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Sweelink’s Impact

John Scott’s recital, the third in Boston Early Music Festival’s day-long Mini-Organ Festival, featured composers from North Germany who were influenced by the Netherlands organist Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck: Jacob Praetorius, Heinrich Scheidemann, Samuel Scheidt, Melchior Schildt, and “rounding the afternoon off with the towering figure of Dietrich Buxtehude.” The concert by Scott, the understandably returning performer for BEMF, was superb, but so was his pre-concert mini-lecture. At our request, it is offered here, as an example of the scholarship so present at BEMF. See related review here.                   Bettina A. Norton

The overwhelming and far-reaching influence of Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck is everywhere apparent. His historical significance would be assured even if not a note of his music had survived, for he represents the highest development of the Dutch keyboard school and indeed was a pinnacle in keyboard contrapuntal complexity and refinement before J.S. Bach. Sweelinck was the teacher of some of the most important German composers of the early 17th century. This concert focused on the impact that Sweelinck’s compositions and teaching had on the next generation of North German organists—particularly Samuel Scheidt, Heinrich Scheidemann, and Jacob Praetorius.

Some of Sweelinck’s innovations were of profound musical importance, including the Fantasia. His examples begin simply, in fugal style with one subject, successively adding texture and complexity until a final climax and resolution, an idea which was perfected at the end of the Baroque era by Bach. Stylistically Sweelinck’s music also brings together the richness, complexity, and spatial sense of Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli‘s emerging Italian keyboard styles, and the figuration, motivic idioms, and ornamentation of the English virginalist school. Sweelinck’s fame as a teacher was very widespread—in Germany he was known as the “maker of organists”; his reputation matched those of the instruments themselves. It was his work in the field of cantus firmus elaboration that was to have the most significant effect on the contemporary German composers. In this concert, I concentrated primarily on the music of Jacob Praetorius, Heinrich Scheidemann, Samuel Scheidt, Melchior Schildt and rounding the afternoon off with the towering figure of Dietrich Buxtehude.

During the Middle Ages, the major trade cities of northern Europe had an alliance, the Hanseatic League, which was the leading commercial power for several centuries. With Hamburg and Lübeck at the core, the Hanse cities developed an economic prosperity and a blooming culture that also generated an unusually rich period of musical performance and instrument building. Sea travel and trade created the favorable economic conditions, and due to clever politics and because of their strategic geographical location, many of these cities survived the ravages and turmoil of wars and plagues. Skilled artists, craftsmen, musicians, and instrument builders fled from the strife in the west and south to security inside the city walls.

At the same time, the organ became a central symbol of a city’s prosperity and an inspiration for ongoing creativity with new designs and rich decorations. In every case, the organs represented the zenith of architecture, music, mechanics, mathematics, art, and handcraft. Therefore, everyone, regardless of rank or class, could enjoy sonorous artwork. They all listened to organ music, but only a few knew what went on behind the mighty façade. For musicians, the organ was the most prominent and visible instrument to be found. Organists demonstrated their musical positions and power through their playing. Sweelinck’s daily recitals at the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam reputedly drew hundreds of listeners: such was the magnetic power of his musical personality, and not for nothing was Sweelinck known as the “Orpheus of Amsterdam” in his own lifetime.

My program began with the brief Praeambulum in D Minor by Heinrich Scheidemann; it is an example of a brief liturgical extemporization perhaps played before a vocal piece to establish the mode. The style is graceful and elegant, with a restrained gravitas. Scheidemann was based in Hamburg as organist at the Katharinenkirche, a position which he held for more than 30 years, until his death in in early 1663. He exemplifies one of the most remarkable tales of musical resurrections in the field of early North German organ music: he was long considered a minor master overshadowed by his teacher, Sweelinck, or his contemporary, Samuel Scheidt, but the discovery of the so-called Zellerfeld tablatures in 1955 and 1960 raised his reputation as one of the most significant and prolific composers of the first half of the 17th century equaled only by Buxtehude in the second half.

This piece was followed with the hymn “Vexilla Regis” by Hieronymus Praetorius. The earliest sources of music from the North German organ school date from around the turn of the 17th century. Most of the repertoire in the main sources, such as the Celle and Visby tablatures, is anonymous, but the first major figure to emerge is Hieronymus Praetorius, organist of the Jacobikirche in Hamburg. The style of this period has rightly been called “monumental”; four- and five-part prima prattica textures are built around a slow-moving cantus firmus in motet style, the harmony enriched with passing notes and figuration. Hieronymus Praetorius’s setting of the two verses of “Vexilla Regis” demonstrates that there was already a flourishing school of organ composition in the early 17th century, even before the work of the Sweelinck-influenced composers took root.

Scheidemann’s Canzona in F probably forms one of the earliest manifestations in the North German school of the new, Italian/South German influence of the seconda prattica after the manner of Frescobaldi and Froberger. It is a variation canzona in three sections in which the subject, containing the typically North German repeated-note figure, is used in varied forms. The middle section is in a charming triple meter. Its masterful polyphony is brought to a climax in the third section, based on a double theme, the counterpoint of which dissolves into a virtuosic coda. The infiltration of the canzona form into North German organ music is of great historical significance, for its underlying structural principles were to lay the foundation for the multi-sectional Praeludia and other free-form works of Tunder, Weckmann, Buxtehude, Bruhns, Lübeck, and others.

Scheidemann’s colleague Jacob Praetorius, the son of Hieronymus, was from 1603 on organist at the Petrikirche in Hamburg. His most important pupil, Matthias Weckmann, studied with him from 1633 to 1636 and later joined him in Hamburg as organist at the Jakobikirche. Jacob Praetorius enjoyed a great reputation as a teacher and organist; even during his lifetime, he already was compared to his colleague Heinrich Scheidemann, organist at the Katharinenkirche, and the other great Hamburg student of Sweelinck. In his chronicle of organists (1702-1718), Johann Kortkamp wrote of Praetorius that he was “esteemed by all people of high and low class. From his youth, he has acquired a special method in church music style, playing with majesty and devotion, and he was capable of animating people’s hearts to listen to the sermon.”

These two, Praetorius and Scheidemann, were taught by one master, and they had daily contact with each other; the inclinations of their personal temperaments, however, were not at all the same. Praetorius always assumed a quite grave and somewhat odd manner; he took on the refined ways of his teacher and loved the highest degree of pleasantness in everything that he did, as is usual with the Dutch. Scheidemann, on the other hand, was more friendly and genial; he mixed with everyone freely and joyfully, and did not make much of himself. His playing was just that way: nimble with the hand, spirited and cheerful, well grounded in composition, but mostly only as far as the limits of the organ would reach. His compositions were easily playable. Praetorius’s works were more difficult to play and showed more work, in which he had the advantage above all others.

The composition, seven variations on “Vater unser,” by Jacob Praetorius perhaps finds its origins in improvisation, as that was the main skill expected from an organist. Its seven parts correspond to the seven stanzas of the hymn. The first and last are extended settings of the chorale that reflect the motet style (stile antico) of the 16th century. The remaining variations contain a multitude of idioms, together with a sense of adventure that allows him to write a chromatic passage in the third verse that could only be played on an instrument with extra notes providing sub-semitones. Here is more evidence of the assimilation of seconda prattica. The glorious Sesquialtera registration on this instrument makes an appearance in the sixth verse.

Samuel Scheidt was born in Halle, in Saxony, East Germany, and after early studies there, he went to Amsterdam to study with Sweelinck. He spent most of his working life in Halle, as court organist and then later Kapellmeister to the Margrave of Brandenburg, and eventually as Director of Music at the Marktkirche in Halle. Scheidt was the first internationally significant German composer for the organ, and his Tabulatura Nova of 1624 was a landmark in its own time, not least because of the ‘new’ notation – five line staves in open score, as opposed to the more typical letter tablature. His Bergamasca variations are based on the secular dance-tune which originated in the northern Italian city of Bergamo. Scheidt’s 22 variations are remarkable for the lively, decorative figuration, the chains of thirds and sixths, and the humorous repeated-note figuration, in imitation of the organ’s tremulant stop.

The Magnificat VIII tone by Scheidemann is unusual in that the other eight settings of Magnificat by him are all cast in four movements, intended to be played at Vespers between the sung plainchant, in alternim fashion. The alternative setting of the eighth tone Magnificat is cast as a single, continuous work, in the form of an extended chorale fantasia. The chant material is never far from the surface of the music by means of motivic development, and Scheidemann also makes much use of echo effects by the sudden alternation of manuals – a further element of the “new style” as found in Monteverdi’s “stile concitato.” The work allows the player a great opportunity to explore a colorful, kaleidoscopic registration scheme.

Melchior Schildt, another Sweelinck pupil, was also virtually unknown until the discovery of the aforementioned Zellerfeld tablatures in 1955. Schildt was born in Hanover, and after his studies in Amsterdam he held appointments in Wolfenbüttel and Copenhagen before returning to Hanover to be organist of the Marktkirche. The surviving records from Schildt’s lifetime portray him as eccentric and strong-willed; a man of robust temperament. As tradition has it, he became involved in a fistfight with the organ builder Fritzsche when the building of the new Wolfenbüttel organ did not progress as swiftly as Schildt would have liked. Also, in his will, he stipulated that his son should not enter the music profession: “I absolutely forbid that he learn any musical instrument, whether it be lute, violin, flute or clavichord, or anything else of the kind, because those who do are markedly held back in their studies at university, and also adopt a wild and dissolute life, and are set behind in their studies or even abandon them completely.”

His set of five variations on the Advent hymn “Herr Christ der ein’ge Gottes Sohn” is beautifully crafted, after the manner of Sweelinck with a particularly lively and brilliant third verse, played today on a plenum registration.

Dietrich Buxtehude and four works that followed are representative of the differing styles of organ composition with which he has enriched our repertoire. Buxtehude came from Denmark in 1668 to the imperial free city of Lübeck, where, as Organist of the Marienkirche for some 40 years, his reputation rested on his prowess as a performer and composer for the organ. Handel and Bach were among the young organists who came to listen and learn from him; but none of his organ music was published during his lifetime, and there are few surviving autograph manuscripts of his music and none for his organ music at all. It’s a miracle, in one sense, that any of his music has survived.

Buxtehude’s Passacaglia in D minor is constructed in a distinctive and unusual form: the repeated four-measure ostinato is developed over 28 variations which fall into four symmetrical groups of seven each, in different keys: D minor, F major, A minor, and D minor. In an intriguing musicological study some years ago, the Dutch organist Piet Kee suggested that this structure perhaps represents the four phases of the moon—a suggestion which might seem a little quirky to 21st-century minds but was quite in keeping with 17th-century modes of thought. Indeed, one of the glories of the Marienkirche was an intricate astronomical clock in the ambulatory behind the High Altar. At its center was a planetarium in which the sun pointed to the correct time, the moon showed its phase, and the movements of the planets were displayed. We know that Buxtehude wrote a series of harpsichord suites inspired by the different characters of the planets; the music of these suites is now lost, unfortunately, but the Passacaglia has survived and was greatly admired by no less a figure than Johannes Brahms, and in this context we should bear in mind the last movement of his 4th Symphony.

The next work was a transparent little Canzonetta in G—a combination of fugal study and finger exercise; the delicate, bouncing subject is remolded in the second part of the piece into the dancing rhythm of a gigue.

James Scott plays FLC Fowkes (Toni NoOrton photo)
James Scott plays FLC Fowkes (Toni Norton photo)

If a work like this presents the composer at his most playful, then the chorale prelude on ‘Vater unser’ that followed shows him at his most prayerful. This is Buxtehude, the sober and restrained liturgical organist; and his beautiful setting presents the melody in a lightly ornamented form in the soprano part, above a three-voice imitative accompaniment. In his vocally inspired monadic elaboration of the chorales, Buxtehude can be seen as the crucial stylistic link between Scheidemann and Bach.

The recital ended with one of the great Praeludia which established Buxtehude’s reputation as one of the finest organists of his day. The G minor Praeludium is a worthy companion to the better-known work in the same key. It is one of Buxtehude’s most tightly constructed and masterly works. The opening prelude, through its rapid passagework over long and sustained pedal notes, suggests something of the improvisatory bravura of the performer. This is followed by a brief imitative development of a chromatic motif leading to two contrasting fugues. The first, in common time, is characterized by Buxtehude’s favorite device of repeated eighth notes, including a prominent interval of a diminished seventh, and the second, in 3/2 time, maintains a regular rhythm of flowing conjunct quarter notes. After this, the work concludes, not like most of these works, with a freely composed improvisatory toccata, but instead with a climactic and inexorable ostinato—two pages of brilliant figuration that unfolds above and around 14 repetitions of an eight-note ground-base.

Organist John Scott has performed on five continents and alongside some of the most prestigious artists and ensembles. He is the Organist and Director of Music at New York City’s St. Thomas Church after serving in the same role for 24 years at London’s St. Paul Cathedral.

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Social Security Disability Housing Assistance

There are many obstacles to housing for people with disabilities. Many disabled people are at risk of institutionalization or destitution in the absence of affordable, accessible housing in the community.

Disabled people who rely solely on Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) benefits without additional income may have trouble affording housing or rent. SSDI recipients are frequently unable to afford the rental market in the United States due to their low income, unless they have another source of livelihood.

Special Homes For Disabled Are Often More Expensive

Complicating matters, disabled people typically require housing that is specifically tailored to their needs. They frequently require purpose-built housing, which may include handrails in bathrooms and showers, wheelchair-accessible kitchens, and other features that cater to their limitations.

Finding housing with even basic accessibility features can be difficult, if not impossible or unaffordable, for people who use mobility devices. As a result, accessible housing for the disabled is commonly more expensive due to these accommodations and requirements.

Does The SSA Offer Disability Housing Assistance?

Numerous people become homeless or are at risk of becoming homeless while their disability claim is being processed. With this in mind, one might inquire whether the Social Security Administration (SSA) provides disability housing assistance to its beneficiaries.

Regardless of the type of disability benefits you receive, the agency does not provide housing or rent assistance. Fortunately, the federal government offers housing assistance programs.

Programs That Provide Affordable Housing to Disabled Americans

Numerous federal, state, and local housing programs can assist you in locating and affording a home, adapting an existing home to accommodate disabilities, or developing the skills necessary to live independently. Each program has its own set of criteria for eligibility and application.

United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

Also known as Supportive Housing for Persons With Disabilities, Section 8 housing vouchers are administered by HUD. Section 811 enables individuals with disabilities to live independently in their communities by subsidizing rental housing opportunities that include appropriate supportive services.

It entails residents paying a portion of their rent, which is typically 30%. Local public housing authorities (PHAs) determine who receives priority for vouchers, but regardless of your location, the wait time can be long and complex.

National Housing Trust Fund

The National Housing Trust Fund helps non-elderly and low-income destitute families maintain decent housing. It is a continuous fund with a 10% allocation for rental housing. Housing assistance frequently includes assistance with other basic expenses, such as utilities, provided by the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program.

The majority of funds are used to maintain rental properties, but 10% are used to assist the poor, non-elderly, disabled, and first-time home buyers. The funds are distributed by the states through for-profit and not-for-profit organizations that adhere to the ACT's guidelines.

Individuals with disabilities prefer to live in their communities rather than in institutional settings such as care homes or mental health facilities, which are more isolating. However, housing that is safe, stable, and affordable continues to be out of reach for millions of disabled people and their families, compromising their access to health care.

Bear in mind that you are also protected under the Federal Fair Housing Act if you receive SSDI or SSI benefits. This means that you cannot be denied the opportunity to rent or buy property on the basis of your disability, regardless of whether you reside in private or public housing.

Aside from housing, disabled individuals can also receive more assistance from the SSA. Disability Help can walk you through the process of filing for disability benefits!

Zoey Appleton
Zoey has worked with Cheri for years and has been creating the best articles not only for Disability Help but for our readers. Her job hits close to home for she has a brother with special needs. She hopes to see science and technology pave the way for a better life, with Disability Help to cover it and share it with those that need it.
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You are here: HomeWallOpinionsArticles2019 04 22Article 740447

Opinions of Monday, 22 April 2019

Columnist: Ruthfirst Eva Anaale Ayande

Egg consumption in Ghana and the cardiovascular risk

First eggs were bad, then they became good, then just a couple of weeks ago, they became bad again. If you’re scratching your head because you can’t keep up with the conflicting information concerning egg consumption and the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVDs) or heart disease, you’re not alone.

Many consumers around the world are asking the question “should I continue to eat eggs?”. Part of this confusion stems from the media’s sensationalization of research findings. Another part of it is that science also actually does change based on how much evidence is available at any given point in time.

In this article, I will attempt to summarize the historical context of egg consumption or dietary cholesterol and its link to heart disease, as well as provide a critique of the latest article published in the Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) by Zhong W. Victor et al.

What is Cholesterol? And what is the deal with eggs?

Cholesterol is a type of fat that is produced in the human body. It is important because the body uses it for many functions including making cell membranes, production of hormones, and some vitamins like Vitamin D which is important for bone health.

A deficiency of cholesterol could lead to fertility problems, poor skin, and deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins. Only animals produce cholesterol, so the sources of cholesterol in meals are from animal and animal products like meat, butter, eggs, and milk or milk products.

However, what is good for you could also be bad for you. When there is too much cholesterol in the body, it begins to get deposited in your blood vessels and could subsequently block them through a series of inflammatory reactions, leading to high blood pressure, heart attacks and stroke. These are collectively referred to as cardiovascular diseases (CVDs).

The recommended amount of cholesterol intake for one day, based on what had been associated with a lower risk of CVDs is 300mg. In terms of food, this translates to about 10 tablespoons of butter, 12 matchboxes (4 servings) of beef , 28 slices of bacon and, about 2 cups of soft serve ice cream (all values computed with MyDietAnalysis from Pearson).

Eggs got a bad rep because one single hard-boiled egg contains 186 mg of cholesterol. That’s about 60% of 300mg, which means that just 1½ eggs met the recommended value. For many years, scientists believed that the amount of cholesterol in your food could affect the amount of cholesterol in your blood, leading to an earlier recommendation of no more than 3 eggs a week.

However, with growing evidence, it was observed that the body produces its own cholesterol which accounts for almost 80% of the total amount of cholesterol in the blood, and that dietary cholesterol didn’t increase blood cholesterol significantly. It was later also observed that other fats, and not necessarily dietary cholesterol, could lead to high cholesterol levels in the body. These are saturated fats and trans fat. Saturated fats are fats that are solid at room temperature that you get from animal products like fatty meats.

Trans fats are those found in products like hard margarine and store baked goods like cakes and pastries (because they are made from vegetable shortening which are high in trans fat). And while not a fat, added sugars have been observed to also increase blood cholesterol levels. This is possible because your body can produce cholesterol from excess carbohydrates.

Given this background, the American heart association (AHA) after many years of warning the public against consuming more than 3 eggs a week, softened their stand in 2014.

The Dietary guidelines for Americans in 2015 also removed the dietary requirement for cholesterol and lifted the restrictions on egg consumption. The Ghana Dietetics association (GDA) which is the professional association of dietitians in Ghana only this year informed the general public that for a healthy person, consuming an egg a day as part of a balanced diet was safe so long as you did not have any underlying conditions like high lipid levels that required you to reduce your total fat intake.

Apart from cholesterol, do eggs supply any other nutrients?

Eggs are a relatively affordable source of protein. If you were getting your protein from beef and if you bought directly from the local market, you will spend GHC 2.25 on a serving of beef (about 3 matchboxes of beef). The price of eggs in Accra, in order to get the same amount of protein (about 3 eggs), is GHC 1.70 (this is if you buy per crate).

Besides being cheaper, they are easier to prepare and easily digested and absorbed by the body. An environmental enthusiast could also argue that egg production is friendlier to the environment than beef production because of the high contribution by cows to greenhouse emissions.

Apart from protein, eggs are also an important source of many other nutrients that your body needs to function properly, specifically vitamins like biotin, Vitamin B5, and the B-vitamin-like compound cholin, as well as minerals like selenium and iodine.

What are the details of the JAMA paper?

The JAMA paper was a pooled analysis of 6 cohort studies that observed that for each additional half egg consumed a day, there was a 1.11% higher risk of CVD as well as a 1.93% increased risk of mortality. In other words, the more eggs you eat each day, the higher your risk of getting a heart disease or dying.

A pooled analysis means that the authors put together data from different observational studies so that they could have a large data set, in this case a total of almost 30,000 adults. Cohort studies, a type of observational study, are useful because it is not always ethical, or even possible, to conduct experiments on human beings. So researchers collect information about people’s behaviors and then observe them over a period of time to determine who develops a disease or otherwise.

The universal catch to these studies however is that we can never be too sure if the observations made are the true causes of the diseases in question.There are always so many other factors that we generally cannot control for when people are being people.

While this particular paper is strong because it observed a large number of people, it had some limitations that are worth noting. First and most importantly, diet was assessed in this population once throughout the follow-up period which was an average of 17 years (up to 31 years for some participants).

The authors use dietary information that was collected at the beginning of each of the cohort studies. This goes without saying that this one time dietary assessment may not be representative of the participant’s long term dietary intakes.

People’s diets change throughout the course of their lives; indeed some people’s diets fluctuate over the course of a single week, and to fully understanding a diet-disease relationship, it is more useful to have several time points of data collection to get a holistic picture of a person’s overall dietary exposure.Using how someone ate 17 years ago to assess their lifetime risk of a disease may not give a truly accurate picture.

Secondly, in the statistical analysis (the part that many of us skip when reading scientific papers), the authors discover that when they adjust for egg consumption (as well as processed and unprocessed meat intake), the association observed between dietary cholesterol and CVD risk is no longer significant, which may suggest that eggs (and other high fat foods), and not necessarily dietary cholesterol is what is driving the association.

However, in their analysis of the association between egg consumption and CVD risk, the association was no longer statistically significant when they adjusted for dietary cholesterol, something I consider contradictory to the former observation.

The authors in their discussion interpret this to mean that the cholesterol from egg yolks have an independent association with CVD risk and mortality, but this rather raised many questions for me: are eggs on their own really the problem? Is it cholesterol intake in its totality? Just the cholesterol from egg yolks on it’s own? Or is it a combination of both? Most importantly, are we just simply talking about a person who is consuming not only many eggs a day, but also high amounts of fatty and unprocessed meat like the regular American does?

Finally, and this applies more to non-US populations, the results may not be generalizable to populations outside of the US. The authors specifically mention this in their discussion and I quote: “Findings of the current study suggest that cholesterol from egg yolk may be harmful in the context of the current US diet, in which overnutrition and overweight/obesity are more common than malnutrition and underweight…..generalizing our results to non-US populations requires caution due to different nutrition and food environments and chronic disease epidemiology”

Within the current global setting, it may be argued that trade liberalization has caused the Westernization of diets and transformation of food systems across the world and especially in low middle-income countries like Ghana. This notwithstanding, undernutrition, particularly protein energy malnutrition, continues to plague the country in a phenomenon popularly known as the double burden of malnutrition.

That said, and following the caution of the authors, health professionals in Ghana may benefit from contextualizing these findings to the Ghanaian situation.

The authors recommend that their research findings be used as a basis to update the current American dietary guidelines, but given that their findings are observational, and the strength of evidence is modest, this may be a long shot. This is because observational studies, as I alluded to earlier, cannot establish causality. They can supply information that some exposure may be associated with some outcome. As a result, unless they are supplying overwhelmingly convincing evidence, they usually serve as a basis for subsequent more controlled studies.


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Muromachi Period (1336-1573)

The Hojo reacted to the prevailing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken the Kyoto court, the bakufu decided to allow two contending imperial lines--known as the Southern Court or junior line and the Northern Court or senior line--to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne as Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318- 39). Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the bakufu, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the bakufu exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces rebelled. They were aided by Ashikaga Takauji (1305-58), a constable who turned against Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time, another eastern chieftain rebelled against the bakufu, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hojo were defeated.

In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-century Confucian practices. This period of reform, known as the Kemmu Restoration (1333-36), aimed at strengthening the position of the emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the bushi. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hojo, not on supporting the emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long War Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who became the new shogun.

The ensuing period of Ashikaga rule (1336-1573) was called Muromachi for the district in which its headquarters were in Kyoto after 1378. What distinguished the Ashikaga bakufu from that of Kamakura was that, whereas Kamakura had existed in equilibrium with the Kyoto court, Ashikaga took over the remnants of the imperial government. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga bakufu was not as strong as the Kamakura had been and was greatly preoccupied by the civil war. Not until the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (as third shogun, 1368-94, and chancellor, 1394-1408) did a semblance of order emerge.

During the time of the Ashikaga bakufu, a new national culture, called Muromachi culture, emerged from the bakufu headquarters in Kyoto to reach all levels of society. Zen Buddhism played a large role in spreading not only religious but also artistic influences, especially those derived from Chinese painting of the Chinese Song (960-1279), Yuan, and Ming dynasties. The proximity of the imperial court and the bakufu resulted in a commingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyo, samurai, and Zen priests. Art of all kinds--architecture, literature, No drama, comedy, poetry, the tea ceremony, landscape gardening, and flower arranging--all flourished during Muromachi times. There also was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism during the centuries of the latter's predominance.

By the end of the Muromachi period, the first Europeans had arrived. The Portuguese landed in southern Kyushu in 1543 and within two years were making regular port calls. The Spanish arrived in 1587, followed by the Dutch in 1609. The Japanese began to attempt studies of European civilization in depth, and new opportunities were presented for the economy, along with serious political challenges. European firearms, fabrics, glassware, clocks, tobacco, and other Western innovations were traded for Japanese gold and silver. Significant wealth was accumulated through trade, and lesser daimyo, especially in Kyushu, greatly increased their power. Provincial wars were made more deadly with the introduction of firearms, such as muskets and cannons, and greater use of infantry.

Christianity had an impact on Japan, largely through the efforts of the Jesuits, led first by Saint Francis Xavier (1506- 52), who arrived in Kagoshima in southern Kyushu in 1549. Both daimyo and merchants seeking better trade arrangements as well as peasants were among the converts. By 1560 Kyoto had become another major area of missionary activity in Japan. In 1568 the port of Nagasaki, in northwestern Kyushu, was established by a Christian daimyo and was turned over to Jesuit administration in 1579. By 1582 there were as many as 150,000 converts (2 percent of the population) and 200 churches. But bakufu tolerance for this alien influence diminished as the country became more unified and the openness of the period decreased. Proscriptions against Christianity began in 1587 and outright persecutions in 1597. Although foreign trade was still encouraged, it was closely regulated, and by 1640 the exclusion and suppression of Christianity had become national policy

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• Cyber Crime: 2011 vs. 2016

    Most people today would agree you’re now more likely to get ripped off electronically than you are physically. Smartphones, wearable technology, and lightning-fast internet speed have made many elements of our lives easier and more efficient. But, the inventions, and often our dependence on them, have also opened the door to electronic theft — or cyber crime.

    In February 2011, I was interviewed by a news station in Des Moines, KCCI, about commercial insurance claims involving computer fraud. In these claims, a computer virus would enter the network of a business, usually through email, and an employee would unknowingly release the virus when the email was opened. The virus contained a keystroke program which remembered username and password data for critical websites, like online banking. Once the username and password were obtained, the thief set up a series of Automated Clearing House (ACH) transfers below the threshold monitored by the financial institution. Multiple transfers were then scheduled for a Friday in a week where the bank was closed the following Monday due to a holiday. The ACH transfers were made, and the bank or business owner didn’t realize the money was gone until the Tuesday after the holiday. Bad day! So, who’s responsible?

    Commercial insurance coverage is available for the scenario I described, but it’s not typically provided automatically. Check your policies and have the conversation proactively so you’re not the one having the bad day.

    Fast forward now to 2016 and cyber crime has changed just as rapidly as technology. The previous example was computer fraud, but what about a case where money is freely given away? In the insurance world, this would be referred to as “voluntary parting.” In many cases, a loss or claim which involves the voluntary parting of property (including money) is excluded.

    We’re now seeing and hearing about cases multiple times a month where a vendor, supplier, or even company executive is impersonated and an employee in the Accounting Department freely transfers funds.

    Before you say “Wow, that would never happen to me!”, consider the sophistication of today’s thief. If someone can access your network system, could they see your calendar to identify when an executive is traveling or view your email to find correspondence about an acquisition or equipment purchase? Once information is obtained, a fraudulent email is often sent which looks identical to the correct email with only one or two letters transposed. Instead of using the letter “b,” an “I” and “o” are used together in the email. They look very similar if you’re reading fast. Now how confident are you about flagging the fraudulent request for money?

    Like the computer fraud scenario from 2011, insurance coverage is available for cyber crime cases involving voluntary parting, but not many insurance carriers are providing the protection. It’s important to have the discussion about the policies you buy — or could buy — and make an educated decision.

    In a recent discussion with a client where we talked about the new risks of cyber theft, the owner smiled and said, “Wow, maybe we should just revert back to talking on the phone or meeting face to face.” Though technology brings many advantages, maybe your team should just have an “old-fashioned” conversation about today’s cyber crime tactics and how to best avoid, reduce, or transfer the risk of it to your organization.

    Because “thinking ahead” is our business, Holmes Murphy can help! Let us know if you have questions or concerns. You can comment below or contact us directly. Don’t let that “bad day” happen to you!

    Published on: 07.11.16


blue monday

There's more to it than just 'turning that frown upside-down.'
January doesn't have to be the most depressing month of the year.
Blue Monday? Not anymore.
The third Monday of January is said to be the most depressing day on the calendar, also known as Blue Monday -- coming right at you on January 18th, 2016. How can we avoid the post-holiday winter blues? Here are five tips for perking up this Blue Monday:


Open access

Oral Health From Dental Paleopathology

Written By

Hisashi Fujita

Submitted: June 5th, 2014 Published: March 11th, 2015

DOI: 10.5772/59263

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1. Introduction

Since when have humans been afflicted with dental diseases? It is not easy to find an answer to this question. There are two main methods to examine what types of disease our ancestors suffered. One method involves the history of medicine or a study called “medical history,” which mainly examines pathologies written in ancient documents and ancient writings and attempts to identify the diseases. Michinaga Fujiwara was a powerful individual in the Heian period of Japan (794-1192 AD) [1]. He was speculated to have died of complications of diabetes based on the records of his pathology in the literature. This type of finding is the result of research in the history of medicine (a study of medical history). The other method involves a field of study in physical anthropology called “paleopathology,” in which the author of this paper specializes. In paleopathology, the research materials are hard tissues such as bones and teeth from humans of ancient times and obtained from archeological excavations (needless to say, the soft tissues have long decomposed and returned to soil). Thus, it is possible to learn about the frequency of certain diseases in the past in groups of people and about the true pathology at the time of death. In this paper, a few dental diseases were interpreted from the perspective of an anthropologist who handles ancient human skeletal remains. These diseases can be indicators of modern oral health.

2. Two major diseases in the oral cavity are caries and periodontal disease

This statement is believed to have been true since the ancient times. In a previous study, the author of this paper described that, before the introduction of modern dentistry, people were more affected by caries and periodontal disease, the main cause of tooth loss, because they were unable to receive scientific dental care. Modern humans can obtain nutrients parenterally and via gastrostomy with the advancement of modern medicine. For the majority of human history, the mouth was the only means through which people have taken in nutrients. Therefore, tooth loss was speculated to have caused malnutrition and even death in many pre-modern individuals with numerous missing teeth. In the pre-modern times, longevity was likely dependent on the preservation of one’s own teeth to obtain sufficient nutrients.

2.1. Tooth loss in human skeletal remains of Japan

Trinkaus reported on the problem of tooth loss in the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal from approximately 60,000 years ago, the most ancient material that has been examined for this purpose [2]. He reported that 51.7% of the teeth were missing antemortem in this Neanderthal. In another study, Trinkaus also reported that 25% of the teeth were missing in the Shanidar Neanderthals [3]. It is difficult to obtain a large sample size of ancient human fossils, and consequently adequate statistical analysis cannot be performed due to small sample size. Therefore, the information from these ancient human fossils is merely for reference.

There are some case reports worldwide on tooth loss in Homo sapiens [4-8], but the number of studies on ancient human skeletal remains is not large. These researchers, except the author of this paper, used all examined individuals as materials. Thus, a bias likely occurred regarding the types of teeth, which were sometimes located in areas of defects in ancient human skeletal remains. The author of this paper examined remaining teeth in ancient human skeletal remains excavated from archeological sites of the pre-modern periods in Japan: the Kofun period (3rd–early7th century), Kamakura period (1192–1333 AD), Muromachi period (1335–1573 AD), and Edo period (1603–1868 AD). A total of 329 individuals were examined, of whom 145 individuals were selected as materials because their sex was determinable and their maxillary and mandibular alveolar bones were fully examinable (Table 1). This material selection method enabled data collection without bias for all tooth types. The estimation of age and determination of sex were performed by morphological observations of anthropological bones. Since the number of materials was not large, the individuals of different sexes were pooled together. The individuals were divided into three groups: early middle age group (approximately 20-39 years), late middle age group (approximately 40-49 years), and old age group (50 years or older).

In this study, the ancient human skeletal remains used as materials were grouped by time period and by age group. Table 1 shows the number of individuals and the number of examinable teeth. In all time periods as shown in Table 2, there was a tendency for the number of missing teeth to increase with age, progressing from early middle age to late middle age to old age. In the Kofun period, the mean number of missing teeth was 2.67 (SD: 1.63) in early middle age, 6.00 (SD: 2.00) in late middle age, and 16.00 in old age. In the Kamakura period, the mean number was 1.17 (SD: 1.47), 2.22 (SD: 2.10), and 4.50 (SD: 2.12), respectively. In the Muromachi period, the mean number was 1.80 (SD: 0.84), 5.80 (SD: 4.55), and 21.00, respectively. In the Edo period, the mean number was 2.31 (SD: 2.58), 5.18 (SD: 4.57), and 29.67 (SD: 4.04), respectively. Table 3 shows whether there is a difference in the number of missing teeth by age group after combining all the materials of different time periods. The results revealed that the number of missing teeth differed significantly (p<0.01) between the early middle age and late middle age groups and between the late middle age and old age groups, statistically indicating increasing tooth loss with age in pre-modern Japanese people. Table 4 shows the number of missing teeth in the maxilla and mandible. The number of missing teeth is shown by time period and by age group, but there were many time periods without a sufficient number of materials. Therefore, the lower portion of the table shows the number of maxillary missing teeth and the number of mandibular missing teeth of all time periods. A significance test was used to determine the difference in the number of missing teeth between the maxilla and mandible, and there was no significant difference between the jaws in any age group. Figures 1 and 2 show the percentages of missing teeth of all tooth types in the maxilla and mandible, respectively. In general, the percentage of missing teeth tended to be lower in the anterior teeth and the percentage tended to be higher in the posterior teeth.

Period Group Number of individuals Number of Observed teetha
Kofun Early middle age 6 192
Late middle age 7 224
Old age 1 32
Kamakura Early middle age 18 576
Late middle age 18 576
Old age 2 64
Muromchi Early middle age 5 160
Late middle age 5 160
Old age 1 32
Edo Early middle age 45 1440
Larly middle age 34 1088
Old age 3 96
Total 145 4640

Table 1.

The archaeological materials used from Kofun, Kamakura, Muromachi and Edo periods in Japan.

aThe number of observed teeth includes ante-mortem tooth loss and post-mortem tooth loss.

Period Group Lost teeth Observed teeth Average of number of ante-mortem teeth per person SD
Kofun Early middle age 16 192 2.67 1.63
Late middle age 42 224 6.00 2.00
Old age 16 32 16.00 -
Kamakura Early middle age 21 576 1.17 1.47
Late middle age 40 576 2.22 2.10
Old age 9 64 4.50 2.12
Muromachi Early middle age 9 160 1.80 0.84
Late middle age 29 160 5.80 4.55
Old age 21 32 21.00 -
Edoa Early middle age 104 1440 2.31 2.58
Late middle age 176 1088 5.18 4.57
Old age 89 96 29.67 4.04

Table 2.

The number of ante-mortem tooth loss by age distribution.

aData were cited from Fujita18.

Early middle age-Late middle age ***
Late middleage-Old age ***

Table 3.

Comparison of number of missing teeth by age distribution.

***: P <0.001

Tooth type
Upper Lower
Early middle age URM1 ULM1 Total LRM1 LLM1 Total Grand total
Observed 36 34 70 31 31 61 131
Average 3.13 3.24 3.19 2.16 2.27 2.23 2.74
SD 0.99 1.05 1.01 0.9 0.87 0.86 1.06
Early middle age
Late middle age
Late middle age URM1 ULM1 Total LRM1 LLM1 Total Grand total
Observed 11 9 20 8 7 15 35
Average 3.91 3.89 3.9 3.13 2.71 2.93 3.49
SD 1.64 1.05 1.37 1.25 0.76 1.03 1.31

Table 4.

Alveoler resession of Somali people in Early middle age and Late middle age.

ns: not significance

E: Early middle age; L: Late middle age

Figure 1.

The rate of loss by tooth type in Maxilla in pre-modern periods in Japan.

Figure 2.

The rate of loss by tooth type in mandible in pre-modern periods in Japan.

In the early and late middle age individuals, the low number of missing teeth had been maintained at 1.11 to 6.00 teeth from the Kofun period to Edo period, spanning 1500 years. This result might be very surprising for health care providers as well as for the general public. The assumption is that people in olden times lost many teeth at an early age, but it is not consistent with the results of this study. At least to late middle age, the number of missing teeth was lower in pre-modern times than in modern time. Lopez et al. made a similar finding in a study comparing people of the Mediaeval Ages and modern people in Spain [5]. Sikanjic also made a similar finding in the number of missing teeth in human skeletal remains from the Iron Age in Croatia [6]. Diet and ingredients used in meals (i.e., nutrients) are expected to differ by country. Although it is difficult to generalize, modern people can receive scientific dental care, and tooth extraction can be performed easily and frequently. One cannot say that the dental treatment of tooth extraction was non-existent in the pre-modern times. However, it was likely not performed frequently, and the general public in those times were not as familiar with medical care as the general public of modern time [9].

The average lifespan of Japanese people is estimated to have been less than 15 years in the Jomon period and approximately 20 years in the Edo period [10]. The high mortality rates of infants and young children greatly decreased the average lifespan of the overall population. In these time periods, many adults also lost their lives due to various infections and parasitic diseases. Until the Edo period, Japanese people had a simple and plain diet, except for a small segment of the upper class. Such a diet did not contain much animal protein or fat. Diet in Japanese people began to change due to the introduction of more “American” foods, mainly with the post-war American occupation. Japanese people gradually began to consume more animal protein and fat. It is clearly consistent with the high correlation between increased average lifespan in Japanese people and increased consumption of animal protein and fat (Figures 3 and 4). Japan is currently a country with the longest lifespan in the world. This fact seems to suggest that there is a good balance of the two types of diet, a simple Japanese diet, mainly of vegetables and grains, and a Western-style diet.

Figure 3.

Relation between fat intake and Japanese life span

Figure 4.

Relation between the animal protein intake and Japanese life span

Intravenous infusion was first introduced to Japan around 1960, and non-parenteral nutrition via gastrostomy was introduced much more recently. There are many restrictions and limitations when using these methods. In the time periods with only pre-modern medical care, the preservation of one’s teeth was the only available way for people to get nutrients effectively. Thus, when people lost many of their teeth, they likely faced early death.

2.2. Tooth loss in ancient human skeletal remains from countries other than Japan

How was tooth loss in ancient human skeletal remains from other countries? The status of missing teeth was examined in human skeletal remains of the 3rd-7th centuries from the Yean-ri site in South Korea [11]. There were 2.7 missing teeth in the early middle age individuals and 8 missing teeth in the late middle age individuals, which are not large numbers. The status of missing teeth was also examined in modern Nigerian individuals who lived in the early 20th century and whose skeletal remains are stored at the University of Cambridge [12]. There were 1.3 missing teeth in the early middle age individuals and 3.3 missing teeth in the late middle age individuals, indicating very low numbers. No caries was observed in the examination of a total of 15 Nigerian individuals and 272 teeth. Similarly, when tooth loss was examined in Somali individuals living in the late 19th century to the early 20th century, AMTL was 2.60% in individuals in early middle age [13]. This percentage is a very low value, indicating the loss of at the most 1 tooth out of 32 teeth. In individuals in late middle age, AMTL was 17.02%, which is an approximate loss of 5.4 teeth. Thus, the number of missing teeth clearly increased with aging. There was a significant increase in alveolar bone loss with aging as shown in Table 4, while there was no change in caries rate with aging as shown in Table 5. It is speculated from these results that tooth loss in Somalis was due to periodontal disease and not caries. Although it is difficult to speculate on the details of their diet, they were believed to have had a low intake of simple sugars and carbohydrates. Thus, the diet of Somalis likely consisted of low cariogenic food. The Somali skeletal remains showed that they had periodontal disease from their early middle age. The disease progressed with age and caused alveolar bone loss, eventually leading to bone that could not support the teeth and consequently to tooth loss. The author observed an unexpectedly large number of remaining teeth in the late middle age individuals, much like in the Edo individuals in Japan. It indicated that Somali individuals also had low numbers of missing teeth.

Tooth type
Upper Lower
Early middle age I C P M Total I C P M Total Grand total
Observed 168 84 170 252 674 130 65 130 195 520 1194
Loss 9 3 1 8 21 0 0 3 7 10 31
SD 0.23 0.19 0.08 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.19 0.14 0.16
% AMTL 5.36 3.57 0.59 3.17 3.12 0 0 2.31 3.59 1.92 2.60
Early middle age
Late middle age
Late middle age I C P M Total I C P M Total Grand total
Observed 52 26 52 78 208 44 22 43 65 174 382
Loss 7 3 5 18 33 6 3 5 18 32 65
SD 0.32 0.33 0.3 0.42 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.32 0.45 0.39 0.38
% AMTL 13.46 11.54 9.62 23.08 15.87 13.64 13.64 11.63 27.69 18.39 17.02

Table 5.

Antemortem tooth loos (AMTL) of Somali people in Early middle age and Late middle age.

I: Incisors; C: Canines; P: Premolars; M: Molars in tooth type distribution.

ns: not significant

E: Early middle age; L: Late middle age

The lifespan remains short in developing countries of the 21st century. Similar types and proportions of disease are thought to have been maintained in modern populations (likely even in present-day populations) as in the populations of 1000-2000 years ago. It is speculated that missing teeth of populations of 1000-2000 years ago were maintained at very low numbers until late middle age despite the presence of periodontal disease, much like ancient human skeletal remains from Japan.

Early middle age Late middle age P-value
Tooth type Observed Caries % Caries Tooth type Observed Caries % Caries
UI 168 0 0 UI 52 0 0 -
UC 84 0 0 UC 26 0 0 -
UP 170 0 0 UP 52 1 1.92 P=0.537
UM 252 6 2.38 UM 78 0 0 P=0.384
U-total 674 6 0.89 U-total 208 1 0.48 P=0.896
LI 130 0 0 LI 44 0 0 -
LC 65 0 0 LC 22 0 0 -
LP 130 0 0 LP 43 0 0 -
LM 195 4 2.05 LM 65 2 3.08 P=0.991
L-total 520 4 0.77 L-total 174 2 1.15 P=0.994
Grand Total 1194 10 0.84 Grand Total 382 3 0.79 P=0.820

Table 6.

Prevalence of dental caries of Somali people in Early middle age and Late middle age.

3. Stress markers and enamel hypoplasia

Stress in modern-day people signifies mainly “psychological stress” in the majority of cases. In ancient skeletal human remains, the focus is on the examination of signs of “physical stress” remaining in bones and teeth as a result of surviving in a very harsh environment. It is desirable to examine the level of such stress not in one or a few individuals but in a group, if possible in at least a few dozen to a few hundred individuals. Otherwise, the stress level in a certain group and differences in stress level among groups cannot be known.

Stress marker might not be a commonly used term. It is a lesion that is used to compare the level of health particularly among groups such as mentioned above. Stress markers on teeth are not very common. Enamel hypoplasia is one such marker and will be discussed below pertaining to ancient human skeletal remains.

Teeth are formed relatively early and enamel matrix is formed at approximately the sixth week of gestation for primary teeth. Enamel matrix formation begins early even for permanent teeth. For example, it begins to form at birth for permanent first molars. Enamel hypoplasia occurs when there is poor enamel formation at such stages. The cause is hypocalcemia due to conditions such as starvation and impaired food intake due to serious disease [14].

Enamel hypoplasia is a useful stress marker because: (1) it is a lesion which is found relatively frequently in ancient human skeletal remains, and (2) it is a lesion that occurs due to environmental factors such as those affecting the nutritional status. Briefly explained, the ancient human skeletal remains that we encounter represent one individual in a few thousands or a few tens of thousands of individuals who lived in the past from a certain time period. They represent a very fortunate discovery and are very important representatives. Therefore, if a disease occurred only in one in a few tens or hundreds of thousands, finding this disease in the excavated remains is greatly affected by chance. Therefore, such disease is not suitable for examining the stress level in a group or comparing the stress level with other groups.

As shown in Figure 5, enamel hypoplasia often appears linearly on the enamel surface. The crowns of healthy teeth should be smooth, but aplasia occurs in depressions of the crowns of teeth with enamel hypoplasia.

Figure 5.

Linear enamel hypoplasia found in Jomon people of Japan

Although there are individual differences, the timing of crown formation by tooth type is roughly the same among individuals. Therefore, when enamel hypoplasia is seen in a certain site of a certain tooth, one can estimate the age at which the enamel hypoplasia occurred. If several lines can be seen in an individual (Figure 5), it can be speculated that this individual experienced multiple bouts of starvation or malnutrition due to serious disease. Some individuals have linear enamel hypoplasia of the entire dentition as in Figure 6. It shows that the individual was exposed to stress causing enamel hypoplasia during crown formation of different tooth types [14]. Therefore, this case is very important as such evidence.

Figure 6.

Linear enamel hypoplasia found some tooth type in Jomon people of Japan

When does enamel hypoplasia occur? There have been several studies on this topic, including one by Yamamoto, who examined ancient human skeletal remains of Japanese individuals [15]. According to the study of Yamamoto, enamel hypoplasia occurs repeatedly between 3.5-5.5 years of age in the majority of the cases and very rarely occurs at ages younger than 3 years. Yamamoto gave as reasons for the onset: such stress was likely fatal in individuals at ages younger than 3 years in a pre-modern environment, and even if individuals survived the stress, they could not have tolerated subsequent stress and would have died before the eruption of permanent teeth. In contrast, enamel hypoplasia in modern-day individuals occurs repeatedly at 0-12 months after birth but rarely beyond 34 months [15]. That is, it occurs repeatedly early after birth but rapidly decreases thereafter. Thus, the ancient skeletal remains indicate that timing of hypoplasia differed between ancient people and modern-day people. It is speculated that improved health status, including due to medical advancement, helps modern-day individuals face conditions recorded in crowns as enamel hypoplasia without causing death.

The above findings show that it was very difficult for very young children, particularly infants, to survive in pre-modern times during which bouts of starvation were common and medical care was not advanced. This tendency was likely stronger in more ancient times, and countless young lives must have been lost before these individuals were able to leave any signs of enamel hypoplasia.

Stress markers develop on bones and teeth when individuals continue to survive under a poor environment. If individuals die in a short period of time due to disease or malnutrition, then there will be no stress marker on bones or teeth. For example, when individuals die of acute infections, including dysentery and influenza, it is very difficult to find signs of such infections in excavated bones and teeth. If individuals had chronic diseases such as advanced tuberculosis, leprosy, and syphilis of the bone for a few years to decades, then signs of such diseases will remain in their bones.

The frequency of enamel hypoplasia was 48.1% in the Jomon population, 36.4% in the Kofun population, approximately 60% in the Edo population, and 39.5% in the present-day population of Japan [15]. These numbers seem to indicate that the environment in the Jomon period was better than that in the Edo period. However, these numbers can be explained in another way. When Jomon people suffered various diseases or malnutrition, they likely did not recover and died a short time later. Therefore, they probably did not live long enough to develop enamel hypoplasia, resulting in a lower frequency of enamel hypoplasia in the Jomon period. Edo people also likely lived in a much harsher environment than present-day people. However, medical care and nutritional conditions were improved in the Edo period compared with those in the Jomon period. Therefore, Edo people with various diseases and malnutrition likely had higher chances of survival than Jomon people with such conditions. As a result, signs of enamel hypoplasia remain in individuals from the Edo period. Present-day people can have high-quality medical care and nutrition readily and sufficiently, and the infant mortality rate has consequently decreased. Thus, only a modest frequency of enamel hypoplasia is seen. Therefore, in this type of a situation, one should conclude that a group with a low frequency of stress markers had a worse environment and that a group with a high frequency had a better environment. This phenomenon is called a “paleopathological paradox.” One needs to be mindful of this paradox when examining nutritional conditions, health status, and the difference in frequency of disease among groups or time periods.

What are the frequencies of enamel hypoplasia in various countries? When the frequency of enamel hypoplasia was examined in former inhabitants of what is now the State of Illinois in the U.S., it was 45% in the excavated individuals from the hunting and gathering period, 60% in the excavated individuals from the transition to the agricultural period, and a high frequency of 80% in the excavated individuals from the agricultural period [16]. Similarly, when the frequency was examined in former inhabitants of what is now Ohio, it was higher in the excavated individuals from the agricultural period than those from the hunting and gathering period [17, 18]. These findings indicate that poor harvests more greatly affected people in an agricultural society than frequent food shortages affected people in a hunting and gathering society. In addition, the agricultural people who lived in these areas had a diet which depended heavily on corn. Such a diet resulted in increased caloric intake and nutritional quantity but decreased animal protein intake and nutritional quality. Weaning diets were deficient in protein, and nutritional stress occurred such as diarrhea due to bacterial infection. Some researchers interpret the high frequency of enamel hypoplasia as a result of increased population density in the agricultural period, leading to a higher risk for infection and increased environmental stress such as outbreaks of endemic diseases [19, 20].

The author of this paper is not in agreement with the above explanations. There is no evidence that a hunter-gatherer economy enabled people to maintain necessary and sufficient proteins. There is also no evidence that people in an agricultural economy had repeated poor harvests and had lower animal protein intake than people in a hunter-gatherer economy. The term “hunters and gatherers” gives the image of hunting. However, it is speculated that people in a hunter-gatherer economy did not necessary have sufficient animal-derived foods, and the majority of their diet consisted of plant-derived foods. Even natural-born hunters like lions have very low hunting success rates. Therefore, it is valid opinion that hunters and gatherers must have had great difficulties maintaining a constant intake of animal protein even with human intelligence and use of tools. The diet of an agricultural economy could not have consisted entirely of plant-derived foods. Instead, it is speculated that hunting must have continued, and its techniques must have evolved from previous time periods to the agricultural period. Therefore, people must have continued to consume animal-derived foods in the agricultural period.

Even when societies transitioned from a hunting-gathering type to an agricultural type, it is very unlikely that the consumption of animal protein decreased sharply. Instead, the aforementioned enamel hypoplasia frequencies should be interpreted in the following ways: the types of people who were unable to survive in a hunter-gatherer society were more likely to survive in an agricultural society, and the average lifespan, an index of cumulative stress, increased.

4. TMD in human skeletal remains from the Edo period in Japan

Prolonged retention of primary teeth rarely poses clinical problems in modern people if these teeth are extracted and the eruptive paths of permanent teeth are normalized. A report in a Japanese journal has shown that when primary teeth were retained beyond the normal period, their extraction resulted in gradual improvement of TMD and in normal occlusion. In the field of physical anthropology, very few report has been published that simultaneously discussed prolonged retention of primary teeth, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) arthritis, and TMD [21]. The material discussed in this section was skeletal human remains from the Edo period (17-19th centuries) in Japan. The mandible showed signs of TMJ arthritis and TMD likely due to bilateral primary second molars. The skeletal remains were excavated from the Suhgen temple site in Shinjuku-ku in Tokyo and were of a woman in the early part of early middle age. Retention of primary molars was observed in the left and right mandible (Figure 7). Since first premolars were present anterior to them, the over-retained primary teeth were both believed to be primary second molars. Radiographs showed no formation of left or right second premolars, confirming that they were missing congenitally (Figures 8a and 8b). It was speculated that bilateral primary second molars remained in adulthood because second premolars were missing congenitally. Other permanent mandibular teeth, including the third molars, were erupted bilaterally, and it is consistent with the individual being in the early part of early middle age. Bilateral primary molars had more severe occlusal attrition of the distal area than on the mesial area, and dentin was markedly exposed. The occlusal attrition of the mesial area was confined to near the proximal aspect adjacent to the first premolar.

Figure 7.

Persistence of both sides of second deciduous molars.

Figure 8.

The lack of permanent second premolars are admitted in the roentgenograms. a: right side, b: left side, respectively. a: right mandibular condyle is normal. b: left mandibular condyle has caused the deformity by TMJ arthritis.

The right mandibular condyle was normal, but TMJ arthritis had developed in the left mandibular condyle with overall deformation (Figures 9a and 9b). It was of minimum expression under the Rando and Waldron classification [22]. The right mandibular fossa was normal. In the left mandibular fossa, a new articular facet had formed accompanying inflammation and deformation of the mandibular condyle, and it was evident that TMJ arthritis and accompanying TMD had developed (Figures 10a and 10b).

Figure 9.

a: mandibular fossa of both sides. b: left mandibular fossa forms the false joint (arrow) and porosity is recognized in frame area.

Figure 10.

Periostitis found in the alveolar bone at right second deciduous molar (a) and left second deciduous molar (b).

There was bilateral periostitis of the alveolar bone supporting the primary teeth (Figures 11a and 11b). Periostitis was severe in the areas with over-retained primary second molars, and there was mild periostitis in all other areas, which was almost the entire maxilla and mandible.

Figure 11.

Slight periostitis is admitted in the widespread area of the alveolar bone.

Sumiya reported that the prevalence of prolonged retention was 0.58% for primary second molars in both Japanese men and women aged 21-25 years [23]. Onizuka examined 151 teeth in 106 individuals with over-retained primary teeth who were aged 14-47 years and reported that 63% had one over-retained tooth and 32% had two over-retained teeth [24]. It should be noted that over-retained teeth occurred symmetrically in the left and right sides of the maxilla or mandible in 33 of 34 patients with two over-retained teeth, indicating a very high proportion of patients [24]. The most commonly over-retained tooth was the primary second molar at 52.3% [24]. In the individual from the Suhgen temple site, there was prolonged retention of two mandibular primary second molars with bilaterally symmetry. The occurrence rate was 0.19% based on simple calculation, suggesting that such prolonged retention occurred in approximately 2 in 1000 adults. When one takes into account that the excavated skeletal remains were of the Edo period, this individual can be said to represent a valuable case of over-retained primary teeth in ancient human skeletal remains.

Although some reports have discussed that over-retained primary teeth can frequently cause TMD, treatment such as extraction of such teeth has been reported to improve the symptoms. In the individual from the Suhgen temple site, occlusal attrition was observed in the distal area of the left and right first molars. In the right first molar, the occlusal surface gently sloped upward from the distal to the mesial direction until there was no attrition. One area of the left first molar showed severe attrition where its distal area contacted the left second molar. It is nearly impossible to reproduce an accurate antemortem occlusion using a mandible and maxilla without soft tissue. However, there was likely abnormal occlusal force on the areas with attrition. When the maxillary dentition was examined, the teeth had normal positions in the left and right molar regions and there was slight attrition confined to the enamel. Attrition was confined to the lingual aspect for the left and right maxillary first molars. In this individual, the findings were strongly suggestive of malocclusion such as cusp-to-cusp occlusion. It is not known whether TMD occurred at a transition period from primary teeth to permanent teeth or after eruption of all permanent teeth. In any case, prolonged retention of primary second molars was thought to have somehow contributed to the development of TMD.

There are limitations in discussing TMD based on archeological materials, but there can be reports of new valuable cases of archeological materials. Modern-day individuals can have prolonged retention of primary teeth causing TMD and can have concurrent periodontal disease. Therefore, it is desirable to appropriately treat individuals with such conditions in modern clinical dental medicine. The material from the Suhgen temple site was an excavated archeological sample, but the implication of its findings can be important in modern dental medicine.

5. Conclusions

This paper discussed three topics from the perspective of physical anthropology which handles ancient human skeletal remains: antemortem tooth loss and problems of periodontal disease and caries, enamel hypoplasia as a stress marker, and occurrence of TMD due to prolonged retention of primary teeth. There are many other oral diseases in ancient skeletal remains that the author of this paper would like to discuss but was unable to, due to limitation of space. The diseases discussed in this paper are all in the oral region and have afflicted people from a few thousand years ago until the present day, i.e., diseases which have also afflicted our ancestors. The author hopes that the readers were able to appreciate that many new findings can be obtained from examination of diseases in the past. It is important to focus on the present to save patients who suffer from modern-day diseases. However, when one examines only the present, one will likely be unable to properly envision dental health of the future. The author is of the opinion that “knowing the past” or “learning from the past” is a very important point. Modern humans have existed for a long time, the ancestors of whom emerged about 7 million years ago. Thus, humans have a long past and modern humans should be thought of as being on the leading edge of this long human history.

Cooperation of physical anthropologists will be important in the creation of guidelines in modern medicine and future oral health. Such an effort can organically link the past, present, and future for the first time and can contribute to a better future. Another hope of this author is that the information and findings of this paper will be useful to many readers.

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Written By

Hisashi Fujita

Submitted: June 5th, 2014 Published: March 11th, 2015


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How Is Gold Used In In South Africa

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How To Improve Your Mental Health- 7 Ways

How To Improve Your Mental Health- 7 Ways

Author: Kristy Kaye

Are you worried about your mental health, or a friend’s mental health?

Mental health problems are common. Up to 1 in 4 have experienced mental illness. Stressful events such as job issues, relationship issues, bereavement or money issues can trigger spiralling thoughts that lead to mental illness, but there can be other factors.

Many of today’s biggest stars are sharing candid information about their battles with mental illness, inner conflict or turmoil and lack of peace of mind in the press. Big homes, bigger bank accounts, fancy cars, oodles of fans and fistfuls of cash – it seems celebrities have it all. But celebrity and success doesn’t protect from mental health problems.

Their stories and their courage to talk frankly about their conditions build mental health awareness and the importance of authentic conversations and loving support.

Some of these shared journeys may come very close to home because we either know people caught up or we feel it’s talking to us personally.

If we understand the reality of mental health, we realise that it’s no surprise that all of us have it to some small or large degree.

Let’s Check In - 5 Questions To Ask Yourself

If you are ready to tackle the difficult questions about the reality of it in your life, then ask yourself these 5 simple but important questions:-

  1. Are you highly intellectual?
  2. Do you rely on your intellect to provide you with answers?
  3. Do you search for the proven science before you believe?
  4. Do you ever get confused about which direction to take?
  5. Are you suspicious of people you don’t know?

There are thousands of other questions which just feel familiar that you can ask yourself in this respect because pivoting from one’s ‘intellect’ is what most people do - and it seems normal.

Your Intellect -v- True Feelings - the Hero of Our Life

Lack of mental-health is usually intellect-dependence related.  Our thoughts and the emotions they create can send us a spiral of imaginative ideas that can kick off depression or negative thoughts.

We can become used to using our ‘intellect’ predominantly instead of our ‘feelings’ (gut instinct) or alternatively a mixture our intellect and feelings because that is what we have been taught to do in our first seven years.

Our feelings, which many of us choose to ignore or even shut away, are the heroes of our life and when we follow them, we have true leadership coming from our soul part and we gradually lose the confusion that we have in our head.

Another way of looking at it is; we are conquering our thoughts because that is where there is alien traffic passing through which we have little control over. We may think they are our thoughts, but unfortunately the 70,000 or more thoughts we have a day, we just can’t and don’t want to own as ours. Even 6,000 thoughts per day which may relate more to us are a difficult number to lay siege upon and keep them running in a positive direction.

So can we better manage our thoughts? Yes, it is possible with awareness and practice.

From Turmoil to Peace of Mind

In my experience, to get rid of mental health issues there is a simple philosophy which may or may not be easy to follow, depending on your upbringing.

Firstly, the big step is all about understanding what mental health is, the difference between our two natures (the one we think with, and the one we feel with), where emotions get stirred up and the habits we have ingrained in us about which of our natures we predominantly rely on and why. Then we can take steps in the right direction to change the status quo.

We have two natures and they could not be more diametrically opposed because of our conditioning, yet both are intrinsically part of us. If we divorce one, it is like saying our personality does not belong to us or to disengage from the other, we are not ourselves.

If can be difficult to initially grasp, and without understanding it can cause turmoil and rob us of our peace of mind. Bear with me though, it is worthwhile.

It will become fundamental to learn some metaphysical truths to reprogram the order from which we operate, first from our inner truth, our soul part (our feelings) and then train and use what we have learnt this lifetime (our intellect) to achieve that so we can live a very successful, peaceful and contended life. Sounds amazing, right?

Our first nature is the one we feel with - our feelings.

Our ‘feeling’ nature is where your inner truth lives as part and parcel of your soul. It is where the echo lives in your feelings when you hit upon a key truth that fits with the real ‘me’ without influence from others. That part of us as limitless, boundless and immortal – here for the duration of eternity, and the part of us that communicates with the universe that delivers our path and purpose for this lifetime that fits with our soul. Our feeling nature can tune into all time dimensions, the one we are living now and the past and the immediate future. This part is invisible to the physical eye until it has developed the versatility to see beyond the physical dimension of life; the real you.

If you are finding it difficult to grasp, there is a good reason for this. You are conceivably trying to ‘think’ your way through a revelation, which is unthinkable. Then how do you grasp it? We are going to break it down, and in time you can assimilate it because it is the truth. At least it’s how your feelings work. It is where the echo lives in your feelings, which of course is the real you.

Our other nature is the one we think with - our intellect.

Our thinking nature was born with our body. Go back to when you were a born and the limitations of your thoughts back then, and how you have developed your intellect since then. Our intellect is the new kid on the block between our two natures and is poles apart from the refinement of our feeling nature. From the time you incarnated this lifetime, whatever you were exposed to and allowed to train your intellect, is what you are living with now. Our thinking nature, our intellect, disappears when you pass on. Whereas your feeling nature, your soul part, endures.

Our thinking nature usually convinces us to allow it to run our life. When we incarnated this lifetime, we already had a very full and challenging life ahead of us known to our soul part without inventing other opportunities for our time here. Our thinking nature is frequently involved in fragmenting and diluting our real path and purpose because it is subject to outside influences. All ideas alien to our purpose are illusion. Consequently, we may be sourcing illusions to live in preference to living our designated purpose because it is more fun.

It is why people often find themselves unfulfilled, not quite happy, confused, empty, alone, feeling inauthentic or in a crisis when they feel they are on a path that just doesn’t really fit with them, something is not quite right, or worse if it has been going on too long. A compulsion to change, a mid life crisis, or inner conflict often sets people on a journey to awaken to seek a fuller, more fulfilling and joyful path.

Thankfully, due to the stories coming into the media through celebrities, society is awakening that these experiences that affect mental health are not a fault to be hidden, ashamed or embarrassed about (or whatever arises for you). Rather it is showing you that a reassessment is overdue of values, thoughts and pursuits that no longer fit and that changing old habits and tendencies learnt to date is needed.

Are My Feelings My Emotions?

Before we move on let us clarify what you think are your feelings. Some may answer they are our emotions, but they are not!

You may have already started to think of feelings like excited, sad, regretful, angry, frustrated, remorseful, emotional etc. These are emotions, which are the responses or ‘feelings of our thinking nature’ – our ‘intellect’.

I know, it can sound confusing, and that is because a lot of media, writing and communications do not understand our two natures, leave out our soul part, and therefore cannot themselves make nor describe the distinction between feelings and emotions.

Let’s clarify: our emotions are the invented responses aroused by our intellect that come from the programming that we lived in our first seven years. In essence, we inherit the habit of them, particularly from copying or opposing the behaviour of those around us or learning the concepts from our environmental influences in our first seven years. They are very opinionated so we can't trust them at all.

Think back to your childhood and the things that used to upset you maybe even make you cry. As you mature, these type of emotions can almost disappear because you gain a bigger picture of your life and a greater understanding.

Now, you may be thinking you have not done this, but you may want to open yourself to the possibility because unfortunately, most people in Western cultures consider it a way to life, reinforced by the media and other influences today. There are only very few people who have mastered self-attainment and have control over their emotions.

This is how our feeling nature operates – enabling comprehension and avoiding overwhelm. We often need to ‘awaken’ this as we develop our spiritual refinement.

An Analogy

A great analogy to understand the difference between feelings and emotions (our intellect’s feelings) is to compare our true feelings to the ocean. It is symbolic of our impregnable nature being vast and invincible.

The ocean is tranquil most of the time not appearing to do much. It is nice and peaceful to watch if we are experiencing emotions. It can take a huge force of nature, like a storm, to move the ocean to show the real invincible power that is its potential.

We are like this when living our inner truth. We are the same as the ocean, although it may be hard on a bad day to visualise this when we are all over the place emotionally. Storms are symbolic of alternations in energy. When we make a shift, we can become all stirred up, and once we have acclimatised to the changes, we are calm again.

So, now picture someone being offensive to the ocean, and it rising up and running amok because it was emotional and displeased with what it heard. This is inconceivable isn’t it? It’s a stupid analogy, because we can’t relate to it. Likewise, it is unintelligent for us to become emotional about what others say, but we do.

If we can recognise the symbolic nature of this comparison, we can accept our true feelings don’t often become aroused emotionally. We are immortal, after all, and don’t need a body but have chosen one for a short time on planet earth. Therefore our true reality does not involve having anxiety about the dark or of being rejected or abandoned or other situations of this nature. We, our true selves, cannot possibly be emotional in a confused way, it simply does not fit with being omnipotent, magnanimous, immortal, limitless etc.

Suppose we made taming of our emotions our highest priority in life. What a transformation if would offer us. This is why we can actually find people living their inner serenity. They have switched sides when they found the tools to discipline their intellect and live life from their ‘feeling’ part.

Finding The Real You and Peace of Mind

For many this will be difficult to digest because emotions are now such stereotypical behaviour patterns, they have become the status quo. The challenge of this has in some parts of the media or unaware society rendered growing spiritually as unpopular because they are intimidated by it or motivated by other agendas, despite the amazing gifts it offers of insights, tranquility, harmony and intelligence. Thankfully that is changing as people awaken.

Our feelings are the door to familiarising ourselves with our soul part and its constitution. How we feel is our soul part talking to us. Don’t be torn inside and put on a brave face, but move away from these entrapments and be guided by your desire to find your own inner truth and the freedom that brings to you.

7 Ways To Improve Your Mental Health

So, if you want to change your current situation there are some positive things you can do.

#1: Meditate Daily

In meditation we can control our thoughts. It may be very difficult at first but that is because it is a new type of feeling. Meditation does amazing things for us, putting us back in control of our life. Use guided meditations, our energy calendars or affirmation work to help if needed.

#2: Morning Preparation

When you wake up in the morning make a list for your day, what is you hope to achieve, some keywords and a strategy for the day. This ensures that you won’t be pulled off your pivot. Each day you can improve your approach.

#3: Self-Loyalty

Try to live self-loyalty which is living for your energy first. Don’t be derailed by other people’s tragedies and in dealing with other people, stay out of ‘gossip’ type conversations just keep it business.

#4: Energy Investment

Make sure what you invest in during the day is something that pays dividends to you (meaning “mind your own business” if it doesn’t involve you).

#5: Negative Replay

If something negative keeps playing on your mind do a meditation to heal the negative opinions you may have about that. Forgive people that were involved and if necessary, forgive yourself for your involvement. Just keep cleaning up the past a bit at a time.

#6: Night Regrouping

Don’t go to sleep with negative thoughts about you or your actions during the day. forgive yourself for anything you thought may have been poor judgement and don’t listen to the voices in your head that may harass you.

#7: Our Journey

Remember we are only here on planet earth on a temporary mission and a solo journey. If we lose loved ones, it’s their journey not ours and everybody has their own angels who can prevent untimely or unnecessary experiences such as death. It’s best to accept it as being a positive part of your life even though your heart feels like it’s being ripped out.

When death creates prolonged grieving:

Sometimes people don’t make a clean transition and with love and devotion in their heart hang around people on planet earth. This can create incredible emotional reactions and a sense of depression and even in some cases, suicide. We have to realise that this person is not where they need to be and are draining the energy of their loved ones. It is important for them to seek help to make transition. If you are experiencing something similar, get in touch.

Where to get more information:

If you would like more information on what happens during, and what blocks a successful transition, grab a copy of ‘The Constitution of The Soul’ for an in-depth explanation and understanding on this topic.

What can you do now?

Read other articles related to this topic:

1. The Pursuit of Perfection

2. 50 Life Affirming Affirmations

3. Dave Grohl - Perfection can be a Beast - Ian Mansell

#livingillumination #spiritualenlightenment #awakening #howtoawaken #spirituality #spiritualdevelopment #meditation #mentalhealth #howtoimproveyourmeantlhealth


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A dead planet is orbiting a dead sun in a distant dead solar system

Space 4 April 2019

A dead planet in a dead star system

The whoosh of a dying world

University of Warwick/Mark Garlick

A piece of a planet that survived the cataclysmic explosion of its star has been spotted orbiting the stellar corpse. This gives us a glimpse of what our solar system may look like when the sun dies.

Christopher Manser at the University of Warwick in Coventry, UK, and his colleagues noticed something unusual when they were observing a white dwarf — the remnant of a star that has consumed all of its fuel — 400 light years away.

The team were looking at a dusty ring around the star thought to be formed from planets destroyed when the dying star exploded in a supernova. They detected a fluctuation in the wavelength of the light emitted by the dust. The signal repeated every two hours, suggesting there was a moving stream of gas in the ring, orbiting the white dwarf rapidly.

Although the team is unable to see the source of the gas because it is small and faint, Manser says it is probably a solid object like an asteroid or a piece of a planet. It may have a radius of 400 kilometres, almost as big as that of Ceres, the largest asteroid in our solar system. It is probably producing gas as it sublimes or collides with dust particles as it whirls around the white dwarf.

Moreover, the object is very close to the white dwarf because it completes a full orbit every two hours – if it was in the same orbit in our solar system, it would be inside the sun, Manser says.

That means it must be very dense and perhaps made of iron or other heavy metals to prevent it from being torn apart by the white dwarf’s gravity, he says.

“Most rocky planets in our galaxy are also composed of the same elements,” says Ben Zuckerman at the University of California, Los Angeles. So he suggests that planets in our solar system could share the same fate.

It is thought that our sun will die in about five billion years, and Mercury, Venus and Earth will almost certainly be engulfed in the explosion, but Mars, which is further from the sun, may survive and continue to orbit the remains.

Journal reference: Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.aat5330

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