Detailed Norse symbols and History

Detailed Norse symbols and History

Viking History

Viking Symbols and Meanings

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A quick note about Viking Symbols
We sell hundreds of Viking jewelry items with various symbols, so it is helpful to understand their true origins and background. Most of these iconic images were used by the Norse before and during the Viking era, though the original true meanings of some are simply educated guesses by archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians.

A few symbols that are considered "Viking" have no proof of ever being used during the Viking era, such as the Troll Cross (not shown) which is based on later Swedish folklore and modern artistic interpretation, and two other very popular symbols known as the Helm of Awe (Icelandic: Ægishjálmur, Old Norse Œgishjalmr) and the Viking Compass (Icelandic: Vegvísir, for "signpost" or "wayfinder"). Those two symbols were found in Icelandic books from the 19th century. We offer an entire separate article discussing these two symbols and the controversy of their origin.

Why include Celtic symbols?

By the end of the Viking era, Vikings were already beginning to blend with the cultures they settled in. Many of the last few generations of these Vikings were often the children of a Celtic mother ...or Slavic, English, etc. The National Museum of Ireland states the following on their website:

"By the end of the 10th century the Vikings in Ireland had adopted Christianity, and with the fusion of cultures it is often difficult to distinguish between Viking and Irish artifacts at this time."

Article continued below.

Runes (Norse Alphabet) Valknut (Knot of the Slain)
Ægishjálmr (Icelandic Helm of Awe) Vegvisir (Icelandic Compass)
Triskele (Horns of Odin) Triquetra (Celtic Knot)
Mjolnir (Thor's Hammer) Viking Axe (Norse Weapon)
Yggdrasil (Tree of Life) Longship (Viking Ships)
Web of Wyrd (Fate) Gungnir (Odin's Spear)
Raven (Hugin and Munin) Wolf (Fenrir)
8-Legged Horse (Sleipnir) Dragon (Norse Serpents)
Boar (Nordic and Celtic) Cats, Bears (and more)

Brief Overview of Viking Symbols

Symbols played an important role in Norse culture.  The spirituality of the Norse Vikings was so ingrained in their culture and thought process that they had no word for religion.  There was no separation (as there so often is today) between faith and reality.  The cosmic forces and fate were active in everything.  Thanks to the Marvel movies, nearly everyone now knows about Thor's hammer (Mjölnir) which was a very popular choice for Vikings to use in their jewelry as represented in this ancient Danish artifact to the right.

The Vikings also had letters (known as runes), but writing itself was sacred and even magical.  So, while the Norse culture was very rich in poetry, stories, and songs, this was all transmitted orally.  The stories of Odin, Thor, Freya, or the Viking heroes that we have now were all passed on by careful word of mouth until they were finally written down as the sagas by descendants of the Vikings centuries later.  Symbols and motifs visually convey (instantly and across language barriers) messages that were deeply meaningful to the women and men that held them.

Symbols themselves were thought to have power.  Vikings sailed at the mercy of the mighty seas.  They were intimately acquainted with the dangers of battle.  Whether as warriors or as settlers, they lived in the wind, rain, heat, and cold.  They depended on the bounty of the land to feed their children.  Through everything, they felt the hand of fate governing all things.  Divine symbols on amulets, boundary stones, stitched onto clothing, painted on shields, carved into their longships, or as items around their hearths could offer the Viking that small edge he or she needed to face the uncertainties and dangers of life.

Symbols and Motifs

The difference between symbols and motifs is simply a question of formality.  A symbol is an established, recognized visual image that is almost always rendered in a specific way.  Because of this, symbols tend to be very simple (so that almost anyone can draw them).  Don’t let that fool you – symbols are usually considered to be older and more powerful than motifs or written words.  Things like Mjölnir, the Valknut, or the Helm of Awe are symbols.  Motifs are much less formal and can vary greatly from one artist to another.  Motifs are meant to call something to mind, and though they can attract the attention of the gods (especially images of the god’s familiar, such as Odin’s ravens or Freya’s cats) they are not necessarily “visual spells” the way symbols are. Because of this flexibility, new interpretations of ancient Viking motifs are still being made today.

Following is a brief introduction to some common Norse symbols and motifs.  The list is not all-inclusive, nor is it meant to be exhaustive but rather just a basic starting point.  Remember, a picture is worth a thousand words.

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Runes (Norse Alphabet)

In the most basic sense, runes were letters, but the word rune also comes from the word for ‘secret’. Runes denoted phonetic sounds (like letters) but also had individual meanings (like the glyphs of other ancient languages). Runic alphabets are called futharks.  Just as our term "alphabet" comes from the first two Greek letters (alpha and beta), the first six runes are F, U, Th, A, R and K. The oldest known futhark arose sometime between the second and fourth century, which is not surprising considering that was the time when war and trade between Germanic and Mediterranean peoples were accelerating.

The Vikings had an oral culture and did not use runes to write just anything. Runes had power. They were seldom (if ever) penned onto parchment, as the enemies of the Vikings did in France, Ireland, and England; they were carved into wood, stone, metal, or bone (hence their angular appearance). Most of our surviving examples of runes are inscriptions on rune stones commemorating the lives of great rulers. Runes also had expressly magical purposes and were engraved on amulets, talismans, beads, and shields to ensure protection and victory.

Rune casting was another magical use of runes in the Viking Age. Rune casting or “casting rune sticks” involves spilling pieces of bone or wood (each carved with a rune) onto a piece of cloth. The skilled practitioner then deciphers the message rendered, not only of the runes but also their orientation to each other (similar to Tarot, in which the same card can have very different meanings depending on context).

Runes are associated with the god Odin, who first discovered them (at great pain and effort) from the Well of Destiny, at the foot of Ygdrassil. For the Vikings, this discovery of runes meant that they were not invented tools of humankind but part of the larger, deeper truth.

The early runes became known as the Elder Futhark and were used by a wide range of Germanic and Norse tribes. Just before the Viking Age began, the Elder Futhark began to gradually give way to the more streamlined Younger Futhark. The Younger Futhark has fewer runes (only 16) to reflect changes in the Scandinavian language and dialects at that time. Again, the transition was gradual, and runes from the Elder Futhark that were no longer useful as letters remained in use as glyphs for quite some time. And just as we can still interpret the Elder version today (1200 years later), Vikings skilled in rune lore were most likely capable of reading both. Most of today's modern Viking jewelry relating to Runes reflects the Elder version as it offers more letters for easier translation to the English language.

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Valknut (Knot of the Slain)

The Vikings believed that people who lived ordinary lives went on to a shadowy existence after death, but those who died gloriously in battle lived on in Valhalla.  The Valkyries would carry the souls of these heroes from the battlefield.  In Valhalla, they would live the Viking version of the good life: fighting great battles against each other every day but – in their immortal state – spending each night in revelry and feasting.  This paradise comes with a price, though.  For the slain warriors are Odin’s army, and they will join the gods in the last, great battle of Ragnarok.  They will fight this doomed battle against the giants and fearsome creatures of darkness for the sake of our world and the world of the gods.

The Valknut is most-commonly believed to be the symbol of these slain warriors. The exact meaning of the three interlocking triangle shapes is unknown. Clues arise from Celtic and Neolithic art from Northwestern Europe in which interlinking triple shapes are common indicators of magical power and magical essence. Experts hypothesize that the Valknut may depict the cyclical path between life and death that these warriors experience. Others believe that the nine points represent the nine worlds of Norse mythology. Yet another theory holds that this symbol is the same as Hrungnir’s Heart, a triangular symbol described (but not pictured) by Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda. Hrungnir was a fearsome giant – the only giant that was ever able to wound Thor – so in some ways Hrungnir may also symbolize death.

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 Ægishjálmr (Helm of Awe)

The Ægishjálmr, or Helm of Awe, is a magical Icelandic symbol of protection and victory.  The Helm of Awe is mentioned in several of the Eddic poems as being used by both warriors and even dragons!  The symbol itself survives from later Icelandic grimoire (books of magic), penned well after the Viking Age but from an unbroken intellectual lineage to sea traveling Vikings of earlier times. The term “helm” means protective covering (i.e., helmet).  But while some sources describe the Ægishjálmr as a magical object, most sources describe it more as an invisible spell that creates a sphere of protection on the user while casting fear and defeat on an enemy.

The eight arms or rays emit from the center point of the symbol.  The arms themselves appear to be constructed from two intersecting runes.  These are Algiz runes for victory and protection intersected by Isa runes, which may mean hardening (literally, ice).  So, the hidden meaning of this symbol may be the ability to overcome through superior hardening of the mind and soul.

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 (Viking Compass)

Given the potentially disastrous consequences inherent in such sea voyages, however, it is easy to see why Vikings would want magical help in keeping their way. The symbol comes down to us from the Icelandic Huld Manuscript (another grimoire) which was compiled in the 1840s from older manuscripts (now lost). The exact age of the Vegvisir is therefore unknown.

Modern technology has done a good job overcoming the dangers of becoming lost that were a grim reality for our ancestors, but the Vegvisir is not only protection against being unable to find one’s way in the physical world. For many people, the Vegvisir / Viking Compass represents staying on course in our spiritual voyage, and in finding our way through all the ups, downs, twists, and turns our lives can take. For a much deeper look at the history (and controversy) behind this symbol, click here.

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Triskele (Horns of Odin)

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triskele jewelry

Triquetra (Celtic Knot)

The Triquetra or the Trinity Knot is comprised one continuous line interweaving around itself, meaning no beginning or end, or eternal spiritual life.  This symbol was originally Celtic, not Norse, but with increased contact and assimilation between the Vikings and the peoples of Ireland and Scotland, the Triquetra and other Celtic symbols/motifs became culturally syncretized.

A similar design was found on the Funbo Runestone found in Uppland, Sweden (seen to the right). Originally, the Triquetra was associated with the Celtic Mother Goddess and depicted her triune nature (the maiden, the mother, and the wise, old woman). The triple identity was an essential feature in many aspects of druidic belief and practice.  Later, Irish and Scottish monks adopted the Triquetra as a symbol of the Christian Trinity.  People today wear the Triquetra for any of these reasons and to be reminded of the continuity and multi-faceted nature of higher truths.

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celtic knot jewelry

Mjölnir (me-OL-neer) means grinder, crusher, hammer and is also associated with thunder and lightning. When the Vikings saw lightning, and heard thunder in a howling storm, they knew that Thor had used Mjölnir to send another giant to his doom. Thor was the son of Odin and Fyorgyn (a.k.a., Jord) the earth goddess. He was the god of thunder and the god of war and one of the most popular figures in all of Norse mythology. While Viking jarls and kings easily identified with wise, cunning Odin, Thor’s boundless strength, bravery, fortitude, and straightforwardness appealed more to the common Viking freeman. Mjölnir is known for its ability to destroy mountains. But it was not just a weapon.

The origin of Mjölnir is found in Skáldskaparmál from Snorri's Edda. Loki made a bet with two dwarves, Brokkr and Sindri (or Eitri) that they could not make something better than the items created by the Sons of Ivaldi (the dwarves who created Odin's spear Gungnir and Freyr's foldable boat skioblaonir). The result was the magical hammer that was then presented to Thor as described in the following:

Thor also used Mjölnir to hallow, or to bless. With Mjölnir, Thor could bring some things (such as the goats who drew his chariot) back to life. Thor was invoked at weddings, at births, and at special ceremonies for these abilities to bless, make holy, and protect.

Hundreds of Mjölnir amulets have been discovered in Viking graves and other Norse archaeological sites. Some experts have postulated that these amulets became increasingly popular as Vikings came into contact with Christians, as a way to differentiate themselves as followers of the Old Ways and not the strange faith of their enemies. This may or may not be true. Certainly, amulets of many kinds have been in use since pre-historic times. Interestingly, Mjölnir amulets were still worn by Norse Christians (sometimes in conjunction with a cross) after the Old Ways began to fade, so we can see that the symbol still had great meaning even after its relevance to religion had changed. With its association with Thor, the protector god of war and the of nature's awe, the Mjölnir stands for power, strength, bravery, good luck, and protection from all harm. It is also an easily-recognizable sign that one holds the Old Ways in respect.

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mjolnir jewelry

Viking Axe
The most famous, and perhaps most common, Viking weapon was the axe. Viking axes ranged in size from hand axes (similar to tomahawks) to long-hafted battle axes. Unlike the axes usually depicted in fantasy illustrations, Viking axes were single-bitted (to make them faster and more maneuverable). Viking axes were sometimes "bearded," which is to say that the lower portion of the axe head was hook-shaped to facilitate catching and pulling shield rims or limbs. The axe required far less iron, time, or skill to produce than a sword; and because it was an important tool on farms and homesteads, the Norse would have had them in hand since childhood. The Viking axe would make the Norsemen famous, and even after the Viking Age waned, the descendants of the Vikings (such as the Varangians of Byzantium or the Galloglass of Ireland) would be sought after as bodyguards or elite mercenaries specifically for their axe skill.

As the Vikings traveled East into lands held by the Balts and Slavs, they encountered peoples who worshipped a god called Perun (a.k.a. Perkūnas or Perkonis). Perun was a sky god and a god of thunder, like Thor. Like Thor, Perun was the champion of mankind, a protector from evil and slayer of monsters. Like Thor, he was a cheerful, invincible, red-bearded warrior who traversed the heavens in a goat-drawn chariot. The biggest difference between Perun and Thor seems to be that while Thor fought with his mighty hammer, Mjolnir, Perun fought with an axe. Even as numerous Mjolnir amulets have been discovered in Viking Age sites in Scandinavia, many axe-shaped amulets have been discovered in the Baltic, Russia, and Ukraine. The Russian Primary Chronicle mentions the Viking-led Rus under Sviatoslav the Brave validating a peace treaty by swearing oaths to Perun. This may indicate that as Vikings found new homes in the lands that are now Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Latvia they found common ground with the people there through the shared characteristics of gods like Thor and Perun.

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viking axes

Yggdrasil (Tree of Life or World Tree)

Yggdrasil is the vast “ash tree” that grows out of the Well of Destiny (Urðarbrunnr).  All nine worlds or nine dimensions are entwined in its branches and its roots.  Yggdrasil, therefore, serves as a conduit or pathway between these nine dimensions that the gods might travel.  If this all seems a little difficult to imagine, you are not alone.  Remember, myth is a means for people to understand cosmic truth.  For our ancestors, myths like these were as close as they could come to science; and even as quantum physics is difficult for many of us to "picture", it is still our way of describing the truth as we have found it to be. Yggdrasil was a way of thinking about reality and about how different realities could be connected (maybe similar in some ways to modern multiverse theory).

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tree of life jewelry

The longship was the soul of the Viking. The word "Viking" does not simply mean any medieval Scandinavian, but rather a man or woman who dared to venture forth into the unknown. The longship was the means by which that was accomplished. We have eyewitness accounts from centuries before the Vikings that tell us the Norse always were into their ships, but technological advances they made in ship design around the eighth century revolutionized what these ships were able to do. The Viking ships could row with oars or catch the wind with a broad, square sail. They were flexible and supple in the wild oceans. They were keeled for speed and precision. Most importantly to Viking mobility and military superiority, they had a very shallow draught.

All this meant that Vikings could cross the cold seas from Scandinavia to places that had never heard of them, then use river ways to move deep into these lands all while outpacing any enemies who might come against them. It took the greatest powers in Europe a long time to even figure out how to address this kind of threat. It was no wonder that the Viking ships were called dragon ships, for it was as if an otherworldly force was unleashed upon the peoples of Europe. Accounts from the very first recorded Viking raid (Lindisfarne) even speak of monks seeing visions of dragons in a prophecy of this doom.

The relationship of the Vikings to their ships is even more striking when we realize that - in some ways - these ships were glorified boats, and not what we think of as ships at all. A Viking was completely exposed to the elements and could reach down and touch the waves. In such a vessel you would feel the waters of the deep slipping by just underneath of your feet as sea spray pelted your face. The Vikings sailed these vessels all the way to the Mediterranean, to Iceland and Greenland, and even all the way to North America. This level of commitment, acceptance of risk, rejection of limitations, and consuming hunger to bend the world to one's will is difficult for many of us to accurately imagine. That is why the dragon ship will always symbolize the Vikings and everything about them.

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viking ship jewelry

Web of Wyrd

The Vikings believed all things – even the gods themselves – were bound to fate. The concept was so important that there were six different words for fate in the Old Scandinavian tongues. It was in large part this deep conviction that “fate is inexorable” that gave the Vikings their legendary courage. Because the outcome was determined, it was not for a man or a woman to try to escape their fate – no matter how grim it might be. The essential thing was in how one met the trials and tragedies that befell them.

In Norse mythology, fate itself is shaped by the Norns. The Norns are three women who sit at mouth of the Well of Urd (Urd and Wyrd both mean “fate” in different dialects) at the base of Yggdrasil, the world tree. There they weave together a great tapestry or web, with each thread being a human life. Some sources, including the Volsung saga, say that in addition to the three great Norns (who are called Past, Present, and Future) there are many lesser Norns of both Aesir and elf kind. These lesser Norn may act similarly to the idea of the guardian angels of Christianity or the daemon of Greco-Roman mythology.

The Web of Wyrd symbol represents the tapestry the Norns weave. It is uncertain whether this symbol was used during the Viking Age, but it uses imagery the Vikings would instantly understand. Nine lines intersect to form the symbol. Nine was a magic number to the Norse, and within the pattern of these lines all the runes can be found. The runes also sprang from the Well of Urd, and carried inherent meaning and power. Thus, when one looks at the nine lines of the Web of Wyrd, one is seeing all the runes at once, and seeing in symbolic form the secrets of life and destiny.

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GungnirGungnir is Odin’s spear, and a symbol that is closely associated with this god of inspiration, wisdom, and war. Gungnir was made for Odin by the sons of Invaldi, dwarves who were the master craftsman who also made the goddess Sif’s golden hair, and Frey’s famous ship, Skidbladnir. Gungnir is a magic spear, with dark runes inscribed on its point. Gungnir never misses its target.

When Odin sacrificed himself to discover the runes and the cosmic secrets they held, he stabbed Gungnir through his chest and hung from the world tree, Yggdrasil for nine days and nights. Because of this association, Vikings and earlier Germanic/Scandinavian peoples would also use a spear in conjunction with hanging for their sacrifices to Odin.

Gungnir NecklaceWhen Odin led the Aesir gods against the Vanir gods (before they made peace) he flung Gungnir over their heads, saying, “You are all mine!” The Vikings had a tradition of doing the same, and would commence their battles by throwing a spear over the ranks of their enemies as they shouted, “Odin take you all!” By symbolically sacrificing their enemies to Odin in this way, they hoped the Allfather would bring them victory.

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Ravens may be the animal most associated with the Vikings. This is because Ravens are the familiars of Odin, the Allfather. Odin was a god of war, and ravens feasting on the slain were a common sight on the battlefields of the Viking Age. The connection is deeper than that, however. Ravens are very intelligent birds. You cannot look at the eyes and head movement of a raven and not feel that it is trying to perceive everything about you – even weigh your spirit. Odin was accompanied by two ravens – Huginn (“Thought”) and Muninn (“Memory”). Huginn and Muninn fly throughout the nine worlds, and whatever their far-seeing eyes find they whisper back to Odin. Odin is often called hrafnaguð – the Raven God – and is often depicted with Huginn (HOO-gin) and Muninn (MOO-nin) sitting on his shoulders or flying around him.

Ravens are also associated with the 9th century Viking hero, Ragnar Lothbrok. Ragnar claimed descent from Odin through a human consort. This was something that did not sit well with the kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (as it implied parity with them), and for that and many other reasons they made war on him. Ragnar’s Vikings charged into battle with a raven banner flying above them, and each time they did, they were victorious.

Various sagas and chronicles tell us Ragnar's success led him to Finland, France, England, and maybe even as far as the Hellespont in Turkey, and wherever he went, he carried the raven banner with him. His sons Ivar and Ubbe carried the raven banner at the head of the Great Heathen Army that conquered the eastern kingdoms of England in the 9th century. The banner continued to bring victories until their descendant, Sigurd the Stout, finally died under it at the Irish Battle of Clontarf about 150 years later. Harald Hardrada (Hard-ruler), the larger-than-life Norse hero historians like to call "The Last Viking” also carried a raven banner he called “Land Waster.” When this raven banner finally fell in 1066, the Viking Age ended.

In Norse art, ravens symbolize Odin, insight, wisdom, intellect, bravery, battle glory, and continuity between life and the afterlife. For people today, they also represent the Vikings themselves, and the 200 years of exploits and exploration that these ancestors achieved. Raven coin shown here is a silver penny of Anlaf Guthfrithsson, Hiberno-Norse King of Northumbria (date: c. 939-941 AD).

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raven jewelry

Not all the wolves in Norse culture were evil. Odin himself was accompanied by wolves, named Geri and Freki (both names meaning, Greedy) who accompanied him in battle, hunting, and wandering. This partnership between god and wolves gave rise to the alliance between humans and dogs.

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wolf jewelry

8-Legged Horse

Some experts hypothesize that Sleipnir's octopedal sliding was inspired by the "tolt" - the fifth gait of Icelandic horses (and their Scandinavian ancestors) that make them very smooth to ride. While this may or may not be true, the idea of eight-legged spirit horses is a very, very old one. Sleipnir's image, or rumors of him, appear in shamanistic traditions throughout Korea, Mongolia, Russia, and of course Northwestern Europe. As in Norse mythology, these eight-legged horses are a means for transporting souls across worlds (i.e., from life to the afterlife). These archeological finds are at least a thousand years older than Viking influence, showing that the roots of this symbol indeed go deep.

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sleipnir jewelry

Dragons (and Serpents)

The Vikings had lots of stories of dragons and giant serpents and left many depictions of these creatures in their art. The longship – the heart and soul of the Viking – were even called "dragon ships" for their sleek design and carved dragon-headed prows. These heads sometimes would be removed to announce the Vikings came in peace (as not to frighten the spirits of the land, the Icelandic law codes say). The common images of dragons we have from fantasy movies, with thick bodies and heavy legs come more from medieval heraldry inspired by Welsh (Celtic) legends. The earliest Norse dragons were more serpentine, with long coiling bodies. They only sometimes had wings, and only some breathed fire.

Some Norse dragons were not just giant monsters - they were cosmic forces unto themselves. Níðhöggr is such a creature. Níðhöggr means "Curse Striker." He coils around the roots of Yggdrasil, gnawing at them and dreaming of Ragnarok. Jörmungandr (also called "The Midgard Serpent" or "The World-Coiling Serpent") is so immeasurable that he wraps around the entire world, holding the oceans in. Jörmungandr is the arch-enemy of Thor, and they are fated to kill each other at Ragnarok.

Luckily, not all dragons were as big as the world - but they were big enough. Heroes like Beowulf met their greatest test against such creatures. Ragnar Lothbrok won his name, his favorite wife (Thora), and accelerated his destiny by slaying a giant, venomous serpent. One of the most interesting dragons was Fáfnir. Fáfnir was originally a dwarf, but through his greed and treachery, he was turned into a fearsome, almost-indestructible monster who slept on a horde of gold. Fáfnir (as well as Níðhöggr) exhibit one of the most frightening characteristics of dragons - dragons are not only big, powerful, and hard to kill; many of them are also highly intelligent. Dragons are as rich in symbolism as they were said to be rich in treasure. As the true, apex predator, dragons represent both great strength and great danger. With their association with hordes of gold or as the captors of beautiful women, dragons can represent opportunity through risk.

Though the Norse did not equate dragons with the Devil, as Christians do (remember, the Norse did not have a Devil), dragons like Fáfnir can sometimes represent spiritual corruption or the darker side of human nature. Most of all, dragons embody the destructive phase of the creation-destruction cycle. This means that they represent chaos and cataclysm, but also change and renewal.

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Boars (Nordic and Celtic)

There are numerous other animal motifs in Norse art and culture. Many of these are the fylgja (familiars or attendant spirits) of different gods. Thor had his goats, and Heimdall had his rams. Freya had a ferocious boar to accompany her in war, named Hildisvini ("Battle Swine"). Her brother, Freyr (or Frey) - the god of sex, male fertility, bounty, wealth, and peace (who, along with Freya, aptly lends his name to Friday) - had a boar named Gullinborsti ("Golden-Bristled") as his fylgia. Seeing Gullinborsti's symbol or other boar motifs would make a Viking think of peace, happiness, and plenty. Boars are also significant in Celtic mythology, such as the fertility god Moccus, or the Torc Triatha of the goddess Brigid.

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Cats, Bears (and other animals)

The Vikings believed cats were the spirit animals (flygjur or familiars) of the Vanir goddess, Freya.  Freya (also spelled, Freyja, the name meaning “The Lady”) was one of the most revered, widely venerated, and most fascinating of all the Norse gods or goddesses.  Freya was the goddess of love, sex, and romantic desire – but she was not just some northern version of Venus.  Freya was a fearsome goddess of war, as well, and she would ride into battle on her wild boar, Hildisvini ("Battle Swine").  Like Odin, Freya also selected the bravest of slain warriors for the afterlife of Valhalla.  Freya had other parallels to Odin, including her association with magic and arcane knowledge.  Freya is said to have taught Odin much of what he knows of the secret arts.  She is also a lover of poetry, music, and thoughtfulness.

As a Vanir goddess and the sister (some say, twin) of the god Frey (or Freyr), Freya is a goddess of prosperity and riches. Freya’s tears turn to gold or precious amber, and the names of her two daughters are Hnoss (“Precious”) and Gersimi (“Treasure”).

Freya is a fertility goddess. Though she cries her amber tears when she misses her wandering husband, skaldic poetry tells us that she has an unbridled sexuality. In Norse mythology, Freya is often depicted as the object of desire not only of gods but of giants, elves, and men, too.

When not riding Hildisvini into the thick of battle or using her fabulous falcon-feather cloak to shape shift into a lightning-fast bird of prey, Freya travelled in a chariot drawn by black or gray cats. Some folklorists see the image of the goddess getting cats to work together and go in the same direction as a metaphor for the power of feminine influence – a reoccurring theme in the Viking sagas. The cat probably reminded Vikings of Freya because of the common personality traits: cats are independent but affectionate when they want to be; fierce fighters and lethal hunters but lovers of leisure, luxury, and treasures. This association between the goddess of magic and her cats may be why cats became associated with witches during the later Middle Ages and through our own time.

The bear was one of the most powerful and ferocious animals the Vikings knew. The very sight of a bear in the wild would make the bravest of men back away slowly. They are massive, fast, and deadly, and their hide and fur resist most weapons. It is easy to see why the Vikings would be fascinated by them and would want to emulate them.

The Bear was sacred to Odin, and this association inspired the most legendary class of all Vikings: the berserkers. Berserkers were Viking heroes who would fight in a state of ecstatic frenzy. The word berserker comes from two old Norse words that mean "bear shirt" or "bear skin." It is also where we get the phrase,"to go berserk". The berserker took on the essence and spirit of the great bears of the Scandinavian wilderness. He became the bear in battle, with all the creature’s ferocity, bravery, strength, and indestructibility. Thus, he put on the bear’s skin – which he may have also done literally, using bear hide for armor. Or, he wore no armor of any kind and had bare skin (the play on words is the same in English and Old Norse). In either case, the berserker was a warrior who entered battle furious and inspired with Odin’s lethal ecstasy.

Other Animals

Sometimes animals were not just the 'familiars' of the gods but were the gods themselves. Odin's wife Frigg could change into a falcon. Other animals were not the fylgja of the gods, but merely had the gods' favor because of their characteristics and personality (in the same way that many of us see ourselves in certain animals). In addition to familiars, various animal spirits populate Norse mythology, such as the eagle who sits in the boughs of Yggdrasil, or the squirrel that scurries along the trunk of the world tree.

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Text References

  2. McCoy, D. Norse Mythology for Smart People. Norse Mythology Accessed January 9, 2018.
  3. Zolfagharifard, E. Hammer of Thor' unearthed: Runes on 1,000-year-old amulet solve mystery of why Viking charms were worn for protection. Daily Mail. Published July 1, 2014.  Accessed January 9, 2018
  4. Howell, E. Parallel Universes: Theories and Evidence. Space. Published April 28, 2016. Accessed January 9, 2018.
  5. Lonegren, S. Runes: Alphabets of Mystery. Accessed January 9, 2018.
  6. Hauge, A. The History of the Runes. 2002. Accessed January 9, 2018.
  7. Viking Age Runes. Viking Archeology. Accessed January 9, 2018,
  8. Kernell, M.H. Gotland’s Picture Stones: Bearers of an Enigmatic Legacy. Gotland Museum, 2012. Accessed January 9, 2018,
  9. Odin’s Horn. Symbolic Dictionary. Accessed January 9, 2018.
  10. Flowers, S. The Galdrabok: An Icelandic Grimoire. Samuel Wiser, Inc. New York. 1989.
  11. Briggs, K. (1976). An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins, Brownies, Bogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures. Pantheon Books, New York.
  12. Lindhall, C., MacNamara, J., & Lindow, J. (2002) Medieval Folklore. Oxford University Press, New York
  1. Siegfried, K. Odin and the Runes part 2. The Norse Mythology Blog. Published March 26, 2010. Accessed January 11, 2018
  2. Hrafnsmerki - the Raven Banner. Geni. Accessed January 11, 2018
  3. Mastgrave, T. Demons, Monsters, and Ghosts, Oh No! Part XIX: Norwegian Dragons. Broken Mirrors. Published January 26, 2012. Accessed January 11, 2018
  4. About Sleipnir the Eight-Legged Horse. Geni. Accessed January 11, 2018
  5. So the Horse has Eight Legs! The Mindful Horse. Published 2014. Accessed January 11, 2018
  6. Brownworth, L. The Sea Wolves: A History of the Vikings. Crux Publishing, Ltd. United Kingdom. 2014
  7. Saxo Grammaticus. The Danish History, Book Nine. Circa 12th century. Accessed November 10, 2017.
  9. Hrafnsmerki - the Raven Banner. Geni. Accessed January 11, 2018
  11. About Sleipnir the Eight-Legged Horse. Geni. Accessed January 11, 2018
  15. Crawford, J. (2017). The Saga of the Volsungs, with the Saga of Ragnar Lothbrok. Hacket Publishing, Indianapolis.
  16. Groeneveld, E. (2018, February 19). Freyja. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from

Image References
    Viking symbols stone -
    Rune Stone -
    Yggdrasil -
    Valknut -
    Helm of Awe -
    Vegvisir -
    Horns of Odin -
    Horns of Odin -
    Triquetra -
    Tree of Life -
    Raven -
    Longship Stone -
    Dragon Head Viking Ship -
    Runes Stone -
    Raven Stone Carving -
    Viking Axe Artifact -
    Viking Animals Carving -
    Dragon Stone -
    Sleipnir Carving -
    Bronze Dragon Carving -
    Niohoggr -
    Bronze Ravens with Odin -
    Viking Ship Stone -
    Raven triskele broach -
    Raven coin -
    Danish mjolnir -


Top Introduction Member Publications Photos Contact Japanese
   Our goal  The goal of the Earth sciences is to understand how nature works, and to contribute to achieving a safe and stainable development society. The society takes an increasing interest in global issues which threaten to destroy communities and environments, such as earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption, and localized heavy rainfall. The Earth is made up of water and rocks. A rock is an aggregate of minerals. Therefore, geoscientists regard a mineral as the minimal component in the Earth. Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Understanding how minerals work is linked to understanding how the Earth works. The knowledge of the properties of minerals can help us to find the best solution for the global issues. We will contribute our efforts for the promotion of not only the Earth sciences, but also physics, chemistry, biology, and technology.
   Mineralogy of the Earth's interior  Since ancient times, people have wanted to get to know what the interior of the Earth looks like. Even with the most advanced technology in the world, we haven't directly collected mineral and rock samples from the deep Earth yet. However, we can create the deep Earth's interior in an enclosed space of the diamond anvil cell (DAC) in our laboratory, because the DAC technique can generate high-pressure and high-temperature conditions of the Earth and planetary interiors. We are investigating the mineral properties and behaviors under the mantle conditions by the DAC technique.
   Physics and chemistry of minerals  Minerals constitute the major part of the solids of the Earth. The minerals are also included as a nanoparticle in the atmosphere, liver water, lake water, groundwater, and ocean. Their distributions, properties, and functions on the Earth's surface still remain unknown. Studying a mineral is to know what properties the mineral has, how the mineral behaves, and how the mineral interacts with many Earth's surface processes, which is the most important contribution to the Earth and planetary sciences. We are studying minerals to clarify their physical and chemical properties, and to understand their behaviors and interaction with Earth' natural systems.
   Crystallography  A mineral is naturally crystallized as a crystal. Properties of crystals are definitely determined by their atomic arrangements. Their crystal morphologies, optical features, and many physical properties, such as equation of state, thermal expansion, and melting point are attributed to the crystallographic symmetry which has a repetitive pattern of the crystal lattice in space. All of the crystal properties are, therefore, explained by the highly ordered atomic arrangement. That is, investigating crystal symmetry helps us to understand the crystal properties. We are studying the crystal properties through the approach of crystal growth techniques, diffraction observation, and crystal structural analysis methods.
   Solid-state physics  Studying minerals is to investigate a solid state material itself. The solid state materials include all of solids and cover a very wide range of materials sciences which focus on crystalline matter, amorphous, metal, semiconductor, insulator, organic matter, inorganic matter, organic-inorganic composite, and nanomaterial. Solid materials possess various macroscopic properties, such as electronic, magnetic, thermal, optical, and mechanical properties. The solid-state physics is therefore to explain how the macroscopic properties of the materials result from their atomic scale interactions. We are conducting researches on the macroscopic properties of solid materials by advanced experimental techniques and efficient simulation methods.
   Descriptive mineralogy  Natural history is the observation and description of the natural world. The study is composed of natural sciences dealing with animals, plants, and minerals. In A.D. 77, Pliny the Elder who published an encyclopedia "Natural History" already described many different minerals and explained many of their properties. Descriptive mineralogy is a study to observe and describe the minerals found in rocks in terms of their color, morphology, luster, hardness, chemical composition, and crystal structure. New minerals which nobody has found can be recently discovered by advanced measurement techniques. We are carrying out the observation and description of minerals occurring at various localities.
 Copyright © 2004-2022 Atsushi Kyono. All Rights Reserved.


How to Address Poor Communication in the Workplace

A business’s success is partially determined by the effectiveness of its internal communications. Poor communication must be addressed quickly or else it can result in negative outcomes. Establishing successful communication learning strategies is the key to eradicating poor communication.

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What is poor communication in the workplace?

Overall, good communication is the effective sharing of information, meaning, thoughts and feelings between people. When communication is effective, a communicator is able to express themselves in a comprehensible manner, and the person they are communicating with understands what they intend them to.

What causes poor communication in the workplace?

The following are some of the causes of poor communication in the workplace:

  • Unconfirmed understanding: When communicating with another person, you should ask questions to make sure that they have clearly understood you. It is important for you to check comprehension every during a conversation.
  • Poor communication skills: Written communication can cause misunderstanding because there is a lack of non-verbal cues to strengthen communication. Vagueness, multiple interpretations and improper grammar can all impede good written communication. Good written communication in the workplace is grammatically correct, unambiguous, precise and professional.
  • Lack of clear objectives: Employees need to have expectations communicated to them clearly and in detail. Objectives should be measurable and easily assessed. When employees have tangible goals, they can easily assess their performance and seek to improve when necessary.
  • Insufficient leadership: Leaders need to clearly communicate objectives, goals and future visions. Poor leaders may lack the ability or training to answer certain questions that a team may have, leading to workplace frustration. Good leaders have the self-confidence to answer questions or seek out the necessary resources when they are uncertain of the answers.
  • Fear of punishment: Employees may withhold key information from employees because they fear that their honesty could have negative consequences. When leaders have a transparent communication style and explicitly value honesty, employees will feel comfortable being vulnerable around them.
  • Gossip: When rumors start to spread it can cause people to believe inaccurate information. It is best to keep employees updated with current information to quell the spread of rumors.
  • Remote communication: In the modern world, a lot of workplace communication is occurring over the Internet through messaging software and email. Without an in-person conversation, sometimes what is being communicated can get lost in translation.

What are the effects of poor communication?

Poor communication can have lasting effects on workplace productivity and performance. Here are just some of the ways that poor communication can affect the workplace:

  • Unpredictable work environment: Poor communication can cause a lack of predictability and stability within the workplace, leading to an uneasy environment.
  • Low morale: When there is poor communication, employees may have a harder time meeting expectations and catching up when they get behind on projects. This could leave them with a sense of guilt, embarrassment or low self-esteem. Low workplace morale must be addressed immediately so that employees can maintain a healthy work-life balance.
  • Missed deadlines: When expectations are clearly communicated, deadlines are not missed, projects are not delayed and work is finished as efficiently as possible. Employees need to know what work to prioritize in order to get things done efficiently.
  • Workplace conflict: When tensions are high due to the effects of poor communication, a conflict between employees may arise. Good communication prevents workplace conflict from arising in the first place.

How to improve communication in the workplace

Follow these steps to improve communication between all your employees:

  1. Develop a straightforward onboarding process. Develop a training program with easily accessible documents and videos so employees can review them if they have any questions. Make your company culture easy to understand with clear guidelines for how employees can embody and support organizational values. Your onboarding process should be social so that employees get the chance to ask any questions and form meaningful connections.
  2. Make expectations clear and measurable. Employee expectations are measurable goals that outline steps to follow for success. Regularly meet with employees to assess their performance and give feedback.
  3. Consider using social intranet software. Social intranet software streamlines employee communications allowing for more efficient business processes. They give employees the power to share ideas and connect freely in a transparent environment.
  4. Develop an open-door policy. Sometimes employees can feel intimidated approaching their boss especially when leadership discourages such conversations. Having an open-door policy will allow your employees to feel comfortable approaching superiors. This will help clear up any confusion that may arise when executing business processes.
  5. Make sure resources and internal documents are easily accessible. Make sure that the all resources that employees need are easily available. Freely sharing information is essential to efficiently answer questions and clear up the confusion. When information is available freely, employees will not need to ask their superiors for help.
  6. Consider creating an internal newsletter. An internal company newsletter is a great way to share news and information quickly to everyone in an organization.

FAQs about poor workplace communication

Below, we answer some frequently asked questions related to the topic of poor workplace communication:

Can good communication be learned?

Though some people are naturally better communicators than others, good communication can be practiced and learned. For example, there are classes they can teach you active listening to help you to focus on conversations, understand what is said and commit information to memory. Developing a workplace communication learning program can help each employee to be a more effective communicator.

Can you measure communication in the workplace?

Soft skills such as communication can be measured and assessed. One way to easily measure how well people are communicating in the workplace is to survey your employees. Their responses will help you to identify if your core message is being transmitted effectively.

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Over-70s to bear brunt of new virus restrictions

Health Minister Stephen Donnelly and Taoiseach Micheál Martin announce the measures after a surge in cases

The country is facing a battle to stop the slide back toward lockdown after a wave of new Covid-19 restrictions were announced which will have an impact on both old and young.

Older and vulnerable people will feel the brunt of the new restrictions, but they will also hit families, young people and those involved in sport.

The new measures which were described as the "most draconian in Europe" will see family gatherings strictly limited to just six people and all outdoor gatherings limited to 15 people.

Sport can go ahead but without spectators and stringent limits on the number of people who can train before matches have been introduced.

However, restaurants and pubs that can serve food will be permitted to stay open a half an hour later until 11.30pm.

Thousands of people who have returned to their offices in recent weeks are now being told to work from home once again until at least September 13.

Shoppers wearing masks in the city centre yesterday

Shoppers wearing masks in the city centre yesterday

Shoppers wearing masks in the city centre yesterday

Public transport is also to be avoided where possible and masks should be worn by anyone travelling in a vehicle with someone who is not from their household.

Despite new rules on public transport for the majority of the population, the Government insisted schools will open and students will be free to travel on buses and trains to get to classes.

Health Minister Stephen Donnelly yesterday warned the country is at a "tipping point" and he said Ireland's rate of growth over the past two weeks is the fourth highest in Europe. Mr Donnelly announced the number of new cases yesterday was 190 while Ireland's five day average of new cases is 160 new cases per day, and rising.

"I agreed with my cabinet colleagues that we implement a number of measures to reverse the spread of Covid as outlined by the Taoiseach. We're doing this to protect public health, and protect lives," he said.

"We're doing it to protect our health services, to protect jobs, and to get our schools open and to keep them open."

There will be no further restrictions on attending mass or any other place of worship where up to 50 people can gather.

Up to 50 people can also still attend a wedding despite the National Public Health Emergency Team (Nphet) recommending that this should be significantly reduced.

Taoiseach Micheál Martin yesterday said he rejected this advice and has asked Nphet to review the recommendation they made on weddings.

Over-70s and the vulnerable are being asked to "use their judgement" and keep the number of people they meet as low as possible.

If they do meet someone they should keep a two-metre distance and stay in their company for as short a time as possible.

They are also being told avoid public transport where possible and only shop during designated hours which are safe for shopping for older people.

Acting chief medical officer Dr Ronan Glynn said older people can go on staycations, but should avoid staying in hotels.

Nphet's advice to Government was that over-70s should stay at home as much as possible but this was not highlighted when the Taoiseach announced the new measures.

Many of the new measures were aimed at stamping out house parties and unorganised gatherings. This is why no more than six people from three households will be allowed in a home and a limit of 15 people will be imposed on non-sport outdoor gatherings.

The Taoiseach said restaurant and pub opening hours had been extended to encourage people not to go to house parties and to give the hospitality industry a boost.

"The government have decided a more reasonable time for restaurants, and in particular would be 11.30pm to allow the last sitting to conclude in an orderly manner, but that would be a deadline then a timeline, that's currently not there in the mandatory sense," he said.

The Government is also drafting new enforcement powers for gardaí so they can clamp down on house parties or pubs found in breach of the new guidelines.

Mr Martin said he would examine the case of opening pubs that don't serve food before the end of the month, but could not give any commitment.

There was some concerns raised at a Cabinet meeting on the new measures.

Ministers raised issue about older people being able to go on staycations, communications around restrictions on working from home and avoiding public transport. Tánaiste Leo Varadkar criticised his Fianna Fáil colleagues for rushing through the new measures without debating them in a cabinet committee meeting with public health experts.

Several sources at the meeting said the Fine Gael leader said: "If we keep doing business like this, we won't be doing business for very long."

The Fine Gael leader was described as "furious" by one Cabinet source who said the party is "growing tired of the bad news constantly being announced under Fianna Fáil".

Frustrations have also been raised among Fine Gael ministers over the severity of the advice given by Nphet.

"You'd need a certain set of skills to deal with Nphet, because anyone who can make logic of their recommendations needs to be a genius," a minister said.

"We are implementing the most draconian restrictions in Europe," another minister said.


Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis

When to seek medical advice

What causes rheumatoid arthritis?

Who is affected

Rheumatoid arthritis affects around 400,000 people in the UK.

How rheumatoid arthritis is treated

The main treatment options include:

surgery to correct any joint problems that develop

Possible complications

Symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis mainly affects the joints, although it can cause problems in other parts of the body too.

Symptoms affecting the joints

Rheumatoid arthritis is primarily a condition that affects the joints. It can cause problems in any joint in the body, although the small joints in the hands and feet are often the first to be affected.

The main symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis affecting the joints are outlined below.

Swelling, warmth and redness

Additional symptoms

tiredness and a lack of energy

a high temperature (fever)

a poor appetite

weight loss

When to seek medical advice

You should see your GP if you think you have symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis.

There are a number of conditions that can cause problems such as joint pain and stiffness, so it's important to get a proper diagnosis.

Causes of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune condition, which means it is caused by the body’s immune system attacking itself. However, it is not yet known what triggers this.

Normally, your immune system makes antibodies that attack bacteria and viruses, helping fight infection. But if you have rheumatoid arthritis, your immune system mistakenly sends antibodies to the lining of your joints, where they attack the tissue surrounding the joint.

This inflammation in turn causes chemicals to be released that thicken the synovium and damage nearby:

cartilage – the stretchy connective tissue between bones

tendons – the tissue that connects bone to muscle

ligaments – the tissue that connects bone and cartilage

If the condition is not treated, these chemicals gradually cause the joint to lose its shape and alignment and, eventually, can destroy the joint completely.

Various theories of why the immune system starts to attack the joints have been suggested, including that an infection or virus may trigger this, but none of these theories has been proven.

Possible risk factors

There are a number of things that may increase your risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis, including:

your genes – there is some evidence that rheumatoid arthritis can run in families, although the risk of inheriting the condition is thought to be low as genes are only thought to play a small role in the condition

hormones – rheumatoid arthritis is more common in women than men, which may be due to the effects of a hormone called oestrogen that is found at higher levels in women, although this has not been conclusively proven

smoking – some evidence suggests that people who smoke are at an increased risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis


Skegness has been revealed as one of the seaside locations across the country where property prices are rising the fastest. The Lincolnshire town features on a list of locations including Brixham and Great Yarmouth where the average asking price for a property has been going up, reportedly due to factors including the coronavirus pandemic.

The data comes from the property website Rightmove, which says that the average asking price for a property in Skegness has risen by 22% since last year to £201, 976. That compares to the Canford Cliffs area of Poole in Dorset, where the average asking price has risen by 24% to £1,223,180.

Discussing the data, Rightmove says: "Since the start of the pandemic, many people have re-evaluated what they want from their next home. An easy commute to the office was often a top priority, but now many home-buyers are looking to make their 'one day' move - pursuing the dream of a morning stroll along a nearby beach, or a home with garden views and lush local countryside."

Read more: Prolific thieves steal student's handbag at Walkabout in Lincoln and try to get £50 from a cash machine

Some of the most expensive properties currently listed for sale in Skegness include a £1 million, five-bedroom house on the edge of town and a four-bed detached on Seacroft Esplanade with for £899,000. Some of the cheapest properties, meanwhile, include an apartment on Drummond Road for £40,000 and a flat on Lumley Avenue for £60,000.

Rightmove added: "Because of the growth in demand and popularity over the last couple of years, some of the most popular seaside towns are now seeing the strongest price growth. Coastal home-seekers are also quick off the mark when making an offer, with homes in seaside hotspots selling at an average of 20 days faster than this time last year."

Below is the full data showing the top ten UK seaside locations in terms of where average property asking prices are growing the fastest.

Location Average asking price Average asking price growth YoY
1. Canford Cliffs, Poole, Dorset £1,223,180 24%
2. Brixham, Devon £337,129 23%
3. Abergele, Conwy (County of) £234,613 22%
4. Skegness, Lincolnshire £201,976 22%
5. Ilfracombe, Devon £266,353 22%
6. Gorleston, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk £224,066 21%
7. Burnham-On-Sea, Somerset £298,938 20%
8. Paignton, Devon £286,188 20%
9. Dawlish, Devon £296,286 19%
10. Ryde, Isle Of Wight £292,003 18%


• Jessica Chrystal

What Is Music Therapy & Will My Child Benefit?

Let us put ourselves in the shoes of an Autistic child. One who struggles with the daily exhaustion of socialising. A child who feels overwhelmed by walking into a classroom due to sensory overload. A child who uses their ritualised and patterned behaviour to help calm their nerves and anxiety. A child who feels intense emotions, but cannot find the language to express how she or he feels.

What if we can help them find another form of language? A creative outlet that helps them work through their pain. A way to help them communicate with others and a way in which they can express their inner most thoughts and feelings. What if the universal language of music can be their newfound strength?!

I am sure we can all attest to the power of music. A song has the potential to take us back to a significant time in our life; it has the potential to uplift us, to make us feel happy and calm; to make us want to cry into our pillows or to make us want to scream and shout. Music is all about ‘the feels’. But there is something about music that not many of us know…Music is actually a form of therapy!

Music Therapy, which is facilitated by a Registered Music Therapist (RMT), incorporates a wide range of music-based interventions to help individuals develop & achieve personal goals. RMT’s are evidenced based practitioners who can support people of all ages and abilities; from Autistic children struggling with social communication and interaction, to teens struggling with anxiety and depression; from neonates and mothers struggling to bond and form a secure attachment with their infant child, to elderly patients suffering from dementia.

So what is the difference between a Music Teacher and a Music Therapist? Whilst Music teaching aims to teach & improve on musical skills, Music Therapy uses music as a tool for growth, healing & self-expression. It is more focused on health, function and well-being.

Music therapy can provide children and adolescents with an opportunity to;

  • Express themselves (through music creation and writing with the music therapist)

  • Improve or maintain self-esteem and a sense of autonomy (adolescents can play an active role in selecting songs and helping create the program)

  • Reduce irritability or anxiety (through use of live music and the addition of relaxation techniques)

  • Identify personal strengths

  • Stimulate development (in combination with cognitive, social and physical activities)

  • Interact or participate socially

  • Improve family bonding

  • Feel less isolated if they are experiencing long term illness

  • Interact and express themselves if they are physically impaired

  • Express themselves if they have experienced trauma

So...for some individuals it may be beneficial to consider the use of music as a form of therapy! By immersing people in the beauty of music and tapping into our primal source of rhythm, music therapists can support us in feeling more connected to others, they can help us more easily express ourselves, identify and process difficult emotions and simply feel a sense of emotional release.

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AIOU 840 Educational Psychology Assignment Spring 2021

Q1. Distinguish between primary and secondary needs.

American man of science Henry Murray developed a theory of temperament that was organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs. Murray delineated  desires as a "potentiality or readiness to retort in an exceedingly bound manner beneath bound given circumstances."

Murray's styles of desires

Theories of temperament supported desires and motives recommend that our personalities area unit a mirrored image of behaviours controlled by desires. whereas some desires area unit temporary and dynamic , alternative desires area unit additional deeply sitting in our nature.

According to Murray, these mental desires perform totally on the unconscious level however play a serious role in our temperament. Murray known desires in concert of 2 types:

Primary desires: Primary desires area unit basic needs that area unit primarily based upon biological demands, like the requirement for element, food, and water.

Secondary desires: Secondary needs area unit usually psychological, like the requirement for nurturing, independence, and accomplishment. whereas these desires won't be basic for basic survival, they're essential for psychological well-being.

Psychogenic desires

The following could be a partial list of twenty four desires known by Murray and his colleagues. in step with Murray, all folks have these desires, however every individual tends to possess an explicit level of every want.1 every person's distinctive levels of desires play a task in shaping their individual temperament.

Each want is very important in and of itself, however Murray conjointly believed that desires will be reticulated, support alternative desires, and conflict with alternative desires. as an example, the requirement for dominance could conflict with the requirement for affiliation once to a fault dominant behaviour drives away friends, family, and romantic partners.

Murray conjointly believed that environmental factors play a task in however these mental desires area unit displayed in behaviour. Murray known as these environmental forces "presses."

Ambition desires

Ambition desires area unit associated with the requirement for accomplishment and recognition. the requirement for accomplishment is usually expressed by succeeding, achieving goals, and overcoming obstacles. the requirement for recognition is met by gaining social rank and displaying achievements. typically the ambition desires even involve a necessity for exhibition, or the need to shock and thrill people.

Materialistic desires

The materialistic desires center on the acquisition, construction, order, and retention. These desires typically involve getting things, like shopping for material objects that we tend to want. In alternative instances, these desires compel North American nation to form new things. getting and making things area unit a vital a part of the materialistic desires, however keeping objects and organizing them is additionally necessary.

Power desires

The power desires tend to center on our own independence in addition as our have to be compelled to management others. Murray believed that autonomy was a strong want involving the need for independence and resistance.

Other key power desires that he known embody abasement (confessing and apologizing), aggression (attacking or ridiculing others), blame turning away (following the principles and avoiding blame), deference (obeying and cooperating with others), and dominance (controlling others).

Affection desires

The affection desires area unit focused on our want to like and be fair-haired. we've a necessity for affiliation and hunt down the corporate of people. Nurturance, or taking care of people, is additionally necessary for psychological well-being. the requirement for succorance involves being helped or protected by others. Murray conjointly recommended that play and having fun with people was conjointly a vital warm heartedness want.

While most of the love desires a middle on building relationships and connections, Murray conjointly recognized that rejection might even be a necessity. Sometimes, turning folks away is a vital a part of maintaining mental upbeat. Unhealthy relationships will be a serious impairment to somebody's well-being, thus typically knowing once to run away will be necessary.

Information desires

The information desires focus on each gaining information and sharing it with others. in step with Murray, folks have associate degree innate have to be compelled to learn additional concerning the planet around them. He stated cognizance because the have to be compelled to ask for information and raise queries.

In addition to gaining information, he conjointly believed that individuals have a necessity for what he stated as exposition. Exposition is that the want to share what they need learned with people.

Q2. Explain Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. What are its applications in learning? How are some typical problems in learning explained by it?

Skinner, Associate in Nursing man of science was the pro-pounder of this theory. it's the idea of connectionism. To Skinner the essential unit of behavior is S.R. Connection. Learning is forming of bonds (connections) between S (Stimulus) and R (Response).

This S-R association depends on recently, frequency, intensity and vividness of the experiences, capability and readiness of the learner. These bond connections area unit shaped through Trial and Error.

It suggests that one learns by creating trials, creating errors or mistakes throughout the trials and creating any trials, eliminating the incorrect responses. thus learning takes place, slowly by the method of trial and error. so as to learning one thing a learner makes many trials wherever some responses don't offer satisfactory results, however he goes on creating any trials until he gets satisfactory responses.

A hungry cat of twenty four hours was placed within a Puzzle box or cage. wherever a liver was connected to open the door. A fish was placed outside the box. Seeing the sight of fish the cat created many trials in-side the cat so as to induce the fish.

After creating many jumping or trials her leg was placed on the liver. because it is connected by liver that helped the cat to open the door. The door was opened and also the cat came to outside and Ate the fish. once more a similar cat was place within the cage that was twenty four hours hungry on consecutive day. She took less time and place the leg on the liver and door was opened.

Then he came out and Ate the fish. once doing one once at some point then the cat at intervals no moment he place his leg on the liver and also the door was opened. He came out suddenly and Ate the fish. this is often his learning that is formed unproved  and error technique.

On the idea of the information gathered by him from his experiments on the educational of animals developed sure laws of learning. Skinner has highlighted 3 necessary laws of learning.

 (i) Law of Readiness

(ii) Law of Exercises

(iii) Law of result

(i) Law of Readiness:

It emphasizes on readiness to be told. The law of readiness states that “When any conductivity unit isn't in readiness to conduct, for it to conduct is annoying. once any conductivity unit is in readiness to conduct for it to not do thus is annoying.

On the opposite hand it suggests that, once a learner is prepared to induce (learn) he will learn quickly and effectively. this means that the learner should be mentally ready to be told. Readiness suggests that readiness each physical and psychological.

Physical readiness is closely associated with the physical growth and sound health free from diseases. Psychological readiness refers to the interest, zeal, inclination, enthusiasm and temperament to be told.

Readiness depends on 3 main factors such as:

(a) Maturation

(b) Experiences—training or previous learning and

(c) Favorable physical, psychological and environmental components contributing for learning.

Educational implication:

The law of readiness contains a variety of academic implications:

a. Curriculum, program area unit to be ready as per the learner’s age, ability, and normal.

b. acceptable strategies of teaching area unit elite material to the mental maturity of the scholars.

c. Teacher should use audio-visual aids in teaching learning once learners area unit able to learn.

d. academics and oldsters shouldn't be over ambitious; rather they ought to wait until the kid becomes able to learn.

e. Teacher is to encourage the kid before beginning this teaching work.

f. Learners ought to be engaged in info activities observant their readiness and curiosity for brand new things.

(ii) Law of Exercise:

Law of exercise tells that learning takes place by doing or by actively taking part or by elbow grease any work. In actual follow a person learns once he will and one doesn't learn, if he doesn't do. Learning is permanent. once one will drill, follow or repeat through exercise This law is split into 2 elements like law of use and law of neglect.

Law of use:

It is known as law of follow. this offers stress on follow that makes a person excellent. this is often related to intensity and recently.

Law of disuse:

When a factor isn't continual or practiced over a protracted time it's slowly forgotten as a result of the strength of the association between S and R decreases. it's negative price of lack of follow.

Educational implications:

a. This law creates interest with pleasant result among the scholars.

b. issues associated with behaviour is resolved simply by this law.

b. It offers reward and penalty.

d. Undesirable behaviour or angle is removed by associating with this law.

e. Students from sensible habits once obtaining reward and penalty.

f. It makes learning practical and permanent.

g. Learning is simpler through drill, repetition, review, discussion, follow revision etc.

h. Forgetting is diluted.

i. dangerous habits is removed.

(iii) Law of Effect:

As per the read of Skinner law of result is “When modifiable association is formed between a state of affairs Associate in Nursing a response and is accompanied  or followed by a satisfying state of affairs the strength of association is enlarged and once such a association is formed and accompanied  or followed by an annoying state of affairs its strength is shrunken.”

This law says that if our efforts area unit in the middle of a sense of achievements or satisfaction, we tend to area unit any galvanized to be told and so, effective learning takes place. If our efforts don't seem to be in the middle of a sense of satisfaction, not abundant of real learning can present itself.

In different words it's aforementioned that a response {which offers which provides which supplies} action of the goal can give pleasure and so provides satisfaction, are going to be sealed in, whereas those that area unit in the middle of discontentment are going to be sealed out. This law has a very important concerning learning.

Educational implications:

a. the educational state of affairs provided by the teacher is pleasant.

b. It creates college activities fascinating.

c. every follow will certainly offers result.

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5 inspiring movies to watch as a family

May 27, 2022

If you love movies, here are some great recommendations to watch with your family and friends.

Whether at the cinema or at home, watching movies is an activity enjoyed by young and old alike. Don’t miss this selection of 5 inspiring movies that not only guarantee entertainment, but also leave important messages to reflect on as a family.

1. The Cabin

It was released in theaters in 2017 and became a boom on Netflix at the end of 2020. The film The Cabin is by British director Stuart Hazeldine and is based on William Paul Young’s bestseller of the same name. The formula of this family drama focuses on the need to understand fate and additionally provides large doses of hope.

The film’s plot revolves around the story of a man who, after overcoming a difficult childhood with an alcoholic father, manages to build a beautiful family. However, his tranquility is altered by a terrible tragedy, the disappearance of his young daughter while she was in his care on a picnic.

In the end, the protagonist lives a profound learning experience full of sobering messages for the viewers. Acceptance, forgiveness and faith are elements that come to the fore in this powerful film. One of the lessons learned from this story is that we all have the capacity to heal from strong emotional wounds and move forward, even with the power to help others.

2. Today, yes

Between the day-to-day routine and the responsibility of parents to be guides and protectors of their children, life can become tense for the whole family. In the film Hoy sí , producer and star Jennifer Garner recreates the children’s book written by Amy Krouse Rosenthal and Tom Licktenheld, along with Venezuelan actor Edgar Ramírez.

It is an entertaining comedy that recounts the amusing experiences of a family who relinquishes control to their children for 24 hours. Tired of having said no a thousand times, they all decide to say yes to the proposals of the younger ones.  Although it is clear that they must take into account some basic rules such as not breaking the law and not disturbing the neighbors.

In any case, this film, beyond being fun, shows a family looking for alternatives to regain balance. Giving value to each member, considering their opinions and needs through communication, are some messages of Yes day. But, above all, the parents end up learning to work as a team and the children end up understanding that they are their greatest support.

3. Encanto

In November 2021 Disney released its production Encanto to the world. This animated film with shades of magical realism is inspired by Colombian culture and geography.  Spectacular images and a stunning soundtrack accompany a story with lessons for young and old.

The plot takes place in the home of a particular family where each member possesses an extraordinary ability. The powers of each one fills their relatives with pride and put them at the service of the community. The point is that there is a character lacking magical gifts, precisely the protagonist.

Among the themes touched upon in Encanto is that it is not necessary to have exceptional abilities to feel special. Each family member is unique, authentic and perfect just as he or she is, there is no need to look like someone else or try to be something different. On the other hand, the invitation to adults is to accept, respect and value people without belittling them or trying to change them.

4. The Mole Agent

If we are talking about Latin movies, the Chilean production El agente topo  is an excellent option for young and old. It is probably the most emotional spy story you will ever see on screen. Drama and comedy come together to reflect a harsh reality that many prefer not to pay attention to.

What starts as an interesting adventure for an 83 year old widower, ends up showing the not so rosy side of the elderly. It all starts when the protagonist accepts a job as a spy in an old people’s home.  Funny events occur as he learns to use electronic devices and tries to comply with his boss’s instructions.

The story takes a turn as the theme of espionage becomes less important and more about the needs of the elderly. The intention of this film is to raise awareness about how important it is to be present in the lives of grandparents.

5. Avengers Endgame

In 2019 the Marvel Universe unveiled the last of its four Avengers films. Avengers Endgame became at the time the highest grossing film of all time. Undoubtedly, it is a perfect combination of action and superheroes for the entertainment of the whole family, although it must be considered that its content may be intense for children under 13 years old.

In Avengers Endgame, the Avengers are committed to restoring order to the universe after a devastating battle. Values and principles such as love for one’s fellow man, friendship, perseverance, loyalty and teamwork come to the fore in this installment. In addition, the brave characters must deal with the loss of loved ones and make sacrifices for those they love.

In short, enjoying movies is a great opportunity to spend pleasant moments of relaxation and at the same time enjoy together an activity that everyone enjoys. Even better is to use the conversations that arise at the end to extract lessons that help build, improve or strengthen healthy families.

What did you think of this list of movies? If you have other recommendations, share them on our social networks.


How accurate is new COVID-19 breath test? Feds say it can detect virus in 3 minutes

A breath test that can detect COVID-19 in three minutes was granted emergency use authorization in the U.S., according to the Food and Drug Administration.

The InspectIR COVID-19 Breathalyzer was authorized by the FDA on Thursday, making it the first breath test approved for the coronavirus.


Mission Do Garmi

Mission DO Garmi

“Spread the warmth”

Mission Do Garmi is an initiative to show our love and support to people living on streets in harsh winters by donating the warm clothes in tri-city area(Chandigarh, Mohali, and Panchkula).We aim to contribute towards a better society by "Spreading the warmth" with a goal to collect surplus clothes from you and donating it to the needy to put a smile on their faces and make their winters cozy.

What Can You Do?

Make your contribution by handing over your spare warm clothes to our volunteers which will further be distributed to the slums of Tri-City area.

What can you give?

Donate in 4 simple steps

Pack the clothes in a recyclable plastic bag.

Mention the size and gender on the bag with a marker.

Donate by giving your packed clothes to our volunteers.

Fill out an online form to receive updates and pictures from the drive.

Contact us


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OSHA Releases Emergency Temporary Standard (ETS) Regarding COVID-19 Vaccination Mandate

On November 4, 2021, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) released its highly anticipated emergency temporary standard (ETS) requiring businesses with at least 100 employees to mandate that their employees get vaccinated against the coronavirus or wear a mask and test for COVID-19 on at least a weekly basis.

Additionally, the White House announced the following details in a Fact Sheet:

  • All unvaccinated workers must begin wearing masks by Dec. 5 and provide a negative COVID-19 test on a weekly basis beginning Jan. 4.
  • The deadline for federal contractors to comply has been pushed back to Jan. 4.

The standard does not apply to workplaces covered under the Safer Federal Workforce Task Force COVID-19 Workplace Safety: Guidance for Federal Contractors and Subcontractors or in settings where employees provide healthcare services or healthcare support services subject to the requirements of the Healthcare ETS. The standard also does not apply to employees who work remotely or employees who work exclusively outdoors.

Step 1. Determine Employer Coverage

All private employers with 100 or more employees will be subject to the federal ETS or a state standard that meets or exceeds the requirements of the standard. The 100-employee threshold is based upon a companywide headcount rather than the number of employees at a particular worksite.

Step 2. Survey Current Employees on Vaccination Status

Understanding how many unvaccinated workers an employer has will help inform the best compliance approach for the organization. For example, an employer with only 10 unvaccinated workers might allow those employees to choose either vaccination or weekly testing, whereas a company with 100 unvaccinated workers may find the logistics of collecting weekly testing documentation too difficult, and therefore decide not to offer the testing option.

Step 3. Research Testing

Whether an employer will offer the option of weekly testing to unvaccinated workers or only use testing as a religious or disability accommodation, understanding the logistics of testing should be reviewed before determining the employer’s compliance approach.

Questions to consider:

  • Are there testing locations near the workplace? What are their hours and procedures for testing? How long does it take to get testing results there? Contact these locations to determine which vaccines they offer and what their capacity is for handling your employee testing.
  • Is onsite testing a more convenient option?
  • Which test will the employer accept?

Home testing kits are widely available at pharmacies and online, some with mail-in options for results (PCR), while others give results in about 15 minutes (rapid antigen test). The ETS allows for the use of OTC self-tests that are observed by employers or authorized telehealth providers. Self-administered and self-read rapid tests are not acceptable under the ETS.

The ETS does not require employers to pay for any costs associated with testing. However, employers should consider the following:

  • Are there current state laws that would require employers to pay for employment-related costs? For example, states that require the reimbursement to employees for necessary business expenses would apply here.
  • What are the projected costs for both the employee and employer for testing? Contact local suppliers to compare pricing, including organizations providing onsite testing services. The IRS has stated that in-home tests would be reimbursable under flexible benefits plans such as flexible spending accounts and health savings accounts, which may help employees manage costs.
  • Will the cost of testing, if paid for by the employee, bring the employee’s weekly pay below minimum wage? Both the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and some state laws would not allow this.
  • Will an employer’s budget allow for employer-paid testing for as long as the ETS is in place (which would be six months to start, then it could be extended for another six months or made a permanent standard)? Or is mandatory vaccination, which is free, the better option?

STEP 4. Consider Paid-Time Off Requirements

For employers who include a testing option for unvaccinated workers, the time spent obtaining a COVID-19 test may be considered hours worked depending on the circumstances, such as directing employees to use a specific provider at specific times. Employers may also be able to require the use of PTO for workers who are unable to get tested outside of work hours. This would not be a popular option from a worker’s perspective but could potentially induce them to choose vaccination over weekly testing.

STEP 5. Address Remote Worker Requirements

If an employer has remote workers who will never come into the office, employers may also be able to use remote work as an option for unvaccinated workers.

An employer may choose to consider a full-time remote-work option, determine how many employees this would apply to, what the employee-eligibility requirements would be, what the associated costs with long-term telecommuting might be and any other data meaningful to the company.

STEP 6. Determine a Compliance Approach and Create a Written Policy

Under the ETS, an employer must establish, implement and enforce a written mandatory vaccination policy which requires the following:

  • All new and existing employees to be fully vaccinate other than employees with medical contraindications, for whom medical necessity requires a delay in vaccination, or who are legally entitled to a reasonable accommodation (disability or sincerely held religious belief).

OR an employer must establish, implement and enforce a written vaccination policy permitting each employee to choose between vaccination or providing proof of regular testing and wearing a face covering.

  • COVID-19 Vaccination, Testing and Face Covering Policy Template
  • Large Employer COVID-19 Vaccination Policy
  • Mandatory Vaccination Policy Template

STEP 7. Develop Employee Communications

Start developing employee communications now. Consider sending a memo to employees that explains the requirements of the ETS and how the ETS impacts current company policies and procedures.

Communicate ahead of time where employees can go to get vaccines near the workplace, or how to find a location near their homes, and keep this information easily accessible. Detail whether or not employees must seek testing outside of work hours.

Resources and References

  1. Emergency Temporary Standard (ETS):
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  2. ETS Fact Sheet:
    opens in a new window
  3. OSHA Webinar on ETS:
    opens in a new window
  4. IR-2021-181 (At-Home Covid-19 Tests Reimbursable):
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iPad generation sees huge rise in back and neck pain

Nearly half of young people are suffering from neck or back pain because of the ‘sedentery epidemic’ and the rise in laptop technology.

Increasing numbers of under 30s are seeking chiropractic help because they are spending up to 10 hours a day sitting down, often behind screens.

The number of 16 to 24-year-olds who now say they suffer from back and neck pain has risen from 28 per cent to 45 per cent within a year, a 60 per cent rise. Almost one quarter said they suffered on a daily basis.

We're seeing a rise in the number of people experiencing back and neck related problems because our modern lifestyle is forcing us to stay seated and I'm concerned that the number of patients under the age of 30 coming through our doors is increasing.

Many people are completely unaware that staying in the same position can cause unnecessary strain on the back.

Whether at your desk, on your tablet or sitting watching TV, it's really important to take regular breaks to relieve the build-up of tension in your lower back. Sitting causes up to twice as much pressure on discs on the spine as standing so, we're vulnerable. Your back is always hard at work - even when you think you're relaxing.

Three out of five (59 per cent) saying they spend most of their working day sitting, people need to become more aware of how to look after themselves properly.

We advise sitting up straight, taking desk breaks every 30 minutes, stretching frequently and staying hydrated.

For people using computers, they should ensure that the top of their screen is in level with their eyebrows and keep the chair tipped slightly forward so that the knees are slightly higher than the hips.

All the evidence points towards the fact that inactivity has a negative impact on the health or our joints and muscles, In a recent study, researchers compared the impact of sitting and walking for various amounts of time with standing up at frequent intervals, and saw the biggest impact on bone and joint health in the group who stood up regularly, highlighting the fact that it is regular movement that is the key.

A session at the gym doesn’t make up for a day of sitting down for long periods of time in the office or in the sofa. So it’s really important that people of all ages keep moving, and take breaks when they’re sitting at the computer or bent over their mobile device or laptop