.

For example, the exact date when a statute of limitations begins to run may differ in some cases. The general rule of thumb is that the statute begins to run when your medical malpractice injuries occur. So, if you were injured in a surgery gone wrong on May 1st, 2022, you would have 2 years and 6 months from that exact date to file your lawsuit.

However, some people receive ongoing treatment for complex or chronic conditions. It is possible that your treatment began on one date, but you did not experience a malpractice-related injury until somewhere later in that course of treatment – and it is possible the malpractice did not stop on that date. In such a case, the statute begins to run on the date of the most recent treatment or the end of the course of treatment.

What if I Do Not Know About the Medical Malpractice Until Later in New York?

Patients may experience a wide range of conditions, symptoms, or illnesses that require medical treatment. As such, there are various ways in which malpractice can occur. Many injured patients do not realize they have suffered malpractice until later. In some cases, years go by before a person realizes the malpractice. In these cases, the statute of limitations may be extended to account for when injuries are realized.

In particular situations where you did not realize a doctor’s negligence injured you until after the statute of limitations expired, our Brooklyn personal attorneys might be able to argue for an extension based on when you discovered the injuries. We can argue that the statute began to run on the date you discovered the malpractice, which might have been some time after the malpractice actually occurred.

The law carves out two specific applications for this rule. First, if a doctor fails to diagnose cancer, CVP Law § 214-A(b) holds that the plaintiff has 2 years and 6 months from the date they knew or should have known of the misdiagnosis, but the case must be filed no later than 7 years after the malpractice occurred. In cases where the patient is receiving ongoing treatment, they have 2 years and 6 months from the date of the last treatment. If those two situations overlap in your case (undiscovered misdiagnosis and an ongoing course of treatment), you must file within whichever deadline is shorter.

In cases involving surgeries where foreign objects were mistakenly left inside a patient’s body, the patient has 1 year from the date of discovery to file their claim. This means that even if a patient does not realize the foreign object’s presence until after the ordinary statute of limitations has expired, they still have 1 year to file.

Extending the Statute of Limitations for New York Medical Malpractice Cases

Plaintiffs often experience complications beyond their control when they prepare their medical malpractice cases for court. Plaintiffs sometimes end up waiting to file their case because of certain roadblocks. In some cases, the ordinary statute of limitations expires before a plaintiff can file their case in court. Our Queens personal injury lawyers can help you toll the statute in those circumstances.

The Defendant is Out of State

To file your medical malpractice lawsuit in New York, the defendant must be in the state. Defendants outside the state are beyond New York’s jurisdiction, and plaintiffs might not be able to serve them notice of the lawsuit. If notice cannot be delivered, the case cannot move forward.

According to CVP Law § 207, the statute of limitations may be tolled if the defendant is outside the state and cannot be reached. If the defendant remains outside the state for 4 months or longer, the time they are absent from New York will not count toward the filing deadline.

This rule also applies if a defendant intentionally evades the lawsuit by living within the state under a false name so the plaintiff cannot find them. It should be noted that plaintiffs should make reasonable efforts to find defendants, and you might have to show you did your due diligence before you can toll the statute.

According to CVP Law § 208(a), a plaintiff may toll the statute of limitations due to infancy, which means they are under the age of 18. Under this law, the statute of limitations is tolled until the potential plaintiff turns 18. At that time, the ordinary statute of limitations begins to run. Essentially, a minor injured by a doctor’s negligence has 2 years and 6 months from their 18th birthday to file a medical malpractice lawsuit.

The statute also carves out special exceptions for people experiencing “insanity.” This term refers not necessarily to a specific clinical diagnosis but is a general term encompassing people who are not mentally fit or competent to file a lawsuit on their own because of a disability.

Much like the rule on infancy, a person claiming insanity can toll the statute until their disability ceases. However, a person cannot file a medical malpractice lawsuit more than 10 years after the malpractice happened. For people experiencing long-term disabilities, this might pose a problem. Our Bronx personal injury attorneys can help you file your lawsuit or toll the statute of limitations to buy you more time.

How Long Do I Have to File a Case After One of the Parties Dies in New York?

Medical malpractice cases often involve plaintiffs who are in poor health to begin with. It is not unheard of for potential plaintiffs to pass away before filing their lawsuits. It is equally possible for potential defendants to pass away before they can be sued for malpractice. In cases where the cause of action survives the death of one or both parties, the time limit to file may change.

When a Plaintiff Dies

According to CVP Law § 210(a), if a potential medical malpractice plaintiff dies before they can file their claim, a representative of their estate may file the claim within 1 year of the plaintiff’s death. Depending on when the potential plaintiff passes away, this might extend or cut short the time limit for filing.

If the plaintiff dies shortly after the malpractice occurs, the ordinary statute of limitations that lasts for over 2 years is suddenly cut short to 1 year. Alternatively, if the plaintiff dies toward the end of the initial 2 and half year time limit, their representative now has an additional year to file.

When a Defendant Dies

A similar rule applies to situations involving the death of a potential defendant under CVP Law § 210(b). Under this rule, the 18 months immediately following the death of the potential defendant are not counted toward the filing deadline.

Essentially, the time limit to file a medical malpractice case is still 2 years and 6 months. However, the clock counting down this time is paused for 18 months after the defendant’s death. If a party to your case passes away before you can file your lawsuit, talk to our Long Island personal injury lawyers for help.

When to Contact a Medical Malpractice Lawyer in New York

Beginning a medical malpractice lawsuit is a big endeavor, and many potential plaintiffs are hesitant to start the process. A lawsuit requires intense preparation and is a huge time commitment, and the outcome is not guaranteed. If you believe you suffered malpractice at the hands of a negligent doctor, you should contact an attorney immediately to discuss your situation. Our New York medical malpractice lawyers can help you evaluate your legal options and decide the course of action best for you.

If you are not even totally sure you have a medical malpractice lawsuit, you should still call a lawyer as soon as you can. Your attorney might ask you several questions to help you figure out if you have a medical malpractice case. Did you receive medical treatment? Are you still in pain? Did your health decline after treatment? Have you gotten a second medical opinion? The answers to these questions can help you figure out your next step.

It is good to contact a lawyer soon because they will know what steps you should take to begin preparing your case. They can help you arrange meetings with other doctors for second opinions and help you get your medical records. A lawyer can also help you assess your damages. Waiting too long to file your lawsuit might make your case an uphill battle.

How Long Does it Take to File a Medical Malpractice Lawsuit in New York?

It is also important to begin preparations on your case sooner rather than later because medical malpractice lawsuits can take a long time to complete. It is not unusual for these kinds of cases to drag on for months or even over a year. Even the preparations required before filing your case may take up a surprising amount of your time.

There are a lot of preparations to go through before filing a case. To draft your initial complaint, you need specific details about the defendant, how the malpractice happened, your injuries, and the value of your damages. Not only must you accurately assert this information in your complaint, but you should have some evidence backing up your claims before you even file.

This is why it is important to meet with our Staten Island personal injury lawyers about your case as soon as you can. The longer you wait, the less time you have to prepare before the statute of limitations expires. Many of the preparations you must make can be difficult. For example, you might have witnesses you want to gather for your case who are hesitant or unwilling to get involved in your lawsuit. You might also be surprised with inaccurate or incomplete medical records that can hinder things like damages calculations.

It is also smart to take the time to get checked out by other doctors. Second opinions from other medical professionals who can back up your claims of malpractice may be paramount to your case. You should also meet with a doctor who will act as an expert witness in your trial and testify about your injuries.

Call Our New York Medical Malpractice Attorneys for Help

If you were injured because of a doctor’s negligence, our Manhattan personal injury attorneys can help you file your lawsuit as soon as possible. To schedule a free case evaluation with our team, call The Carrion Law Firm at (718) 841-0083.


Crossword Genius

NI city on the River Lagan (7)

I believe the answer is:

(Other definitions for lisburn that I've seen before include "Ulster town" , "Irish district" , "Town near Belfast" , "Irish city" .)

I've seen this clue in The Sun.


Everything Is Just Dandy!

Various Authors – Black Seed: Issue 6

The Anarchist Library

2022 04 06

Author: Various Authors
Title: Black Seed: Issue 6
Subtitle: Songs of Creation & Destruction
Date: 2018, summer
Notes: We will copy edit submissions for wording, punctuation, and typing errors. Editors: Dominique Ganawaabi, Ramon Elani, S0ren Aubade, Aragorn!, dot matrix http://blackseed.anarchyplanet.org / Cover photo by Ben Cody / Thanks! / Deadline for submissions for next issue: September 1, 2018 / blackseed@anarchyplanet.org
Source: OCR’d via PDF

Welcome to Issue #6

The sixth issue of Black Seed continues an effort to challenge and expand the meanings of both Green and Anarchy. As editors and contributors, we not only wish to reject notions of the state and capitalism, but seek perspectives that are earth-focused, unexpected, or inhuman.

The binary of the Fearsome Sky God and Sweet Mother Earth is a historical fallacy. If we seek to speak of the earth, let it not be in language perverted and twisted by narrow-minded gender ideals, but in language that rejoices in the cruel glory of the natural world.

The preceding is from the call for submissions to this issue. Even beyond this issue and this theme, this callout stands as a marker for our continuing efforts to live and imagine differently in a world that has seen and foiled many previous such efforts.

Ambiguity is one word for the reality of things that cannot be said to be good or bad, or even good and bad, but that exist orthogonal to that polarity. Is a mother who kills her child bad or good? Can you call her good or bad if she’s a slave and her child will be a slave too? What if she’s attempting to keep older children alive by killing her most recent? These are only a few examples of real decisions that real women (and families) have made and will make, and they point to the two branches of this issue’s theme; one that reflects on earth as a mother, and the other on mothers as primarily nurturers.

Our cover image for this issue, a photo of one of the two destroyed dams on the Elwha River, speaks to some of the ambiguous terrain we’re exploring. At face value, the destruction of the Elwha dams is an incredible and rare success story. Decades of struggle through legal and less- or not-legal means were finally successful. Dams are one of the most significant interventions in indigenous subsistence practices, and the removal of these two has meant a remarkable resuscitation in the ecosystem of the river, with birds, salmon, native plants, all coming back with almost unbelievable speed. And yet, there are more complicated ramifications. First, it signifies a struggle that was successfully pushed through the apparatus of the state. For those of us who recognize the structural and perspectival limitations of fighting by the rules of the current system, this step towards a balanced ecosystem will be two steps back if it’s seen as a reason to use the tools of the system.

As significantly, one reason to build dams is for energy production. Given the scale of the (ever- increasing) demand for energy, there are no good options—to the extent that sincere and passionate environmentalists have promoted nuclear energy, despite the toxins lasting for thousands of years, because everything else is worse.

We celebrate the victory of the Elwha River, while keeping clear in our mind that that victory, that ecosystem’s return, can only come at the cost of other ecosystems. That is the way of the civilization that surrounds and informs us. That victory is both real and not real, in a world in which floating continents of plastic and miles of fishing nets denude the oceans, in which ongoing oil-spills in Africa have no one even attempting to clean them up, in which toxic waste is buried or dumped offshore by the multi-ton load, etc. The very real successes happen in a context of overwhelming poison, misery, and extinction, and cannot be said to offset them.

The goal of Black Seed is to look at all of it, not to hide from or over-emphasize the bad or the good, or the things that are neither or both, to see humans, to see ourselves, as small, overly-loud parts of a whole that was doing better when we were quieter, and to consider how we can loudly remember, or learn, to be quieter again, in a civilization that promotes the equation of silence with death.

The Leopard’s Grammar/ Iron Tree Blooms in the Void

by Ramon Elani

For Avalon

-Thoreau, “Walking”

To speak of green anarchy, to attack or denounce civilization and industrialism, without speaking from a mystical place, a sacred place, is to speak with a mouth full of ash. Proper reverence for the gods, spirits, and forces of the earth is at the very heart of our critique. To re-emphasize and strengthen this connection, to re-affirm that what we are about is in essence a religious crusade, is to lead the green anarchist position forward. Do you deny the gods? Guess who else does that? The engineers of the state, the capitalists, the industrialists, the humanists, the ones who will sacrifice the world itself to serve their own ambitions toward godhood. As soon as humanity, in the infancy of the Enlightenment, declared its independence from the gods and the world of so-called superstition, technoindustrial society was born. Those who seek to define a sense of the world in which humanity does not occupy the sole position of power without basing their position in the nature of the sacred are grasping at straws. It is an incoherent position because it has no foundation on which to stand. In this regard, technoindustrial society is correct: if there is no god(s) than why should humanity not exploit the cosmos as it will?


Sequencing Services

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Sequencing Services

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Creative Biolabs offers various sequencing services, including but not limited to the following:

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Whole genome sequencing (WGS), also known as full genome sequencing or complete genome sequencing, is the process to determine the order of the nucleotides (A, C, G, T) in the entire genome that makes up an organism at a single time. It sequences not only all of chromosomal DNA but also mitochondrial DNA. WGS represents the ultimate step in assaying human genetic variation at the base sequence level. The development of WGS, combined with the falling cost of the technology holds great promise for accelerating the delivery of genetic predictors of human diseases and related treatment. We offers different possibilities for whole genome sequencing, especially advanced SuPrecision™ platform, to provide an accurate and high-throughput sequencing service to help you investigate key target genes and characterize specific gene functions.

Whole Exome Sequencing

Whole exome sequencing (WES) is a genomic technique for sequencing the exome which are the part of the genome formed by exons or coding regions and can be transcribed and translated into proteins. WES aims at identifying genetic variants that alter protein sequences. WES can sequence exomes which compose only about 2% of the whole genome at a much greater depth for lower cost compared to WGS. We can offer high-quality WES service with our extensive experience and advanced platform to satisfy each demand from our clients.

Whole Transcriptome Sequencing

Whole transcriptome sequencing (WTS) is a next generation sequencing technique that offers a snapshot measurement of the complete transcripts including mRNA and all non-coding RNA in a cell at a given moment in time. The regulation of transcription level is the most studied and the most important way of regulation in organisms. WTS can accurately measure transcript abundance, and identify known and novel features of the transcriptome. WTS has the potential to identify new disease biology and infer druggable pathways. We are dedicated to providing the best WTS service with our latest technologies.

Targeted Sequencing

Targeted sequencing is a rapid and cost-effective next-generation sequencing (NGS) technique focusing on amplicons and specific genes to detect known and novel variants in selected sets of genes or genomic regions and can offer unique insights into specific regions of interest in the genome. Targeted sequencing is useful in population genetics and is a powerful tool to investigate a variety of disease areas. Utilizing NGS technology, it can accurately and effectively locate specific genes, coding regions and even chromosome segments that are directly relevant. Targeted sequencing is an effective approach to increase the cost-effectiveness compared to WGS, and is helpful for further analysis of the results of WGS and other survey approaches. We are confident to provide high-quality targeted sequencing service to facilitate our clients’ genomics research and drug development project.

Gene Expression Profiling

Gene expression profiling can create a global picture of cellular function by the measurement of the activity of thousands of genes at once. This technology can provide accurate information on gene expression and achieve numerous experimental goals. With highly qualified and experienced molecular biologists, geneticists, and bioinformaticians, we provide comprehensive gene expression profiling service to help our clients identify and validate drug targets.

Creative Biolabs has a dedicated assay development team that will work closely with you to design customized assays. Our service will meet your specific needs fast at extremely competitive prices. If you need more information, please feel free to contact us at anytime. We look forward to working with you to help your drug research and development project succeed.

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Electric Aircraft

The electric aircraft may be supplied by a variety of methods including batteries, ground power cables, solar cells, ultra-capacitors, fuel cells, and power beaming. The idea of electrically powered aircraft dates way back to 1883 when the French scientist flew the first ever electrically-powered airship. Almost 150 years later, only today we are optimistic that… Continue reading Electric Aircraft


I18N Example#

The Internationalization (I18N) example demonstrates Qt’s support for translated text. Developers can write the initial application text in one language, and translations can be provided later without any modifications to the code. It also demonstrates how to detect the system language settings and show the UI in the appropriate language.

Example project @ code.qt.io


Technochanter 2G

Main Features:

Drone sound and two different chanter sounds: GHB and Smallpipes.

Fits in your pocket: only Ø16 x 233 mm.
Plays a basic scale, with an additional C natural in GHB mode.
Can be preset to keys of A, Bb, and C.
The low A can be tuned between 433Hz and 533Hz in GHB mode, and 216Hz and 267Hz in Smallpipes mode.
Built in metronome that operates by sound as well as a blinking green LED.
MIDI output (cable sold separately) so can control software instruments.

Battery life in audio mode is up to 40h when using SR44 (155mAh) batteries. Battery life in MIDI mode is approx. 110h. A red LED indicates when the batteries are flat.

With earphones connected and sound off, the chanter enters a power saving mode after approx. 30 seconds. In this mode the batteries will last for months. This means there is no need to unplug the earphones at short brakes.

In stock

SKU: 900 Category:


Connor McCrory

A Social Media Content House Joins The Game. But In Miami?

Miami is a city known for its lavish nightlife, fast cars, bougie restaurants, and social media influencers. On Sept. 1,  Beam Squad and Sun And Sky Entertainment launched Miami’s first social media content house, the Squad House Miami, alongside social media superstars, Zayd Elie, Austyn


[email protected] |(850) 312-3577

Providing Online Telehealth Services In Florida

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    The Relationship Between Depression and Social Media

    Social media comes with a lot of positives, such as reconnecting with old friends and building new connections. However, social media can come with a lot of downsides if you are not careful. You could end up developing depression if you make social media your entire world.

    Once you finish setting up your online profile, you have mentally moved into the virtual world of social media. You suddenly must be on full alert for any notification. These new behaviors can lead to you forgetting about the world outside of your phone or computer. Social media can also make you compare yourself too much to other people. The social connections you have made in the real world begin to disappear if you are online all the time.

    By understanding the relationship between depression and social media, you will see if you need to lessen its exposure.

    Social media can keep your mind so glued to your feeds that you forget there is another world out there. You will not want to spend any time with your friends in real life because of FOMO (fear of missing out). It becomes your goal to not miss one notification.

    It can also be the opposite, where someone with no friends does not feel the need to go find any in the real world. You feel like the only friends you need are the ones you follow. But, you cannot do fun things with social media feeds outside of liking, commenting, and sending posts.

    Low Self-Esteem

    Suffering from a loss of self-esteem is very common when you cannot help but compare yourself to your friends. You see them in relationships, successful jobs, taking trips, and other adventures. When you feel like you cannot measure up, it can lead to negative self-talk.

    You may see your friends looking fit or beautiful in their hair and makeup. What you may not realize is that photo editing tools can make you look perfect. The same can be said if you use photo editing tools and your friends comment on how amazing you look, only for them to be commenting on what is fake. You could be scared that showing the real you will not lead to a lot of feedback.

    Less Physical Activity

    They say that exercise is a good way to keep every part of your body active and activate your feel-good serotonin levels that affect your mood. If you spend all of your time in your bed browsing through your social media feeds, you are not getting any physical activity.

    Not only is it important to get exercise, but to do activities that involve leaving your home to build confidence and gain a sense of accomplishment. Learning a new skill or doing something that requires talent can make you feel good about yourself. While you may get a dopamine boost on social media, you will not feel fully satisfied the way physical activities can make you feel.

    Sleep Deprivation

    Most people want to end their day with one last post or one last scroll. However, your sleep takes a toll. Scrolling through social media is not an activity that can help you relax into slumber. If you are not getting the social media feedback you want or you see something on there that makes you nervous, this will fuel the anxious thoughts that keep you awake.

    How to Lessen Depression

    Social media can be a part of your life, but it does not have to take over your whole life. You can use your willpower to only scroll through social media feeds for one hour. Dedicate the rest of your day to seeing your loved ones and getting out of the house.

    If you are still struggling with depression, here at JoyFeel Therapy, we are here to listen and support.

    Contact us today!


Japan is certainly an tropical isle nation in East Asia, located in the northwest Pacific Ocean. It is surrounded on its western side by Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk, the East China Sea, and the Philippine Marine. On the east, Taiwan edges the country. The state is a popular travel around destination for tourists.

The land is also praised for its productive public transportation program. It is viewed as an odd vacationer to drive in the country, and a bullet train usually takes anywhere it is advisable to go. You can even save money about transportation by purchasing a JUNIOR pass. These types of japanese women try prices can differ by place, so make sure to choose one that actually works for https://www.brilliantbridal.com/ your needs.

A Japan travel around guide book is a great resource for individuals who are visiting Japan for the first time. These catalogs are easy to reading and have maps with photos of the interesting attractions. They also incorporate helpful details for self-guided strolling tours. Whether you’re acquiring a long weekend or a long stay, a guidebook provide you with a comprehensive review of the country.

A Japoneses travel instruction is an excellent resource for budget travellers. These tutorials provide functional travel as well as recommendations for eating places, hotels, as well as the most authentic onsen (traditional Japanese sizzling hot springs). They can be a great method of obtaining inspiration and may assist you in finding the perfect accommodations while in Asia.

You can also check out travel around blogs, especially if you’re planning a trip to Japan the first time. Many of these tutorials include articles in specific places and destinations, and tend to be excellent designed for planning your journey. You can also find tips on navigating around Japan by making use of several transport options. For example , a Japanese travel guide provides you with detailed information on how to use the Japan Train ticket snack machines.

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If you’re a vegetarian, a Japanese travelling guide will provide recommendations for veggie restaurants. Vegan cuisine is not really widely grasped in Asia, so you’ll need to do some homework and review the local food culture. The best guide to vegan food in Japan is Content Cow. The site has goods of restaurants throughout Japan while offering translations for vegetarian food. The website also contains a gluten-free guide. When you are accomplish vegetarian, you can always get snacks at grocery stores, including 7-11s.

Asia is a popular visitor vacation spot, and the country has many fabulous aspects of culture and heritage. Authentic Japanese practices can show you about the country’s lifestyle and historical. You can visit locations of worship and shrines during this time and participate in events and festivals. Authentic Japan experience can make your trip a memorable experience.

The Japan are known for the cuisine and the quality of ingredients. In fact , is actually hard to find a negative meal in Japan. Yet , you can attempt some outrageous items as well. Many of these include whale meat (unesu) and sushi (sashimi).


Classical conditioning by ivan pavlov

For example, instead of ringing a bell to train dogs, Pavlov actually used a variety of tools such as a metronome, buzzer, whistle, light, harmonium, and even electric shock. He discussed the conditional response, but a mistranslation of the original Russian word uslovnyi gave us the phrase conditioned response, which is still used today.

Classical conditioning by ivan pavlov

Conditioned Responses Learned Behavior Below Cognition We so often act without even thinking because we have been conditioned to respond. Habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning are all learning processes that associate a specific behavior with a particular stimulus and cause us to act before we can think.

These responses account for a substantial portion of our behavior. They are often learned quickly, sometimes unknowingly, and can only be changed by carefully and systematically extinguishing them.

Conditioned responses make up the third layer of the architecture for interaction. Persistent changes in behavior that result from experience Habituation and Sensitization Habituation and sensitization help organisms adapt to their environment by focusing on what is important.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) - Learning Theories

Habituation is learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus. As an example, people generally get used to noises, such as a commuter train arrival or traffic noise, that are regularly present in their living environments.

Classical conditioning by ivan pavlov

Habituation may play a role in developing tolerance to certain drugs. Sensitization is an increase in responsiveness to a stimulus. His surprising new finding was that the salivation response could be elicited by ringing a bell, even in the absence of food, Classical conditioning by ivan pavlov the dog had been conditioned in a particular way to associate the ringing bell with the delivery of food and subsequent salivation.

During several conditioning events, a bell was rung immediately before food was presented to the dog. Of course, the dog salivated as the food was presented.

However, after several events that paired the ringing bell with salivation, the food was no longer needed to elicit the same salivation response. When the bell rang, the dog salivated even though no food was present.

A new behavior was learned. The general phenomenon of learning to associate a new, neutral stimulus e.

Classical conditioning by ivan pavlov

To become conditioned, the subject must discern the contingency between the stimulus and the response. This usually requires a consistent presentation of the stimulus rapidly paired with the response.

However, in some important examples, such as associating poisons with particular tastes, learning still takes place even when the response is significantly delayed.

Emotional Competency - Conditioned Responses

Skinnerand many others dedicated their careers to studying the range of animal and human behaviors that can be influenced by environmental consequences such as rewards—known as reinforcements—and punishments.

The general concept of modifying voluntary behavior through the use of consequences is known as operant conditioningand is sometimes also called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning.

Learned Helplessness Prolonged exposure to uncontrollable events can cause people to become inappropriately passive while they believe they can no longer control the outcome of similar future events.

This is called learned helplessness. The theory describes what happens when a person comes to believe they have no control over their situation and that whatever they do is futile. As a result, the person will stay passive in the face of an unpleasant, harmful, or damaging situation, even when they actually do have the ability to improve the circumstances.

Extinguishing Conditioned Behaviors A dog that has been conditioned to associate a ringing bell with food, and responds by salivating can have this behavior reversed through a process called Extinction.

Extinction is accomplished by repeating the procedure of ringing a bell and not presenting food. After several exposures the learned association of the bell with food, and the subsequent salivation, is gradually extinguished.

Experimental evidence is strong that the original learning that associates a bell with salivation is not removed, however. Instead, extinction seems to add the new learning that a bell is no longer a reliable indicator of food.

Examples of Conditioned Human Behavior Classical and operant conditioning contribute to a variety of human behavior that is often described as involuntary. Here are some examples of conditioned behavior: Emotional Responses Several emotional responses are primarily conditioned responses.

If you open the mail and find a letter in an envelope addressed from an old friend, you may spontaneously feel the warmth and affection you have learned to associate with that close friend.

This response could not be innate and would not be felt unless you had grown fond of the person and learned to associate these warm feelings with a letter reminding you of them.Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition (hence the name classical).

Classical Music and The Era of Symphonies - In the classical era Symphony was the time when live concert where perform more often.

The concerts that during the past millennium, classical music has been created by some of the musical mind the world has ever seen with Beethoven, Mozart and many more. Behaviorist Learning Theory. Behaviorism is an approach to psychology based on the proposition that behavior can be researched scientifically without recourse to inner mental states.

It is a form of materialism, denying any independent significance for mind. Its significance for psychological treatment has been profound, making it one of the pillars . Ivan Pavlov and his theory of classical conditioning had a profound impact on the understanding of human behavior.

This lesson explains classical conditioning and Pavlov's contributions to psychology. We so often act without even thinking because we have been conditioned to respond.

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist best known in psychology for his discovery of classical conditioning. During his studies on the digestive systems of dogs, Pavlov noted that the animals salivated naturally upon the presentation of food.

12 Fascinating Facts About Ivan Pavlov | Mental Floss


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The bacteria (next to a dime), are about human eyelash size. Credit: Tomas Tyml/The Regents of the University of California, LBNL

Some bacteria are visible to the naked eye and as long as human eyelashes! The recently discovered centimeter long bacteria, now called Thiomargarita magnifica, live on sunken leaves in Caribbean mangrove swamps.

I don't know whether to shudder or to be excited by the amazing large size of the bacteria. These bacteria are the largest ever found, and are about 5000 times the size of most bacteria (which can only be seen under a microscope).

In fact, Dr. Levin of Washington Univ. pointed out that these bacteria can't even rightly be called microbes, because microbes are by definition microscopic! (She wrote a commentary accompanying the research report in the journal Science). A number of things are amazing about the huge bacteria!

Excerpts from NPR: Think all bacteria are microscopic? Tell that to these centimeter-long monsters

Bacteria typically live out their teeny-tiny lives in the microscopic realm, but now scientists have found a gargantuan one the size and shape of a human eyelash. ...continue reading "Largest Bacteria Ever Found Are Size Of Eyelashes"

We have trillions of bacterial cells from thousands of different strains of bacteria living in our gut! Researchers at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) collected stool samples from 90 people living in the Boston area (some for as long as 2 years), did modern genetic sequencing, and in this way isolated nearly 8000 strains of bacteria.  These bacterial strains were from the six major phyla of bacteria (e.g. Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes) that dominate the human gastrointestinal tract. Just remember that the human gut also has fungi, archaea, and viruses living there. Yes, it is crowded in the gut!

The researchers took repeated stool samples from about a dozen of the volunteers and so were able to study bacterial changes within individuals over time. They are making all the data about the gut bacterial strains available to other researchers, with the hope that this will help scientists develop new treatments for a variety of diseases. This data set is called the Broad Institute-OpenBiome Microbiome Library (BIO-ML). This is important information to have because study after study is finding that there are gut microbial differences in people with a number of diseases as compared to healthy individuals.

BOTTOM LINE: The goal should be to feed and nurture beneficial gut microbes, ones that are associated with health. The best way to feed your beneficial gut microbes is to have a diet with lots of whole, real foods and fiber - which means a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, legumes (beans), and seeds. (Think Mediterranean style dietary pattern.) And to eat less (a lot less) highly processed, low fiber, refined grains, and sugary foods. In other words, you don't want to feed microbes linked to chronic inflammation and diseases, but instead want to feed beneficial microbes linked to health (and not chronic inflammation). For example, choose the apple and not the candy bar. Your gut microbes will thank you.

From MIT News Office: A comprehensive catalogue of human digestive tract bacteria   ...continue reading "There Are Thousands of Human Gut Bacteria Strains"

Just read about an international study that discussed how millions of bacteria and viruses circle the earth in the earth's atmosphere every day, and get deposited on land by rain and dust particles. Which could explain why similar viruses and bacteria are found in totally different environments in different parts of the world. The study measured what was deposited high in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, but one would expect microbes to be deposited everywhere, not just in high mountains. We are surrounded by microbes! (Another post on this topic.) From Astrobiology:

Most Viruses And Bacteria Fall From The Sky

An international research project led by the University of Granada has revealed for the first time that almost one billion viruses and more than twenty million bacteria circulate in the Earth's atmosphere and are deposited in high-mountain places every day. The research findings, published recently in the ISME Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology (part of the Nature group) help to explain why genetically identical viruses have been found in such distant locations and diverse environments of the planet. The University of British Columbia (Canada) and San Diego State University (United States) also participated in the project.  ...continue reading "Viruses and Bacteria Circle the Earth and Fall In Rain and Dust"

The following article is about Dr. Janelle Ayres, a researcher in California, working on "beneficial bacteria" to help the body tolerate infections. This is different than the usual medical approach of fighting infections - where antibiotics are used to kill microbes.  Reading the article, my first thought was "Well, duh....of course this approach works." This is what we've been doing in using Lactobacillus sakei, a beneficial bacteria, in successfully treating sinusitis since early 2013! ..... The good news in reading this article is that using bacteria to treat infections or diseases seems to finally be going mainstream.

Ayres, and some of her colleagues, are interested in why some people can deal with infections, or can repair damaged tissue even during bouts of serious disease, while other people succumb to the disease. She believes she can develop drugs that will boost those qualities in patients who lack them, and help keep people alive through battles with sepsis, malaria, cholera, and a host of other diseases. Their approach looks at "tolerance" — which is a body’s ability to minimize damage while infected, and she calls it the “tolerance defense system.”

She is focusing on this approach because she feels that drugs that target bacteria (such as antibiotics) become useless because the bacteria evolve to resist those drugs. Instead, she thinks we can harness bacteria (even ones normally classified as pathogens) to make new drugs. Her approach to treating an infection could be summarized as: Don't fight it. Help the body tolerate it. Excerpts from STAT News:

As her father lay dying of sepsis, Janelle Ayres spent nine agonizing days at his bedside. When he didn’t beat the virulent bloodstream infection, she grieved. And then she got frustrated. She knew there had to be a better way to help patients like her dad. In fact, she was working on one in her lab. Ayres, a hard-charging physiologist who has unapologetically decorated her lab with bright touches of hot pink, is intent on upending our most fundamental understanding of how the human body fights disease.

Scientists have focused for decades on the how the immune system battles pathogens. Ayres believes other elements of our physiology are at least as important — so she’s hunting for the beneficial bacteria that seem to help some patients maintain a healthy appetite and repair damaged tissue even during bouts of serious disease. If she can find them — and she’s already begun to do so — she believes she can develop drugs that will boost those qualities in patients who lack them and help keep people alive through battles with sepsis, malaria, cholera, and a host of other diseases. Her approach, in a nutshell: Stop worrying so much about fighting infections. Instead, help the body tolerate them.

An associate professor at the Salk Institute in the heart of San Diego’s booming biotech beach, Ayres is harnessing all manner of high-tech tools from the fields of microbiomics, genetics, and immunology — and looking to a menagerie of animals — to sort out why some individuals tolerate infection so much better than others. It’s work that’s desperately needed, Ayres said, as it becomes ever more clear that our standard approach to fighting infection using antibiotics and antivirals is hopelessly inadequate. The drugs don’t work for all diseases, they kill off good bacteria along with bad — and their wanton use is contributing to the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria, or “superbugs,” which terrify disease experts because there are few ways to stop them.

....They went on to propose that the immune response to pathogens wasn’t the whole story, and that tolerance — a body’s ability to minimize damage while infected — may play a key role as well. Ayres has since gone on to call what she studies the “tolerance defense system.”

Society needs drugs that don’t target bacteria, which can so quickly evolve to evade our best medicines, she argues. Instead, she thinks we can harness those bacteria — even the ones normally classified as pathogens — to make new drugs that save lives by targeting an infected person’s tissues and organs. That would be an entirely new class of therapeutics, which could lessen our dependence on antibiotics and help save lives in cases, like her father’s, where antibiotics fail.

She’s been working furiously in her own lab, rolling out a series of studies that have found critical targets for new drugs. Her main focus: the trillions of bacteria — known collectively as the microbiome — that reside in our bodies but do not sicken us. Ayres suspects they might play a key role in the tolerance defense system. But if bacteria do help increase tolerance to disease, what strains are involved and what exactly are they doing?

Great idea and one that this blog has been pushing for a long time - the use of beneficial bacteria to get rid of other harmful bacteria. Some researchers refer to the bacteria acting as "living antibiotics" when they overpower harmful bacteria.

Researchers such as Daniel Kadouri, a micro-biologist at Rutgers School of Dental Medicine in Newark, are studying bacteria that aggressively attack harmful  bacteria, and calling them "predator bacteria". They are focusing on one specific bacteria - Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, a gram-negative bacteria that dines on other gram-negative bacteria. They hope to eventually be able to give this bacteria as a medicine to humans , and then this predator bacteria would overpower and destroy "superbugs" (pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to many antibiotics). A great idea, but unfortunately the researchers think that it'll take about 10 more years of testing and development before it's ready for use in humans. From Science News:

Live antibiotics use bacteria to kill bacteria

The woman in her 70s was in trouble. What started as a broken leg led to an infection in her hip that hung on for two years and several hospital stays. At a Nevada hospital, doctors gave the woman seven different antibiotics, one after the other. The drugs did little to help her. Lab results showed that none of the 14 antibiotics available at the hospital could fight the infection, caused by the bacterium Klebsiella pneumoniae.... The CDC’s final report revealed startling news: The bacteria raging in the woman’s body were resistant to all 26 antibiotics available in the United States. She died from septic shock; the infection shut down her organs.  ...continue reading "Will We Use Predator Bacteria To Destroy Superbugs In the Future?"

There are many posts on this site about the microbes within us (the microbiome) or around us, but the following article may be a real eye opener. Due to the permafrost melting (as in Alaska, northern Canada, Siberia, etc) from global warming, old infectious viruses and bacteria might be released from the thawing permafrost. This is what recently happened in Siberia, where melting permafrost released anthrax spores which killed 2300 reindeer and a 12 year old boy, and sickened at least 20 other people. From Scientific American:

As Earth Warms, the Diseases That May Lie Within Permafrost Become a Bigger Worry

This past summer anthrax killed a 12-year-old boy in a remote part of Siberia. At least 20 other people, also from the Yamal Peninsula, were diagnosed with the potentially deadly disease after approximately 100 suspected cases were hospitalized. Additionally, more than 2,300 reindeer in the area died from the infection. The likely cause? Thawing permafrost. According to Russian officials, thawed permafrost—a permanently frozen layer of soil—released previously immobile spores of Bacillus anthracis into nearby water and soil and then into the food supply. The outbreak was the region's first in 75 years.

Researchers have predicted for years that one of the effects of global warming could be that whatever is frozen in permafrost—such as ancient bacteria—might be released as temperatures climb. This could include infectious agents humans might not be prepared for, or have immunity to, the scientists said. Now they are witnessing the theoretical turning into reality: infectious microorganisms emerging from a deep freeze....In a 2011 paper published in Global Health Action, co-authors Boris A. Revich and Marina A. Podolnaya wrote of their predictions: “As a consequence of permafrost melting, the vectors of deadly infections of the 18th and 19th centuries may come back, especially near the cemeteries where the victims of these infections were buried.”

And permafrost is indeed thawing—at higher latitudes and to greater depths than ever before....What thawing permafrost could unleash depends on the heartiness of the infectious agent involved. A lot of microorganisms cannot survive in extreme cold, but some can withstand it for many years. “B. anthracis are special because they are sporulating bacteria,” says Jean-Michel Claverie, head of the Mediterranean Institute of Microbiology and a professor at Aix-Marseille University in France. “Spores are extremely resistant and, like seeds, can survive for longer than a century.”

Viruses could also survive for lengthy periods. In 2014 and 2015 Claverie and his colleague Chantal Abergel published their findings on two still infectious viruses from a chunk of 30,000-year-old Siberian permafrost. Although Pithovirus sibericum and Mollivirus sibericum can infect only amoebas, the discovery is an indication that viruses that infect humans—such as smallpox and the Spanish flu—could potentially be preserved in permafrost.

Human viruses from even further back could also make a showing. For instance, the microorganisms living on and within the early humans who populated the Arctic could still be frozen in the soil. “There are hints that Neandertals and Denisovans could have settled in northern Siberia [and] were plagued by various viral diseases, some of which we know, like smallpox, and some others that might have disappeared,” Claverie says....Janet Jansson, who studies permafrost at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Washington State, is not worried about ancient viruses. Several attempts to discover these infectious agents in corpses have come up empty, she notes.

In effect, infectious agents buried in the permafrost are unknowable and unpredictable in their timing and ferocity. Thus, researchers say thawing permafrost is not our biggest worry when it comes to infectious diseases and global warming. The more immediate, and certain, threat to humans is the widening geographical ranges of modern infectious diseases (and their carriers, such as mosquitoes) as the earth warms. “We now have dengue in southern parts of Texas,” says George C. Stewart, McKee Professor of Microbial Pathogenesis and chair of the department of veterinary pathobiology at the University of Missouri. “Malaria is seen at higher elevations and latitudes as temperatures climb. And the cholera agent, Vibrio cholerae, replicates better at higher temperatures.”

 Bacillus anthracis - Anthrax bacteria  Credit:Wikipedia

Image result for anthrax disease, wiki Skin anthrax lesion on the neck  Credit:Wikipedia

Beautiful photos of the microbes within and on us by the British scientific photographer Steve Gschmeisser. Check out his site ( to see photos of microbes and other images made with the very expensive SEM - a scanning electron microscope. All the photos are by Steve Gschmeisser.

E. coli bacteria in urine sample

breast cancer cells

prostate cancer cell

large intestine

In 1837, Charles Darwin sketched a simple tree of life (shown left) to illustrate the idea that all living things share a common ancestor. Ever since then, scientists have been adding names to the tree of life, including a massive effort of 2.3 million named species of animals, plants, fungi and microbes in 2015. A tree of life is a visual hypothesis of how scientists think species are related to one another, so it has been evolving over the years as more information is learned and species discovered.

Now a group of 17 researchers have sketched out a radically different tree of life. It has two main trunks—one full of bacteria and another comprised of archaea, a group of single-celled microbes that run on very different biochemistry. The eukaryotes—the domain that includes all animals, fungi, and plants—are crowded on a thin branch coming off the archaeal trunk. About half of these bacterial branches belong to a supergroup, which was discovered very recently and is currently known as the candidate phyla radiation. Within these branches are numerous species that we’re almost completely ignorant about, and they’ve never been isolated or grown in a lab (with one exception called TM7). In fact, this supergroup of bacteria and “other lineages that lack isolated representatives clearly comprise the majority of life’s current diversity,” write researchers Hug and Banfield. Wow. From Science Daily:

Wealth of unsuspected new microbes expands tree of life

Scientists have dramatically expanded the tree of life, which depicts the variety and evolution of life on Earth, to account for over a thousand new microscopic life forms discovered over the past 15 years. The expanded view finally gives bacteria and Archaea their due, showing that about two-thirds of all diversity on Earth is bacterial -- half bacteria that cannot be isolated and grown in the lab -- while nearly one-third is Archaeal.

The new tree, to be published online April 11 in the new journal Nature Microbiology, reinforces once again that the life we see around us -- plants, animals, humans and other so-called eukaryotes -- represent a tiny percentage of the world's biodiversity.

"Bacteria and Archaea from major lineages completely lacking isolated representatives comprise the majority of life's diversity," said Banfield.....According to first author Laura Hug,... the more than 1,000 newly reported organisms appearing on the revised tree are from a range of environments, including a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park, a salt flat in Chile's Atacama desert, terrestrial and wetland sediments, a sparkling water geyser, meadow soil and the inside of a dolphin's mouth. All of these newly recognized organisms are known only from their genomes.

One striking aspect of the new tree of life is that a group of bacteria described as the "candidate phyla radiation" forms a very major branch. Only recognized recently, and seemingly comprised only of bacteria with symbiotic lifestyles, the candidate phyla radiation now appears to contain around half of all bacterial evolutionary diversity.

Charles Darwin first sketched a tree of life in 1837 as he sought ways of showing how plants, animals and bacteria are related to one another. The idea took root in the 19th century, with the tips of the twigs representing life on Earth today, while the branches connecting them to the trunk implied evolutionary relationships among these creatures.....Archaea were first added in 1977 after work showing that they are distinctly different from bacteria, though they are single-celled like bacteria. A tree published in 1990 by microbiologist Carl Woese was "a transformative visualization of the tree," Banfield said. With its three domains, it remains the most recognizable today.

This is a new and expanded view of the tree of life, with clusters of bacteria (left), uncultivable bacteria called 'candidate phyla radiation' (center, purple) and, at lower right, the Archaea and eukaryotes (green), including humans.
Credit: Graphic by Zosia Rostomian, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

A recent study has examined the issue of whether the 10 to 1 ratio of bacteria to human cells, which is widely quoted, is actually correct. Weizmann Institute of Science researchers currently feel that based on scientific evidence (which of course will change over time) and making "educated estimates", the actual ratio is closer to 1:1 (but overall there still are more bacterial than human cells). They point out that the 10:1 ratio was originally a "back of the envelope" estimate dating back to 1972.

The researchers also point out that the ratio may vary over the course of each day - as a person defecates out huge amounts of bacteria with each bowel movement. However, this study - which is not the final word - is an educated guess about bacteria only. What about the viruses, the fungi, etc that also reside on and within us? We know much less about all the other microbes. I am disturbed that article after article, and headline after headline, equates microbes and bacteria. Microbes does not mean only bacteria.  From Science Daily:

Germs, humans and numbers: New estimate revises our microbiome numbers downwards

The rising importance of the microbiome in current scientific research led the Weizmann Institute's Prof. Ron Milo, Dr. Shai Fuchs and research student Ron Sender to revisit the common wisdom concerning the ratio of "personal" bacteria to human cells.

The original estimate that bacterial cells outnumber human cells in the body by ten to one was based on, among other things, the assumption that the average bacterium is about 1,000 times smaller than the average human cell. The problem with this estimate is that human cells vary widely in size, as do bacteria. For example, red blood cells are at least 100 times smaller than fat or muscle cells, and the microbes in the large intestine are about four times the size of the often-used "standard" bacterial cell volume. The Weizmann Institute scientists weighted their computations by the numbers of the different-sized human cells, as well as those of the various microbiome cells.

Some excerpts from the original journal article from Cell: Are We Really Vastly Outnumbered? Revisiting the Ratio of Bacterial to Host Cells in Humans

The human microbiome has emerged as an area of utmost interest....One of the most fundamental and commonly cited figures in this growing field is the estimate that bacteria residing in the human body outnumber human cells by a factor of 10 or more (Figure 1A). This striking statement often serves as an entry point to the field. After all, if a human being is a cell population composed of at least 90% bacteria, it is only natural to expect a major role for them in human physiology.

Both the numerator (number of microbial cells) and the denominator (human cells) of this 10:1 ratio are based on crude assessments. Most sources cite the number of human cells as 1013 or 1014.....We performed a thorough review of the literature and found a long chain of citations originating from one “back of the envelope” estimate (Figure 1). This estimate, though illuminating, was never meant as the final word on the question.

Recently, the estimate of a 10:1 bacterial to human cell ratio (B/H) ratio has received criticism (Rosner, 2014). Therefore, an alternative value and an estimate of the uncertainty range are needed. Bacteria are found in many parts of the human body primarily on the external and internal surfaces, including the gastrointestinal tracts, skin, saliva, oral mucosa, and conjunctiva. The vast majority of commensal bacteria reside in the colon, with previous estimates of about 1014 bacteria (Savage, 1977), followed by the skin, which is estimated to harbor ∼1012 bacteriaBerg, 1996). Less than 1012 bacteria populate the rest of the body.....Almost all recent papers in the field of gut microbiota directly or indirectly rely on a single paper (Savage, 1977) discussing the overall number of bacteria in the gut. Interestingly, review of the original Savage 1977 paper demonstrates that it actually cites another paper for the estimate (Luckey, 1972)....The estimate, performed by Luckey in 1972, is an illuminating example of a back-of-the-envelope estimate, which was elegantly performed, yet was probably never meant to serve as the cornerstone reference number to be cited decades later.

Updating the ratio of bacteria to human cells from 10:1 or 100:1 to closer to 1:1 does not take away from the biological importance of the microbiota. ...Although we still appear to be outnumbered, we now know more reliably to what degree and can quantify our uncertainty about the ratios and absolute numbers. The B/H ratio is actually close enough to one, so that each defecation event, which excretes about 1/3 of the colonic bacterial content, may flip the ratio to favor human cells over bacteria. This anecdote serves to highlight that some variation in the ratio of bacterial to human cells occurs not only across individual humans but also over the course of the day.

Once again, two opposing views about beards have been in the news - that they harbor all sorts of nasty disease-causing bacteria vs they are hygienic. An earlier May 5, 2015 post was about the question of whether bearded men have more bacteria on their faces than clean shaven ones. I cited a 2014 study found that they don't, and that we are all covered with bacteria, all sorts of bacteria, and this is normal.

Now another study has looked at the issue of hospital workers with and without beards and whether they carry infectious bacteria. Researchers swabbed the faces (center of the cheek and the skin of the upper lip under the nostrils) of both clean shaven individuals and individuals with facial hair (beards) that worked in two hospitals (they all had direct contact with patients) and looked at the bacteria present. They especially looked for the presence of the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, which surprisingly was found more in the clean-shaven men.

Also to their surprise, it was more of the clean shaven men who carried the pathogenic bacteria Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (also known as MRSA). For those bacterial groups most closely associated with hospital acquired infections, such as Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas species, Enterobacter species., and Acinetobacter species, prevalence was low in both groups, and less than 2% for each group.

For other, less harmful bacteria, researchers found that bearded employees harbored no more bacteria than their clean-shaven colleagues. In summary: The researchers say that "results suggest that male hospital workers with facial hair do not harbour more potentially concerning bacteria than clean-shaven workers, and that in some instances, clean-shaven individuals are significantly more likely to be colonized with potential nosocomial pathogens". (NOTE: nosocomial means a disease originating or acquired in a hospital.)

And why is that? According to the study, one explanation is "microtrauma to the skin," which occurs during shaving and results in abrasions, which could support bacterial colonisation and growth of bacteria on the clean-shaven men. However, some other researchers have a different hypothesis — that beards themselves actually fight infection.

This stems from an experiment carried out by Dr. Michael Mosley who recently swabbed the beards of a variety of men and sent the samples to Dr. Adam Roberts, a microbiologist at University College London. Roberts grew more than 100 different bacteria from the beard samples, but found that in a few of the petri dishes a microbe was killing the other bacteria -  a bacteria called Staphylococcus epidermidis, and which they believe has antibiotic properties.

From the Journal of Hospital Infection: Bacterial ecology of hospital workers’ facial hair: a cross-sectional study

Summary: It is unknown whether healthcare workers' facial hair harbours nosocomial pathogens. We compared facial bacterial colonization rates among 408 male healthcare workers with and without facial hair. Workers with facial hair were less likely to be colonized with Staphylococcus aureus (41.2% vs 52.6%, P = 0.02) and meticillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (2.0% vs 7.0%, P = 0.01). Colonization rates with Gram-negative organisms were low for all healthcare workers, and Gram-negative colonization rates did not differ by facial hair type. Overall, colonization is similar in male healthcare workers with and without facial hair; however, certain bacterial species were more prevalent in workers without facial hair.

[Excerpts from Discussion]:Several studies to date have demonstrated that physician white coats and neck ties can act as significant sources of nosocomial bacteria. Our study suggests that facial hair does not increase the overall risk of bacterial colonization compared to clean-shaven control subjects. Indeed, clean-shaven control subjects exhibited higher rates of colonization with certain bacterial species. This finding may be explained by microtrauma to the skin during shaving resulting in abrasions, which may support bacterial colonization and proliferation. This may be akin to the enhanced risk of surgical site infections in patients shaved with razors prior to surgery. Further, our results are consistent with prior evidence pertaining to bacterial colonization on the hands and nares of HCWs (Health care workers).


Ukraine Sunflower Prints

My Ukrainian vyshyvanka blouse

I grew up with Ukrainian traditions and culture. We observed the 12 meatless dishes on Ukrainian Christmas Eve. My baba was a master pysyanky maker. We wore the outfits and flew the flags. I remember some phrases growing up, mostly “Ви отримаєте лупцювання”, which I think means “You’re going to get a spanking”. I don’t speak any Ukrainian other than these childhood phrases, but my dad did. He was also proud of being able to understand and speak a little Russian because that’s what the neighbors in his tiny Saskatchewan village spoke.

We also grew up with the Slavic worldview, which is, “Expect the worst and when it happens, you’ll be prepared; if it doesn’t, you’ll be pleasantly surprised.” I never realized that not everyone grows up thinking like that.

My Baba’s beautiful pysanky

To Ukrainians, the worst case scenario often happens. It’s been an encroached-on country for centuries. Some time after my dad passed, I found a Ukrainian property deed in my dad’s stuff, going all the way back to his parents and probably their parents before. It was in German and was from when Ukraine was occupied by Austria. I guess my ancestors emigrated around then and landed here in Canada generations ago. And over many generations, I and so many members of the Ukrainian Diaspora keep Ukrainian traditions and culture alive here in Canada, because we can.

What is happening today in Ukraine is horrific. It makes me swear and grit my teeth daily. I know the worst is yet to come. The things that Ukrainians care most about are family, home, land, food, and security and Russia’s invasion is an absolute anathema on these Ukrainian values. We will always fight. They will not hold Ukraine.

I painted these sunflower paintings years ago, probably around Maidan or after Crimea. There’s been a renewed interest in prints. All proceeds from print sales will go to the Red Cross for Ukraine humanitarian efforts. Update: First donation made! Will continue.

Sunflower World

Ukraine Sunflower World: “Take these seeds and put them in your pockets so at least sunflowers will grow when you all lie down here”

Sunflower World – Posters, etc. here:

Ukraine Sunflower Field

Ukraine’s flag is blue and gold. The blue half represents the sky (hope), and the gold represents the country’s wheat fields (prosperity). Could also be the equally stunning sunflower fields under a clear blue sky.

Sunflower Field – Prints, etc. here:

Слава Україні! Героям слава!

Slava Ukraini! Heroiam slava!

Glory to Ukraine! Glory to heroes!


Quick Answer: What Is The Purpose Of Live Scan?

Does Live Scan expire?

California residents/Live Scan applicants – 60 days from date of live scan.

Out-of-state residents – 75 days from submission date of your hard cards to the Commission or after the IVRS system confirms that your information was sent to the agency designated to receive your fingerprint results..

How much does a live scan cost in California?

The standard fee for Live Scan fingerprinting is $22.00. There will be no additional charge if a Request for Livescan Service Form has a billing number. Additional Fees may be required depending on the Level of Service your employer/agency is requesting.

How does Live Scan work?

How many years are fingerprints valid?

Your fingerprints never “expire” but the validity period of background check and clearance based on the collection of your fingerprints is 15 months.

What information does live scan provide?

How long does a live scan take to clear?

72 hoursHOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO GET MY LIVE SCAN RESULTS? In most cases, the results from DOJ come back within 72 hours. Due to various reasons, results can be delayed. For any significant delay, the DOJ will contact the requesting agency.

Do post offices do fingerprinting?

What is the California 7 year rule?

California law follows the FCRA’s general seven-year rule as the limit for reporting most negative information on an employment background check. In California, criminal convictions can only be reported for seven years unless another law requires employers to look deeper into your background.

What does a fingerprint background check show?

What Do Fingerprint Background Checks Actually Show? If there is a match in the federal system, it will generate a “rap sheet.” This Criminal History Record Information (CHRI) could include arrests, records of federal employment, military service, naturalization, or none of the above.

What is a live scan used for?

Live scan is commonly used for criminal booking, sexual offender registration, civil applicant and background check. Live scan results can be verified and returned to the source within 72 hours of transmission.

How far back does a Live Scan background check go?

Live Scan is also only supposed to report criminal convictions for seven years, although some employers (i.e. law enforcement in particular) may be required by law to look deeper into one’s background.

How do I get a live scan?

Bring the completed form to a verified Live Scan location along with a valid photo ID (see valid forms of photo ID above). You can find Live Scan locations online or visit oag.ca.gov/fingerprints/locations. Prices for the Live Scan service vary by location so make sure to check the cost at each location beforehand.

Does ups do live scan fingerprinting?

UPS now offers live scan fingerprinting services to its customers in UPS stores nationwide. Live Scan fingerprinting is the process of capturing fingerprints electronically for submission to specific agencies, archiving, or fingerprint card printing.

How much does a live scan cost at UPS?

The standard fee for Live Scan fingerprinting is $22.00. There will be no additional charge if a Request for Livescan Service Form has a billing number. Furthermore, does UPS Store do live scan? The UPS Store 5391.

What shows up on a DOJ Live Scan?

The state of California has mandated that only records related to the following categories are revealed by Live Scan: Crimes relating to child abuse or elder abuse. Sex Offenders. Convictions or incarcerations in the last 10 years as a result of committing: theft, robbery, burglary or any felony.

Does USPS do live scan?

Live Scan and Ink Fingerprinting services are usually available Monday – Saturday during normal business hours. However, we suggest you call us at (800) 767-8252 to book your appointment. And don’t forget, we also offer related services such as overnight and trackable shipping with FedEx, UPS or the USPS.

Is Live Scan the same as a background check?

Live Scan is a form of background check required by the state and federal governments; typically for state-issued licenses, employment, or volunteer work. … The government will check submitted fingerprints against its database to retrieve an individual’s criminal record.

Does a live scan include a drug test?

Live Scan Labs is a Walk-in Lab that offers non prescription health tests as well as other services including Fingerprinting and AHA Classes. The services offer include Health Tests, DNA Analysis, Drug Testing, Fingerprinting and CPR, BLS, ACLS Classes in Pembroke Park, Florida.


Before purchasing your rental property, an analysis of the real estate market can help you estimate your Airbnb income. You can start by determining if a given location may be profitable. To do so, make sure you keep the following in mind:

1. Find out about the real estate appreciation indicators in a given location.

2. Use historical Airbnb data and live rental data combined with predictive analytics to give you data that "predict" the future of this particular housing market.

3. Determine if the location is appropriate for Airbnb's investment properties. Sometimes specific areas are better for traditional rentals, meaning you won't bring in as much income as you would like.

4. An analysis of the real estate market will reveal a lot about the rental demand in this area. You want to pay attention to this as it will directly impact your Airbnb rental income.

Once you've successfully gathered all of this market intelligence information, you'll have a rough estimate of Airbnb's revenue for your location.

Perform an investment property analysis

The next step in assessing Airbnb rental income is to perform an investment property analysis. Now that you've found a suitable location start looking for properties for sale on Airbnb. When you spot a few rental properties that have caught your attention, you'll want to calculate the following:

Cash flow

You can estimate Airbnb's income by analyzing cash flow first. The cash flow is primarily the Airbnb rental income minus the monthly rental costs. Suppose you rent your short-term rental property for $ 1,000 per month and spend $ 600 on the mortgage, maintenance, and insurance. You subtract $ 600 from $ 1,000, and you'll have a positive cash flow of $ 400.

Capitalization rate

The next step is to use this cash flow analysis to calculate your capitalization rate. Yield is the ratio of Airbnb's returns to the property's price. So the capitalization formula looks like this:

Cap rate = Net Operating Income / Property Price

The net operating income in this formula is the annual cash flow. So, if we take the previous example of Airbnb's investment property, we would multiply $ 400 by 12 x $ 4,800 in net operating income. Assuming the owner sells it for $160,000, the limit would be 3%.

Cash on cashback

The ultimate measure of ROI to estimate Airbnb's income is your cashback. This measure is very similar to the capitalization rate. However, instead of dividing your net operating income by the property price, we only divide it by the money you put out of your pocket. In this case, it is about financing investment properties.

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