The Oakland Post

A “New Green Deal”

Timothy Kandow, Contributor

Email This Story

Newly elected Representative Alejandra Ocasio-Cortez of New York proposed a “New Green Deal.” The goal of this deal is to significantly reduce greenhouse gases to avoid the supposed catastrophic consequences of climate change/warming. The gravity of human effects on the climate and its severity, and how it’s changing for present and future generations, is a relatively recent discussion in American politics.

Though one should not dismiss the change of the climate if there were one, passing resolutions, enacting laws or conducting studies must be reviewed under several key observations and questioned in multiple ways.

The premise of the climate change debate is that of the global average temperature. Since 1880, according to several highly credentialed organizations including NASA, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the National Climate Data Center (NOAA), the global average temperature has risen 1.5 °C.

Even if one were to admit the global temperature was rising—which is what these studies suggest—the impact of a degree and a half hardly has a large impact. The situation of global temperatures risings is not of a significant nature.

Let’s assume for a moment these average temperatures are correct and pose a threat, do they accurately support the premise of all global temperatures rising?

It is important to understand there exists no global temperature. The world is composed of many different ecosystems and environments and their temperatures fluctuate. Cold spells and heat waves are natural and occur from time to time. These waves and spells go into the global average but do not represent the entire globe, only the region in which they occur. Only one region of the world has to rise in temperature for the average to rise.

The Harvard Business Review critiques averages in a simple way: “Consider the case of the statistician who drowns while fording a river that he calculates is, on average, three feet deep.” A piece of an average does not show the average itself neither does the average accurately represent all pieces.

Even if the global average temperatures were the true average and the rise was of a significant nature, the temperatures in which NASA, NOAA and UNFCCC used to date back to only 1880. What about the rest of history? Scientists have only been able to accurately record the global temperatures for less than two centuries.

Most, if not all, beliefs on origins of the earth claim the earth has existed longer than a century and a half, hence, having temperatures extending before 1880. A comparison is needed. If something is rising, it must have a standard to rise from. The scope of time used by credentialed scientists is minuscule in light of the history of time.

Climate warming is shown to be highly insignificant, prone to inaccuracy and reviews a small portion in the necessary field of study. Earth is here for our enjoyment, but is also our responsibility. Before we move to protect it, however, it is key to evaluate the basis for change and review the reasons for reform.

1 Comment

One Response to “A “New Green Deal””

  1. Cody Donovan on March 5th, 2019 4:23 PM

    I understand that this article was posted under the Opinions section, but quite frankly, there are several issues here where the author, in my opinion, is severely uninformed. I will outline where I think the author is misinformed as follows:

    1. Climate Change vs. Global Warming
    Source Used:

    According to the author, “The premise of the climate change debate is that of the global average temperature.” I find this characterization to be incredibly reductive and lacking in nuance. According to NASA, the phrase “climate change” includes average surface temperature increases, in addition to all of the other affects of global warming. The author has thoroughly mischaracterized the way the scientists who research topics related to climate change and global warming actually use these terms.

    2. Global Warming Does Not Pose a Threat?
    Source Used:

    The author says “The situation of global temperatures risings is not of a significant nature.” This statement is either egregiously uninformed or an outright falsehood. According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), there are a wealth of reasons to mitigate average global temperature increases. I’ll leave it to the experts in the report linked to above, but I’ll list a few reasons they lay out:

    -To prevent loss of habitats, preserve animal species, and maintain ocean health
    -To reduce the frequency and/or intensity of heavy precipitation weather events
    -To reduce the risk of water scarcity in certain parts of the world

    3. A Mischaracterization and a Critique of Averages

    The author introduces his next section with the following: “Let’s assume for a moment these average temperatures are correct and pose a threat, do they accurately support the premise of all global temperatures rising?” He then goes on to explain the shortcomings of using a single average rather than looking at different areas individually.

    First and foremost, I would implore the author to cite a single, mainstream researcher in the field of climate science to support the statement “surface temperatures literally everywhere, over all of the globe, are increasing.” The author has misrepresented what the scientific consensus on global warming actually is. The consensus is that the average global temperature is increasing, not that the temperature in every location all around the globe is increasing.

    Secondly, I’d like to address to author’s critique of the use of averages. I understand the thought process, but how far the author takes this line of thinking seems rather extreme. Averages are used in scientific fields to gain an understanding of overall trends. No one is making the case that the average global temperature increase will impact everybody. Just because averages don’t apply to every data point does not mean they are useless.

    Quite frankly, certain parts of the author’s critique of the use of averages are bizarre and very puzzling to me. As he puts it, “Only one region of the world has to rise in temperature for the average to rise.” Does the author understand exactly how massive the earth is? A quick google search yields roughly 200 million square miles of surface area. To achieve some perspective, America is roughly 4 million square miles of the earth’s surface area. If we break down the whole earth into 1 square mile segments, America would have to rise an average of 75 degrees C to achieve an increase in average global temperatures from 20 to 21.5 degrees C.

    4. Historical Temperature Data
    Source Used:

    The author insists that there is not enough historical data to draw any conclusions about global warming. I am inclined to disagree. Although it is true that historical records only exist for measuring temperature since roughly 1880, there exist indirect methods for measuring temperature before 1880. The source listed above from the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration) clarifies that the overall trend of historical data and indirect temperature measurement methods indicate an overall increase in global temperatures over the last century.

    5. A Conclusion

    I have finished addressing the article itself, and would like to address the author and the Oakland Post directly.

    First, to the author. I cannot pretend to know your intentions in writing this article. I will assume the best. I would like to encourage you to take a critical look into the literature associated with climate change and global warming. Without meaning to sound insulting, it seems to me that you do not have a fully nuanced understanding of the work climate scientists do. I am no expert myself, but there are several critiques of climate change/global warming you have made here that climate scientists have already addressed many times.

    I would like to encourage the Oakland Post to have a higher standard for articles discussing scientific issues. Again, without intending to offend, this article displays very little scientific rigor. However, in the interest of public responsibility, and of the Oakland Post’s reputation as a college newspaper – whether or not the Post is independent – I implore the Oakland Post to make more responsible decisions in choosing which pieces to publish, regardless of whether or not they are opinion pieces. Issues like climate change are going to be very important in the future, and it is the responsibility of media outlets such as the Oakland Post to provide accurate information to the public.

Oakland University's independent student newspaper
A “New Green Deal”


The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) carries out numerous researches on almost all fields of science possible and has also provided accurate results. Owing to its constantly efficient performance, the institution has earned itself a reputation of being reliable in terms of information. We humans can predict a number of scenarios through long-term observation and accurate calculations but we fail to predict our own lives. A latest MIT research tries to fulfill this motive. The initial efforts for the same began four years ago. This technology is finally put to proper use which might help in attaining impressive results.

The research team at the Media Lab at MIT had developed a computer vision system four years ago. This system was capable of analyzing the street-level photos of urban neighborhoods. By doing so, experts can observe the safety of a neighborhood from a layman’s perspective. One needs constant observation in order to predict the factors causing urban change. The MIT research team at Harvard University have developed such a system for identifying the physical improvement or even deterioration of normal neighborhoods in five random American cities. According to the work report, this system has compared 1.6 million pairs of photos which were taken seven years apart.

MIT research

MIT research also covers social sciences

The pictures taken were compared to test numerous hypotheses which have been known as the causes of urban revitalization. Through this, the researchers are trying to find out if these causes are actually responsible for urban changes or not. This kind of a research will prove to be beneficial to pick the factors that cause improvement. It will also reduce the factors which result in deterioration. Researchers noticed that the factors which caused improvement included proximity to central business districts, the density of highly educated residents, initial safety, and physically attractive neighborhoods. The factors which lead to change are different than those we consider such as housing prices or basic income levels.

Cesar Hidalgo, a senior author on this MIT research paper stated that the perception that high income and education can drive urban changes in a positive manner turned out to be a hoarse. The Urban development gives more importance to skill than money or education. Another theory proved wrong was the belief that neighborhood with successful people will continue doing well. This is true to a certain extent. There are instances wherein averagely successful neighborhoods show more improvement than the already successful ones.


Here we’ve answered your most frequently asked questions about ticks, their bites and Lyme disease (Borreliosis).

Lyme disease is considered to be an ’emerging disease’. This does not mean it is a new disease, or that it has only recently become present in the UK and Ireland. It means that, for various reasons, it is becoming more prevalent. Until fairly recently, it was considered to be extremely rare in the UK and Ireland and it is for this reason that many of the references are from other European countries or the United States of America. If you cannot find the answer to your question here, you may find it in our sections on ‘Ticks’, ‘Diseases’, ‘Pet Diseases’, ‘Defence’ and ‘Tick Prevention’ If you still cannot find the answer to your question, please contact us and we’ll do our best to help.

 What does a tick look like?
Ticks are relatives of spiders, so they look a bit similar. Newly hatched ticks (larvae) only have six legs until they reach the second stage of their life cycle (the nymph). At this time they develop eight legs.

Ticks can vary in shape, colour and size, depending on the species, age and sex. Generally, when unfed they are oval, flat and small, like a sesame seed. Once they are completely engorged with blood they are coffee-bean-shaped.

The colour of ticks ranges from black or dark-brown, to a red-brown, when they haven’t fed. Ticks that are engorged with blood can range from a blue-grey colour to a purple-red or fleshy-pink. Some species of tick have slight patterns on their back, while others are plain.

Ticks can be hard-bodied or soft-bodied. Hard ticks have a hard shield on their backs while soft ticks have a leathery hood over their back and mouth parts Find out more in our Tick Appearance section.

How do I remove a tick from myself or my pet?
How you remove a tick is very important as it can help to prevent the transmission of disease-causing organisms or leaving bits of the tick behind, which can cause irritation, infection and scarring. Using methods of freezing, burning, or applying solutions to a tick may cause it to regurgitate (vomit) its saliva or stomach contents. These fluids may contain disease-causing organisms. See our section on Tick Removal for the safest ways to remove an attached tick and for our Myth Busting section.

Once I have removed a tick, what do I do with it?
As ticks can transmit certain infections, you may wish to keep any tick you have removed for a while. This is in case any symptoms of disease occur in the person or pet the tick was attached to. Showing the tick to the doctor or vet can aid their diagnosis by confirming that it was definitely a tick that caused the bite.

If you wish to keep the tick, place it in a freezer bag with a piece of paper containing the date of removal. Writing in pencil is best as it can’t be smudged off by moisture. Place the bag in your freezer until you no longer need it. Early symptoms may take several weeks to develop so keep an eye out. Check out our sections on Lyme disease for people and pets for information about signs and symptoms.

You may wish take part in Public Health England’s ‘Tick Recording Scheme‘ in which case follow the instructions by Public Health England on how to send the tick to them.

As ticks can carry infective organisms, it is important to dispose of the tick safely. This means that you must kill the tick and not allow it to wander off. Releasing the tick might allow it to continue with its life cycle and to bite another person or animal. Without allowing the tick (or any fluids from the tick) to come into contact with your skin, wrap the tick in tissue paper and squash it. Then dispose of it in your dustbin or flush it down the toilet. Wash your hands thoroughly or use a hand sanitising gel or wipe.

Does it hurt when a tick bites?
No, not usually, although some species of tick are reported to have painful bites. You are more likely to feel an adult tick on your skin because they are bigger and will come into greater contact with your skin and body hair. Larval and nymphal ticks (the first two stages in the tick’s life cycle) are much smaller and less likely to be felt.

Ticks have specialised saliva which numbs the bite area, prevents inflammation and keeps the blood flowing so that they can feed for prolonged periods of time. The saliva can cause slight localised irritation and sometimes an allergic reaction. However, a reddening around the bite area may also be early signs of disease. It is therefore important to learn to recognise the wide variety of presentations of rashes that are associated with tick-borne infection. If you have any concerns about a bite area, consult your GP. For more information about tick bites, please visit our tick Feeding section.

How does a tick transmit disease?
Ticks ingest disease-causing organisms from their wildlife hosts (the animals that tick’s feed on). These hosts act as a reservoir for the organisms and can pass them on to hundreds of ticks that feed on them. The infected ticks then seek another host and during their next feed they transmit the infective organisms into the new host. The cycle continues, potentially spreading the infection far and wide as infected hosts travel to new areas. Infected birds can cross oceans, and they can also transport the ticks themselves to new areas far from where they first attached. For more information, please see our Disease Transmission section.

What should I do if a tick bites me or my pet?
If you find an attached tick, use a safe method of tick removal. You may want to save the tick for later identification in case the person or animal the tick was attached to becomes ill in the following weeks. If you are bitten regularly, make sure your GP is aware of the fact that you are potentially exposed to tick-borne infections. If your pet gets bitten regularly, talk to your vet about a suitable repellent. A vaccine against Lyme disease is now available for dogs in the UK & Ireland. Talk to your vet for more information.

Although not every tick carries infective organisms, and not every bite will transmit disease, immediate removal of an attached tick is important as this can reduce the risk of disease transmission. The longer a tick is allowed to feed, the more organisms can pass into the bloodstream of the host (the person or animal that the tick feeds on). Regular checks for ticks on you or your pet will also help to find them before they have had a chance to attach and feed.

A tick bite can cause irritation and reddening at the bite site. This tick bite hypersensitivity reaction is caused by the body’s immune response against the tick’s saliva and is a common reaction in people and animals. The reaction will usually settle down within the first couple of days and doesn’t usually require medical / veterinary attention. A bite relief topical cream will usually make the area more comfortable. Scratching at a tick bite (or any insect bite) can introduce bacteria and cause a localised infection. You should seek medical / veterinary advice if there are continued signs of reddening, swelling and heat, or weeping / oozing at the bite site.

If you know that a tick bite occurred but the tick was squashed or brushed/scratched off, disinfect the bite site thoroughly. If possible, check that no mouth parts remain in the skin. If possible, attempt to remove any remaining mouth parts with a sterilised needle or fine-pointed tweezers. Do not attempt to remove remaining mouth parts from young children or anyone with health conditions where they are at risk of excessive bleeding or difficulty healing. Do not attempt to remove mouth parts from animals that are not of a steady, calm nature. In such cases, seek medical / veterinary advice.

If it is not possible to remove any remaining mouth parts yourself, keep a close eye on the bite site. Remaining mouth parts can often cause a localised reaction as the body tries to expel them. This may result in a reddening of the area where the bite occurred. Often this settles down over a few days and there may eventually be a lump or a circular scar at the bite site. Sometimes the area can remain irritated or become infected because of the remaining mouth parts. If there are signs of reddening, swelling and heat, or weeping / oozing, seek medical / veterinary advice.

Over the following weeks, keep a close watch for the development of any skin rashes. If any develop, photograph them and seek medical / veterinary attention. Photographs can be very useful during medical/ veterinary consultations after the rash has faded or resolved.

Rashes following tick bites in animals are rarely reported and can be difficult to spot under the animal’s coat. However, it is still advisable to inspect them as thoroughly and as often as possible.

If you suspect a tick bite has occurred but you didn’t see a tick, keep a watch on the bite site for any adverse skin reactions.

In all cases, if there is any change in the general health of the person or animal the tick was attached to, it is advisable to seek medical attention without delay.

See our Diseases and Petssections for comprehensive information on tick-borne diseases in the UK and Ireland.

See question 12 for further information about infected ticks and tick testing.

Where in the UK and Ireland are infected ticks present?
Some areas of the UK are often referred to as ‘hot spots’. These include the New Forest, Exmoor, the South Downs, Thetford Forest, the Lake District, the North Yorkshire Moors, and the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. However, there can be localised ‘hot spots’ in many areas.

Particular areas of land may provide a more suitable habitat for ticks than a neighbouring area, and therefore there can be a larger population of ticks there. It is also worth remembering that anywhere that has a diverse population of wildlife and good vegetation cover will harbour ticks, and a proportion of these ticks are likely to carry disease-causing organisms. These areas can include town parks and gardens. Public Health England (formerly The Health Protection Agency) advises that any area that supports a hard tick population poses a risk.

Public Health England has produced a fact sheet for GP’s and other healthcare professionals.

Lyme disease is endemic throughout most of Scotland. Health Protection Scotland has produced a fact sheet.

Public Health Wales has produced a ‘be tick aware‘ web page.

NI Direct (Northern Ireland’s Government Services) has produced a ‘Protect yourself against tick bites‘ web page.

In September 2011, Lyme borreliosis became listed as a notifable disease in the Republic of Ireland, where clinicians should notify cases to the Director of Public Health or the Medical Officer of Health for the local area of the patient’s residence. Prior to Lyme borreliosis becoming a notifiable illness, there was no voluntary surveillance scheme and therefore the annual number of cases has been unknown.

In 2007, 71 specimens, referred to what was the UK Health Protection Agency’s Lyme Borreliosis Unit from Irish hospital laboratories, were confirmed positive, suggesting a crude incidence rate of 1.67 per 100,000 in Ireland that year. However, the Health Protection Surveillance Centre (HPSC), Ireland, considers that the incidence is likely to be much higher. An analysis of the 2011 data for the Cork and Kerry region, then extrapolated to the 4.58 million population of the Republic of Ireland, suggests 250+ cases might have occurred that year.

The Health Protection Surveillance Centre have produced a fact sheet.

References and Further Reading
Notifiable Diseases and their respective causative pathogens. Health Protection Surveillance Centre, Ireland.

Health Protection Agency

Are there ticks around in winter?
Yes. Ticks can be active at temperatures as low as 3.5°C. They use plant debris (fallen leaves, branches and rotting vegetation) to shelter in during cold weather. The debris acts like a duvet keeping the tick warm. If snow falls on ground that has not been hardened by frost, the snow can also act like a duvet, insulating ticks against frost on the surface of the snow. On warmer winter days, the temperature can be sufficient for ticks to seek a host (a person or animal to feed on). Although there are considerably fewer ticks in cold weather, it is still possible to get bitten.

Age structure of a population of Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) in relation to its seasonal questing. A.R. Walker.

If my pet brings a tick into my home, will I get bitten?
It is almost guaranteed that pets will occasionally bring ticks into the home. Often the tick will already be attached and feeding on the pet. If it is dislodged during this process, it will often die, although it is possible for a detached tick to re-attach to a new host. If an unattached tick is brought into the home, it may have an opportunity to attach to a person. However, generally the level of humidity in our homes is too low for the survival of most tick species which pose a risk to people and pets, and they tend to get too dry and die as a result. The most effective way of preventing ticks entering the home is to keep pets treated against ticks and to check your own clothing before going inside.

References and Further Reading
Parasitology / Volume 37 / Issue 1-2 / January 1946, pp 1-20

The water balance in Ixodes ricinus L. and certain other species of ticks. A. D. Lees.

If a tick gets into my home, can it breed there?
Female ticks of the species that usually pose an infection risk to people and pets (Ixodes ricinus & Ixodes hexagonus) lay their eggs in soil and plant debris. This keeps the eggs moist enough to develop and hatch into tiny larvae. The larvae then need to feed on a host and moult, a process which also requires a relatively high level of humidity. Most homes are too dry for these ticks to survive in, and unsuitable for a female tick to lay her eggs and for egg development.

One species of tick called Ixodes canisuga (the British dog or fox tick) can survive in less humid environments and lay its eggs in cracks and crevices in ceilings and walls. Infestations can occur in kennels and catteries, and bites occur more commonly in working dogs.

Although not indigenous to the UK, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (the brown dog tick) has been identified in some buildings and on pets (usually after animals have travelled to central and northern Europe).

Infestation of buildings will require environmental treatment under veterinary guidance.

References and Further Reading
Parasitology / Volume 40 / Issue 1-2 / January 1950, pp 35-45

The ecology of the sheep tick, Ixodes ricinus L. spatial distribution. A. Milne.

How do I kill ticks in my home and garden?
Unfortunately, there are no licensed chemical products available to kill ticks in your garden. This is because chemical control is heavily restricted by laws and licensing, as it generally raises concerns regarding its effect on the environment and public health. However, you can help to deter ticks from your garden by using strategic landscaping and planting schemes. Check out our tick buffer method for more information.

Soft furnishings (such as carpets, curtains and pet bedding) in the home can be treated with Pyrethrum-based sprays, which are available from pet shops and veterinary surgeries. However, Pyrethrum-based products are highly toxic to cats and some other pet species. Overuse can also result in accidental poisoning in dogs and other pets. It is very important to follow the manufacturers’ instructions on the product packaging to avoid accidental poisoning to your pet, and it is advisable to discuss suitable products with your vet who will be able to take into account other pets in your home and advise you on an individual basis.

Keeping your pets treated against ticks will help to prevent them bringing ticks into the home. Talk to your vet about which products are most suitable for your particular pet.

If you live in a particularly heavily tick-populated area, it is advisable to use a repellent and suitable clothing when you are outside, and this will help to prevent ticks entering the house on your clothing.

Do all ticks carry disease?
No. Not every tick carries disease-causing organisms. It is difficult to quantify the proportion of infected ticks in the UK and Ireland as this can vary from area to area and from time to time. Not every type of organism carried by ticks will cause illness in people or their pets.

Testing individual ticks as a means to established whether a person or animal has become infected is not generally useful for the following reasons:

  • Even if the tick is carrying disease-causing organisms, it does not necessarily mean that transmission to the person or animal has occurred.
  • Tests have the potential for false-positive and false-negative reactions. If the test was falsely positive, inappropriate treatment could result. If the test was falsely negative, false assurance that the person or animal is not infected could result.
  • The person or animal may have been unknowingly bitten by a different tick to the one that was tested.

How many diseases can ticks carry?
Ticks in the UK and Ireland can transmit a number of infections. These include Lyme borreliosis, Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis, and Q fever. When a tick transmits another infection at the same time as Lyme borreliosis, this is termed co-infection. Cases of co-infections are rarely reported in the UK and Ireland, however, as with Lyme borreliosis there may be under-reporting.

Q fever is more frequently acquired through other transmission routes, such as contact with livestock birthing fluids. Lyme borreliosis may present differently if co-infection has occurred. Clinicians and veterinarians should be aware of the possibility of co-infections, which may also influence treatment choice.

If a tick carries several diseases, will I get them all?
No, not necessarily. Whether you contract a disease can depend on how long a tick has been able to feed on your blood. The longer it stays attached, the more organisms can transfer into your bloodstream. Therefore it is much safer to remove a tick as soon as you discover it, and to use a safe tick-removal technique. It can also depend on your body’s immune response as to whether you become ill. Some infections cause little or no effect to their host, while others can cause mild to severe symptoms. When several diseases are transmitted at the same time, the immune system has to work much harder and this can sometimes cause a patient to be more acutely ill. It can also make diagnosis difficult because some diseases have similar signs and symptoms. Reports of patients with co-infections (more than one infection transmitted at the same time) are rare in the UK and Ireland. However, it is possible that, as with Lyme borreliosis, an under-reporting occurs.

Can you die from a tick-borne disease?
It is possible, in very rare cases, for fatalities to occur from the type of tick-borne diseases that are present in the UK and Ireland. Such an event could arise from complications of the disease that affect the vital organs of the patient’s body, such as the brain, heart or kidneys. Patients without a spleen are at significantly greater risk from infection. Fatalities are mostly associated with diseases acquired abroad, such as Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) or Crimean-Congo Viral Haemorrhagic Fever. These diseases are not present in the UK and Ireland.

Are there other ways to contract a tick-borne disease?
Some organisms that ticks can transmit have other ways in which they can be transmitted. Some can be inhaled from the contaminated dust of dried faeces, or through unpasteurized milk, or blood and birth fluids. Some can be transmitted through skin abrasions, or when splashes of infected material meet the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose or mouth of a host. Some can be transmitted through contaminated medical instruments or in blood products for transfusion. When transmitted in other ways, these diseases are no longer referred to as tick-borne.

Currently there is no evidence to suggest that Lyme borreliosis can be transmitted from person to person or directly from animals to people. There is also no robust evidence to suggest that Lyme borreliosis is transmitted by insects such as mosquitoes or fleas, despite reports of Borrelia burgdorferi being isolated from these insects.

References and Further Reading
Journal of Clinical Microbiology. J. Clin. Microbiol. August 1988 vol. 26 no. 8 1482-1486

Ticks and biting insects infected with the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi. L. A. Magnarelli and J. F. Anderson.

What is the difference between Lyme disease and Borreliosis?
Lyme disease (not Lymes, Lyme’s or Lime) is a bacterial infection. The cause of Lyme disease is a spirochaete (a long, thin, spiral-shaped bacterium). When it was discovered, this bacterium was named ‘Borrelia burgdorferi’ after William Burgdorfer who discovered it. It is now termed Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) sensu stricto (s.s.), which means Bb in the strict sense. Bb was the cause of a sudden cluster of cases in Old Lyme, Connecticut, in the United States of America in the 1970’s and Lyme disease is named after the town of Old Lyme.

Later on, other genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi were discovered in Europe and other areas, and these were given different names. They all come under the umbrella term of ‘Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato’ (Bb. s.l.), which means Bb in the broad sense.

In the UK and most of Europe, the most commonly found genospecies include Borrelia burgdorferi s.s, B. garinii, B. afzelii, and B. valaisiana. There is some evidence that the different pathogenic (disease-causing) genospecies can cause variations in signs and symptoms. B.b.s.s. is particularly associated with arthritic and neurological complications, B.garinii with neurological presentations and B. afzelii with Acrodermatitis Chronica Atrophicans (ACA), which is a skin manifestation of late disease where areas of tissue become severely inflamed and eventually die off. B. afzelii is also associated with peripheral neuropathy.

B.b.s.s. is the only pathogenic species identified in North America. It also occurs in Europe but is less prevalent than B. afzelii and B. garinii (the latter being the most prevalent in the UK). A significant proportion of infected ticks in the UK carry B. valaisiana, which only rarely causes Erythema Migrans (the rash associated with Lyme disease). Recent evidence suggests that B. afzelii can result in a more ring-like Erythema Migrans while B. garinii can result in more irregular lesions which tend to develop more rapidly.

Many physicians and veterinarians prefer to use the term ‘Borreliosis’ as an umbrella term for an infection of any strain. The term ‘Lyme borreliosis’ is also widely used. Antibiotics are the treatment of choice no matter which strain of infection is present.

Lyme borreliosis is a zoonotic disease (a disease that can be transmitted between animals and people), in this case, transmission is via a tick.

References and Further Reading

Wiener klinische Wochenschrift. September 2006, Volume 118, Issue 17-18, pp 531-537

Clinical appearance of erythema migrans caused by Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii – effect of the patient’s sex. Bennet L et al.

What are the symptoms of Lyme disease?
Evidence suggests that symptoms of Lyme borreliosis can vary depending on which genospecies has caused the infection. Some people will not experience any symptoms at all. In 40-80% (reports vary) of laboratory-confirmed cases in the UK and Ireland, a rash occurs. This rash is termed ‘Erythema Migrans’ (EM), which gradually spreads from the site of the tick bite (primary lesion). The rash is usually over 5 cm in diameter and not painful or itchy, but there are exceptions.

The appearance of EM usually occurs between 2 and 30 days following the infected tick bite. The lesion gradually expands over several weeks and will resolve even without treatment. However, without treatment the patient is at risk of developing disseminated disease and the associated complications of infection with may be serious.

In most patients there is only one episode of Erythema Migrans but for some there may be multiple lesions simultaneously. Multiple lesions can be caused by multiple tick bites, however, in disseminated disease, multiple secondary lesions can occur which are usually smaller in diameter than the primary lesion.

Some people will experience no other symptoms than a rash. Some never present with a rash but will have ‘flu-like’ symptoms such as extreme fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, fever, and joint and muscle aches. They do not usually experience a runny nose or cough as with a head cold. Some will have a rash followed by ‘flu’-like symptoms.

Over the following weeks or months, untreated patients may go on to experience more serious manifestations. These can affect the nervous system (termed neuroborreliosis), joints and sometimes the heart. Facial paralysis, ‘viral-like’ meningitis, encephalitis and carditis can occur. Some patients experience nerve inflammation that can lead to pain, altered or loss of sensation or clumsiness of movement. Some patients experience cognitive dysfunction, such as poor short-term memory and an inability to concentrate. Inflammation of the optic nerve may also occur, causing pain and visual disturbance.

In late disease Lymphocytomas (bluish-red nodular lesions usually appearing on the earlobe or nipple) can occur, as can Acrodermatitis Chronica Atrophicans (ACA), which is a skin manifestation of late disease where areas of tissue become severely inflamed and eventually dies off. For further information, see our section on Lyme disease or our pets section for animal symptoms.

How is Lyme disease diagnosed?
A diagnosis should be made only after careful evaluation of the patient’s clinical history, physical findings and an evaluation of the patient’s tick-exposure risk. The latter is a more complex part of the evaluation as it is common for awareness or recollection of a tick bite to be lacking. Additionally, ticks can be present in more urbanised areas and there tends to be a reliance on the patient having visited a known endemic area for Lyme borreliosis to be considered. A lack of recollection of tick-attachment should not exclude Lyme borreliosis during evaluation.

Laboratory evidence of antibodies is not required for the diagnosis of Erythema Migrans. Laboratory evidence of infection is usually required with other clinical manifestations as many can be ambiguous. The analysis of cerebral spinal fluid for antibodies is generally used for the diagnosis of late neuroborreliosis.

A patient’s GP or specialist can send a blood sample for a screening test at a local hospital. If this test returns a positive or equivocal result, the blood sample is sent to a specialist laboratory for a confirmatory immunoblot (or western blot). The following laboratories perform confirmatory specialist tests for the NHS:

  • The Rare & Imported Pathogens Laboratory at Porton Down
  • The Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre (CDSC), Cardiff
  • The National Lyme Borreliosis Testing Laboratory, Scotland

From September 2013, Dr Matthew Dryden, consultant microbiologist at Winchester’s Royal Hampshire County Hospital (RHCH), England, will head a new National Lyme Disease Clinic. Dr. Dryden has over 20 years experience in treating hundreds of Lyme disease patients. A GP referral is required for appointments at this clinic.

How is Lyme disease treated?
Lyme borreliosis is treated with antibiotics, usually doxycycline or amoxicillin. Early treatment is the ideal as it will help to prevent complications of the disease and permanent tissue damage. If treatment is prescribed soon after the appearance of an Erythema Migrans, it will usually resolve within a few days.

If treatment commences later in the course of the disease, symptoms may be slower to resolve as it takes time for tissues to repair and inflammation to subside. Sometimes permanent tissue damage can occur, which includes damage to nerves. This can result in ongoing problems for some patients which may require ongoing supportive therapy (e.g. pain control).

Neuroborreliosis can require treatment with intravenous antibiotics. For more information, see our section on Lyme disease for treatment in people and Pets for animal treatment.

Is a rash always the first symptom of Lyme disease?
No. A rash associated with Lyme disease, which is called an Erythema Migrans (EM), may appear at any time during early or late disease. A primary lesion may occur at the bite site but secondary lesions (usually smaller than the primary lesion) can occur, often in multiples. A new study entitled ‘Differentiation of Reinfection from Relapse in Recurrent Lyme Disease’ suggests that recurrent EM is as a result of re-infection rather than relapse. However, this was a small study examining only 17 patients. Given the size of the study and the apparent variations in symptom presentation between different genospecies, wider study would be required to draw any firm conclusions.

Some studies have demonstrated that fewer than 50% of infected people develop an EM rash and some genospecies of Borrelia do not appear to present with any skin involvement. Flu-like symptoms and excessive fatigue are often the first noticeable indications of infection. Progression of the illness can lead on to symptoms including cranial-nerve facial palsy, meningitis, heart problems, arthritis and encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), to name but a few. The onset of symptoms and presentation can differ for each individual.

References and Further Reading
The New England Journal of Medicine. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1883-1890November 15, 2012

Differentiation of Reinfection from Relapse in Recurrent Lyme Disease. Robert B. Nadelman, M.D., Klára Hanincová, Ph.D., Priyanka Mukherjee, B.S., Dionysios Liveris, Ph.D., John Nowakowski, M.D., Donna McKenna, A.N.P., Dustin Brisson, Ph.D., Denise Cooper, B.S., Susan Bittker, M.S., Gul Madison, M.D., Diane Holmgren, R.N., Ira Schwartz, Ph.D., and Gary P. Wormser, M.D.

Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. Volume 22, Issue 2, June 2008, Pages 235–260

Erythema Migrans.Patricia Dandache, MD, Robert B. Nadelman, MD

Does a Lyme disease rash always look like a bull’s-eye?
No. An Erythema Migrans (EM) can be atypical (not like a bull’s-eye).

The classic bull’s-eye rash is so called because it is circular in shape, with a clearing from the centre, like a target or the rings on a dart board. However, EM rashes can vary in shape, colour and size. Evidence suggests that this may be related to the particular genospecies causing the infection. An EM can appear on any location of the body, including the scalp where it may not be observed due to the location or because it is obscured by hair. Multiple rashes may appear in multiple locations in disseminated disease.

Can someone get Lyme disease again after treatment?
Yes. It is possible for someone who has had Lyme borreliosis and recovered to be bitten and infected again. However, a patient may also experience treatment failure if they were treated for an inadequate duration, or with an inadequate dose, or with an inappropriate antibiotic, in which case they will require another course of treatment.

It is possible for a subclinical infection (without apparent symptoms) to become clinical (with symptoms) if the immune system is compromised by another illness or an injury.

Is it only ticks that transmit Lyme disease?
Although Borreliae (the bacteria which cause Lyme disease) are reported to have been sporadically isolated from certain insects (such as mosquitoes and fleas), there is currently no robust scientific evidence to demonstrate that these insects could be effective vectors (creatures which carry and transmit disease) of Lyme borreliosis, and attempts to experimentally infect animals have not been successful. Our section on ‘Disease Transmission‘ explains the mechanism of disease transmission from a tick to its host.

There is also currently no robust scientific evidence to demonstrate that Lyme borreliosis could be transmitted through physical contact between people. Like Lyme borreliosis, Syphilis is a spirochaetal disease. Treponema pallidum, the spirochaete which causes Syphilis, is transmitted through direct contact as the disease causes infectious skin lesions, particularly in the genital area. The Syphilis spirochaetes contained in the moist skin lesions then invade the new host when they make contact with mucous membranes or minute abrasions in the host’s skin. There is currently no scientific evidence, however, to demonstrate that Borrelia burgdorferi can penetrate skin directly or survive on the surface of the skin or in genital mucous membranes.

There have been some studies using artificially inseminated animals with experimentally-infected semen containing a great number of spirochaetes. These studies do not demonstrate that Borrelia burgdorferi can naturally occur in human semen or that they can successfully transmit to another human.

A single study reported detection of the DNA of Borrelia burgdorferi in breast milk using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. PCR assays detect DNA from dead or living organisms but do not demonstrate the presence of living organisms.

It is recognised that PCR can be prone to false-positive reactions. The general consensus is that PCR is diagnostically useful for the detection of Borrelial DNA in tissue biopsies from Erythema Migrans and Acrodermatitis Chronica Atrophicans, and can be useful in examination of synovial fluid. Borrelial DNA is detectable in cerebral spinal fluid in only 10-30% of patients with proven acute neuroborreliosis. PCR is not recommended for examination of urine.

To date there is no scientific evidence to demonstrate that Lyme borreliosis can be transmitted through breast milk or other body fluids in humans.

It is recognised that untreated Lyme borreliosis during pregnancy may lead to infection of the placenta and possible complications including foetal death. No serious effects on the foetus have been found in cases where the mother receives prompt and appropriate antibiotic treatment (see question 34 for further information on Lyme borreliosis and pregnancy).

More study is needed to establish if there could be other potential modes of transmission.

 References and Further Reading
Journal of Clinical Microbiology. J. Clin. Microbiol. September 1998 vol. 36 no. 9 2658-2665  Diagnostic Value of PCR for Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in Skin Biopsy and Urine Samples from Patients with Skin Borreliosis. S. Brettschneider, H. Bruckbauer, N. Klugbauer, and H. Hofmann.

Folia Parasitologica. 1998;45(1):67-72 Investigation of haematophagous arthropods for borreliae. Hubálek Z, Halouzka J, Juricová Z.

Journal of Clinical Microbiology. J. Clin. Microbiol. August 1988 vol. 26 no. 8 1482-1486 Ticks and biting insects infected with the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi. L. A. Magnarelli and J. F. Anderson.

Journal of Medical Entomology. Volume 28, Number 5, September 1991 , pp. 750-753(4).  Apparent Incompetence of Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae) and Fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) as Vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi in an Ixodes dammini Endemic Area of Ontario, Canada. Lindsay, L. Robbin; Barker, Ian K.; Surgeoner, Gordon A.; McEwen, Scott A.; Elliott, Laurie A.; Kolar, Jan.

European Journal of Epidemiology 1996 Feb;12(1):9-11. Unusual Features in the Epidemiology of Lyme Borreliosis. L. Angelov

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [A]. 1986 Dec;263(1-2):40-4 The Prevalence and Significance of Borrelia Burgdorferi in the Urine of Feral Reservoir Hosts. Bosler and Schulze.

The British Veterinary Journal. 1995 Mar-Apr;151(2):221-4  Viability of Borrelia burgdorferi in Stored Semen. Kumi-Diaka and Harris.

The Journal of Parasitology © 1999 The American Society of Parasitologists Investigation of Venereal, Transplacental, and Contact Transmission of the Lyme Disease Spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, in Syrian Hamsters. J. E. Woodrum and J. H. Oliver, Jr.

Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis. (1989) 11 (Supplement 6): S1460-S1469. doi: 10.1093/clinids/11.Supplement_6.S1460.  Epidemiology and Clinical Similarities of Human Spirochetal Diseases. George P. Schmid.

American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Feb;44(2):135-9.  Relative infectivity of Borrelia burgdorferi in Lewis rats by various routes of inoculation. L. A. Moody KD, Barthold SW.

The Journal of Clinical Investigation. J Clin Invest. 2001 March 15; 107(6): 651–656. doi: 10.1172/JCI12484.   Borrelia burgdorferi and Treponema pallidum: a comparison of functional genomics, environmental adaptations, and pathogenic mechanisms. Stephen F. Porcella and Tom G. Schwan

Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 21: 121-8.  Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA by polymerase chain reaction in the urine and breast milk of patients with Lyme borreliosis. Bruno L. Schmidt, E. Aberer, C. Stockenhuber, H. Klade, F. Breier, A. Luger.

Are the symptoms the same in every Lyme disease patient?
No. Not everyone experiences an Erythema Migrans (the bull’s-eye rash associated with Lyme borreliosis) and there can be variations in the shape colour and size of Erythema Migrans. Other symptoms of Lyme borreliosis can be non-specific and can be confused with the symptoms of other conditions. Some patients may not experience early symptoms while other patient’s symptoms may wax and wane. See questions 18 and 22 for more information about symptoms and the variations in Erythema Migrans.

Some patients experience a worsening of symptoms when antibiotic treatment commences. This is termed a ‘Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction. Please see our section on ‘Lyme disease‘ for further information.

References and Further Reading  Jarisch-Herxheimer (J-H) and Lyme Disease

Does a negative test mean a person does not have Lyme disease?
No. All methods of testing have their limitations and can produce both false-positive and false-negative reactions. Antibodies may not be present for the first few weeks of infection, so a negative test does not exclude Lyme borreliosis. A second sample taken 2-4 weeks later may then go on to show seroconversion (the presence of antibodies where previously there were none). However, early treatment with antibiotics may prevent the development of a detectable antibody response. In late stage disease, patients may be seronegative, although this is considered a rare phenomenon.

False-positive reactions may occur in patients with certain conditions such as glandular fever, syphilis, rheumatoid arthritis, other autoimmune conditions and some neurological conditions. Some people who have previously been exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi may have antibodies which create a positive reaction in testing, even though they do not have a current infection.

Normally in the UK and Ireland a two-tier testing procedure is employed. This involves detecting antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in a patient’s blood. The first test (a screening test) is generally the C6 antigen-based enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Blood samples which then produce reactive or equivocal reactions go on to have an immunoblot or Western blot. This is a more sensitive test to detect the presence of antibodies which are specific to Borrelia burgdorferi. The significance of any result, negative or positive, should be interpreted carefully by clinicians in the light of the patient’s clinical presentation and tick exposure risk history. Erythema Migrans should always be treated on clinical suspicion without waiting for test results.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests are also available for the detection of B. burgdorferi DNA in fluid taken from infected joints and skin or tissue biopsies. Outside of such uses, it is recognised that PCR can be prone to false-positive reactions in the detection of Borrelial DNA.

References and Further Reading
Journal of Clinical Microbiology. J. Clin. Microbiol. September 1998 vol. 36 no. 9 2658-2665 Diagnostic Value of PCR for Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in Skin Biopsy and Urine Samples from Patients with Skin Borreliosis.S. Brettschneider, H. Bruckbauer, N. Klugbauer, and H. Hofmann.

Is there a vaccine against Lyme disease?
Currently there is no vaccine for humans available in Europe or North America. Research into new vaccines is ongoing but it is unlikely that any vaccines will be available in the near future. The US vaccine LYMErix was launched in 1998 but it was subsequently withdrawn in 2002.In July 2013, a vaccine became available in the UK and Ireland for dogs. Ask your vet for more information.

Can people be infected with other infections at the same time as Lyme disease?
Yes. Multiple infections can be contracted from a single tick bite although recorded cases of multiple tick-borne infections are not common. When other tick-borne infections are contracted at the same time as Lyme borreliosis, this is termed ‘co-infection’. Ticks in the UK can carry a variety of disease-causing organisms concurrently. These include Anaplasma / Ehrlichia species, and Bartonella and Babesia species, as well as the different Borrelia genospecies. Other opportunistic infections may also result from the immune system being depressed by a Borrelial infection.

References and Further Reading
Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001, vol33,5, 676-685(118ref.)
Coinfecting deer-associated zoonoses: Lyme disease, babesiosis, and ehrlichiosis.Thompson, Spielman and Krause.

What happens if treatment is delayed while waiting for confirmatory blood tests?
Although all stages of Lyme borreliosis are treatable with antibiotics, it is important that treatment begins as promptly as possible to avoid complications and permanent tissue damage.

In Mandell, Douglas and Bennett’s ‘Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases’, Alan Steere MD wrote:

“It has been shown that virulent strains of Borrelia burgdorferi are able to resist elimination by phagocytic cells, thereby evading the first line in the host defence system against infection. This assists an infection to disseminate quickly”.

Dr. Steere also wrote:

“Borrelia burgdorferi seems to cross the cell monolayer at intracellular junctions, although it can penetrate through the cytoplasm of a cell. In a rat model, permeability changes in the blood-brain barrier began within 12 hours after inoculation with the spirochete, and the organism may be cultured from the cerebrospinal fluid within 24 hours”.

Although early treatment is the ideal, diagnosis can be difficult in certain cases, such as when the patient does not recall a tick bite, or a rash has not been observed, or the rash was not typical of Erythema Migrans. In such cases, a physician will usually seek laboratory evidence of a Borrelial infection before commencing with any treatment. As the symptoms of Lyme borreliosis can be ambiguous, other potential causes for the patient’s symptoms will need to be explored.

Diagnosis of clinical disease in animals can be equally difficult as erythema migrans are rarely reported and many animals can have antibodies to Lyme disease from previous exposure to ticks.

 References and Further Reading

Is a full recovery certain?
No. The length of time a person has been infected before treatment, whether co-infections are present and whether the patient was treated promptly and correctly, can all have an impact on a patient’s recovery and whether permanent tissue damage occurs or not.

Some patients experience persistent subjective symptoms (such as fatigue, joint and muscle aches, pain and/or tingling, poor sleep, mood changes and memory or concentration loss) following treatment. In such cases, the patient should be carefully evaluated for clinical and laboratory evidence of ongoing Borrelial infection, and their treatment history reviewed as it may have been inappropriate or inadequate and re-treatment may be necessary.

Where there is no evidence of ongoing infection, and symptoms have continued for a short duration following treatment (under six months), it is generally considered that the patient is suffering from ‘Post-Lyme Symptoms’ and that, in time, these symptoms will subside as the body repairs itself. However, patients who (prior to appropriate treatment) had a long-standing infection, or severe presentations in acute illness, may have suffered permanent tissue damage. In such cases the patient may require rehabilitation and supportive treatment (e.g. pain control medication) for symptom relief.

In patients where symptoms have persisted for a longer duration following treatment (over six months), it is generally considered that the patient has Post-Lyme Disease Syndrome (PLDS). Again, this is more likely to occur in patients who (prior to appropriate treatment) had a long-standing infection or severe presentations in acute illness. In such cases the patient may require rehabilitation and ongoing supportive treatment (e.g. pain control medication) for symptom relief.

Some patients may be diagnosed with ‘Chronic Lyme disease’. However, this is a poorly-defined term and has been applied to a wide range of patients from those who are previously untreated with late manifestations of Lyme borreliosis (such as ACA or Neuroborreliosis), to those who have subjective symptoms without any evidence of active Borrelial infection, or those with neither evidence of active or past Borrelial infection.

Studies of prolonged antimicrobial treatments of patients with PLDS have not demonstrated sustained benefit from such treatments.

References and Further Reading

Clinical Microbiology & Infection. 2011 Jan;17(1):69-79.  Lyme borreliosis: Clinical case definitions for diagnosis and management in Europe. Stanek G, Fingerle V, Hunfeld KP, Jaulhac B, Kaiser R, Krause A, Kristoferitsch W, O’Connell S, Ornstein K, Strle F, Gray J.

European Federation of neurological societies guidelines on the diagnosis and management of European Lyme neuroborreliosis. Eur J Neurol 2010;17:8e16. Mygland A, Ljostad U, Fingerle V, Rupprecht T, Schmutzhard E, Steiner I.

The American Journal of Medicine. Am J Med 2010;123(1):79e86.  Subjective symptoms after treatment of early Lyme disease. Cerar D, Cerar T, Ruzic-Sabljic E, Wormser GP, Strle F.

The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2008 Dec;27(12):1089-94.  Lyme neuroborreliosis in children: a prospective study of clinical features, prognosis and outcome. Skogman BH, Croner S, Nordwall M, Eknefelt M, Ernerudh J, Forsberg P.

The New England Journal of Medicine. 2007;357:1422e30.  A critical appraisal of chronic Lyme disease. Henry M. Feder, Jr., M.D., Barbara J.B. Johnson, Ph.D., Susan O’Connell, M.D., Eugene D. Shapiro, M.D., Allen C. Steere, M.D., Gary P. Wormser, M.D.

Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 2008;22(2):341e60.   Chronic Lyme disease: a review. Marques A.

International Journal of Epidemiology. 2005;34:1340–1345.  Post-Lyme borreliosis syndrome: a meta-analysis of reported symptoms. Victoria Cairns and Jon Godwin

Are cases of Lyme disease recorded?

How accurate is the recording of Lyme disease cases?

Should Lyme disease victims donate blood?

What if I am or become pregnant?


Concept and Methodology

MuTra PhD was initiated within a 9-year-cycle of European Marie Curie actions (1999 – 2007) and has been institutionalized within Saarland University’s GradUS advanced studies program since 2010. It provides an introduction into basic scientific thought principles interrelated with ‘hands-on’ coaching and assistance in systematically developing one’s own research work (dissertation or habilitation) in a step-by-step sequence.
It owes its originality to the theoretical thought principles of physicist and linguist Klaus Mudersbach, specifically his meaning and communication models (Leksemantik, Dividuensemantik), tripartite text perspectives model (‘atomistic-holistic-holatomistic’ views of the world), and research methodology (IKS, Prodainformad). Integrating these thought principles, MuTra PhD provides a homogeneous theoretical and methodological framework for qualitative liberal arts research. Its added value is the structured integration of subjectivity dimensions in text and communication analysis, transfer and (re)production as well as the establishment of individual and collective TYPES and the design of multi-perspective communication and mediation models.


Line plots showing average (near-surface air) temperature departures from normal, averaged around the world, across east-west belts (2.5 degrees latitude or ~250 km in width north-south) separately for land and ocean areas. (Jason Box)

The image, Box explained by email, “underscores the distinction between ocean and land and thus points to there being something to the pattern” of “Warm Arctic, Cold Continents.” He continued:

What are the impacts? Why should we care? For one, the patterns indicate a system changing state. For two: That change probably affects the frequency and persistence of weather, a hallmark of climate change; changing extremes… more hots and ironically sometimes sharper colds.

In recent years, several scientists have come up with different versions or incarnations of the “Warm Arctic, Cold Continents” idea. One of the best known is Rutgers University climate scientist and Arctic specialist Jennifer Francis, who published a 2012 paper with Stephen Vavrus of the University of Wisconsin-Madison arguing that the “Arctic amplification” of global warming was leading to a more wavy and slower-moving jet stream, and this in turn was leading to extreme weather as different atmospheric patterns became stuck in place. Their paper highlighted not only changes in winter, but also throughout the year.

“What I think we’ve been seeing this year has been totally consistent with the hypothesis that we’ve been working on,” Francis said in an interview of the recent Arctic drama. The jet stream is a global west-to-east flow (Francis often calls it a “river”) of air above our heads that carries with it weather we experience. But sometimes, the flow becomes quite elongated, looking much less like a tight loop around the planet and more like a series of slowly undulating waves.

“What I think is happening is that it’s been very warm in the Arctic all year long and this has helped favor a very wavy jet stream, which is what we’ve been seeing,” she continued, “and that has helped to pump a lot of extra heat and moisture up into the Arctic.”

Visualization of a very wavy northern hemisphere jet stream. Credit: NASA

But then what about the cold continents?

Judah Cohen, the head of seasonal forecasting at Atmospheric and Environmental Research, said that this year in particular, low sea ice in the Arctic has led to a situation in which more snow falls over Siberia in the late fall, as Arctic moisture unlocked from the uncovered ocean gets pulled south over land and falls as snow. This doesn’t just make Siberia cold. Cohen believes it creates atmospheric reverberating effects that upset the polar vortex (the cold lower pressure region that normally hovers over the Arctic in winter), causing it to become elongated, migrate southward, and allowing for the swapping of Arctic cold and mid-latitude warmth.

“This year, we had this unprecedented early polar votex weakening, polar vortex split, and that really kicked off this continental cooling we’ve seen this winter,” said Cohen. “It started across Eurasia but obviously in December it’s come over North America as well, and so far there’s no signs of that going away.”

But as Cohen acknowledges, “the community is definitely polarized” over the validity of these ideas. “People are saying that [they] feel very strongly that any kind of cold that we’re seeing in the winter is just a product of natural variability, and there’s no forcing of it from the Arctic, let’s say. But I mean, I think every time you get a cold winter, that argument gets harder and harder to make.”

Another early theorist of the “Warm Arctic, Cold Continents” concept is James Overland, a researcher with the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, who co-authored a paper on the topic in 2011, just after a record-breaking snowy Washington, D.C. winter in 2010. It concluded:

Increased atmospheric temperatures over loss of sea ice areas, creates a meander in the polar vortex flow which will have different downstream effects in different years. Given a continuing trend for increased temperatures and thinner sea ice in the Arctic, modelling results and the data from recent late autumns, December 2008, 2009 and 2010, suggest that the frequency of an autumn warm Arctic—cold continents climate pattern will increase….

“There are a lot of people in both camps,” Overland now says of the debate over these ideas. “It’s fairly evenly matched.”

But as he continues, referring to the present moment, “I think there’s a strong case to be made that we’re seeing the first real strong example of the loss of sea ice north of Alaska helping to lock in the longwave pattern and the cold temperatures on the East Coast.” (Francis, Cohen, and Overland were all co-authors of a 2014 review paper that looked at the evidence for whether the warming Arctic was indeed causing extreme weather effects in the mid-latitudes.)

If these ideas are correct, they’re hugely important — and not only because of the consequences for the weather we all experience in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. It’s also important because paradoxically, it could give momentum to climate change doubters, who will constantly be pointing to major snowstorms and cold temperatures where they live in order to cast doubt on the overall climate trend, even though it would be precisely that trend that is driving those select bouts of cold (even as the globe overall still shows a warming trend).

Recently I checked in with one of the major skeptics of all of this — National Center for Atmospheric Research climate scientist Kevin Trenberth, who has debated Francis in the past, arguing that much of what she’s citing could be chalked up to natural climate variability and noting that climate change models don’t produce these effects.

Trenberth didn’t deny that the fast-warming Arctic could have some ramifications outside of the Arctic. But he pointed out that the tropics of the Earth have a greater pull on weather overall and argued that processes happening in the Arctic winter aren’t that powerful, in the perspective of the globe as a whole. As he put it:

What happens in the Arctic may not stay in the Arctic, but events there are always combined with other places: so in November the cold air formed but went over to Siberia. More recently we had the cold outbreak in the US.  It is not as if there is not cold air! These events are complicit and there is some randomness to them: we call it “weather.”

In fact, in a sign of possible moderating of the debate, Francis said she agrees that “the tropics rule the world,” and the Arctic is acting as more of a modulator. “We’re saying that they do rule the world in a way but the Arctic can really change how their natural influence would typically happen. We’re seeing them intensify a pattern or maybe even reduce it.” For instance, if tropical weather causes a major excursion of the jet stream northward, Arctic warming can then exacerbate that, she said.

So for now, these ideas aren’t accepted by all of the relevant scientists – but they definitely have a core group of supporters who are publishing, arguing, and citing recent events to advance their case. Scientists are gathering in Washington, D.C. in February to hash them out further – by which time, we’ll know more about just how much winter weather itself has given momentum to the conversation.

“We continue to see this Arctic behaving so bizarrely, I think we’re in for a very interesting winter,” said Francis.

Read more at Energy & Environment:

President Obama bans oil drilling in large parts of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans


Can You Freeze Cheese?

My first response to this question is always: Why would you want to? But this question has probably crossed the minds of any of those who have ever hosted a party and overestimated your cheese-fans. What to do with those leftover quarter wheels of nearly untouched cheese?

Unfortunately the answer for most cheeses is that freezing is not a good option. Soft-ripened cheeses have a high moisture content and should not be frozen. Just think of what happens to moisture when it freezes: ice and expansion. This results in a breakdown of the structure of the cheese, turning soft paste into crumbs. The texture is mealy and grainy, and no amount of thawing will reconstitute it. You’ve lost your brie.

Now some hard cheeses like cheddar reportedly can withstand freezing, but may best be used thereafter in cooking. They also become more crumbly in texture, but tend retain their flavor. If you choose to try this (and I always encourage experimentation) wrap the cheese in foil and plastic wrap for no more than two months.when ready to use, let it thaw completely in the fridge.

Bottom-line: If you find yourself with more cheese than your household can handle, spread a little love while it’s still fresh: wrap up some wedges as parting gifts or, better yet, make a plan for another wine and cheese party next week!


Section 1: General Information

1.3.2 Narrative Summary.
The narrative summary will summarise the achievements of the Action.

1.4.2 Area of Intervention.
This section is optional at the final report stage if no changes occurred. The UN Agency has to provide information on the locations which have changed and explain the rationale behind the changes.


Sociology and Anthropology

Toward Islamic Anthropology: Anthropological Fieldwork

AkhSocial anthropologists must test their hypotheses about social and cultural institutions and their interconnections in the course of fieldwork in societies and situations which they have no power to control. Their tools are observation, interpretation, and comparison rather than experiment. This does not mean that anthropologists can do without theory. It is as essential to anthropology as it is to other scientific disciplines.

Whether we like it or not, social anthropology has become a specialist subject. It has its own theoretical equipment, some account of which has been given in preceding sections, and it has by now a considerable body of comparative material to draw upon. No one who writes about the social institutions of a small-scale community without knowledge of contemporary theory in social anthropology, and without some knowledge of the social and cultural institutions of comparable societies elsewhere, can hope to produce a scientifically adequate account. Without specialist training he cannot know the most important things to look for, the most useful questions to ask, or the best techniques for obtaining answers. In Victorian times there was no such body of sociological theory and comparative ethnography, and there was hardly any difference between the professional and the amateur. Today anyone who wishes to contribute significantly to the growing body of knowledge about the social and cultural institutions of small-scale and unfamiliar communities must acquire some theoretical training in social anthropology. At this preliminary stage, if the community and its culture differ greatly from his own, the anthropologist feels utterly bewildered and confused. The experience is a daunting one, and it can last for a long time.  Most anthropologists have known the feelings of frustration and despondency - even of desperation - which go with the early stages of fieldwork in an unfamiliar culture. Anthropologists describe fieldwork as "an extremely personal traumatic kind of experience" (Leach 1971:91) which can be "painful and humiliating" (Wax 1971:19), and which can influence their work (Winter 1973: 171).

Slowly, often imperceptibly, the early period passes. Living in a hut or tent within the village, the anthropologist gradually begins to understand what is happening around him. As his knowledge of the language and his acquaintance with the community advance, things begin to make sense. An overheard conversation is understood; a pattern of behavior is fitted to a learned social relationship. With luck he now has a few friends in the community, people who are willing to take time and trouble to explain things to him, to take him around the neighborhood and to introduce him to others. From this point onward, the pace accelerates. The anthropologist gets to know most of the members of the community as separate individuals, differing in temperament and in social status (and in their degree of interest in his work). He learns their often intricate ties of kinship and marriage; he comes to understand what they think about one another, about the world they live in, and about him. He learns not only what are the appropriate questions to ask, but of whom to ask them. He begins to feel "at home" in the community. He now knows it in some respect more thoroughly than he has ever known any community, even the one he grew up in. He has made the breakthrough into another culture: as a field anthropologist, he has arrived. He has accomplished the major characteristic of anthropological "participant observation".

To a Western anthropologist, probably born and brought up in an urban culture, this can be a vivid, almost traumatic, experience. The fieldworker who spends a year or more of his life as a member of a group of hunters and gatherers in Borneo, or of a tribe of African peasants or pastoralists, lives in more intimate contact with the basic conditions of human existence than has been possible for generations in the modern world. Birth, illness, and death, the daily effort to win food from the environment with the simplest equipment, the smell of the hot earth, the wind and the rain, the urgent, first-hand awareness of these things is something new and yet familiar to the visitor from a city culture. It is easy for anthropologists who have worked among such peoples to romanticise their experience and many do. The experience is an unforgettable one. The ideal social anthropological fieldworker is adaptable, tactful, good humored, and possessed of a sense of perspective. Above all, he is patient and considerate.  He is, after all, a guest (though usually an uninvited one) in the community he is studying, and he must show the same respect and courtesy to his hosts as he expects to receive from them.

This is not the place for a detailed discussion of the various mechanical aids to field ethnography. Sound recording and photography may provide valuable supplements to the written record, and air photography can save weeks of labor where such matters as the dispersal of agricultural plots or patterns of village settlement are important. Mechanical aids, however, are not a substitute for the long and sustained personal contact upon which any comprehensive understanding of the community and its social and cultural life must be based.

The intensiveness of modern fieldwork, and the social anthropologist's increasing specialization, imply that he must become more and more dependent on other workers. In the communities which he studies, there are nearly always a few people who can read and write, and most fieldworkers engage one or two assistants, sometimes more, and pay them salaries. These assistants may not only serve as permanent informants and advisers; often they can make useful local contacts as well as collecting information and carrying out surveys under the anthropologist's supervision. The social anthropologist must participate as fully as he can in the everyday life of the community he is studying; he must live in it and get to know its members as people, as nearly as possible on equal terms. Evans-Pritchard claims that when he was studying divination among the Azande of the Sudan, he found it expedient to order his daily affairs by constant reference to the oracles, as the Azande do. He found this a more satisfactory way of making decisions than might be imagined.

No foreign anthropologist can ever be wholly assimilated to another culture; he can never quite become one with and indistinguishable from the people he is studying. Nor is it desirable that he should. "Stranger value" is an important asset. People often talk more freely to an outsider, so long as he is not too much of an outsider. Also, in a society where there are distinct social groups or classes, and especially when these are hierarchically arranged in terms of power and prestige, too close identification with one group or class may make easy contact with others difficult or impossible.

This problem is particularly acute when societies like the caste communities of India are being studied, but it also arises in countries like Bunyoro and others in East Africa and elsewhere, where there is a marked difference between an aristocratic ruling class and the peasant population. One has to start one's intensive research at one level, and this may make it difficult later to achieve entry into the other. Plainly a great deal depends on the personality and temperament of the investigator.

Our website is protected by DMC Firewall!


söndag 28 december 2014

The first snow!

Hello! I shoot this photos yesterday and that was also the day the first snow came! Now is everything bright and white. The only thing I don't like is that it's so cold (okay, it was -2°C when I shoot this pictures so I shouldn't complain) but then again I'd rather have it cold whit snow than cold with rain.

Inga kommentarer:

Skicka en kommentar


Division of assets

Dividing Retirement Assets at Divorce

For many couples, retirement assets represent a significant portion of net worth. During a divorce, in order to split assets equitably, most couples divide the benefits available in their employer retirement plans and the money they invested in their individual retirement accounts.

Court-ordered division of assets

The rules for splitting accounts are unique to each type of retirement account, but one rule is uniform: To avoid current taxation, the division of the retirement accounts must be done as a result of a court-ordered property division, divorce, or separation agreement.

Separating the benefits

Retirement plans. As noted above, prior to making any changes to a participant spouse’s plan benefits, employers require a QDRO document, signed by a judge. Before the QDRO is written and issued, it is a best practice to talk with your or your former spouse’s retirement plan administrator about plan requirements. Once the QDRO is written, it takes a court order to make corrections or changes.

Depending on individual plan rules, benefits may separate immediately (the separate interest approach) or at the participant spouse’s earliest retirement eligibility (the shared payment approach).

Additional important details regarding QDROs

A defined benefit is typically paid as a monthly benefit at retirement. With the separate interest model, the former spouse is treated as an employee, and benefits are paid until his or her death. With a shared interest model, benefits usually stop at the participant spouse’s death, even if the former spouse is still alive.

If the QDRO specifies payout instructions not offered by the retirement plan, it cannot be honored; however, the QDRO can require early retirement benefits for the alternate payee even if the participant spouse chooses to delay retirement.

Tax issues

Note that a QDRO-ordered distribution to a child or other dependent is always taxed to the participant spouse.

Divided IRAs. Remember that an informal or mediated agreement between spouses to divide individual IRA assets is not recognized by the IRS and will result in taxes. Also, unlike with QDROs, a divorce does not qualify as an exception to the 10-percent early withdrawal penalty for IRA distributions prior to age 59½.

Special situations

 State, local, and municipal retirement systems offer fewer options for dividing marital assets. The retirement plans of some states do not allow the assignment of benefits, even to a former spouse.

Other types of government retirement benefits are the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) and the Civil Service Retirement System programs for federal retirees. The correct term for the division of assets of federal retirees is not QDRO but Court Order Acceptable for Processing. FERS also uses the shared benefit model, so a rollover to an IRA is unavailable.

Nonqualified annuities can be divided between divorcing spouses without triggering taxes, based on the instructions of the court-approved settlement document. Because each insurance company has its unique requirements, it is wise to communicate with the carrier before the final divorce decree. You may find that existing surrender charges will be applied.

Many executives also participate in nonqualified deferred compensation plans. Because a nonqualified plan is not subject to ERISA rules, a QDRO is not used to set aside benefits for the former spouse. A division of the assets of the nonqualified deferred compensation plan will not shift the tax liability to the former spouse.

Consult a professional

Because valuing and dividing a couple’s assets is complex, consider bringing in a third-party professional such as your financial planner or a Certified Divorce Financial Analyst (CDFA). Experienced with valuing retirement plans and employee benefits, a CDFA professional can act as an advisor to your attorney or as a mediator for you and your former spouse to help in pursuing an equitable settlement.


Show description

Read Online or Download Basic Principles of Electronics. Semiconductors PDF

Best semiconductors books

Semiconductor Quantum Optics

Optical communications expertise is starting to be more and more in significance, with a fast velocity of improvement. cutting edge optical units have emerged from the combination of semiconductor laser diodes with optical waveguide expertise. This well-researched textual content strains the evolution of semiconductor laser amplifiers (SLAs) from those applied sciences.

Advanced Gate Stacks for High-Mobility Semiconductors

Will nanoelectronic units proceed to scale based on Moore’s legislations? At this second, there is not any effortless solution considering the fact that gate scaling is swiftly rising as a significant roadblock for the evolution of CMOS expertise. Channel engineering in line with high-mobility semiconductor fabrics (e. g. strained Si, substitute orientation substrates, Ge or III-V compounds) might support triumph over the stumbling blocks considering that they provide functionality enhancement.

Complex Plasmas: Scientific Challenges and Technological Opportunities

This publication presents the reader with an advent to the physics of complicated plasmas, a dialogue of the categorical clinical and technical demanding situations they current and an summary in their capability technological functions. advanced plasmas vary from traditional high-temperature plasmas in numerous methods: they could comprise extra species, together with nano meter- to micrometer-sized debris, unfavourable ions, molecules and radicals they usually may perhaps show robust correlations or quantum results.

Additional info for Basic Principles of Electronics. Semiconductors

Sample text

5: The Hall effect, and its use in a fluxmeter. 8, in which the 25 kü potentiometers VRl and VR2 are used to zero the galvanometers when the germanium chips are in zero (or earth only) field, by balancing out random voltage gradients. Ks>T :VR, 2 to 4V DC :VR2 : 25Ι<Ω FIG. 8. Ensure that the two galvanometers, if their terminals are not distinguished by + and — signs or colour, will each deflect in the same direction when a current is passed in the same way. Some centre-zero galvanometers have randomly connected terminals.

2 between collisions with lattice atoms. Why is such a simple derivation un satisfactory in the case of a degenerate electron gas? Describe experiments to measure (a) the majority carrier density and (b) the majority carrier mobility in a sample of semiconductor material. E. Part 3, Physical Electronics, June 1967) 5· Crystalline pure germanium has 4*5XlO28 atoms m~3. At 300°K one atom in 2XlO9 is ionized. The mobilities of electrons and holes at 300°K are respectively 0*4 m2/V s and 0*2 m2/V s.

Lay it flat in the middle, and carefully butfirmlystick it down with half-inch self-adhesive masking tape (Sellotape could be used). Fix two flexible leads to the rule, then solder their ends to the foil con tacts of the gauge, in such a way that they exert as little as possible force in any direction on the element. 7. When the rule is bent along its length from the ends, the meter reading will vary by an amount which can be read quite easily, before returning to its former value. When the rule is released, the reading temporarily changes in the opposite direc tion.

Download PDF sample

Rated 4.32 of 5 – based on 22 votes