romania | Musicosity

Abis ABIS, a project started in 2000 by recording engineer Costin Dumitrache and architect Marina Gingirof as a mix between trip-pop dreamscapes and psychedelic guitar riffs; everything spiced up with cool keyboards arrangements, theremin explorations and ethereal Marinas voice. During 2005 , 15 years old keyboardist Horatiu Serbanescu joined the project. He's studing classical music and add a flavour of classy sounds and noises.

Artist Type:

Negura Bunget

This is an incorrect tag for Negură Bunget. Negură Bunget is a black metal band from Timişoara, Romania. The name is taken from archaic Romanian meaning 'Forest in the Mist'.
They combine Romanian history and folklore into a mystical adventure, quite literally inspired by their homeland, Transylvania. Formed in 1995 by Hupogrammos Disciple's (vocals, guitar, keyboards) and Negru (drums, xylophone) under the name Wiccan Rede, the group recorded their first demo...

Artist Type:
Audio :

Mahala Rai Banda

Mahala Raï Banda is a Romanian band with members originating from the Romanian villages of Zece Prajini (Ten Fields) and Clejani, and retired soldiers from Moldavia.
Shaped in the Gypsy ghettos (Mahala) around Bucharest, Mahala Rai Banda (literally Noble Band from the Ghetto), combines a surprising array of trends and styles. Combining Romanian violins & accordions with a brass section consisting of army brass band veterans and a rocking rhythm section, they're the rising band from the Balkans.

Artist Type:

Artist Type:

There are at least 19 different artists named Iris:
1) An American band formed in 1993.
2) A Romanian group formed in 1977.
3) A Chilean band.
4) An instrumental band featuring Marillion members Ian Mosley and Pete Trewavas.
5) A Spanish singer from Barcelona.
6) A music group specialized on Touhou and it's music.
7) An Australian band.
8) A German band.
9) A Portuguese band.
10) A British band from Derby.
11) A Hungarian band.

Read more about Iris on

Artist Type:

Mihai Popoviciu

Mihai Popoviciu is considered as being one of the best electro producers from Romania and Eastern Europe. Born in 1981, Mihai found himself attracted to the rave scene of the mid 90s and at the age of 15 he discovered house music and detroit techno through Berlin House, a TV show from the german music channel Viva TV. His passion for the electronic sound grew very fast and after 4 years of being obsessed with techno, by the time he was 19, he started producing his own music.

Read more about Mihai Popoviciu on

Artist Type:

Michael Cretu

Artist Type:


By Deniz Kaya

Medical Ethics 1.jpg

Within this article, I’ll be aiming to cover a bit about the ethical side of medicine and some of the main dilemmas that doctors will commonly experience within their career. It’ll basically be a quick look into how to act correctly, with common sense and to the benefit of your patient. I’ve done this by selecting 3 different problems which are especially common within interviews.

The first is the problem of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The question is that given a circumstance in which blood transfusion was necessary for a person who was a Jehovah’s Witness, let’s say they’ve had a car accident and an injury has resulted in a situation where they lost a large amount of blood, would you consider it acceptable to transfuse them with a quantity of blood even though their religion may have rules that forbid them from accepting it?

The second will be the problem of a patient that has been diagnosed with HIV. Namely, if a patient has HIV but is doing everything within their power to make sure that they are safe near other people, implying that they are abstaining from sex and being under close review at a nearby hospital, should you tell their partner that they have contracted the disease?

The third is the problem of vaccination, which I thought may be relevant to bring up due to the recent outbreak of measles that has been publicized within Europe. I’d like to extend this one a little bit by referencing a smaller case study with similar circumstances that occurred just a few years ago, and to make parallels between that and the situation faced currently. The question here is should we forcibly vaccinate people, so likely anti-vaxxers, in order to make sure that themselves and people in contact are safer around them, despite them not giving consent?

Before we begin it is important to note the 4 pillars under which medical ethics acts. This is important because it is with the consideration of these 4 pillars that doctors and those within the medical profession act when presented with a medical dilemma.

These are:

Autonomy - which is defined as respect for the patient’s right to self-determination. Within law this would be reflected under the principles of consent, confidentiality or privacy.

That is to say that whether or not a patient provides you with consent to perform an action or to tell or not to tell people certain details, is an exercise of their autonomy.

Beneficence – the duty to ‘do good'. Legally, this would be reflected under the Negligence Law.

So that is to say that the duty to do good would be reflected under not being negligent towards your patient and thus treating your patient to the best of your ability.

This was solidified in the case of Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital.

 Mary Schloendorff was admitted to New York Hospital to evaluate and treat a stomach disorder. Some weeks into her stay at the hospital, the house physician diagnosed a fibroid tumor. The visiting physician recommended surgery, which Schloendorff adamantly declined. She consented to an examination under ether anesthesia. During the procedure, the doctors performed surgery to remove the tumor. Afterwards, Schloendorff developed gangrene in the left arm, ultimately leading to the amputation of some fingers. Schloendorff blamed the surgery and filed a case against them.

Would performing a surgery to the patient’s benefit without their consent be seen the same way as a crime which constitutes around 6 months in prison or a fine?

Non-Maleficence – the duty to ‘not do bad’

Criminal Law and Negligence Law Regulation reflect this. So, obeying the law and not being negligent would come under non-magnificence.

And finally, Justice – to treat all people equally and equitably.

That is reflected under Anti-discrimination law, that is to not discriminate against any type of person. Recently, we have seen this with the areas of the medical profession as using gender neutral pronouns,

Table from ‘A New Gender Neutral Honorific: ‘RP’’, Gary P Wormser

And of course, it is important to note that this applies to people that are not only of different orientations or beliefs, but also murderers, rapists, and any other type of criminal. You have a duty to treat these people as well.

First starting off with the problem of blood transfusions, the problem is that Jehovah’s Witnesses see blood transfusions as being sacrilegious, that is to say that the blood transfusion is

“Considered a great disrespect of the source of life,” and the official faith’s website says that abstaining from blood is

“As important as abstaining from sexual immorality and idolatry.” So there is obviously the problem of consent. You’d likely go around this by finding methods to follow the rules and hence obey patient consent but doing so taking into account the restrictions that are present.

This is done through many methods one of which is cell salvage. That is taking blood of that person before it is needed, putting it through a machine that ‘cleans’ it and makes it suitable to be reintroduced into the body. In this way, if the blood is ever needed although it is a blood transfusion it is not technically considered to be against the faith.

This is because as long as the patient is able to view the tubing that their blood will be passed in before it is transfused as simply an extension of their body, that is to say that anything the blood is kept in, then technically the sanctimony of their own blood is maintained and no rules are broken.

Another more interesting way includes giving them cell fractions instead. While accepting transfusions of whole blood is out of the question for Jehovah’s Witnesses, the faith does give members some leeway regarding ‘blood products’ like plasma, platelets, and red or white blood cells.

The Jehovah’s Witness publication, ‘The Watchtower’, addresses the questions of whether blood fractions are okay to accept since they’re not, “Whole blood.” The organization’s answer basically boils down to: “We cannot say. The Bible does not give details, so a Christian must make his own conscientious decision before God.”

Taking this into account, it is your duty under being beneficent, meaning that in order for your patient to make the best possible decision you must inform them of as much as you can, including the risks and any concerns that they may have.

Secondly, we move onto HIV and the issue of confidentiality, namely that if your patient doesn’t give their consent for you to tell their partner that they have HIV, what do you do?

Although this is a very complex issue, it essentially boils down to the circumstance and if there is a legal obligation or a greater public interest to disclose the circumstance of a patient. That is to say that even though you are taking the best effort possible in order to follow the rules of patient consent, you need to take into account that the lesser of two evils would be the discomfort of one patient in telling others about their circumstance, when there are others at risk from this decision.

To clarify, a document from the NAT or National Aids Trust, which has a role in protecting the rights of its patients, also has a viewpoint in patient confidentiality, where they express the same sentiment. Although they also mention that in the case of our initial question, anyone under the category of a ‘sexual partner’, a doctor would almost certainly inform them despite the lack of consent.

The BMJ or British Journal of Medicine, expresses the same point, although they mention that the degree of harm needs to be significant if the doctor wishes to disclose to the general public. Rather than doing this with HIV, they instead recommend that this is done with highly infectious diseases instead or those that pose a significant risk. For example, if your patient told you that they would continue to have sexual intercourse despite having the disease, you have the duty to do everything in your power to stop them from doing so, including bypassing patient confidentiality.

Some other viewpoints to consider would include these questions:

The fact that some may consider the lack of keeping patient confidentiality as treating them different towards others, which goes against the principle of equality.

That doctors should take more into account that there is a stigma around HIV and that the doctor should do their best to help the patient overcome this.

And the idea that public health should always be valued over patient confidentiality. It could be seen as negligence if you do not do this.

For the issue of vaccination and anti-vaxxers, I’d like to relate this to a case study and to the recent outbreak of measles within Europe.

It has resulted in around 70 deaths within the Philippines, for which ‘anti-vaxxers’ have been blamed.

It has also increased in number of reported cases by around 50% to 2.3 million last year, affecting countries all across the world. It is important to note that the UK has eradicated all measles within the country, so it is incredibly unlikely that it will spread over here. We are also generally more educated and likely to know that vaccination is an important aspect of maintaining public health, therefore have a statistically lower number of anti-vaxxers.

This case is very similar to the measles outbreak in Disneyland a few years back. Not only was it the same disease, measles, due to the same cause, anti-vaxxers which acted as vectors for the spread of the highly infectious disease but it also originated from the same predicted country, within the Philippines. So there are some relevant similarities there.

When thinking about whether or not to vaccinate one individual it is important to take into account certain questions. Whilst we are used to anti-vaxxers being generally illogical activists that are based around false information and delusion, it is important to note that there are some valid reasons as to why certain individuals would not want themselves to be vaccinated.

This would include, for example:

An allergic or adverse reaction to a vaccine meaning that not receiving the vaccine would be safer for the patient than to have the risks associated with the contraction of that disease.

Or from the following slightly crazier reasons, cited by the BMJ:

Vaccines cause idiopathic illness,

Vaccines as poisonous chemical cocktails,

Cover up,

Unholy alliance for profit,

Towards totalitarianism,

Vaccine immunity is temporary,

Vaccines are ineffective,

Healthy lifestyle alternative.

Unfortunately, unless you are legally obligated to vaccinate the child, in which case you have the precedent to bypass the consent of the parent, if the vaccination is optional and the parent has the power to reject it without going against the law, then nothing can be done on the doctor’s end.

You need to respect the decision of the parent to not vaccinate their child.

However, there are alternative actions that one could take, which are interesting:

Relating back to the Disneyland Case Study, the state of California has now taken approaches to make sure that vaccination of children is within law:

Various charities have started programmes to make vaccination cheaper so that more parents are able to vaccinate. Keep in mind, this is in the US where they don’t have the NHS.

And improving education and improving access to education. Though there are various education schemes that have started as a result of this outbreak, the case of a Reddit user getting vaccinated after asking online, tells us how not only education can help but also making this type of information and advice more widely available.


SIAM’s first time in the CPhI North America

From April 30th to May 2nd SIAM took part as an exhibitor in the CPhI North America, which was developed in Chicago.

The 2019 edition has been organized by joining together seven subcategories under the CPhi umbrella. These seven smaller events were INFOMEX, ICSE, FDF, BIOLIFE, INNOPACK and P-MEC.

SIAM booth received several potential customer visits coming from different chemical sectors, so we can figure out what are the different challenges faced by them regarding their sectors.

As well, almost every country was present in the tradeshow, being bigger the number of Indian, Egyptian and American companies.

SIAM and our software Chemeter (safety data sheet authoring software) have impressed all visitors who came close to the booth, because they saw how the program can be adapted to the necessities and legislative requirements arising in the different chemical industries, such as pharmaceuticals, painting and coatings or personal care ones.


Disease focus

Specialty medicines

Peptides have proven to be effective drugs in a number of different diseases, with a significant untapped potential across many therapy areas. We are committed to deliver innovation and life-changing impact for people suffering from some of these specialty and rare diseases.

Gastrointestinal (GI) diseases

Diseases of the digestive system affect multiple organs, including the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines as well as the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. More than 180 GI diseases affect many millions of people.
Some of these diseases have a high prevalence, such as ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), but the majority of the GI diseases affect smaller patient populations. There remains a significant need for innovation, as most GI diseases are not served well by current therapies.
We have a solid and advancing understanding of the molecular and
cellular mechanisms dysregulated in GI diseases. Multiple regulatory peptides and secretory factors are produced by the gastrointestinal tract, and these represent high potential novel therapeutic targets.

Metabolic diseases

The world is facing a major obesity problem, increasing the prevalence of metabolic diseases, including diabetes. These diseases are associated with deleterious changes in the body’s ability to transform the food we eat into the fuel required to keep us alive. There is a complex interplay between the digestive system, liver, pancreas, endocrine system, body fat and muscle which, if altered, can result in the body having too much or too little of an essential element.
Aside from diabetes, there are hundreds of metabolic diseases, many of which are very rare and with no therapy available.


Witch Hole at the Aigner Park in Salzburg

Waterfall in a small cave known as the “witch hole” in Salzburg.

The cave entrance has been artificially prepared in the 18th century to be some sort of background for poetry and artsy performances.

Especially in fall, the whole area appears enchanted and you lose yourself in dreams of gnomes and fairies.

At least until an adrenaline-laden mountainbiker hits you on his downhill race.


3 Steps You Can Take to alleviate Your Sports Anxiety

3 Steps You Can Take to alleviate Your Sports Anxiety

Those who have took part in a recreations competition may know about the notion of sports anxiety. Usually referred to as “choking,” sports anxiety can most useful be referred to as the onslaught of nervousness, fear or anxiety effective at interfering along with your performance. In the event that you’ve managed activities anxiety, your athletic performance might be hindered by observed anxiety, Which can be both frustrating and discouraging. Anxiety and anxiety can cause the body to be tense, and athletes working with recreations anxiety may possibly not be in a position to perform to your most readily useful of these abilities.

Before you decide to can look for an easy method of handling your recreations anxiety, though, you should first figure out its source.

What Is Causing Sports Anxiousness?

A number of factors can donate to your performance anxiety. In the event that youhave anxiety that is social, you could fear social situations, which could make performance hard. You may be frightened of losing control over your system out of exhaustion. You may be as intimidated by success while you are of failure.

Individuals usually encounter anxiety as a result of an element that is future such as A perceived risk or threat of risk. There’s two forms of threats which could affect athletes: a danger to safety that is personal a threat to one’s ego. If you have got activities anxiety, you may possibly worry losing.

The signs of recreations anxiety include the immediate following:

Emotions of apprehension

Feelings of powerlessness

Experiencing a feeling of panic or danger that is impending

Increased heartrate

Fast breathing

about cbd oil Shaking

Tiredness or real weakness

Whilst it’s quite normal for everybody to have a number of among these signs every so often, athletes coping with anxiety problems may experience these symptoms usually and thus seriously which they carry the possible to negatively impact their performance.

Some athletes are more vulnerable to the results of recreations anxiety than the others. Amateur athletes, for example, are more inclined to be effected as amounts of self-confidence may are likely involved in your capability to regularly face competition. You are more likely to if you are confident in your abilities favorably respond to the anxiety often related to competition. Individuals with high quantities of self- confidence in their performance that is athletic are expected to interpret the arousal of competition as a supply of excitement Rather than anxiety or stress.

Athletes whom compete in individual recreations will also be prone to experience sports anxiety. This can be due to team morale or perhaps the absence thereof. Participants in specific activities face the pressures of competition alone. Addititionally there is proof to declare that groups playing far from their house courts or industries are far more most likely experience greater quantities of anxiety, which can be due to a mix of fan help and unfamiliarity.

What exactly is Sport Psychology?

Sport psychology is definitely a certain section of therapy meant to prepare athletes’ psychological states in front of competition. Sports psychologists work closely with athletes to assist in handling their performance anxiety.

a wide range of issues can influence negative athletic performance. Problems with growth or development, strained relationships, academic stress, time management or concerns that are financial all play a task in a person’s psychological state before competition. It’s the work of activities psychologists to navigate these negative impacts to advertise a good mind-set.

What exactly is Mental Techniques Training?

In athletics, psychological skills refer to an athlete’s internal capabilities to get a handle on their minds in a competent, consistent way to experience sport-related objectives. Mental skills training explores these processes and teaches athletes a variety of ways to develop abilities like concentration and self-esteem that is enhanced.

Psychological skills practices assistance athletes change their actions and thoughts in order to improve their performance. Psychological state abilities training might help athletes attain the annotated following:

Produce a good mind-set toward competition

Set objectives

Definitely visualize

Usage imagery to hone competitive skills

Focus attention

Improve concentration

Overcome adversity

Improve error management

Reducing Sports Anxiety Prior To The Event

Following a routine before, during and after you participate in activities will help you handle cases of recreations anxiety. If you are feeling a rise of anxiety or stress coming on, it is important to become in tuned along with it. Accept your fear-based emotions in place of minimizing them. Know that the rush of adrenaline you’re feeling is normal, one of the body’s many responses that are natural.

Get ready mentally and physically before your event. Appear early to make certain you are not rushing, that could raise the number of stress you feel. When you arrive, extend, heat up and familiarize yourself with all the Playing or course field.

Have a minutes that are few visualize the task ahead. Breathe, close your eyes and photo your self doing everything right. Good ideas are effective. Just changing your mindset can impact your positively performance.

Reducing Sports Anxiousness Through The Occasion

It’s important to put your concentrate on the task as opposed to the potential outcome. Show up, and get away from taking into consideration the finish. It is very easy to psych yourself out, but by simply emphasizing what exactly is prior to you — in place of just exactly what you can do in the foreseeable future — it is possible to place your power to the here-and-now.

Interrupt an onslaught of mental poison by targeting your respiration. Centering on your respiration rhythm will make sure you come in the current.

Perform just as if the results does matter that is n’t. This mind-set can really help flake out you while increasing your satisfaction associated with the sport.

Using particular steps after your recreations occasion can pave just how for good experiences as time goes by. Review your performance, and recognize the aspects where you did well. Give attention to ideas, actions and habits that helped you in your performance. Acknowledge, then dismiss thoughts or actions that adversely impacted your performance.

a quantity of techniques will allow you to handle your recreations anxiety. From breathing exercises to all-natural remedies that improve anxiety that is quick relief, there are many techniques to relieve the negative emotions you sometimes may feel whenever participating in recreations.

Do the jitters are got by you before taking part in activities? Just What techniques do you realy used to overcome your activities anxiety? Write to us within the opinions below.


Another notion we concerned ourselves with was, of course, memory. But at that time, in the 1950s, I was at odds with most of my colleagues who were dealing with memory. As I see it, memory for biological systems cannot be dead storage of isolated data but must be a dynamic process that involves the whole system in computing what is going on at the moment and what may happen in the future. The mind does not have a particular section for memory, another for counting, and another for language. The whole system has memory, can count, can add, can write papers, and so forth.

Heinz von Foerster: Understanding Understanding-Essays on Cybernetics and Cognition. Link: http://pangaro.com/Heinz-von-Foerster/Heinz_Von_Foerster-Understanding_Understanding.pdf

                                                                                And more:


Live Happy

Better Sleep

The Truth Behind 10 Sleep Myths
By Eileen Livers
Published 4/30/2012
Decrease text size Increase text size
Go! to Sleep
If you have difficulty sleeping sometimes or tend to experience insomnia, you may think you know the do’s and don’ts of getting a good night’s sleep. But, as you’re about to learn, there are a lot of myths out there about sleep that only create more problems when it comes to getting the rest we need. We asked Michelle Drerup, PsyD, of the Cleveland Clinic Sleep Disorders Center, the creator of the online program GO! to Sleep, to share the top 10 myths about sleep — plus the important truth behind each one.
Myth: You need eight hours of sleep a night.
Truth: Everyone has different sleep needs.
There is absolutely nothing magical about the number eight. The amount of sleep we need at night to feel alert during the day varies from person to person. For some, it may in fact be eight, but for others that needed number may be six. The key is to figure out your individual sleep needs and not to stress about needing exactly eight hours of sleep each night. You can figure out your individual sleep needs based on how many hours of sleep lead to you feeling rested and restored the next day.
Myth: More sleep is always better.
Truth: Studies show that excess sleep is not necessarily healthy.
Studies have found that people who sleep between six and eight hours a night actually have the lowest death rates, while those sleeping more than eight hours a night have progressively increasing rates of death. Although it’s unclear whether sleeping longer causes poor health or is actually a symptom or result of other health issues, some health issues do correlate with spending more time in bed, including obstructive sleep apnea, depression and uncontrolled diabetes.
Myth: Sleeping late on weekends makes up for lost sleep Monday through Friday.
Truth: Consistency is best — our bodies prefer that we rise at the same time every morning.
This pattern of lack of sleep during the week and “catching up” by bingeing on sleep over the weekend upsets your circadian rhythms and makes it even harder to get refreshing sleep. Which is why Sunday nights tend to be the most difficult night for people to fall asleep. It’s easy to see why: If you sleep in until 11 a.m. on Sunday morning, you can’t expect your body to be ready to go to sleep by 10 p.m. just because you have to wake up at 6 a.m. Monday for work. That tossing and turning in bed? That’s your sleep drive telling you that it didn’t get the chance to build up enough steam to be ready for snoozing. And so, instead of correcting your deficit of lack of sleep from the week before, you make things worse — creating a cycle of sleep problems.
Myth: Watching TV in bed can help you wind down and fall asleep.
Truth: Watching TV close to bedtime and especially in the bedroom hinders quality sleep.
Television is stimulating (the noise, the flashing light, the engagement of your brain), and certain nighttime shows (crime dramas, the nightly news) also add tension to the mix — which obviously doesn’t help you relax and get ready to snooze. And if you watch TV while in bed, you wind up associating being in bed with being awake, not with being asleep. Watching in bed can also lead to middle-of-the-night wakening if you fall asleep with the TV on.
TV isn’t the only sleep-incompatible activity common in bed. You should also avoid eating, talking on the phone, checking e-mail, working and paying bills. Talk about tension!
Myth: When you can’t sleep, you should just rest in bed.
Truth: When you can’t sleep, you should get out of bed.
Lying in bed for long periods of time not sleeping leads to “conditioned arousal,” which means that you learn to pair the bed and bedroom with being awake rather than with being asleep — a problem for anyone experiencing sleep problems. And since lying in bed awake when what you really want to be doing is sleeping typically causes you to feel upset, frustrated and annoyed, you’re not really resting, are you?
Myth: OTCs are safer than prescription sleep aids.
Truth: OTCs have a host of side effects you’re better off avoiding.
I’m not a big fan of using sleep medications for the long term, especially over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which often have side effects. Yes, you’re trying to sleep, but the drowsiness caused by the antihistamines in many of these products is not the feeling you need, especially when you might end up feeling drowsy — and lousy — the next day. With OTC drugs, you may also experience blurred vision, muddled thinking and dry mouth.
Both OTC and prescription sleep aids can lose their effectiveness over time, but the problem is greater with OTC products. Some people worry about becoming addicted to prescription sleep aids, but the truth is that unless you have a substance abuse disorder, the risk is rather modest.
If you’re going to try a sleep aid, please discuss it with your doctor before you self-medicate. Your doctor should be able to help you find the right solution, whether it’s medication or a treatment plan that includes lifestyle changes and adjustments to your sleep patterns.
Myth: Alcohol helps you sleep.
Truth: Alcohol can help you fall asleep — but not stay asleep.
It’s true that alcohol makes you feel drowsy and that it can help you initially fall asleep — it is a depressant, after all. The trouble starts after you’ve fallen asleep: Alcohol creates problems during the second half of the sleep cycle, when the relaxing effects have worn off. Alcohol has what’s called a short half-life, which means that it wears off relatively quickly. Once it does, your body experiences rebound arousal and insomnia. Making matters worse, alcohol usually suppresses deep sleep and makes sleep far less refreshing than normal. It causes lighter, fragmented sleep with more awakenings, especially in the early morning. If you’re going to drink alcohol in the evening, your best bet is to limit your consumption and stop at least a few hours before bedtime.
Myth: If you’re experiencing insomnia, napping can help reduce exhaustion.
Truth: If you’re having sleep problems, napping often makes the problem worse.
For people who usually don’t have problems with sleep at night, a short afternoon nap can be very helpful for making it through a tiresome day. Research suggests that a 45-minute daytime nap can improve memory function and lower blood pressure. It may even reduce death by cardiovascular events.
However, for people with insomnia, napping can actually be counterproductive because it reduces your chances of sleeping a full night. Avoiding all naps if possible provides better preparation for a more continuous sleep period at night.
Myth: It doesn’t matter if you miss sleep — you’ll just be tired.
Truth: Sleep is essential for your body to perform routine maintenance.
Sleep is more than simply a period of rest. In fact, it ranks right up there with diet and exercise in terms of being vital to your health and well-being. During sleep, your body works hard — creating long-term memories and doing repair damage from the day. There’s a reason people advice you to “sleep on it” prior to making a big decision. One of the benefits of sleep is that it allows your brain to better process new experiences and information, which leads to increased understanding and retention. In addition, while you’re sleeping your body produces extra protein molecules that help your immune system and strengthen your ability to fight infection and stay healthy.
Myth: Exercising before bed makes you tired and, therefore, helps you sleep.
Truth: Exercising can help sleep, but not right before bed.
While it’s true that exercise can help you sleep, doing it too close to bedtime can result in the opposite effect. Exercise stimulates your heart, brain and muscles — the opposite of what you want to happen if you’re trying to snooze. It also raises your body temperature right before bed, which is counterproductive to sleep as well. That said, regular exercise — performed at the right time — can help you sleep longer and more soundly, as well as feel more awake during the day.
Morning exercise can relieve stress and improve mood, which can have indirect improvements on sleep. And if you head outdoors, exposure to natural light can improve sleep at night by reinforcing your body’s natural sleep-wake cycle.
The late afternoon is another good time to exercise because of the relationship between body temperature and sleep. Body temperatures rise during exercise and take as long as six hours to begin to drop. Late afternoon exercise coincides nicely, with the body temperature cooling off just before the onset of sleep. Choose what works best for you — just be sure to get in your workout at least three hours before bedtime.

Get Your Daily Tip
Start living healthier with our FREE daily wellness tips!
Go! to Sleep Program

Tell Me More


triangle free

Bounding the chromatic number of triangle-free graphs with fixed maximum degree ★★

Author(s): Kostochka; Reed

Keywords: chromatic number; girth; maximum degree; triangle free

Author(s): Chudnovsky; Seymour; Sullivan

Keywords: acyclic; digraph; feedback edge set; triangle free

Circular coloring triangle-free subcubic planar graphs ★★

Author(s): Ghebleh; Zhu

Problem   Does every triangle-free planar graph of maximum degree three have circular chromatic number at most $ \frac{20}{7} $?

Keywords: circular coloring; planar graph; triangle free

Unions of triangle free graphs ★★★

Author(s): Erdos; Hajnal

Problem   Does there exist a graph with no subgraph isomorphic to $ K_4 $ which cannot be expressed as a union of $ \aleph_0 $ triangle free graphs?

Keywords: forbidden subgraph; infinite graph; triangle free

Triangle free strongly regular graphs ★★★

Problem   Is there an eighth triangle free strongly regular graph?

Keywords: strongly regular; triangle free

Syndicate content


You are on page 1of 15

Availability and unavailability factors of thermal generating plants DEFINITIONS AND METHODS OF CALCULATION

WEC / UNIPEDE (1991)

Determination of the unavailability factor of thermal generating plant is necessary in order to estimate the reserve capacity required in generating and transmission systems as compensation for the total unavailable capacity in all generating plants. It is therefore of very great importance for public electricity utilities. Errors made in assessing the amount of reserve capacity required result either in excessive capital investment or in shortfalls in supplies to consumers.
Various methods and means have been used in different countries to determine this unavailability factor. A Joint Committee set up by UNIPEDE and World Energy Council (WEC) has outlined the definitions and methods of calculation necessary whereby the availability Statistics on thermal generating plants in the various countries can be made comparable. This booklet gives the definitions and methods of calculation adopted by the Joint Committee with the reasons of the choice of statistics based on energy. The harmonization aimed at is that of the statistical results regarding the availability of thermal power stations, or more exactly, of operating units. A thermal power station may comprise units belonging to various categories, the results of which, with regard to non-availability, will be incorporated into overall results for each category. The energy availability of a generating unit, considered from the viewpoint of the reserve required to compensate for partially or totally defective units, is therefore expressed by a factor generally situated between zero and unity or by a rate generally between zero and 100%, with reference to its real or potential generating capacity. In counterpart to the networks point of view, which leads to the idea of energy availability, UNIPEDE has carried out studies on the producers point of view, which leads to the idea of unit capability factor (UCF). The latter idea is a derivative of the former, incorporating the fact that the producer, in order to properly assess the technical performance of his installation, cannot include as penalizing factors the reasons for unavailability which are not under his control, but which may penalize the network. Most of the present document, although updated in 1991, will continue to refer to the idea of energy availability. Section XVI shows a new aspect in the calculation of the unit capability factor, with the corresponding results remaining optional. Section II describes the various methods used to calculate the energy availability of generating units, from the networks point of view. II VARIOUS BASES FOR STATISTICS ON THE ENERGY AVAILABILITY AND NONAVAILABILITY OF GENERATING UNITS In the following, the terms 'availability factor' and 'unavailability factor' will both be used with the understanding that these two rates are complementary to 100%. It is important to note that the availability factor, which is thus equal to the complement of 100% of the unavailability factor, does not correspond to the term 'availability' used by the Edison Electric Institute since 1960, but, for a long period of service, approximates to the term 'Equivalent availability' defined by the E.E.I. in 1975. In the calculations of 'availability' made by the E.E.I., partial outages were not and are not taken into account, a unit being considered 'available' if it is capable of supplying power to the network, whatever the level of this power. In order to determine the unavailability factor of a thermal generating unit, three dimensions have been used in statistics: time, capacity and energy. Statistics based on time are determined by the ratio of the outage time to the period of observation. This simple method does not take into account the length of the partial outages during which the unit could supply only a fraction of its capacity. This disadvantage could be avoided by calculating, in the case of

partial outages, the equivalent outage time at full capacity, but this amounts to multiplying outage time by the non-available capacity thus obtaining a statistic based on energy. Statistics based on capacity use instantaneous unavailability factors corresponding to periodic checks, and their arithmetic mean can be calculated. The partial outages affecting the unit at the time of check are taken into account; the variations in the availability between checks are neglected. Statistics based on energy use the product of the non-available capacity and the length of the outage referred to the product of the reference capacity and the length of the period of observation. The partial outages are automatically taken into account, as well as any variation in the availability. Thus, it can be seen that for the unavailability factor of a single thermal unit, the most reliable statistic is the one based on energy; the statistics based on time neglect partial outages or are transformed into statistics based on energy. Statistics based on capacity checks do not take account of variations in availability between checks. When one has to determine the non-availability not of a single unit but of a group of units of different capacities, the number of which may vary in the course of the observation period, the statistics based on time or on capacity must be converted to an energy non-availability statistic in order to form a valid basis for estimating the reserve capacity required over the whole of the generating and transmission system: Statistics based on time, the unavailability factors must be weighted by the corresponding capacity, since a given unavailability factor will require a reserve capacity proportional to the capacity this factor refers to. The statistics will then be based on time multiplied by capacities, hence on energy. In the case of statistics based on energy, the unavailability factors must be weighted by the length of time during which the capacity has remained constant. It would in fact be incorrect to calculate the arithmetic mean of the unavailability factor with reference to widely differing capacities.

In short, the unavailability factor of a group of thermal units, the composition of which may vary during the observation period, is based either directly or indirectly on energy. It is worth noting that the unavailability factor in question is that used for estimating the reserve capacity which is needed to compensate the outage of all the thermal units, in an electricity generation and distribution system. These are the reasons why the members of the Joint Committee had a marked preference from the first meeting onwards for international statistics for the availability and unavailability of generating units based on energy. However, before coming to a final decision on this point, each member of the Joint Committee as well as the corresponding members, described the characteristics of the statistics used in their countries and the possibilities of adapting their calculation methods so as to obtain results which would correspond to an energy-based statistic. After considering the various replies, the members opted at the second meeting for the principle of an international statistic based on energy, therefore selecting the grids point of view.

In the case of energy-based statistics on thermal generating plant availability and non-availability, the dimensions involved in the calculations are capacity and time. The capacities used are the reference capacity in the case of total availability, and the available capacity. The times used are the period of observation to which the statistics refer and the lengths of time during which the reference capacity and the available capacity have not varied. The definitions adopted by the Joint Committee, reproduced below, are those drawn up by UNIPEDE and published in 1976 in the pamphlet 'Terminology used in statistics in the electricity supply industry'

This pamphlet was updated in 1991, although without any basic change sin the long-established principles and definition used to calculate energy availability and unavailability. IV CHOICE OF REFERENCE CAPACITY The reference capacity selected was the maximum capacity achievable under reference (or average) environmental conditions and hence, for a group of units, the sum of their maximum capacities, since in the case of total availability it is the capacity which can be generated by all the units concerned. The possibility of adjusting the maximum capacity of a unit in the case of permanent modifications to that unit avoids treating as an outage what is in fact a modification to the plant or a readjustment of predicted characteristics. The latter case frequently occurs with nuclear units, the maximum capacity of which may, after a certain length of time, exceed the rated capacity initially allowed for by the manufacturer; in the case of these units, reference to the rated capacity gives an availability greater than 100%, which in calculations is equivalent to a negative outage, which may conceal outages on other units in calculations covering all the units. This is why the rated capacity, which used to be called 'installed capacity'1 was not adopted as a reference capacity. Maximum capacity of a thermal unit or station (kW) The maximum power, or reference capacity, is that which could be produced under continuous operation (15 hours or longer) with the whole plant running and with adequate fuel stocks of normal quality. This value must remain constant for a given thermal unit unless, following permanent modification, the utility management decides to amend the original value. The overload capacity, which can only be maintained for a limited period, must not be taken into account in determining the maximum capacity. Capacity may be gross or net:2 'Gross' is deemed to be measured at the output terminals of all sets in the station; it therefore includes the power taken by stations auxiliaries and losses in transformers that are considered integral parts of the station. 'Net', indicating the maximum power that can be supplied, is deemed to be measured at the point of outlet to the network, i.e. excluding the power taken by station auxiliaries and the losses in the transformers that are considered integral parts of the station.

There is a general move in the different countries towards the adoption of net capacities, which concerns calculation of energy availability, in relation to the grid. For a power station, the term maximum capacity indicates the full potentiality of the whole of the station. The operating conditions briefly indicated in the above definition are: All the plant is considered to be in full working order, after allowing for wear of a permanent nature, and operating exclusively for the production of active power at maximum, not optimum rating, compatible with the specified period of operation and to accepted standards Unlimited supplies of fuel of usual quality and water supplies at normal volume, temperature and purity are available, in particular the cooling water temperature is the reference value, or the average value noted over a long period, based on available statistics3.

1 The term 'installed capacity', corresponding to 'gross maximum capacity', must be avoided because of the different meaning of the French terms (puissance installee). 2 In Great Britain this capacity is called 'installed capacity', when it is gross and 'maximum capacity' when it is net 3 In the USA the reference capacity often used is the 'maximum dependable capacity', which corresponds to the most severe, and not the normal climatic conditions and water temperature. This amounts to making a distinction between a maximum potential capacity for winter and a maximum capacity for summer, and using the lower of the two as the reference capacity.

Full account is taken of all plant limitations inherent in the unit or station itself; such as the capacity of the pulverising mills and the plant used for fuel handling, ash disposal and the supply of water. Production is not limited by any permanent or temporary restriction on the network or by nature of demand.

The maximum capacity of a group of thermal units or stations is the arithmetic sum of the individual maximum capacities. It therefore takes no account of possible restrictions, permanent or temporary, in the interconnections between these units or stations, with the network, or with consumers. When the group of stations considered includes all the stations in a given region, it may be described as a 'thermal region'. IV AVAILABLE CAPACITY OF THERMAL UNIT OR STATION (KW) The available capacity of a thermal unit or station at any given moment is the maximum power at which the station can be operated for a given period under the prevailing conditions assuming unlimited transmission facilities. Available capacity thus indicates the potentiality under continuous rating at given moment of the unit or station, under real environmental conditions, and given a network assumed to be available and infinite. This refers to available capacity, taking into account the technical station of the equipment and its ability to operate; this capacity does not depend on the despatching instructions. The concept of available capacity can be extended to a group of power stations; the available capacity must be calculated from the total number of power stations whether or not they are in operation. Available capacity may be gross or net, as for the maximum capacity. Available capacity in continuous operation is usually taken as being for 15 hours or longer. Available capacity in continuous operation differs from the maximum capacity by an amount representing the unavailability of plant and the shortages of fuel and water supplies at the time, as well as the existence of various internal or external constraints. It may be determined for a group of thermal stations or for a thermal region under the same conditions as 'maximum capacity'. VII UNAVAILABLE CAPACITY OF A THERMAL STATION: (c) The unavailable capacity of a thermal station is the difference between the maximum capacity (a) and the available capacity (b) c=a-b (kW) The two terms a and b in the subtraction must be capacities of the same kind, gross or net; the use of net capacities is tending to become general in the calculation of energy availability. The unavailable capacity can be divided between: cl: capacity not available due to planned maintenance. This maintenance must be such that it can be planned in advance, generally at the beginning of the year or when the annual maintenance schedule is drawn up; the start of which can be deferred and to a large extent controlled to suit operating conditions. UNIPEDE has defined a planned outage as one announced at least four weeks in advance. c2: capacity not available for any other reason.

When the period of unavailability exceeds the planned time for maintenance, the unavailable capacity in this excess period should .be classified under c2. Moreover, UNIPEDE has decided to consider as planned those outages, or unavailabilities, resulting from testing or periodic inspections, as long as these operations are regular and systematic, and do not highlight any particular deficiency in the installation. Since the start of these tests may be negotiated on a short-term basis with the grid dispatcher, they are not subject to the rule of four weeks (it is the commissioning programme for these tests and inspections which must respect this rule). An unavailability which is planned for a certain period but displaced in time for operational reasons would still be considered as 'planned' so long as its expected duration is not exceeded; if the duration does exceed that originally expected the excess corresponds to 'unplanned' unavailability. For the division of outages into two categories the 'planned' criterion was preferred to the 'forced outage' criterion. The reason is that the definition of planned outages is practically the same in the USA and in Europe, whereas the definition of forced outage is different in the USA and in Europe and even differs from one country to another within Europe. VIII ENERGY AVAILABILITY AND UNAVAILABILITY OVER A SPECIFIED PERIOD The energy availability factor (EAF) over a specified period: is the ratio of the energy B that the available capacity (b) could have produced during this period to the energy A that the maximum capacity (a) could have produced during the same period: EAF : f =B/A (expressed in % of the energy which could have been produced during this period by the maximum capacity). The energies B and A are given by the formulae: B = b.dt or B = b .tb A = a.dt or A = a .ta where tb =duration of available capacity b ta =duration of maximum capacity a The energy unavailability factor over a specified period: (g), is the ratio of the energy C that could have been produced during this period by a capacity equal to the unavailable capacity (c), and the energy A that could have been produced during the same period by the maximum capacity (a): g = C/A (expressed in % of the energy which could have been produced during this period by the maximum capacity). The energy C is given by the formula: C = c.dt or C = where tc = duration of unavailable capacity c. The unavailability factor (g) over a specified period can be divided between: gl = unavailability factor due to -planned maintenance work g2 = unavailability factor due to all other reasons. The defining equations are:

gl = 1/A c1.dt or gl = (cl.tc1)/A g2=1/A c2 dt or g2 = (c2 .tc2)/A where tcl and tc2 are respectively the period during which the capacity is not available due to: Note 1 The availability and unavailability factors for a specified period can be based on either: a continuous record of the capacities in question, reconstructed from the values of any variation in these capacities; or a finite number of values of these capacities, e.g. every hour, or for simplicity at a given hour each day. annual planned maintenance programme (c1); all other reasons (c2).

In the case of a single determination for each day, it is advised that this should be at 8:00 am (08.00 hours). The statistics should indicate whether they are based on continuous reconstruction using 24-hour values each day or a single value for each day, in the latter case giving the time to which it relates. Note 2 In order to calculate energy availability and unavailability factors over a period made up of a given number of days, e.g. a month, it is advisable to split this period into two, one made up of Saturdays, Sundays and holidays, and the other the remaining days. The most important factors in the determination of the necessary reserve capacity are those relating to days other than Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. IX METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION The principle of energy availability and outage statistics for thermal units based on energy as well as the above definitions may be applied and used with very different methods of data collection, as is suggested by note 1 in the preceding section. Statistics recording outage times may even be used as a basis for energy-based statistics, provided that the partial outages are calculated in equivalent hours of total unavailability and provided that the unavailability factors of each unit are weighted by its capacity. Simplified statistics based on a single recording per day, at 8:00 am, may give a very good approximation of the unavailability which would result from statistics based on a continuous evaluation of the maximum capacity and the unavailable capacity. Such a statistic does not in fact mean that the unavailable capacity recorded at say 8:00 am, for instance, is assumed to be constant for each unit during the day. It only assumes that over the whole of a period envisaged, the month or the year, the average of the unavailable capacities at 8:00 am calculated over all the units taken into account in the system concerned differs only slightly from the average value resulting from an integration of the maximum capacity and the unavailable capacity. It has been ascertained that for a group of about ten units and for a period of one month, the difference between the value calculated by integration and the value resulting from the simplified statistics was of the order of 1 %. Over an annual period this difference drops to 0.2 or 0.3 %. X CHOICE OF THE OBSERVATION PERIOD

At the international level, it was agreed to take the calendar year as the period for which the statistical results would be provided.

Some countries publish yearly results corresponding to the financial year which may start on a date other than 1 January, depending on the country and the utility. It would be desirable if, at the international level, results corresponding to the calendar year commencing on I January were available even for these countries. It was agreed to limit the statistics (calendar year results) to units in commercial operation at January 1st of the year in question. This is not intended to discount the first months of installation startup experience but the relevant figures should not be included in official statistics and must be treated with caution. On an international level, it has been agreed to limit statistics to the units available to the grid dispatcher, with all initial startup trials already carried out. The concept of commissioning (start of commercial operation), widely used worldwide, was considered a valid basis for statistical compilations. Results for the calendar year will therefore start on January 1st of the year following the date of commissioning of the installation in question; this year will then be considered the first year of age for this installation. XI EFFECT OF THE AGE OF UNITS The starting point for the collection of statistical data on availability as a function of age was the concept that the availability of a generating plant usually improves with age, at least for a number of years. It was therefore intended to check if a statistical analysis showed such an evolution. Unfortunately, the values observed are often disturbed by long-term failures which affect some of the units. The effect of these serious failures on the availability rate of all the units is not negligible, but is absorbed by the normal availability of most of the units. On the other hand, since the groups of units commissioned during the same year constitute statistical populations which are much more restricted than all the units put together , they are much more affected by the serious failure of a few units. This is the main reason why it was difficult to detect the increase in the availability factor with the age of the units. This difficulty was overcome in the following manner: the units were grouped not according to the year in which they started commercial operation, but according to the number of years which had elapsed since this start, whatever the date of the latter. It is worth noting that, for a group of units, the calendar year for one-year old units corresponds to the installations which started commercial operation in the previous calendar year. Excluding basic characteristics, this sample group may be described by its net maximum capacity, as well as by the corresponding number of units. Average energy availability factors were thus obtained for the nth calendar year after the year of the start of commercial operation. Using those factors energy availability factors for all the first n years after commercial operation startup were calculated. These values were seen to increase steadily with the number of years. The energy availability factor used in the calculations for each unit is the energy availability factor over the whole year; all outages, whether total or partial, planned or unplanned, are therefore deducted since only the actually available capacity is taken into account. Depending on the country, the annual energy availability factor is calculated from the 8.00 am (08.00 h) statistics or from the statistics involving the recording of all the variations in the available capacity in the course of each day. As the use of either of these statistics gave very similar results for the year, the values obtained by either method, according to the country, may be used as a basis for statistics covering all the countries. For example, figures in Annex I relate to a theoretical sample of 200-399 MW units. The figures in the first line represent the capacity of all the units entering commercial operation during the year which appears at the top of the column. A list of these units classified according to the year of commercial startup may be given in an appendix to this annex. The diagonal line indicates that all the factors on that diagonal relate to all the units entering commercial operation in the year corresponding to the upper end of the diagonal. Any anomaly in the factors may thus be explained by the history of the units corresponding to a given diagonal.

The annex contains columns for each calendar year and lines for each year of age of the units; these years of age are indicated by a figure representing the nth calendar year after the year of initial commercial operation. No availability figure is given for the calendar year of initial commercial operation. A box, in column x of line y must contain the mean annual factor for all the units which, during calendar year x, were in their yth calendar year after the year of commercial startup. The broken diagonal lines indicate the group of units to which an energy availability factor given in a box corresponds. The last two columns at the right give the average factors for all the units during their nth calendar year after the year of initial commercial operation, and during the first n calendar years after the year of initial commercial operation. In order to obtain these figures one proceeds as follows: The 'nth year' column shows the weighted mean of all the factors relating to the various calendar years on the same line; the weighting to a given factor is the capacity of all the units the energy availability of which is represented by this factor (the capacity indicated by the diagonals passing through the factor in question). The 'first n years' column shows, for line y, for example, the weighted average of the factors in nth year column from line 1 to line y. The weighting to be given to a given factor is the capacity of all the units the energy availability of which is represented by that factor (the capacities indicated by the diagonals passing through the factors on line y). The last line at the bottom of the annex gives the average factors for all the units for the calendar year which appears at the head of the column in question. They correspond to the weighted average of the factors appearing in the column in question; the weighting to be given to a given factor is the capacity of all the units the energy availability of which is represented by that factor (the capacity indicated by the diagonal passing through the factor in question). In the above descriptions, we assume that each group of units corresponding to each diagonal remains the same throughout the whole period in question. In the case where this group is modified (e.g. decommissioning of a unit, change in maximum capacity, very low unit utilization during availability, etc.), this should be indicated, through a note giving the new parameters to be taken into account (maximum capacity, number of units, if applicable), if this modification (indicated by an asterisk) must be taken into account. In addition, calculating the energy availability factor over a calendar year makes no sense for a lightly loaded unit; other indicators must therefore be used to evaluate the quality of service provided by this installation. In this case, maintaining an energy availability calculation would be equivalent to providing false, inflated values without any real meaning. Moreover, the statistics would tend to inflate the results for the group of units under consideration, and thus perturb the statistical analysis of the results. In order to avoid this effect one must eliminate from the sample groups the units for which calculation of the availability has been distorted in this way. Our proposal is to eliminate peak-load installations. An installation may be defined as peak-load if it is used during available periods less than 40% in terms of available energy. For example, a unit with an energy availability factor calculated at 70% should be taken into account in these results if its load factor (capacity factor, US) is greater than 28% (rate of use greater than 40%), it should not be taken into account if the opposite situation applies. XII CHOICE OF CLASSES AND CATEGORIES OF THERMAL UNITS FOR WHICH OVERALL STATISTICS SEEM DESIRABLE It seemed desirable to obtain results separately by classes of capacity and by category of fuel used. Comparisons of availability factors might in fact lead to doubtful conclusions if the corresponding units had very different capacities and this was not indicated. This might also be the case with the type of fuel. The classes of capacities which were proposed in the terms of reference, and which are reproduced below, were those adopted for conventional units (steam turbines) burning fossil fuel:

100-199 MW 200-399 MW (possibly 200-299MW and 300-300MW) 400-599 MW 600 MW and over (possibly 600-799 MW; 800-999 NW and 1000 MW and over) Where applicable, a sub-division between super-critical and sub-critical units is desirable. The division of nuclear units into classes and categories is examined below. It was noted that these limitations were not imperative and did not make it obligatory to transform the national statistics. However, it is desirable that the various countries should be able to provide results for classes of capacity which do not differ too much from the classes given above, so that one can compare results which correspond to units of relatively comparable capacities. As regards fuel categories, fossil fuels were divided into 3 categories: - Solid fuel (possibly: coal on one hand, and lignite and similar fuels on the other) -Gas -Oil It was noted that in some cases it would be difficult to distinguish between gas and oil and that results could only be provided for these two categories together. The case of nuclear units is examined below. The number of units and the maximum capacity of all these units must be indicated for each class and category. The type of table to be completed is attached, as Annex 2 For combined cycle plants, the following capacity classes were selected: 100 199 MW 200 299 MW 300 MW and over For gas turbines used as base load or semi-base load units, the selected capacity classes are: 30 49 MW 50 74 MW 75 99 MW 100 140 MW 150 MW and over As for the geographical distribution of installations, the corresponding groups are given in Annex 3 (UN codes and groupings). Annex 4 reiterates the classification of different types of installation (fossil-fuel or nuclear), as well as the above-mentioned fuel classes and capacity classes. A typical example of a sample group description is given in Annex 5. XIII NUCLEAR UNITS The various definitions given above can be applied to nuclear units. One must however emphasize the fact that the operating capacity of nuclear units may be limited by a decision of a governmental organization in charge of safety. The difference between the maximum capacity and the capacity authorized by the government organization is not due to the unavailability of the unit. It was therefore agreed to use in this case the authorized capacity instead of the maximum capacity as reference capacity in the calculation of the availability and unavailability factors. However, it is recommended that these differences between the maximum capacity and the authorized capacity should be recorded separately. If these differences became considerable, they would have to be taken into account when drawing up construction programmes for new units.

The classes and categories of nuclear units for which it seems desirable to establish separate sets of statistics are as recommended by I.A.E.A (Annex 4): 1. Units recharged during operation - gas cooled (GCR, Magnox, AGR) - heavy water moderated (PHWR) 2. Units recharged during shutdown 3 categories: - boiling water - pressurized water f 1 -other types and, in each category 6 classes: 100 399 MW 400 599 MW 600 799 MW 800 999 MW 1000 1199 MW 1200 MW and over

It is recommended that prototypes and units of less than l00 MW should not be included in the statistics. Data concerning the energy availability and unavailability of nuclear power stations is supplied by the IAEA, within the scope of the PRIS (Power Reactor Information System) data base. XIV UNAVAILABILITY OF MAIN COMPONENTS The main components mentioned in the terms of reference are the boiler (or nuclear steam supply system), the turbine, the generator and the auxiliaries for each of these components, as well as the common auxiliaries, i.e. those of the station itself. The unavailability of such components may be considered either in terms of the reliability of each component, or in terms of its responsibility with regard to the unavailability of the unit. Since the work of the Joint Committee was concentrated on the unavailability of units it is in terms of their responsibility for the unavailability of the unit that the unavailability of components should be considered. The overall unavailability factor must then be the sum of the unavailability factors of the components. It is therefore recommended that the countries which are able to do so should divide the overall unavailability factors of the units into the constituent factors of unavailability for each of the 7 components mentioned above. A breakdown into a larger number of items was rejected, in spite of its possible value. Harmonization at the international level would, it seems, require considerable work, and much. However, it is worth noting that a detailed classification by unavailability item already exists in the IAEAs database for nuclear plants, PRIS. This breakdown is given in Annex 6. XV DURATION CURVES FOR AVAILABLE CAPACITY Countries which use simplified statistics of available capacity based on one measurement per day should consider the possibility of drawing up duration curves of availability factors. These curves are obtained by classifying in order of increasing value the availability factors of each of the days of the period considered; against each value of the availability factor plotted on the x-axis, one plots on the yaxis the ratio of the number of availability factors higher than this value to the total number of recorded availability factors. By joining the points thus obtained, one obtains the availability factor distribution curve, which makes it possible to estimate the percentage of chances that the availability factor may be higher than a given

value. Such a curve, of which an example is attached as Annex 7, makes it possible to determine the necessary reserve capacity, taking into account the accepted failure risk. The countries which use statistics based on a continuous revision of the capacities by recording any variation of these capacities also have the possibility of drawing up duration curves of the available capacity by obtaining the availability rates for certain instants which can be freely chosen. XVI UNIT CAPABILITY FACTOR (PRODUCERS POINT OF VIEW) The different types of unavailability for a thermal plant can be represented as shown in Annex 8; total unavailable capacity in relation to the network is composed of two terms: C = C1 + C2, where C1 = planned unavailable capacity C2 = unavailable capacity for all other causes C2 itself has two sub-components: C2 = C21 + C22, where C21 = unplanned unavailable capacity for technical reasons that are under the direct or indirect control of plant management (equipment damage, operator error, extension of planned outage, etc). Evaluation of the corresponding unavailability must be carried out in relation to the reference capacity, independent of environmental conditions at the moment. C22 = unplanned unavailable capacity for non-technical reasons, or reasons not under the control of plant management (external and environmental causes). The idea of unit capability, expressing the producers point of view in terms of the reliability of his plant and in terms of unavailabilities over which he has direct or indirect control, is directly derived from the concept of energy availability (network point of view), by neutralizing in the calculation the factor C22 mentioned above. In the case where the calculation of the unit capability factor will be judged advantageous in the future, knowing the term C22 (external and non-technical unavailabilities) will be sufficient, beyond the current collection of information to access the two main indicators: energy availability and unit capability factor. For the purpose of the overall performance of an installation, and when different causes of unavailability are simultaneously present, the following cause hierarchy must be considered: I Unavailabilities under plant management control 1 planned unavailabilities 2 unplanned unavailabilities: engineering causes of loss 3 unplanned unavailabilities: non-engineering causes of loss and then: II Unavailabilities not under plant management control (external constraints)

The Unit Capability Factor (UCF) over a specified period, h, is equal to the Energy Availability Factor (EAF) over the same period of time, adjusted to consider that the unit is permanently under the reference ambient conditions (air or cooling water temperature) and neutralizing in the calculation energy losses due to constraints that are not under plant management control (constraints external to the installation) and non-engineering causes of loss.

UCF: h = B*, where B is corrected to B* to take into account the corrected or neutralized factors. A Note: B* is generally higher than B, and the unit capability factor higher than the energy availability factor.

Maximum Capacity

Available Capacity

Total Unavailable Capacity

Actual Generation

Available, but not supplied

Under plant management

Beyond plant management

Maximum electrical capacity

Available Capacity

Total Unavailable Capacity

Actual Generation

Available, but not supplied

Under plant management control (internal)

Not under plant management control (external)

Load following, frequency control and grid adjustments

Reserve shutdown

Engineering constraints

Non-engineering constraints

= c1

Long Term

Short Term

Plan Overrun (outage extension)

Advance of Plan

Breakdown, Restrictions and Other


Larry Fitzgerald was No. 1 on Cardinals' draft board in 2004

Arizona Cardinals

The Arizona Cardinals selected receiver Larry Fitzgerald with the third overall pick in the 2004 draft. With the career he has had, no one regrets making that selection. However, some lament how the Cardinals ended up with the third overall pick instead of the first overall pick and wonder what might have happened differently.

With a last-second win in Week 17 over the Minnesota Vikings, the Cardinals did not get the No. 1 overall pick. The No. 1 pick ended up being quarterback Eli Manning.

Many have wondered how things would have been different had they had the top pick. Would they have had their franchise quarterback already?

It would appear nothing would have changed.

On the latest episode of Cardinals Flight Plan, general manager Steve Keim reflected on the 2004 draft class that landed them Fitzgerald, Karlos Dansby and Darnell Dockett. He compared it to the team’s current draft class because they landed three players in the top 25 of their board.

The revelation was about Fitz. He was “of course” their No. 1 player in that draft class.

If they were to hold true to their board and had they possessed the No. 1 pick, Fitzgerald would simply have been the top pick in the draft instead of the third pick.

He has joked in the past about how that touchdown pass from Josh McCown to Nate Poole kept him from being the top pick.

So the win didn’t change anything. They still would have had their quarterback struggles and they still would have enjoyed the Hall of Fame career of one of the best to ever play the game and arguably the greatest Cardinal ever.

More Cards Wire


Marcus Jones

Celebrity Faculty

Marcus Jones is excited and ready to get back on the road with Celebrity Dance Conventions. Marcus is an Arizona native, where he began his dance career as a bboy and quickly expanded his training into other styles as well. Marcus is a current member of the Elektrolytes Dance Crew, winner of America’s Best Dance Crew season 7 and a contestant on season 8 this year. Marcus has backup danced for artists including R&B singer/songwriter Ne-Yo, American electronic dance music superstars LMFAO and hip hop artist Flo Rida. Marcus has performed in multiple countries around the world, and continues to guest judge and showcase at various hip hop competitions and battles. Marcus hopes to ignite a passion for street styles by infusing his unique style, musicality and approach. You will love his class! Celebrity is proud to have Marcus at Celebrity Dance Conventions!