Understanding Balance Sheet

What am I looking at?

What do these numbers mean?

What’s my bottom line and how did I get there?

Do any of the above questions sound familiar? Do you spend time with your bookkeeper/accountant going over your financials but when you leave you still don’t feel like you know what you talked about? When I started out in the business industry, it was as a Business Manager/Controller for a company and I never believed that I would be able to understand financials let alone prepare them and analyze them for other people.

In my experience, I have found that far too often when individuals start their own businesses, they do so because they have a very clear specialty in the product or services that they are providing. This doesn’t always mean that they are experienced business men and women and understand everything there is to know about starting a business especially when it comes to the bookkeeping and financials. For most people, we understand income and expenses but what is usually foreign to us, is the balance sheet and how to understand the assets and liabilities etc. When I was just starting out, I would look on the balance sheet and the only things that I understood was the bank account balance and the credit card balance. I certainly didn’t understand what “pre-paid expenses” were and forget trying to understand my assets and depreciations of said assets. I remember looking it all over and feeling so overwhelmed, I didn’t know what to do. It was then that I found an accountant (now friend) that could explain my financials in such a way that I not only understood what I was reading but I also knew where everything came from, how the numbers got to where they were! It was amazing! I felt like a kid in a candy store (I know that I am a little weird, but hey, I love numbers now).

In this article I am going to try and explain the very basics of basics for bookkeeping and some important areas to look at when going over your financials with your bookkeeper/accountant. So let’s dive right in. I will use easy round numbers for the sake of simplicity.

First let’s start with what I believed to be the hardest document to understand when I began; that is the Balance Sheet.

The Balance sheet is not the most important financial statement, but it is the second-most, the most important being the income statement (or Profit and Loss). The Balance sheet gives a reporting on a business’ assets, liabilities, and owner contributions of capital at any given point in time.

  • The Assets shown on the balance sheet are items that are owned by a business in which have value and that money was paid for.
  • The Liabilities that are shown on the balance sheet are those amounts that a business owes to other businesses, government agencies and/or people (Credit Cards, HST etc.).
  • Owner’s Contribution to Capital is any amount that an owner, shareholder or partner has paid into the business. This can be in the form of investment or have reinvested in the business by leaving profits inside the company.

The most important thing to understand about the balance sheet is what the assets and liabilities are. This will make understanding the statement easier and help you interpret what it is saying. The following table will show you a very simple balance sheet. Let’s assume that this balance sheet shows the condition of a side street vendor that sells food. This will show the balance sheet at the beginning of the day before there are any sales. The first section of the balance sheet shows the totals the two assets of the business; $1,000 cash in the lock box under the counter and the $3,000 worth of food that has been purchased to sell during the day.

A Simple Balance Sheet:

Cash $1,000

Inventory   3,000

Total Assets $4,000

Accounts Payable $2,000

Loan Payable   1,000

Owner’s Equity

S. Nelson, capital $1,000

Total Liabilities and Owner’s Equity $4,000

Balance sheets can use various categories to report assets (eg. Accounts Receivables, Investments, Fixtures, Equipment and Long-Term Investments). With a small business owner, not all of these asset categories will show up. If you look at the Balance Sheet of a much larger business/corporation you will see more of these categories.

The liabilities section of the balance sheet states the amounts that the business owes to other businesses; think of them like IOUS. Liabilities are not necessarily a bad thing. After all, companies have to spend some money to make money. They only become a problem when a company is consistently spending more than it’s earning and has no clear and viable strategy to reduce that trend.

Shareholder/Owner Equity

Subtract the total liabilities from the total asset, and you end with the company’s net worth, also known as shareholder equity – the shareholders’ ownership stake after all the debts are paid. (That’s why stocks are also called equities.) Common stock, preferred stock, and retained earnings comprise the three major parts of shareholder equity. They ultimately determine how much each share receives in dividends.

I understand that this is a lot to take in and for some of you, it may not be vital information for you to know however, I believe that if you understand even a portion of the Balance Sheet, it will help you in the long run. We all have great people in our lives that help us run our businesses and do our bookkeeping etc. The trick is to find someone that you trust and that will work WITH you and communicate openly with you. Once you have this person or company, you will be set and you will notice a lot of stress will be released.

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Scott Caslick


I am writing IPbus Transaction Verification Model for UVVM and I have encountered some problem. I know potential solution, but I don't like it and I am not sure if it can be handled better in some different way.

Here is some code snippet that is necessary to introduce the problem.

  type t_ipbus_tranaction_header is
    protocol_version : natural range 0 to 2**4  - 1;
    transaction_id   : natural range 0 to 2**12 - 1;
    words            : natural range 0 to 2**8  - 1;
    type_id          : t_ipbus_transaction_type_id;
    info_code        : t_ipbus_transaction_info_code;
  end record;

  -- Overload t_slv_array in order to enable unconstrained array in record.
  type t_slv_array is array (natural range <>) of std_logic_vector(31 downto 0);

  type t_ipbus_transaction is
    header : t_ipbus_tranaction_header;
    bodyy  : t_slv_array;
  end record;

  function ipbus_transaction (
    protocol_version : natural;
    transaction_id   : natural;
    words            : natural;
    type_id          : t_ipbus_transaction_type_id;
    info_code        : t_ipbus_transaction_info_code;
    bodyy            : t_slv_array
  ) return t_ipbus_transaction is
    variable trans : t_ipbus_transaction(bodyy(bodyy'length-1 downto 0));
    assert protocol_version = 2 report "Wrong IPbus protocol version." severity failure;

    trans.header.protocol_version := protocol_version;
    trans.header.transaction_id   := transaction_id;
    trans.header.words            := words;
    trans.header.type_id          := type_id;
    trans.header.info_code        := info_code;
    trans.bodyy                   := bodyy;

    return trans;
  end function;

  function ipbus_read_transaction (
    read_size : natural;
    base_address : std_logic_vector(31 downto 0)
  ) return t_ipbus_transaction is
    variable aux : t_slv_array(0 downto 0);
    aux(0) := base_address;
    return ipbus_transaction(2, 0, read_size, READ, OUTBOUND_REQUEST, aux);
  end function;

Now, I would like to define signal or variable in the testbench in the following way:

signal transaction : t_ipbus_transaction := ipbus_read_transaction(1, (others => '0'));

However this returns following error in the GHDL:

tb/ipbus_tvm_tb.vhd:40:12:error: declaration of signal "transaction" with unconstrained record type "t_ipbus_transaction" is not allowed
tb/ipbus_tvm_tb.vhd:40:12:error: (even with a default value)

I am not sure if it is because of lack of the support in the VHDL standard or in GHDL.

I have also tried the following definition:

signal transaction : t_ipbus_transaction := new ipbus_read_transaction(1, (others => '0'));

This returns error:

tb/ipbus_tvm_tb.vhd:41:53:error: a type mark must denote a type or a subtype
tb/ipbus_tvm_tb.vhd:41:53:error: (type mark denotes function "ipbus_read_transaction")

So it is not supported by the VHDL standard.

I am aware that the problem can be easily solved by the following definition:

signal transaction : t_ipbus_transaction(bodyy(0 downto 0)) := ipbus_read_transaction(1, (others => '0'));

However, this approach has few drawbacks for me. Namely:

  1. User has to type redundant information.
  2. User has to know transaction body length in advance.
  3. User has to have greater knowledge about the protocol itself.

So, this is the VHDL language issue I am facing right now.

I realize already in this moment, that there also will be problem with returning response transaction in the procedure via output argument, where length of the transaction body is also unknown.

I would like to ask you for advice, if my object oriented approach to model the IPbus transaction with variable body length is implementable in the VHDL language.

I'm about 98% that what you're attempting to do is not possible within VHDL. I've done a bit of digging, and every bit of evidence I can find corroborates my suspicion.

Of the scant information I can find, the only thing that comes close to addressing your question is this post on VHDLGuru where the author points out that you can't even use a generic to set the size of the array, so that doesn't bode well for the dynamic approach you're targeting. (The author does propose using a package to help solve the problem, but that's probably not helpful for your purposes.)

I'm not sure either, but you've already proven GHDL doesn't support it and the evidence suggests that "most" tools don't support it so I'd recommend against trying an approach this sophisticated.

If this is just a simulation model, why not just declare bodyy to be an array of fixed size (i.e. the maximum size you would ever require)? You would of course need another variable to track the actual message size, but that could be easily defined using your approach. The only downside to this approach is that your simulation could slow down for super-huge messages, but if you're trying to simulate super-huge messages then you have a problem no matter what approach you take...

  • \$\begingroup\$ On the other hand, I'm sure. signal transaction : t_ipbus_transaction := ... provides no subtype indication constraint. IEEE Std 1076-2008 Index constraints and discrete ranges "The index range for each index of an array object or array subelement of a composite object is determined as follows: a) For a variable or signal declared by an object declaration, the subtype indication of the corresponding object declaration shall define a fully constrained subtype (and thereby, the index range for each index of the array object or subelement)." Shall has mandatory weight (1.3.1). \$\endgroup\$ – user8352 Mar 15 at 1:14
  • 1
    \$\begingroup\$ What I'm not sure of having read this is why someone wants to declare a signal object with a particular packet size (having seen the IPbus v2.0 Protocol specification). There are no transactions shown with the signal as a target of an assignment or as a value expression. It appears a solution in search of a problem with only snippets of an IPbus TVM shown in an otherwise non-disclosed "my object oriented approach". The question seems unclear and an answer premature. \$\endgroup\$ – user8352 Mar 15 at 1:32
  • \$\begingroup\$ @user8352 Here github.com/UVVM/UVVM_Community_VIPs/pull/1/files you can see how it looks right now. Maybe your ideas will help me to improve it. \$\endgroup\$ – Al Bundy Apr 7 at 8:43

Your Answer


Sleep As A Spiritual Discipline

A child sleeping.

Image via Wikipedia

Have you noticed that you doze off easier than you used to? Is staying awake in church or in meetings more difficult than it should be? Does your prayer time often lead to your eyes getting heavy?

In our fast paced and constantly stimulated society we are so used to having our mind occupied and our attention titillated that the minute our mind concentrates on one thing or has to sit still for a few moments it shuts down trying to get the rest it desperately needs. I have heard many friends at the university where I work talk about falling asleep during prayer or times of solitude and silence. There are three ways that getting more sleep would help our spiritual life:

1. Improves relationships. Most of us are grumpy when we are tired; even more grumpy than we get when we are stressed or hungry. If we were better rested, we would have more energy to handle uncomfortable situations and handle our relationships better.

2. Shows our trust in God. Many of us, myself included, don’t get enough sleep because we feel as if we need to be getting up and doing something productive. We see sleep as a hindrance to our level of achievement and success. Sleeping more means we are interested in our well-being and willing to trust God for results. We work hard but we also let go of control of every situation.

3. Improves our focus. As I mentioned earlier, if we cannot concentrate while reading the Bible or fall asleep at every moment of stillness, then we are missing out on times with God and lessening our chance at growth.

So, get a good night’s rest or take a nap but don’t drain your body of the rest it needs. Your spiritual life may be depending on it.


D Major Guitar Chord Diagram

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D major guitar chord diagram There are eight counts in each line so for the first line you stay on the d chord down a chart for most songs in about a minute and a half and have everybody playing quite happily almost Learning to play guitar can involve a lot of memorization chords scales arpeggios you name it. Mushfiqm has made the process a bit easier with his digital chord chart. Just about every Still soundgarden seattles first grunge group to sign with a major record label it wasnt the heavy.

D major guitar chord diagram Weirdly though it also frequently mis hears chords in much simpler straight ahead songsdirecting you to play a d minor chord in piano man for example when its quite obviously a d major Not too long after its launch in 2005 youd be hard pushed to visit any friends without being challenged to a round or two of guitar a chord chart handy to get the best from this part of the Some of you had an understanding of a look at our first set of diagrams in fig. 1 youll see ive given you a c major chord using the c shape the a shape the g shape the e shape the.

D major guitar chord diagram A window pops up with different chord fingerings open barre chords higher up the neck etc. You can also change the chord to a major minor youre using a capo on your guitar too. Just note Missing out the third from g leaves us with a rock friendly g5 power chord very acdc bridge bars 9 16 for the bridge ive used a different strumming rhythm and also introduced two new chords d The recent uk chart success of im the one by dj due to the fact that the melodies all work over the same chord sequence regardless of key the band are able to stay in one key d major and play.

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Comparing Pyongyang & Palestine

Aside from their obvious differences in plot and setting, Pyongyang by Guy Delisle and Palestine by Joe Sacco have notable variations in narrative structure. Though, the two narratives do contain various commonalties. Both narratives depict an outsider looking in, or more specifically a visitor in a foreign country: both of which happen to exist under oppressive authoritarian regimes. Both Delisle and Sacco utilize autobiographical narratives: recounting their visits as witnesses to oppression, depravity and sorrow.

In Chapter 2 of Pyongyang, two panels depict Guy Deslisle lying on his bed in his hotel room. The panels read, “The best thing about living in hotels is lying down on the bedspread with your shoes on… Here I am breaking a major family taboo before your eyes… it’s bliss” (2:21). In accordance to Ian Bogost’s depiction of vignettes, this particular vignette which displays Guy Deslisle lying on a bed with shoes on does not necessarily advance the narrative. Did Delisle intend for this illustration to serve as a crucial element to Pyongyang’s storyline? Did Delisle intend to highlight that he doesn’t like to be barefoot? Probably not. This vignette does, however, serve as a portrayal of Guy Delisle and the unideal circumstances of his environment. Perhaps he describes this trivial action as blissful because it embodies an escape from the harsh and unrelenting conditions of the North Korean regime. Maybe it is refreshing to “break a rule” in a world so stringent that violating certain rules can result in capital punishment. Only in privacy can Delisle remain undetected by the perpetual scrutiny of North Korea’s regime, and in that sense, doing something as trivial as breaking a family taboo can be blissful.

This indirect mode of storytelling is a narrative style utilized by Guy Delisle throughout Pyongyang. Delisle could have simply expressed “I thought of my hotel room as a sanctuary from the watchful eyes of the North Korean regime,” but that approach would be overly simplistic and make for poor story-telling. Rather, he describes actions which indirectly imply a certain feeling. Throughout his novel, Delisle creates these implications through narratives which appear trivial on the surface level, but are in fact significant to characterizing his experience. His illustrative style works in tandem with this narrative. His illustrations are flat, minimalist, and overall under-stimulating, which is entirely analogous to North Korea and its insipidity.

Joe Sacco’s illustrative style within Palestine is quite the opposite. The chaotic nature of his images and corresponding text is unnerving. The disarray evokes a sense of anxiety and bewilderment. This style mirrors the manner of his narrative. Unlike Delisle who predominately sticks to a singular perspective, Sacco jumps from perspectives unsystematically. Often it seems like Sacco fades into the background of the chaos that surrounds him. On page 56 of Palestine we observe policemen amidst a mob of frantic Palestinian protestors. The boisterous expressions of the citizens, the lawlessness of the mob, and the disorderly placement of text conveys a general sense of disarray.

Meanwhile, Sacco is a bystander, a quite observer documenting the episode. Though amidst anarchy, Sacco remains a neutral observer of the commotion. This is highly demonstrative of Sacco’s narrative style. This panel makes allusions to his identity as a narrator. Sacco is a reporter, and thus he remains contently detached from the disarray of his surroundings. This assures the reader that he a neutral (third party) outsider  within this foreign country, who intends to unveil the depravity of its citizens. All the while remaining uninvolved as a quiet observer of chaos.


Instead of having a self-centered party for her 40th birthday, she decided to raise $40,000 for breast cancer research, all while battling that very disease.

Alicia Neubauer (of Rockford) set a goal and did more than meet said goal, she went beyond.

Congratulations, Alicia! You truly are a rockstar.


Poetry terminology

Terms in this set (...)

A long poem that tells a story, usually a folk tale or legend, in rhyme. Often set to music.
Experiments with the very materials of poem itself: words, letters, format. The final product does what it says in that meaning of the poem is demonstrated by words, letters, format of poem. Concrete poems rely heavily on the visual or phonetic to get across their meaning
Free verse
Modern poetry that has no regular pattern of rhythm, rhyme or line length.
A short poem of intense feeling and emotion.
A poem that tells a story, narratives may or may not rhyme.
A fourteen-line lyric written in iambic pentameter. Sonnets follow a rigid rhyme scheme. Typical rhyme schemes for sonnets are the Shakespearian or English sonnet (abab cdcd efef gg) or the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet (abba abba cdc cdc or abba abbba cde cde).
Repeated consonant sounds at the beginning of a series of words. This device uses sound to catch the reader's attention.
Repeating vowel sounds in the middle of words. This device also uses sound to catch the reader's attention. This is a subtle device for which you must listen carefully.
Repeating consonant sounds in the middle of words. This device also uses sound to catch the reader's attention. This is a subtle device, although it is less subtle than assonance.
Sounds that are very pleasant to the ear. The opposite of cacophony
Words that sound like what they mean are called onomatopoeia. Also, known as imitative harmony.
A direct comparison between two dissimilar items.
A comparison between a non-human item and a human so that the on human item is given human characteristics.
A comparison between two dissimilar items using "like" or "as" to make the comparison.
A reference in one piece of literature to something from another piece of literature. Allusions can also be references to person/events/places in history, religion, or myth. Allusions are frequently made in poetry, but can occur in other genres as well.
Figurative language
The imaginative language that makes a poem rich to a reader. Figurative language often relies on comparison devices like simile, metaphor and personification to make the point. The opposite of literal language.
A deliberate exaggeration to make a point.
Poets create pictures in the mind of the reader, which appeal to the sense of sight; they also create descriptions to appeal to other four senses. This collection of appeals to the five senses is called the imagery of the poem.
Literal language
The literal meaning of the poem, which ignores imagery, symbolism, figurative language and any imagination on the part of the poet or the reader.
The emotion of the poem. The atmosphere. The predominant feeling created by or in the poem, usually through word choice or description. Mood is not the same as tone.
Placing single word opposites beside each other for dramatic effect is called oxymoron.
A large oxymoron. An apparently contradictory statement that despite the contradiction, has an element of truth in it.
Deliberately repeated words, sounds, phrases or whole stanzas. Repetition is used to make a point in the poem.
Something that represents something else.
The narrator's attitude toward the subject of the poem and sometimes, toward the reader of the poem.
The opposite of hyperbole. Understatement achieves its effect through stating less than what is necessary.
Two lines of poetry that rhyme. The last two lines of an English sonnet is a couplet.
Eight lines of poetry that have a rhyme scheme. The first part of an Italian sonnet is an octave.
Four lines of poetry that have a rhyme scheme. Quatrains often have an abab or abcb rhyme scheme, as well as the aabb shown above. The first three verses of an English sonnet are quatrains.
Six lines of poetry that have a rhyme scheme. The second part of an Italian sonnet is a sestet.
Another word for "verse"
A paragraph of writing in a poem. These paragraphs are written as clusters of rhyming lines in traditional poetry, such as octaves, sestets and quatrains. Also, known as a stanza.
Blank verse
Unrhymed iambic pentameter. All sonnets, Shakespearian plays and the King James version of the Bible are written in blank verse. Unrhymed iambic pentameter is said to closely mimic the cadences of natural speech.
Iambic Pentameter
An is two syllables. The first one is stressed when spoken; the second one is stressed. Five iambs in a row is iambic pentameter.
when sounds match at the end of lines of poetry, it is considered rhyming (technically, it is end-rhyme).
A pattern of sound in a poem; it may be a regular pattern or irregular, as in free verse.
Rhyme scheme
The pattern of rhyme in a poem, indicated with letters of the alphabet. To decide on a rhyme scheme, you assign a letter of the alphabet to all rhyming words at the ends of lines of poetry, starting with the letter "a". When you run out of rhyme sound, you start with the next letter of the alphabet.


60 terms

Integumentary System

Terms in this set (...)

what are the key components of the integumentary system?
skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves
what are the 3 layers of the integumentary system (superficial to most deep)?
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
is the hypodermis an actual portion of the skin?
no, but it is a part of the integumentary system
the epidermis is the most _____ layer of the skin, and it is thin and _____
superficial; avascular
the _____ protects us from dehydration, UV radiation, and pathogens
the epidermis receives nutrients from the blood supply of the _____
the _____ is composed of stratified squamous cells
the epidermis has 4 to 5 layers, which are mostly _____
keratinocytes migrate from _____ to more _____ layers in the epidermis as they divide and differentiate
deeper; superficial
when keratinocytes migrate, they expel their _____ and produce additional _____
nuclei; keratin
5 layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)
Come Lets Get Some Beers

stratum Corneum
stratum Lucidum
stratum Granulosum
stratum Spinosum
stratum Basale
the stratum corneum is composed of dead, fully differentiated keratinocytes (_____)
flattened cells of keratin
the stratum _____ provides protection against infection, dehydration, and physical harm
the _____ has dead keratinocytes that aren't fully differentiated to corneocytes
stratum lucidum
the stratum lucidum is only present in the _____ and _____
palms of the hand; soles of the feet
the stratum granulosum contains keratinocytes that migrated from the stratum _____
how does the stratum granulosum create the skin's water barrier?
by secreting lamellar bodies that form a lipid-containing hydrophobic membrane
the stratum spinosum provides skin with strength and flexibility because of _____ that hold keratinocytes together
the stratum spinosum contains the highest prevalence of _____ cells, but all epidermal layers have them
Langerhans cells are the dendritic cells of the epidermis because they provide communication between the _____ and _____ immune systems
innate; adaptive
the _____ provides continuous renewal of the epidermal keratinocytes, via keratinocyte stem cells
stratum basale
_____ are located in the stratum basale, and they create melanin
melanin is responsible for the skin's _____ and protection from _____
pigmentation; UV radiation
_____ are located in the stratum basale, and they are specialized mechanoreceptor cells that are abundant in fingertips
Merkel cells
Merkel cells are specifically attuned to respond to _____ sensations
light touch
what is a mechanoreceptor?
a cell that has the ability to respond to external stimuli
the dermis is located just _____ to the epidermis
the _____ is a network of dense irregular connective tissue
the dermis functions to cushion the body from injury and provide a home for skin structures - what are some examples of those structures?
vessels, glands, nails, and hair
what are the 2 layers of the dermis?
papillary; reticular
the papillary dermis is named for its _____
dermal papillae
_____ are small nipple-like, upward projections of the dermis towards the epidermis
dermal papillae
what creates fingerprints?
dermal papillae
why is it good that the dermal papillae increase the surface area between the epidermis and dermis?
the epidermis depends on the vascular dermis for nutrients/waste removal
_____ and _____ are present within the dense, irregular connective tissue of the reticular dermis
collagen; elastic fibers
reticular fibers make the reticular dermis _____ and _____
strong; elastic
the _____ dermis contains blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, nail beds, and glands
_____ generate hair and keep it attached to the body surface
hair follicles
what is hair made of?
keratin protein filaments
hair protects mammals from _____ and _____
UV radiation; hypothermia
_____ attach to hair follicles to erect the hair
arrector pili muscles
_____ glands create and secrete a product through a duct to an external surface
_____ glands are exocrine sweat glands
two types of sudoriferous glands?
eccrine and apocrine
_____ glands are the main sweat glands of the body, and they are important for thermoregulation
eccrine glands are all over the body but most abundant in the _____, palms of the hands, and the _____
axilla (armpit); soles of the feet
_____ glands have more oily and viscous sweat secretions than eccrine glands
apocrine glands secrete their products into the _____
hair follicle
what are some locations where apocrine glands are found?
armpit, nipple, ear canal, eyelid, nostril, and parts of the pubic area
ceruminous glands are specialized _____ glands
ceruminous glands produce _____, which is secreted into the external auditory canal
earwax (cerumen)
mammary glands are specialized _____ glands
mammary glands are located below the _____, and they produce milk
nipple (areola)
_____ secrete oily and waxy products (sebum) into the hair follicle
sebaceous glands
sebaceous glands are located everywhere, except the _____ and _____
palms of the hands; soles of the feet
the _____ is located beneath the dermis, and it is not part of the skin

(part of the integumentary system)
the hypodermis is also called _____ tissue
the _____ contains larger nerves, blood vessels, loose connective tissue, and adipose tissue
the main function of the hypodermis is _____
fat storage


Syeda Tuba Aamir and Aamir liaquat in Hamara Ramazan on PTV News

Aamir Liaquat is the staple for Ramadan transmissions and we see him on at least one channel every year. This year too he is hosting the transmission and he is seen on PTV News. Some news previously broke out of him getting fired from the transmission but he later clarified the situation that he will only be a part of the Iftar transmission since he is not feeling well and has been advised not to do extra stressful work.

He appeared on the show with his wife Tuba and they also cooked together. Tuba was again seen on the show alongside him and this time she was sporting a red ensemble. Here is the couple straight from the Iftar transmission:


Brain Education For World Peace

It’s been stated that peace isn’t just the lack of war, the harmony between your internal being of the person and also the atmosphere. This meaning of peace is better noticed in human development and focus of behavior sciences. It’s lengthy been observed that the adult is generally caused by their childhood encounters. If child is uncovered to violence, then they’re apt to be violent if this reaches be considered a full-grown adult.

Similarly, medics have seen that persons who’re religious and strictly observe their religious practices or meditate a great deal could be live longer. It is because they experience less illness as well as when sick, will probably recuperate faster.

They are evidence that what’s noticed in a society may be the price tag of what’s within the feelings and also the physic of those. For instance, because of our prime quality of existence in Nordic nations, the folks report less situations and prevalence of mental illness. The folks will also be relatively more peaceful.

By emphasizing working out for individuals regarding how to manage the interior atmosphere, for instance by controlling the fears, negativity, pressure, stress, along with other causes of negative energy in your body, the other has the capacity to lead to world peace. You will see more peace makers such as community compared to trouble makers.

Brain education provides this kind of chance or tool to bridge the space between inner peace and also the exterior atmosphere. It may lead to world peace because individuals who get trained in it are outfitted using the abilities for control over the cognitive and motors.

Brain education professionals also have recognized the optimum functionality from the mental abilities are accomplished through physical exercise. This being active is not restricted to the exercise routines alone, but additionally towards the cognitive exercises.

When multiple people are more healthy within the brain due to the exercises and brain education, we shall possess a population of tolerant males and ladies. They’ll be slow to anger and does not need to secure their individual survival.

Such moderate people in addition have a greater concern for that physical atmosphere and for that reason more interested in environment conservation. Indeed, the planet is a better place with increased people learning and practicing brain education.


met 3401 : thermodynamics i

Fluid Mechanics Principles and Applications
MET 3101
INSTRUCTOR: Dr. Norman Russell: Phone – 678 915 5480; Office Q226. E - mail
[email protected] Office hours will be posted and noted in class.
Students with disabilities who believe that they may need accommodations in this class
are encouraged to contact the counselors at ATTIC as soon as possible to ensure that such
accommodations are implemented in a timely fashion.
The website will be used to communicate information on the
syllabus, test schedules, assignments, and topic schedules. The prefix “afm” will
designate the appropriate information. In addition, e-mail will be used to present current
information on class activities.
Students will adhere to the guidelines in the Catalog in reference to “Academic
Prerequistes: ENGR 2214, MATH 2253,TCOM 2010
A study of Fluid Mechanics fundamentals in applications of hydrostatic forces, pumping
systems, fluid power, momentum transfer, external flow, and open channel flow. Handson laboratory exercises demonstrate lecture topics.
Course Outcomes
Students will be able to do the following:
1. Determine forces on submerged surfaces in the design of weirs, dams, tanks, etc.
Determine the buoyant forces acting on an object as a function of fluid and solid
2. Apply the general energy equation to pumping systems to determine important
operational properties: head, flow, efficiency, cavitation potential. Apply this
information in the selection of appropriate system components (pump, pipe,
valves, and fittings) to accomplish a task.
3. Evaluate the equipment selection and operation of a hydraulic or pneumatic
system for a specific fluid power task.
4. Determine the energy transfer between a flowing fluid and solid surfaces in
5. Apply empirical equations for the determination of flow in open channels.
6. Apply external flow concepts to calculate drag coefficients for a range of
geometric shapes to understand the effects of streamline separation on drag.
7. Prepare laboratory reports using designated format.
Course Topics
1. Introduction – a brief description of key concepts and applications. Descriptions
and importance of fluid properties: density, specific weight, specific gravity, bulk
modulus, viscosity, viscosity index, vapor pressure.
2. Ideal gas law: compressibility and density of gases. Pressure: absolute, gage, and
atmospheric. Pascal’s Law.
3. Hydrostatic forces of submerged surfaces: plane and curved. Buoyancy
4. Conservation of mass and energy: continuity, Bernoulli’s Equation: siphon and
Pitot tube.
5. General energy equation. Laminar and turbulent flow; Reynold’s Number; energy
gradient lines.
6. Darcy’s equation; friction factor. Moody Chart: relative roughness. Minor losses;
loss coefficient and equivalent length.
7. Piping systems with pumps and turbines.
8. Pump types and applications. Performance curves: system curves, operating
9. Centrifugal pump: head, capacity, efficiency. Net positive suction head. Affinity
10. Positive displacement pumps: applications. Performance curves.
11. Fluid power: applications. Hydraulic systems components. Performance
12. Pneumatic system components: compressors, control valves, actuators.
13. Fluid power circuits to perform specific tasks.
14. Momentum transfer: forces acting on control volume. Linear and angular
15. External flow: pressure and friction drag forces. Drag coefficient. Flow
separation and streamlining.
16. Open channel flow: prismatic channels. Manning equation. Weirs.
Laboratory Exercises
1. Viscosity: measurement and temperature effect.
2. Hydrostatic force on submerged surface and buoyancy.
3. Centrifugal fan performance and air flow measurement.
4. Hydraulic pump performance: centrifugal and gear pumps.
5. Fluid friction: pipe and minor losses.
6. Momentum: jet impact and Pelton wheel.
7. Drag coefficients: basic shapes and model autos.
8. Open channel flow measurement.
Laboratory work will be performed in groups and individual reports are required.
Students must participate in collecting all information used in a report. Reports are due
one week after a lab is performed, unless notified by the Instructor. Late reports will
Text: Applied Fluid Mechanics, 6th Edition, Robert Mott.
Credits: Three or four tests – 60%; Exam – 20%; Lab Reports 20%. Students must
achieve passing grades in both the lecture and laboratory portions of MET 3101.
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Battery FAQ
Battery Care & Frequently Asked Questions

It is very important to prepare your new batteries for service. This is the most misunderstood procedure for placing new batteries into service. The most common mistake is the mis-use of your rapid charger on a new battery. The charger will tell you the battery is charged after only 60 to 90 minutes. However you must ignore the ready light on the first initial charge. Any new NiCad, NiMh or Li Ion battery needs to be charged at least 14 to 16 hours. If you do not do this, your new battery will immediately have a short memory effect from that first short charge.

Overcharging a battery occurs when the total capacity drained has been replaced by recharging, but the battery remains on charge. Overcharging creates excessive heat which can cause the battery plates within the cells to buckle and shed their active material. A battery will react to the overcharge by producing an excessive amount of hydrogen and oxygen. These gases are the result of the breakdown of the water molecules within the electrolyte. The water that has been displaced by overcharging can be replaced in a wet (non-sealed) battery, but, in maintenance-free sealed lead batteries, NiCad, NiMH permanent capacity loss will result. A good charger has built in circuitry that senses the battery state and converts to a lower trickle charge so as not to over heat the battery. Excessive discharging can also damage a battery. The amount of discharge a battery can have without damage depends upon the chemistry of the battery. In general, a lead acid battery will can not tolerate as deep a discharge as a NiCad battery or NiMH battery. Sealed lead acid batteries function best if they are discharged to only about 85% of nominal voltage (10.2V on 12V battery). NiCad & NiMH are good for two way adios because they can be deeply discharged and recharged.

Sulfation is the formation or deposit (on lead-acid-batteries) of lead sulfate on the surface and in the pores of the active material of the battery lead plates. If the sulfation becomes excessive and forms large crystals on the plates, the battery will not operate efficiently and may not work at all. Common causes of battery sulfation are standing a long time in a discharged condition, operating at excessive temperatures, and prolonged under or over charging.

Battery cycle: is the cycle of a battery at a discharge plus a recharge. For example, if your battery is fully charged. As you use the battery it discharges. Then it is recharged to full charge. That is one cycle. Cycle life is the total number of cycles a battery can yield. The cycle life is very important in battery applications. A NiCad battery has a cycle life of approximately 1000 cycles. NiMH has a shorter (about 700) cycle life than NiCad.

Deep-cycle batteries typically feature thick plates with a high-density active material. The thick battery plates allow for reserve energy to be stored deep within the battery plate and released during slow discharge such as electronic instrument use. The high-density active material remains within the battery plate/grid structure longer, resisting the normal degradation found in cycling conditions. They are typically used where the battery is discharged to great extent and then recharged. For example, sealed lead batteries.

One common battery rating is Amp-Hour (ah): Amp-hour rating for battery capacity is calculated by multiplying the current (in amperes) by time (hours) the current is drawn. Amp-hour battery rating is commonly used on sealed lead acid batteries. For example: A battery which delivers 2 amperes for 20 hours would have a 40 amp-hour battery rating (2 x 20= 40). Smaller batteries such as two way radio NiCad or NiMH are rated in mili-amp hours (mAh).
Cold Cranking Amperage battery rating: CCA is the discharge load in amps which a battery can sustain for 30 seconds at 0 degrees F. and not fall below 1.2 volts per cell (i.e. 7.2volts for a 12V battery). This battery rating measures a burst of energy that a car needs to start on a cold morning. This rating is used mainly for rating batteries for engine starting capacity and does not apply to NiCad batteries, NiMH batteries or Alkaline batteries.
Reserve capacity battery rating: RC is the number of minutes a new, fully charged battery at 80 degrees F. will sustain a discharge load of 25 amps to a cut-off voltage of 1.75 volts per cell (i.e. 10.5volts for a 12V battery). This battery rating measures more of a continuous load on the battery.

Note: When interconnecting batteries (cells) they must be the same type batteries (cells)
Batteries may be connected in series. The positive terminal of the first battery is connected to the negative terminal of the second battery, the positive terminal of the second is connected to the negative of the third, etc. The voltage of the assembled battery is the sum of the battery voltages of the individual cells. The capacity of the battery is unchanged.
Batteries may be connected in parallel. The positive terminal of the first battery is connected to the positive terminal of the second battery, the positive terminal of the second is connected to the positive of the third, etc. and The negative terminal of the first battery is connected to the negative terminal of the second battery, the negative terminal of the second is connected to the negative of the third, etc. In this configuration, the capacity increases. The sum of each cell's capacity is added to each other. The battery pack voltage is unchanged.
Example, if you take 5- 6volt / 10ah batteries and connect the batteries in series. You would end up with a battery pack that is 30 Volts and 10AH. If you connect the batteries in parallel, you would end up with a battery pack that is 6 Volts and 50ah. This is how an ordinary auto battery is made. 6- 2volt cells are put in series to make a 12v battery. The 6 cells are just enclosed in one case. Most battery packs are done the same way.

A few types of batteries are: Sealed Lead Acid, Flooded Lead Acid, NiCad, NiMH, Alkaline, Silver Oxide, Lithium, Mercury(not mfg. in US any more), Manganese-Dioxide, Zinc-Air.

NiCad (Nickel Cadmium) & NiMH (Nickel Metal Hydride) Batteries:
Nickel Cadmium and Nickel Metal Hydride batteries by nature need to be "deep cycled" (fully discharged) before being placed back in their charger. Deep cycling your battery will help your NiCad battery maintain its maximum performance.

Always "initialize" brand new batteries. To initialize, let your battery stay in the charger approximately 50% (we say at least 14 to 16 hours) longer than a normal charge. Only perform initialization on the first Charge. Wait until your equipment signals "low battery" before placing the battery back into it's charger. Failure to "deep cycle" NiCd batteries will result in "memory" buildup. Memory will reduce the amount of energy you can draw each time you use the battery. It will also shorten your battery's overall cycle life. Never leave your battery in it's charger longer than the recommended charging time. Newer chargers have indicator lights which signal charging has completed and revert to a trickle charge when full charge is reached. To prevent memory buildup, immediately remove the battery when the charge cycle is finished. NiCd batteries can be stored up to two years without suffering from significant cycle loss. If you plan to store your batteries for an extended period, it is recommended to recharge your batteries every 90 days.

THE CHARGING METHOD FOR SLA BATTERIES IS THE OPPOSITE CONCEPT FROM NiCad & NiMH BATTERIES. IT CAN'T HURT TO RECHARGE A PARTIALLY DISCHARGED SLA BATTERY. Lead Acid batteries by nature need to be constantly charged. If a lead acid battery becomes fully discharged, it is imperative that it be given a full charge immediately. This will prevent internal "sulfation" from occurring which is a condition that will permanently destroy your battery. Gel or sealed lead acid batteries are basically the same chemistry as a wet (flooded cell) battery. The batteries' electrolyte is in a gelatin form and is absorbed into the plates and the battery is sealed with epoxies. These batteries may be used in any position and the batteries are exceptionally leak resistant. Battery uses are for back up power supply, emergency lights, and alarm panels. These batteries are made up of 2 volts per cell. So the most common SLA batteries are 2, 4, 6, and 12 volt.
Do Not store an SLA battery below freezing temperatures. Once a pack has been frozen, it will be permanently damaged and its service life will be drastically reduced. A previously frozen battery will only be able to deliver a limited number of cycles.

Always keep lead acid batteries fully charged. If your battery serves as a backup energy source, be sure your equipment is always plugged in. So that a constant trickle charge is on. Store lead acid batteries in a cool, dry location. Never store your batteries on ground, metal or cement surfaces. If stored for more than 90 days, give your batteries a full charge.  Warmer temperatures adversely affect shelf life and the need for recharging.  Charge SLA batteries after each use, no matter how short the usage. Remember it is good to do a Top-Off charge for SLA batteries. Do not over stock your SLA batteries. It is better to buy smaller quantities that will be put into service within 90 days.
Four major factors that affect battery life (both sealed and flooded cells):
Ambient temperature Battery chemistry Cycling Maintenance and service Ambient Temperature The rated output capacity of a battery is based on an ambient temperature of 25C (77F). It is important to realize that any variation from this operating temperature can alter the performance of the battery, and shorten its expected life. High temperature reduces the battery life greatly. A rule of thumb when determining battery life in relation to temperature is: that for every 8.3 degreesC (15F) above the average annual temperature (that being 25 degreesC (77F), then the life of the battery will be reduced by 50 percent.

Battery Capacity:
Battery capacity is determined by the battery's ability to convert chemical energy into electrical current at a specified rate for a specified amount of time.

No battery will last forever-- even one that experiences minimal use. This is because sealed lead acid batteries are Electro-chemical devices whose ability to store and deliver power slowly decreases over time. Even if you follow all the guidelines for proper storage temperature and maintenance, you still must replace them after a certain period of time.

Cycling During a utility power failure (severe brownout or blackout conditions), back up equipment operates on battery power. Once utility power is restored, the battery is recharged for future use. This entire "loop" is considered a discharge cycle.

At installation time, the battery is at 100 percent of rated capacity. Each discharge and subsequent recharge reduces the relative capacity of the battery by a small percentage. The length of the discharge cycle will determine the reduction in battery capacity.

The "loaf of bread" analogy is most often used to illustrate the relationship between cycling and battery life. A loaf of bread can either be cut into many thin slices or a few thicker slices. Similarly, a lead battery can provide power over a large number of short cycles, or fewer cycles of longer duration.

Maintenance and Service The final factor to consider is the maintenance and service of the batteries and the back-up equipment. The gradual decrease in battery life can be monitored and evaluated through voltage checks, load testing and retorquing connections, as part of a periodic maintenance program. Without regular maintenance and service checks, your back-up battery may experience:  Heat-generating resistance at the terminals Improper loading Reduced protection Premature failure With proper maintenance and service, the end of battery life can be estimated and replacements scheduled without any interruption or loss of backup power.

To charge a SLA battery, a DC voltage higher that the open circuit of 2.15 volts per cell is applied to the terminals of the battery. Any of the conventional charging techniques may be used, but to obtain maximum service life and capacity, along with acceptable recharge time, constant voltage-current limited charging is recommended.
During constant voltage or taper charging, the battery's current acceptance decrease as voltage and state of charge increase. The battery is fully charged once the current stabilizes at a low level for a few hours.

Cycle Applications: Limit initial current to 0.20C (C is the nominal A.H. capacity of the battery). Charge until battery voltage (under charge) reaches 2.45 per cell at 68 degrees F (20 deg.C). Hold at 2.45 volts per cell until current drops to approximately 0.01C ampere. Battery is fully charged under these conditions, and charge to "float" voltage.
"Float" of Stand-By Service: Hold battery across constant voltage source of 2.25 to 2.30 volts per cell continuously. When held at this voltage, the battery will seek its own current level and maintain itself in a fully charged condition.
Continuous over or undercharging is the single worst enemy of a lead acid battery. Caution should be exercised to insure that the charger is disconnected after cycle charging, or that the float voltage is set correctly. Because there is a chance of off-gassing hydrogen and oxygen if the battery is overcharged, it is important to provide adequate air circulation. ( Never charge or discharge a battery in a sealed enclosure.) Batteries should not be stored in a discharged state (or in a hot place). If a battery has been discharged for some time it may not readily take a charge. To overcome this, leave the charger connected and the battery for an extended time. The battery may eventually begin to accept charge. Due to the self-discharge characteristics of this type of battery, it is imperative that they be charged after 3-6 months of storage, otherwise permanent loss of capacity might occur as a result of sulfation. To prolong shelf life without charging, store batteries at 50 degrees F (10 deg. C) or less.

What is "end of useful life"? The IEEE defines "end of useful life" for a UPS battery as being the point when it can no longer supply 80 percent of its rated capacity in ampere-hours (AH). Because the relationship between amp-hours and load protection time is not linear, a 20% reduction in capacity results in a much greater reduction in protection time. For example, a UPS battery that supports a full load for 15 minutes when new, will support the same load for only about 8 minutes when it reaches its defined "end of life". When your battery reaches 80 percent of its rated capacity, the aging process accelerates and the battery should be replaced.
Which factors contribute most to end-of-life for UPS batteries? In North America, Western Europe and similar countries, positive grid corrosion has been the most common end-of-life factor for UPS batteries. This is a result of the normal aging process due to UPS battery chemistry (regardless of battery cycling) and involves the gradual breakdown of the inner wires of the positive grid within the battery.
In other areas, cycling is often the major contributing factor, due to very unpredictable utility power.
How do I make sure that my UPS batteries are maintained and serviced properly? With proper maintenance, battery life can be predicted and replacements scheduled without interrupting your operations. These are IEEE and OEM recommendations for general maintenance:
Comprehensive maintenance programs with a monthly inspection, and more rigorous quarterly and annual checks. Re-torquing all connections, as required Load testing Cleaning the battery area, as required What about my smaller UPS? Does this information to small units? Yes, this information applies to all UPS batteries. It is also important to understand that battery warranty does not necessarily equal battery life and the estimated range for battery life is five to eight years.
Are Maintenance Free batteries maintenance free? Though sealed batteries are sometimes called "maintenance free," they still require scheduled maintenance and service. The term "maintenance free" refers to the fact that they do not require fluid. Preventive maintenance is the key to maximizing your UPS battery service life.
What about the disposal of batteries? It is imperative that your service technicians adhere to EPA guidelines for the disposal of all UPS batteries. Remember, it is the owner's responsibility (and liability) to make sure these guidelines are followed.

Alkaline batteries, can be safely disposed of with normal household waste. An environmentally beneficial and economically feasible recycling process has not yet been developed for alkaline batteries, although Duracell is leading an international battery industry effort to develop such a technology.  It is important to recognize that collecting, transporting and disposing of household batteries in a concentrated mass can create safety concerns. Discarded batteries are often not completely "dead." Concentrating used batteries in a container can bring these "live" batteries into electrical contact with one another, creating a safety risk. Any collection program must be organized to minimize such risk.

Disposing of small quantities of used household batteries (such as alkaline and zinc carbon batteries) with normal waste is preferable over disposing of concentrated quantities.  You must consult with your local government Waste Management Authority regarding recycling and disposal regulations in your community.

NiCad (Nickel Cadmium)
NiCad batteries must be recycled. For details see: www.rbrc.org Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, Phone: (800) 8 BATTERY.
Pb (Lead Acid) Batteries
Lead Acid batteries contain the same chemicals found in common automobile batteries. As a result, your local battery recycling facility should be able to recycle these products. Most of the time, they will provide you with the recycling service at no charge. In some cases, where large quantities of batteries are involved, local companies may be willing to pick up your used Lead Acid batteries. They may even pay you for them. We suggest you look in your local yellow pages for a Lead Acid battery recycling company in your area.

AGT Batterey Supply - Battery facts and battery care
Military & Government Orders Deal of the Day Sale Items


By Henry Tamburin Ph.D

As promised, at the end of this article you will find the questions with the answers to the challenging 21-question test given to the elite blackjack pros at the Blackjack Ball. Give yourself one point for each correct answer. (If you got 12 or more correct, you did better than all the blackjack pros that took the test.)

To finish reading this article, please visit:

American Casino Guide


Sha Rizel » Teddy Titillation

Sha Rizel - Solo Big Tits photos
Let's face it: Girls with ultra-slim bodies are not supposed to grow up to have 32F-cup boobs and tiny 22 inch waists. Sha Rizel from the Ukraine did. Sha joins a rare group of girls that includes Venera, Valory Irene and Merilyn Sakova, all of whom became superstars with SCORE readers and SCORELAND members. Their bodies have defied the genetic odds that nature has laid out for the majority of big-boobed girls. Sha enjoys movies, cooking, dancing and travel as well as just chilling and enjoying herself at home. She's not a sports fan, but she works out at a local fitness center and practices Pilates several times a day.
67 Photos


Entropy Rules

Missing The Mark:

Stressful Relationship Core Values In Conflict

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    Does he refuse to support your decision to get a tattoo of Hillary Clinton on your face?

    Why won't she just get on board with your plan to donate all your belongings to the Church of Scientology?

    If you just realized that racism is wrong, and he's not willing to drop his hatred of crackers, it might be time to move on.

Lack of Shared Goals

60) Lack of Friendship 63) Lack of Growth 50) People Change 51) People are Fickle 28) Lack of Balance a. Unequal division of labor b. One partner does all the decision making c. Power dynamic 57) Different Expectations a. Traditional Gender Roles b. Stereotypes c. Expectation is the root of all problems 58) Different Directions a. You want different things in life 59) Different Desires a. One partner wants kids, the other doesn’t 61) Not Growing Together 71) Growing Apart


Here is a great recipe for Breakfast Bars you can take on the trail.
Chocolate Breakfast Bars Recipe Ingredients:
1 1/2 Cups honey
4 Tablespoons butter
2 Ounces white chocolate
1 Tablespoon vanilla
1 Cup sunflower seeds or nuts
1/2 Cup wheat germ or shredded coconut
2/3 Cup crunchy peanut butter
1 Cup dried fruit
5 Cups quick-cooking oats

Serves: 24

Boil the honey, butter, and chocolate for 1 minute. Remove from heat and add the vanilla. Mix together the remaining ingredients and stir into the chocolate mixture.
Pour the dough onto a cookie sheet and flatten it into one large rectangle about 1 inch thick.
Let cool, then cut into bars.

Calories: 257
Carbohydrates: 39.1 grams
Cholesterol: 5 mg
Dietary Fiber : 2.3 grams
Fat: 9.5 grams
Fiber: 2.9
Protein: 6.5 grams
Saturated Fat: 2.27 grams
Sodium: 62 mg


Breakfast is the highlight for many of our guests. A hotel breakfast offers more choices than at home, and we hope you find your own favourites.

Freshly baked bread from our own bakery and vegetables mostly grown here at Högbo, home-made yoghurt and juices, hot dishes such as eggs and bacon. Pretty much anything you could wish for when you wake up ravenous in the morning!


5 Signs of A Hidden Real Estate Goldmine In Myrtle Beach

Finding a hidden real estate goldmine is every investor’s dream. The key is to find the properties others may have overlooked. We will provide you with tips and strategies to find these hidden goldmines in our latest post! So what separates a property from being a potential goldmine from being a pocket drainer? Just because it looks … Continued


Chemin de Fer

Based on the same principles as Baccarat, Chemin de Fer now draws a public of real aficionados. It is played exclusively in the Salons Privés at the Casino de Monte-Carlo. These rules will enable you to familiarise yourself with the game, though nothing’s better than initiation with a confirmed player.

Minimum wager : 500 euros, though the table minimum can be decided by the inspector.

Aim of the game : whether he’s the “banker” (ie. the person who plays on behalf of the bank against the other players) or the “ponte” (punter or person playing against the bank), the player must obtain a total closest to 9 with a maximum of three cards.

Before the game can begin, the croupier shuffles six packs of 52 cards and has them cut by one of the players before placing them in the shoe.

The game can only commence if the table seating nine or eleven players is full. The “banker” then sets the stakes. The player seated to the right of the “banker” starts to place the wagers. He can decide to cover all or part of the sum at stake. The part of the sum that is not covered may be covered by the following player, and so on, until the sum staked by the “banker” is equalled.

When a player announces that he is playing “With the table”, he thereby commits himself to covering half of the banker’s stake, and the other players must then complete the sum. When a player announces “Banco”, he is committing himself to covering the total amount of the banker’s stake and will then play alone against him.

The player seated to the right of the croupier is the first to take the card shoe and thus become the “banker”. He keeps the shoe for as long as he continues to win. If he loses, he passes the shoe to his neighbor. The latter can refuse to take it, but must then leave the table. The “banker” can also stand aside if he so decides

The player who declared “Banco” or placed the largest bet becomes the “punter” : he is dealt the cards and plays on behalf of all the other players.

Before proceeding, you need to know the value of the cards as follows (don’t be surprised : in baccarat games, the cards do not have any numbers in the corners !) : the picture cards – also known as “bûches” – and the ten are worth 0 while all the other cards have their face value. To calculate your card total, you only take the final digit into account (eg. : 6 + 5 = 11, the total is therefore 1).

The “banker” first deals a card to the “punter”, then one to himself. He then deals a second card to the “punter” and himself. The “punter” looks at his cards and if he has : • A total from 0 to 4, he is obliged to ask for another card (by saying “carte”). • A total of 5, he can either ask for another card (by saying “carte”) or staying with his hand (by saying “pas de carte” or “non”). • A total of 6 or 7, he must stay with his hand (by saying “pas de carte” or “non”). • A total of 8 or 9, he lays his cards on the table, and the “banker” must do the same.

Note : if the “punter” is playing solo, he can take another card or stay with his hand, as he chooses. However, if he has a total of 0, he is obliged to take another card.

Once the “punter” has announced his play, the “banker” looks at his cards and, depending on his total, decides whether he will draw another card or stay with his hand, as per the drawing table below.

Either the “banker” or “punter” who has the highest number of points wins the game.

• If the “banker” wins, the casino takes 5 % of the sum that has been won. The winning stake is put back into play for the following round and is added to the sum initially wagered. If the “banker” decides not to continue playing, he collects his winnings and the hand is auctioned. • If the “punter” wins, wagers are paid at even money and each player recovers his stakes. When a player does not know what to do, he asks advice from the croupier and conforms strictly to his opinion.

Drawing Table

T : Tirer / Draw (the banker draws another card)

R : Rester / Stay (the banker stays with his hand)

O : Optional


B2B: Clearing Off the Road to a World-Class Ski Resort

Nina Novikova
AECOM Economics

In recent years, the Russian government has allocated funds for the federal target program "Development of Domestic and Entry Tourism in the Russian Federation (2011-2018)" and also made substantial investments in Russia's unique resorts. The development of the tourist cluster in the Northern Caucasus is one of the largest state initiatives, based on the understanding that significant measures should be taken to meet the huge demand for affordable recreation in Russia. The first project, the year-round mountain resort Arkhyz, is currently under development by the "Northern Caucasus Resorts" state corporation. It is expected to host more than half a million visitors in 2035.

By initiating the tourist cluster development, then-President Dmitry Medvedev intended to stimulate economic growth in the areas negatively affected by the armed conflicts of the 2000s. Tourism development creates thousands of jobs, increases interest in local culture and history, sets new standards of service, attracts hotel and retail developers, and creates centers of social and cultural activities. International experience demonstrates how flourishing a region with a well-established ski resort can become. Whistler Blackcomb and Les Trois Vallées, two examples of the world's largest resorts, became successful thanks to well-planned development strategy and coordinated work by regional authorities and private developers.

Nikolay Tkachenko
Analyst, Economics

Les Trois Vallées, the largest ski area in the world, is located in the French Alps. In the mid 1930's the French Commission of Tourism looked into the options to create a world-class ski resort and eventually identified the area as having the potential. Meribel Les Allues was developed in 1939, adjacent to the traditional hamlet of Morel after the first lift was implemented in Les Allues in 1938. Further development plans were put on hold during the war, but in November 1945, as a means to leverage tourism to stimulate regional economic vitality, the Savoyard General Council voted to build a ski resort in which they would have complete control over the terrain in order to control the development and limit future land speculation. They purchased all the land above 1,800 meters with the concept of reselling it to private investors who would develop it to a specific master plan. Thus, Courchevel was developed from scratch and not around an existing village, and as such, it was the first purpose-built ski area with the unprecedented vision of having all the residential areas being ski-in/ski-out, and the ski area being retained as pristine and natural. With the 1992 Winter Olympics in nearby Albertville, Les Trois Vallées received a significant boost from the French government and provided worldwide exposure.

Since its inception in the 1910s, Whistler, nowadays one of the most popular resorts in North America, was a tourist destination. In the beginning, it comprised several small hotels near Alta Lake. In 1960, Canadian Olympic Association chose Whistler Mountain to be a place for the Games. Although the bid was not successful then, the ski resort started to operate. It quickly gained popularity and for its further expansion the government built a village in the valley between Whistler and Blackcomb just 4 kilometers from the overdeveloped Alta Lake. The general plan of the village was developed by Eldon Beck, an experienced ski resort architect. To this day, the village retains this basic design in spite of dramatic expansions, and has won worldwide acclaim in architecture circles. In preparation of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics, a large investment was made to improve the road infrastructure between Vancouver and Whistler. This upgrade not only made the connection between Vancouver and Whistler faster but also transformed the dangerous mountain road into a safer highway. Despite its presence as one of the most established mountain resorts in the world, Whistler continuously endeavors to maintain on-going investment in mountain infrastructure. This ensures that it never stands still and remains competitive with alternative mountain resorts.

Arkhyz was chosen to become a flagship project not only because of its beautiful nature and mountain profile, the older generation's recollections of spending good time in numerous local sanatoria and tour camps, but also thanks to its well-known name, the same as the popular local mineral water. Government support, favorable natural conditions, an integrated approach, a historical reputation and well-recognized name definitely contribute to the project's success. Still, a landmark project such as a ski resort reveals a number of tricky questions.

The first and foremost is an accurate estimate of demand. There are no official statistics shedding light on the number of Russian skiers, so a calculation of potential attendance becomes a non-trivial task. International experts estimate that the number of skiers in Russia varies between 2.5 and 3.5 percent of the Russian population, and the only domestic source, the federal target program on tourism development up to 2018, indicates a more conservative number of 1.7 percent. Another aspect that should not be ignored is that immediate realization of the whole project may lead to a large number of cold beds and empty slopes, as demand tends to gradually increase together with resort development. This effect is typical for all Olympics facilities and is an inevitable cost of the Games. In several years, operators usually find ways to attract people to the Olympic legacy properties, but in all other cases, the developer simply cannot afford it. Bearing this in mind, the Arkhyz project team planned several development phases, and all villages are planned with reserves for later expansion, like in Whistler Blackcomb.

Another question is access. Most international ski resorts are accessible by car within a two-hour drive. The Caucasus Mountains are located further from the nearest airport in Mineralnye Vody. Would customers accept such an inconvenience? A new airport would make Arkhyz more attractive for visitors from distant cities, including cities in Central Russia, but such a decision has not been made yet.

The third question is seasonality. The ski season in Russia does not last long, hardly exceeding 20 weeks. At the same time, an overwhelming majority of Russians take their winter vacations during the two weeks around New Year and Christmas. In large international resorts, this is mitigated by different national calendars, so peak demand is stretched from early December to late January. Similarly, in summer most Russians prefer taking vacations in the second half of July and early August. What can a resort operator in Russia do with unified national calendar for 140 million people? How can year-round occupancy be achieved? The goal of Arkhyz commercial strategy then is to reach the widest possible range of social groups via a flexible price policy, attractive packages and ongoing year-round entertainment programs.

Staffing is last, but not least. There are few specialists on pistes preparation, ski lift maintenance, and not an insufficient number of certified ski instructors in Russia. A modern resort would also require qualified rescuers, experienced mountain guides, doctors, maids, cooks, cleaners, and many more staff members. How and where can one attract this staff, organize their training and living in the resort or nearby, what should the staffing schedule be in high and low seasons? Northern Caucasus Resorts has prepared a series of educational events in universities of Sochi and Northern Caucasus federal district. Among other measures is planned staff accommodation in a nearby village. Still, the resort developers are only at the beginning of a long road.

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Hemed El-busaidy, Hassan Saidi, Paul Odula, Julius Ogeng’o, Jameela Hassanali

El-busaidy Hemed .
Department of Human Anatomy, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 00100 – 30197 NAIROBI

Atrioventricular annuli are important in hemodynamic stability and support to tricuspid and mitral valves. Anatomical features of the annuli such as circumference, organization of connective tissue fibers, myocardium and cellularity may predispose to annular insufficiency and valvular incompetence. These pathologies increase with age and are more common in females, although the anatomical basis for this disparity remains unclear. This study therefore aimed to investigate age-related changes in the structure of human atrioventricular annuli. One hundred and one hearts (48males, 53 females) from subjects (15 to 60 years) were studied in three age groups (≤ 20 yrs, 21-39 yrs and 40-60 yrs). Annular circumferences were measured and corrected for heart weight. Routine histology was carried out on 21 hearts. Differences in annular circumference between the age groups were determined using one-way ANOVA while gender differences were determined using independent Students’t-test. Overall, females had significantly larger annular circumference than males after correcting for heart weight (p ≤0.05). The annular circumference generally increased with age however there was a significant increase in the 21-39 year age group (p ≤0.05). Microscopically, myocardium was consistently present in males but absent in females except in one specimen. The collagen fiber density increased with age in both gender as the fibers became more irregular. The annular cellularity, elasticity and myocardial content also declined with increasing age. The significantly wider annular circumference in the 21-39 year age group is clinically important as wider circumference is associated with decreased heart valve co-aptation and valvular incompetence. This may suggest an earlier predisposition to this pathology in the study population. The age-related decrease in annular cellularity, elasticity and myocardial content may explain the higher incidence of valvular incompetence with increasing age.

Key words: Atrioventricular annuli; Age changes; Valve incompetence.

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An Interview with

Cruise Director of QUEEN MARY 2

by Richard H. Wagner
Cruise Director Ray Rouse
mega-cruise ship.  Rouse brought out
SOVEREIGN as its first cruise director.
Over the next decade, he brought out a
series of increasingly bigger ships,
helping to shape modern mega-ship
Rouse was the first cruise director on
Royal Caribbean's SONG OF
Rouse was the first cruise director of
QUEEN MARY 2 and sees the ship as
demanding a unique cruise experience.
Ray Rouse is constantly on the go.  Passengers see him when they turn on
their in-cabin televisions in the morning, describing the days events and
interviewing performers and celebrities who are onboard.  They see him
introducing lecturers and at other activities during the day.  He is at the
receptions in the evening and then introduces the production show in the
theater and the gala ball in the Queens Room ballroom.  In between, he might
be hosting a table in the Britannia Restaurant with a group of VIPs.  He
appears to be everywhere.
But, this is only the public face of the job of being cruise director on the world’
s largest ocean liner.  The cruise director is in charge of all the entertainment
and activity programs and at the fore of the public relations efforts onboard.
He supervises a staff of 120.  He must oversee and manage the live
entertainment, movies, music, enrichment programs, sports, and activities.  He
oversees communication with the guests including the publication of the daily
program and the programming for the interactive television.  In addition, he is
a member of the ship’s executive committee of six officers who decide the
running of QUEEN MARY 2.   “It consists of about 12 to 14 hours of work
a day, seven days a week for 15 or 16 weeks and then 10 weeks off.  It is
about 32 weeks a year,” Rouse says with a self-deprecating laugh.

The Road to QM2

Because the cruise director has so much contact with the passengers and is
responsible for so many things that determine whether the passengers enjoy
the voyage, it is a crucial position on any passenger ship.  This is perhaps even
more so on QUEEN MARY 2 because QUEEN MARY 2 is such a
prestigious and high profile ship.  Therefore, a veteran cruise director with a
list of significant accomplishments on his resume was needed.  Ray Rouse is
such a person.
Unlike many people in the cruise industry, a life at sea was not Rouse’s
childhood ambition.  However, “I can remember as a young boy going to the
Isle of Wight with my parents for holidays in the late forties and through the
fifties.  We used to take sides trips over on boats to see the great liners in
Southampton.  I can remember seeing the QUEEN MARY and the QUEEN
ELIZABETH, the UNITED STATES - - all those great liners of those days -
- as a young boy and being awed by them.  Whether that played any part of
me getting into the industry, I don’t know, but I can always remember as a
clear picture of seeing those great liners and then standing on the beach at
Ride or Cowes and watch them go by on their journeys across the Atlantic to
New York.”
A native of London, Rouse joined the Metropolitan Police.  He served with
the Special Patrol Group that was responsible for the protection of members
of the Royal Family and the Prime Minister’s residence at 10 Downing
Street.  These were tense times following the political assignations in America
in the 1960s and the re-emergence of violence over Northern Ireland.
In order to relieve the tension, Rouse took up dancing as a hobby.  “I had
success  in dance sport and I became the amateur champion of the United
Kingdom.  Then, I met my wife through dancing.  We turned professional and
we started dancing professionally, teaching, and doing cabaret.  I left the
police force, my wife gave up her work and dancing became our career.”  In
addition to winning numerous dance championships, the Rouses performed at
a Gala Royal Ball at Buckingham Palace and appeared in The Beatles’ movie
“Magical Mystery Tour.”
The Rouses’ lives took a turn in 1973 when they were booked as a dance
team on a small cruise ship, the VICTORIA of the Incres Line, for a month-
long cruise around the Norwegian fjords.  “We got the bug then and we then
applied to several lines and got hired by Cunard Line.  We served on the
CUNARD ADVENTURER, the AMBASSADOR and the QE2 back in ‘73
and ‘74.  Then, we joined Royal Viking Line as a dance team on the ROYAL
VIKING SKY and SEA, served on them as a dance team, again doing
cabaret and teaching lessons.  [After that, we] joined Holland America Line
and were on the ROTTERDAM’s world cruises each year as a dance team.”
While at Holland America, Rouse was promoted to cruise director.  His wife,
Lisa, became a social hostess.  An indication of how much the industry and
the cruise director position was evolved since then, the Rouses still performed
as a dance team until Lisa retired in the early 1980s.
In 1981, the Rouses joined the young and growing Royal Caribbean Cruise
Line.  Ray was cruise director on two of RCCL’s most popular early ships:
Rouse observed that the cruise industry was evolving.  “The ships of the past
were ocean liners, built for world voyages, longer voyages and that is what the
industry was about.  In the late sixties and early seventies, the industry
changed.  The ships became more modern, more streamlined, the cruises
became shorter, and attracted the mass market.  Ted Arison, [Kurt] Koster,
Ed Stephan at Royal Caribbean,  Pete Wilton at Royal Caribbean, the
visionaries of that era who brought all those ships out at Norwegian Cruise
Line, Carnival and Royal Caribbean, built these sleek ships, just for calm
water cruising.  They were cost effective.”
By the early 1980s, the Miami-based cruise industry was taking-off and in
order to maintain a competitive edge, Royal Caribbean took the
unprecedented step of increasing the capacity of NORDIC PRINCE and
SONG OF NORWAY by cutting them in half and inserting additional
sections.  In increasing the capacity of their existing ships, RCCL was seeking
to exploit the theory that the cost of operating a ship that carried a large
number of passengers is less than operating several ships whose combined
capacity was equal to that of the large ship.  Experience validated their theory
and the race to build bigger cruise ships began.
In 1982, RCCL followed this move by building the 31,000 ton SONG OF
AMERICA with a passenger capacity of 1,400.  While a small ship by today’
s standards, at the time, SONG OF AMERICA was almost double the size
of RCCL’s existing ships.
“        SONG OF AMERICA came out, which was quite a turning point in
‘82.  I brought that ship out.”  Among other things, Rouse supervised the
development of the cruise program and entertainment for this ship, including
hiring staff and setting onboard policies and procedures.  In effect, he
established a foundation not only for the type of cruises that SONG OF
AMERICA would do but also for the increasingly larger ships that would
“Then, in 1987, I was selected for the SOVEREIGN OF THE SEAS, which
was [another] turning point, I think in this industry.  It was a visionary type of
ship.  It was the first ship ever with the giant atrium, seven, eight stories high, it
had big theaters, it had many dining options, clubs, large casino - - it was a
turning point and then all ships, whatever company, came out after that were
not modeled but certainly were styled similarly to the SOVEREIGN OF THE
Indeed, SOVEREIGN, the first cruise ship to exceed QE2 in gross tonnage,
was the first mega-cruise ship and Rouse would be in the front lines of this
revolution. “I brought out about eight ships for Royal Caribbean through until
the end of ’99.”
As Rouse sees it, the mega-cruise ships have become “pretty much the
destinations in themselves.  They have attracted a younger age group. That is
one of the biggest things I have seen in the industry with other companies.
More families are cruising whereas you never had children - - very rarely --
on ships in the past.  So, young people’s facilities have become more
important on ships today.  They have become more adventurous, they have
built rock climbing walls, skating rinks, ice skating, rollerblading tracks, golf
courses, boxing rings, bowling alleys, they are all there now.  So, they are
destinations in themselves.  And who knows where the next evolution period
will take us.”
Still, having played a key role in the development of mega-ship cruising,
Rouse sees a danger.  “[For] the mass market lines, companies that have 15
to 20 ships - - Carnival, Princess, Royal Caribbean, Costa, Norwegian - - I
think the danger is, not that they will lose their identities but that the ships will
lose their identities.  People say: ‘Oh, I went on a Carnival ship or I went on a
Royal Caribbean ship’ but they can’t remember the name of the ship.  They
know it was with that company but they can’t individualize the ship.  Whereas
when they go on the QUEEN MARY 2, they say they were on the QUEEN
MARY 2, they don’t say they went on a Cunard ship.  That is one of the
dangers of the industry is that they lose that individualistic type of thing that the
QUEEN MARY 2 has and the QE2 have as well. I think they offer a great
product - - it is a great cost effective vacation at sea for people - - but, that is
the danger.”
After leaving Royal Caribbean, Rouse served briefly with Costa Cruises,
bring out the COSTA ATLANTIQUA in 2000.  Then in 2002, Rouse
received a call asking whether he would like to serve as the first cruise
director for QUEEN MARY 2.  “I, in 1998, was surprised but pleased when
Carnival Corporation purchased Cunard Line.  Even more surprised six to
eight months later when Micky Arison announced the building of the QUEEN
MARY 2.  I was so happy.  I remember sitting in my home in Florida, reading
a paper and seeing the graphic of QUEEN MARY 2 and I said to my wife:
‘This is marvelous, who would have ever thought they are going back to the
days of the great liners,” not realizing that I would ever be involved in the job
of being a cruise director of the greatest ocean liner ever built.  I never even
thought about it.  It wasn’t in my mind.  It wasn’t until about three years later
that they gave me a call.  I am very pleased to be here.”

The QM2 Difference

Having started his career with Cunard, including time on the legendary QE2,
and then having helped develop mega-ship cruising with Royal Caribbean and
other lines, Rouse is well aware that there is a difference between a
transatlantic liner and a big cruise ship.  Consequently, the style of life onboard
QM2 that he as cruise director has helped develop is different than the style of
life onboard even cruise ships of similar size.  Rouse points out that a
passenger coming from one of the mass market lines would find life on QM2
different in several key ways.
“The first thing would definitely be the formality, the dress code would be the
first item.  The QUEEN MARY 2 is a very formal ship, even on short
voyages, we will still have formal evenings whereas many companies wouldn’t
bother with a formal night.  It would be [all] casual.  And, a lot of companies
are going very casual throughout their whole voyage.  That won’t happen
here, not on the QUEEN MARY 2, not with Cunard Line.  It will be formal.
Our transatlantic voyage is basically, take away the first and last night, formal.
That was the same as on our first world cruise this year.  Most nights at sea
were formal.  That is the way it will be on the next world cruise too.  We will
never have a totally casual evening per se.  It will either be formal, semi-
formal, or elegant casual on all voyages now.”
“Our facilities are geared toward a formal gala occasion.  That is part of the
gala, pomp and circumstance of traveling on the QUEEN MARY 2.  And the
customer who comes here, they expect it, the majority, and they demand it.
We won’t let our standards drop because we want to keep our customer
base.    I think that is one of the big differences.”
“There is [also] a lot more culture here.  When you are on a transatlantic
voyage, you are at sea for five days and six nights, crossing the Atlantic.  So,
the programs offered are very educational, entertaining, interesting.  Our
Library and Book Shop has 9,000 copies of books - - the largest library at
sea on any passenger ship.”
“The Cunard Insights program, the lecture program, is very strong on
academic subjects - - entertaining but enriching to the guests.  [It] is very
diversified.  On every transatlantic crossing, we will have three or four
lecturers and their subjects will be a mixture, a balance of subjects that are of
interest to all the guests.  We might have someone lecturing on science, for
example, that might not be interesting [to a particular guest] but then, there will
also will be someone lecturing on politics or sport or movies or some other
subject that would be of interest so there is a choice and an option for the
“The entertainment is geared to an international audience.  The QUEEN
MARY 2 is a very international ocean liner.  It attracts many people from all
over the world.  Whereas comedy is a big part of entertainment, it does not
necessarily go well with our international guest list because you could have
people where English is not their premier language. Also, British comedy
might not appeal sometimes to Americans and vice versa and that is always
the difficulty with stand-up comedy.  Musical comedy is a little different, visual
comedy is a little different, mime can be different.  But to be on the safe side,
to attract the international audience, you need shows and entertainment of the
character of production shows with plenty of dancing, singing, costumes,
special effects, live music, vocalists, musical acts and visual acts.  That is
basically what the QUEEN MARY 2 is about, we get comedy occasionally
but it is comedy mixed with music with juggling or magic or something like
In addition to the programming and entertainment, there are other factors that
distinguish the QM2 experience from the experience on the large cruise ships.
One is passenger space. To illustrate, QM2 is approximately the same size as
Royal Caribbean’s FREEDOM OF THE SEAS.  However, whereas
FREEDOM has a maximum passenger capacity of 4,375, QUEEN MARY
2, at maximum carries less than 3,000 passengers.  “I find there is so much
space on here even when we are full, 2,800 guests.   As the Commodore
[Bernard Warner] always says [to passengers]: ‘I hope you are enjoying the
space and the luxury’ and that is what the QUEEN MARY 2 is about.”
Another distinguishing factor is the dining.  On QUEEN MARY 2, passengers
are assigned to a dining room based upon their cabin category, with the suites
assigned to the intimate Queens Grill or the Princess Grill and the other
categories to the Britannia Restaurant.  “If you are going to have a Grill
accommodation, the dining becomes an experience, a much longer experience
normally too.  There is a choice of menus in the Grills, in that experience.
[There is] the White Star service.  The Queens Grill is rated the top restaurant
at sea on any ship.”
“The grandeur of the Britannia Restaurant is what Cunard was all about - - the
grandeur of the great restaurants of the QUEEN MARY and the QUEEN
ELIZABETH.  There is that tremendous space and wonderment of this dining
hall.  It might seem cavernous but the decoration and the music, the service
and the blending of everything just makes that what I think a great opulence.”
A final distinction is fame.  “Wherever the QUEEN MARY 2 goes it always
attracts extra attention more than any ship just because it is the QUEEN
MARY 2.  It is one of a kind that is why. Whenever the ship goes into a port
with other ships, people are always out on deck from the other ships taking
pictures of the QUEEN MARY 2.  If you were to ask anybody in the world,
name a ship, I think 90 percent would say QE2 or QM2.”
“I have been on about 25 ships in my career. I am very proud of my career
and particularly this ship, the QUEEN MARY 2, because I think it is the
greatest ocean liner ever built and the best ship out there today.  It makes me
work harder.  There are constant challenges and issues to deal with.  I strive
to exceed the guests’ expectations as I would on any ship.  But, there is that
extra pride of being on here because it is the QUEEN MARY 2.  I think that
drives you on.  I think that gives you that impetus, that excitement.”
The Queens Grill Restaurant offers a
unique top-rated dining experience.
The Britannia Restaurant illustrates
the passenger space and grandeur of
Cruise ship interview - - Cunard - - Queen Mary 2 - - Entertainment Director Ray Rouse


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.. index:: ! grdhisteq ********* grdhisteq ********* .. only:: not man grdhisteq - Perform histogram equalization for a grid Synopsis -------- .. include:: common_SYN_OPTs.rst_ **grdhisteq** *in_grdfile* [ |-G|\ *out_grdfile* ] [ |-C|\ *n_cells* ] [ |-D|\ [*file*] ] [ |-N|\ [*norm*] ] [ |-Q| ] |SYN_OPT-R| |SYN_OPT-V| |No-spaces| Description ----------- **grdhisteq** allows the user to find the data values which divide a given grid file into patches of equal area. One common use of **grdhisteq** is in a kind of histogram equalization of an image. In this application, the user might have a grid of flat topography with a mountain in the middle. Ordinary gray shading of this file (using :doc:`grdimage` or :doc:`grdview`) with a linear mapping from topography to graytone will result in most of the image being very dark gray, with the mountain being almost white. One could use **grdhisteq** to write to stdout or file an ASCII list of those data values which divide the range of the data into *n_cells* segments, each of which has an equal area in the image. Using **awk** or :doc:`makecpt` one can take this output and build a CPT; using the CPT with :doc:`grdimage` will result in an image with all levels of gray occurring equally. Alternatively, see :doc:`grd2cpt`. The second common use of **grdhisteq** is in writing a grid with statistics based on some kind of cumulative distribution function. In this application, the output has relative highs and lows in the same (x,y) locations as the input file, but the values are changed to reflect their place in some cumulative distribution. One example would be to find the lowest 10% of the data: Take a grid, run **grdhisteq** and make a grid using *n_cells* = 10, and then contour the result to trace the 1 contour. This will enclose the lowest 10% of the data, regardless of their original values. Another example is in equalizing the output of :doc:`grdgradient`. For shading purposes it is desired that the data have a smooth distribution, such as a Gaussian. If you run **grdhisteq** on output from :doc:`grdgradient` and make a grid file output with the Gaussian option, you will have a grid whose values are distributed according to a Gaussian distribution with zero mean and unit variance. The locations of these values will correspond to the locations of the input; that is, the most negative output value will be in the (x,y) location of the most negative input value, and so on. Required Arguments ------------------ *in_grdfile* 2-D grid file to be equalized. (See GRID FILE FORMATS below). Optional Arguments ------------------ .. _-C: **-C**\ *n_cells* Sets how many cells (or divisions) of data range to make [16]. .. _-D: **-D** Dump level information to *file*, or standard output if no file is provided. .. _-G: **-G**\ *out_grdfile* Name of output 2-D grid file. Used with **-N** only. (See GRID FILE FORMATS below). .. _-N: **-N**\ [*norm*] Gaussian output. Use with **-G** to make an output grid with standard normal scores. Append *norm* to force the scores to fall in the <-1,+1> range [Default is standard normal scores]. .. _-Q: **-Q** Quadratic output. Selects quadratic histogram equalization. [Default is linear]. .. _-R: .. |Add_-R| replace:: Using the **-R** option will select a subsection of *in_grdfile* grid. If this subsection exceeds the boundaries of the grid, only the common region will be extracted. .. include:: explain_-R.rst_ .. _-V: .. |Add_-V| unicode:: 0x20 .. just an invisible code .. include:: explain_-V.rst_ .. include:: explain_help.rst_ .. include:: explain_grd_inout_short.rst_ Examples -------- To find the height intervals that divide the file heights.nc into 16 divisions of equal area: :: gmt grdhisteq heights.nc -C16 -D > levels.d To make the poorly distributed intensities in the file raw_intens.nc suitable for use with :doc:`grdimage` or :doc:`grdview`, run :: gmt grdhisteq raw_intens.nc -Gsmooth_intens.nc -N -V Notes ----- #. For geographical grids we do a weighted histogram equalization since the area of each node varies with latitude. #. If you use **grdhisteq** to make a Gaussian output for gradient shading in :doc:`grdimage` or :doc:`grdview`, you should be aware of the following: the output will be in the range [-x, x], where x is based on the number of data in the input grid (nx \* ny) and the cumulative Gaussian distribution function F(x). That is, let N = nx \* ny. Then x will be adjusted so that F(x) = (N - 1 + 0.5)/N. Since about 68% of the values from a standard normal distribution fall within +/- 1, this will be true of the output grid. But if N is very large, it is possible for x to be greater than 4. Therefore, with the :doc:`grdview` program clipping gradients to the range [-1, 1], you will get correct shading of 68% of your data, while 16% of them will be clipped to -1 and 16% of them clipped to +1. If this makes too much of the image too light or too dark, you should take the output of **grdhisteq** and rescale it using :doc:`grdmath` and multiplying by something less than 1.0, to shrink the range of the values, thus bringing more than 68% of the image into the range [-1, 1]. Alternatively, supply a normalization factor with **-N**. See Also -------- :doc:`gmt`, :doc:`gmt.conf`, :doc:`grd2cpt`, :doc:`grdgradient`, :doc:`grdimage`, :doc:`grdmath`, :doc:`grdview`, :doc:`makecpt`