Reinventing agro-ecological extension — ASN Events

Reinventing agro-ecological extension (15166)

Rebecca Cross 1 2 , Peter Ampt 1 , Mitch Jones 1
  1. Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
  2. Institute of Environmental Studies, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia

The reinvention of ‘agro-ecological’ extension, that is extension which incorporates both agriculture and natural resource management, is essential for the sustainable management of landscapes.  This paper has been informed by two PhD studies into sustainable agricultural practice change.  These PhDs studied the biophysical, socio-cultural and psychological elements of practice change and concluded that irrationality, creativity, and intuition were key drivers of the change process.  With agricultural extension still heavily focussed on scientific innovation and information delivery, which in certain industries in specific landscapes is required, there is a broader focus needed to sustainably manage the majority of Australia’s landscapes.  These PhDs pointed to an underlying gap in the skill-sets possessed by extensionists, which (often unconsciously) sabotage sustainable goals and inhibit sustainable change.

Agro-ecological extension requires an understanding of human behaviour and thought processes, and further, how to interact and induce change at the level of ‘hearts and minds’.  This paper presents on two current research projects which the authors are involved in.  The first is the Australasian Pacific Extension Network (APEN) sub-committee for Extension Education, Training and Accreditation, which is aiming to explore current educational opportunities for extensionists and identify opportunities for addressing the gap in skill-sets.  The second is an honours project, which is exploring the current state of extension in a specified landscape to determine strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for organisational change.

In conclusion, this paper is arguing that the role of extension in sustainable practice change needs to be reinvigorated, redefined and ultimately, reinvented to align broadly with strategies for change management which integrate agriculture and the environment, and incorporate irrationality, intuition and creativity.


Dipali Aphale

a speculative service for the future of collaboration

With a team spanning between Tokyo and New York, we were tasked to create a speculative vision for the future of collaboration. The project was a 3-day sprint, that consisted of late nights, many Skype calls, and lots of snacks.

Our goal was to have fun and utilize the successes and drawbacks from our current collaboration that we were conducting, and translate the ideas we had for improvement into future solutions. We had to identify what constituted as collaboration. Was it a master-apprentice relationship? Or a peer-to-peer skill share? Could it be a combination, or rather, could a potential solution be applied to multiple uses? Scroll down to navigate through our process and outcomes.

Chiara Treglia

Fernanda Dobal

Garrett Russo

Stefanie Schaack

Kay Takihara

Dipali Aphale

what does global collaboration look like in the future?

Our team envisioned the future of collaboration through the lens of the 2040s.  We began mind-mapping different trends, like significant increases in automation, the use of AR & VR, and remote interaction & work. This increase of remote collaboration and automation inherently shapes the role of the future designer, but we feel that the human touch will remain essential as the divide between transhuman ideology and normalcy increases.

Our idea was to create gloves that extend one's physical movements to their global counterparts, by letting two users experience each other’s hand gestures. This concept has a range of possible applications and details from the functionality of the gloves, to how people would experience feedback within them while working together. It also led us to consider a product as well as a service for ease of use and accessibility.

ProtoCol presentation_v4_final.jpg

We also tried to analyze different technologies (in grey) and industries (in green), based on high vs. low collaboration, and low vs. high tech. We identified their remote collaboration abilities now, and what they might look like in the future.

ProtoCol presentation_v4_final7.jpg

Speculative service

Our speculative service, ProtoCol, would operate like an enhanced version of a Google Fiber Space). It offers several locations around the globe with bookable rooms for collaborators to schedule. Upon arrival, the collaborators would be given identical materials, sourced by ProtoCol.

The system would consist of:

  • Two or more collaborators : users looking to work on prototyping and building physical things with equal input.
  • Global workspaces : bookable rooms that collaborators schedule
  • Identical materials : ethically sourced by ProtoCol ahead of time so they are ready for collaborator's arrival
  • Calibration mat : a surface that can sync the points of each user's material as they shape their prototypes
  • Smart glasses : for an augmented view of their dually-molded prototype with a headset to call the other collaborator
  • Pair of ProtoCol gloves : gloves that provide haptic feedback of a collaborators movement as one pilots the making
ProtoCol presentation_v4_final12.jpg

alternative use case

User A molds a physical material, while the User B molds a holographic material.  User B is still feeling the process of molding in her hands as though it were the real material because of the haptic feedback embedded into the gloves.  Haptic feedback inspiration and validation drawn from Embodied Media at KMD.

ProtoCol presentation_v4_final22.jpg


Accueil > Partenaires > Nouvelles > news article

The role of parliamentarians in strengthening family farming

28/05/2019 -

As producers of the majority of the world’s food, family farmers not only contribute to food security and nutrition, but also fulfil economic, environmental, social and cultural functions in the areas in which they live. Despite this, family farmers are paradoxically among the world’s most vulnerable and food-insecure populations. The UN Decade of Family Farming, led by FAO and IFAD, is an opportunity to work together to create an enabling environment for family farmers. During the global launch of the Decade, a wide range of stakeholders came together for a three-day period to work on concrete actions to support family farming, which culminated in the launch of a Global Action Plan to support family farmers from the global to the local level.

Within the context of the launch of the UN Decade, FAO organized a roundtable on the role of parliamentarians in strengthening family farming. In order to reach their full potential, family farmers need laws, policies and investments that support them. The roundtable provided a chance for parliamentarians from around the world to engage with each other on how to enact legislation that has the potential to transform family farming.

Parliamentarians from several continents participated, sharing their own legislative experiences and challenges from their own countries. Participants represented both national parliaments and regional bodies, including the Pan-African Parliament, the European Parliament, and PARLATINO, the regional parliament of Latin America and the Caribbean.

Roberto Ridolfi, FAO’s Assistant Director-General for Programme Support and Technical Cooperation, opened the roundtable with a reminder of the opportunity that the UN Decade represents for lawmakers. “[The Decade] is a great occasion to advance the agenda of the Global Parliamentary Summit,” he explained. “This is a good time to elaborate laws and to strengthen and update institutional frameworks.” It was essential to guarantee farmers’ access to financing, he continued, emphasizing that investments must complement laws in supporting family farmers.

Before the parliamentarians began their exchange, Alberto Ercilio Broch, the Vice-President of the World Rural Forum and the Secretary General of COPROFAM, spoke to those assembled about the importance of public policies for family farming, and the importance for the UN Decade for the farmers themselves. He called on parliamentarians, as “guardians of democracy”, to work hand and hand with farmers to create a better environment for family farming.

The discussion touched on a wide range of issues that affect family farmers and can be addressed through legislative and policy changes. These included reducing inequalities between urban and rural areas and between men and women farmers. Several speakers focused on the central role that women play in family farming, calling for measures that would ensure women farmers’ access to land, facilities and technology.

Pablo Gonzalez, the Secretary-General of PARLATINO, spoke of the importance of creating framework laws, such as PARLATINO’s Model Law on Family Farming, which ensure legislative coordination at a regional level while allowing countries to translate the law into national legislation. Evelyn Nawases, a member of the Pan African Parliamentary Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition, emphasized that guaranteeing access to land, particularly for indigenous people and marginalized groups, was fundamental to ensure a sustainable future for family farming.

Carmen Quintanilla, Senator from Spain, called for the creation of a global parliamentary alliance that would support family farmers and encourage sustainable development. “More than ever, parliamentarians play a key role in the fight against hunger, in achieving Agenda 2030, and in ensuring the right to food,” she said. “Parliamentarians can transform societies through legislation.”

Kone Dognon, First Vice-President of the Pan African Parliamentary Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition and member of the Pan-African Parliament, underlined the critical role that legislation plays in supporting family farmers. With the necessary legal frameworks in place, he said, family farmers would be better able to address challenges such as land-grabbing, the effects of climate change, gender inequalities, access to financing, markets and technologies, and ensuring generational succession in farming.

Teresa Calix Raudales, Member of the Parliament of Honduras and Sub coordinator of the Parliamentary Front against Hunger for Mesoamerica, spoke of the experience of farmers in her own country, where coffee is the main crop but where coffee producers themselves are increasingly impoverished. Honduras has recently proposed a law to improve the livelihoods of family farmers, which will complement an existing law on school feeding. The new law intends to guarantee farmers access to a secure market and strengthen their contributions to the food value chain. In socializing the law, Honduras involved a range of stakeholders, including farmers, municipalities and cooperatives, to ensure that it would have a significant impact for those who were most impoverished.

In closing the session, Marcela Villarreal, Director of Partnerships at FAO, emphasized family farmers’ key role in achieving the SDGs and noted that any support to family farmers must take a holistic, multi-sectoral approach. “Family farming is central to the SDG Agenda,” she stated, “[but] parliaments are also central to development, as they address issues of equality.”


More to Know

5 Ways to Make Friends for Your Toddler

March 29, 2016

By Nikki Cecala

1. Go local

2. Social media

4. Take advantage of play areas

5. Attend birthday parties

6 Potty Training Tips for Success

March 22, 2016

By Noralba Martinez

6 potty-training tips for success | In over 15 years as an early childhood intervention specialist, this mom has helped potty train hundreds of toddlers. Here are her 6 key tips. | A child's feet point to a potty training toilet.

When it comes to potty training, every child is different. I’ve supported the potty training of hundreds of toddlers through my career as an early childhood intervention counselor, and the strongest advice I can give you is that consistency is the key to success.

Here are six tips that will help you through this journey.

Is your child ready?
Your toddler needs to be ready before you can begin potty training. How do you know if your child is ready?

  • Your child knows when he or she is going to the bathroom, even if it’s in a diaper.
  • Your child is able to pull up his or her pants or underwear.
  • Your child doesn’t go to the bathroom during naps and can stay dry for at least two hours.
  • Your child communicates a desire to use the toilet.

Model the behavior
Once you know your child is ready for potty training, take him or her with you to the restroom. Show your toddler that going potty in the toilet is a natural and normal thing everyone does.

Explain in simple terms what you are doing. Be patient and calm, as it may be difficult for your child to understand at first.

Make it easy and remove obstacles
Keep the bathroom door open at all times so your child can access the room whenever he or she feels the urge to go. Put the potty chair in an area your toddler can see and get to quickly. If you’re using a child seat on your toilet, put a stool next to the toilet.

Set a schedule
Take your toddler to the potty chair or toilet every 30 minutes. He or she can sit for five minutes. If your toddler doesn’t go, it’s okay. You’re setting a schedule to encourage him or her to have the opportunity to empty regularly.

If you need help remembering to have your child go every 30 minutes, you can use a timer or a potty watch. Just be sure to stay consistent so your toddler can expect the opportunity to go.

Reward and praise your child
Motivate your child and increase his or her success at potty training by praising all efforts and rewarding accomplishments. Stickers are a great way to reward your toddler when he or she goes in the potty. Some parents have a special basket of dollar-store toys the child can choose from after a successful potty. Verbal praise also goes a long way to influence your toddler.

Bye-bye potty chair
Just like you have to say good-bye to your toddler’s high chair, playpen, and many other baby items, you will also say goodbye to the potty chair. After your toddler has demonstrated independence and self-care responsibility, transition to the toilet full-time.

Potty training can seem like a daunting task, but if you’re patient and stay positive and consistent, you and your toddler will get there. It won’t happen overnight, but with your help he or she can do it.

Do you have potty training tips to share with fellow parents? Please tell us in the comments below!

This article was originally published on April 10, 2014 and has been updated to reflect additional information.

7 St. Patrick’s Day Facts to Share with Kids

March 15, 2016

By Jessica Vician

7 St. Patrick’s Day Facts to Share with Kids

St. Patrick’s Day is known for a lot of things, but did you know it started as a religious holiday in Ireland and was first celebrated in the U.S. to help Irish soldiers feel less homesick?

Share these facts with your kids to give them a better understanding of the legends, superstitions, and history behind the March 17 celebration.

Why do the Irish celebrate St. Patrick’s Day?
St. Patrick is believed to have died on March 17. He is known for bringing Christianity to Ireland, which is why the day he died is an Irish national holiday.

Why do we celebrate St. Patrick’s Day in the U.S.?
It all started before we signed the Declaration of Independence. Irish soldiers were fighting for the British Army on American soil, and they held a St. Patrick’s Day parade to help the soldiers feel less homesick through music and friends.

Years later, when the Irish immigrated to the United States, they continued their traditions from their old country in their new country by celebrating the holiday.

What are leprechauns?
According to Irish legend, leprechauns are small, Irish faeries who work very hard as cobblers and craft specialists, earning a lot of gold. But they were very thrifty, and it’s said that leprechauns would bury their gold in pots at the end of the rainbow.

The legend says that if you catch a leprechaun, you can ask him where he hid his gold and he must tell you the truth.

Why do you have to wear green?
It’s tradition that if you don’t wear green on St. Patrick’s Day, anyone is allowed to pinch you.

Why do we eat corned beef and cabbage on St. Patrick’s Day?
It all comes down to the other green stuff: money. Corned beef and cabbage used to be the least expensive options for meat and vegetables.

The Irish ate a lot of salted pork in the 19th century, so when Irish immigrants were looking for an American option for salted meat, they found corned beef was the least expensive choice.

They paired it with cabbage because cabbage was (and still is) an inexpensive vegetable in the U.S.

Why do we wear shamrocks on St. Patrick’s Day?
Shamrocks are three-leaf clovers that are supposed to give you good luck on St. Patrick’s Day. They represent Ireland’s magic number of three and also represent the Holy Trinity in the Christian religion, which are the Father (God), the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.

Why are four-leaf clovers lucky?
Clover plants don’t naturally produce four-leaf clovers, only three-leaf clovers. Finding a four-leaf clover is quite the anomaly, which makes you very lucky!

Tags :  academicholiday

How Women Can Make a Difference

March 8, 2016

By Jessica Vician

Women. Leaders. Revolutionaries.

Respect Yourself and Your Family

Set Goals and Plan for Them

Take a Leadership Role in Your Child’s School

Celebrate Others’ Successes

Tags :  socialacademicfamilymotherhood

What manners should you be teaching your child now?

March 2, 2016

By Jessica Vician

What manners should you be teaching your child now? | A child holds a thank you chalkboard while his friend gives a thumbs up.

Think about the first manner that your parents taught you. It’s hard to pinpoint, isn’t it?

Likely “please” and “thank you,” these small but important manners are critical to forming friendships, succeeding in your career, and even making society function.

The three manners listed below are a starting point to teaching your child respect and gratitude, which will stay with them for their entire life.

Please, thank you, and excuse me.
When asking for something, your child should always start or finish the request with “please.” When the request is granted or denied, he or she should say “thank you.”

It’s especially important (and a little more difficult) to teach your child to say “thank you” when their polite request is denied. For example, let’s say your child asks Grandma for some candy, and she says, “Not now. It’s too close to dinner to have candy.” Your child should respond with a “Thanks anyway, Grandma” sentiment, demonstrating respect for Grandma’s authority and gratitude for the consideration.

“Excuse me” is also an important phrase for your child to learn. He or she should use it in public if accidently bumping into anyone or needing to go around someone. Your child should also use the phrase if he or she wants to join or politely interrupt a conversation of adults or kids.

Say hello to adults when you see them.
When your child goes to a friend’s house, he or she should greet the friend’s parents and any other adults in the house before rushing to play.

This action reinforces the importance of respecting one’s elders, being a good guest in someone’s home, and teaches them mature behavior.

Send thank you notes.
As adults, it’s refreshing when someone goes out of their way to truly thank us.

So when an adult or friend does something nice for your child—has Olivia over for dinner or takes Aiden to the amusement park—they should write a heartfelt thank you note and mail it or deliver it in person. (You can help if your child’s handwriting isn’t quite developed yet.)

The act of expressing thanks teaches your child to be grateful, to not take these actions for granted, and also develops his or her writing skills.

These are just three of the manners your child should start practicing and mastering now. After all, aren’t respect and gratitude exactly what this world needs more of?

What are you teaching your child right now? Share with us in the comments below.


8 And 9 Multiplication Worksheet

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Debt plays a massive role in determining not only how much house a homebuyer can afford, but if they would qualify for a mortgage in the first place.

There are specific preferences unique to each lender and type of loan. Some banks allow a higher debt amount than others, while some types of loans allow for a higher debt-to-income ratio. What is most important is that a buyer makes sure they are financially healthy to add a mortgage, but also work on paying down debts so that they are more appealing to lenders.

Necessary Knowledge: Two Types of Debt to Income Ratio

Debt and income1. The Front-End

NerdWallet defines the front-end ratio as the household rate. In other words, this is a number of household expenses the buyer pays, including the calculated mortgage amount, property tax, insurance, fees, and any other costs directly associated with the monthly payment of the new home. This number is then divided by the monthly gross income of the buyer(s).

2. The Back-End

The back-end ratio is the end-all. This includes other debts that the buyer pays, such as student loans, credit card payments, and personal loans. This adds to the front-end amount and then compares to the gross monthly income.

Naturally, the back-end ratio is higher, but that is because all debt obligations are considered.

What Ratios are Accepted by Lenders

Debt calculatorWhen using a debt calculator to determine the ratio, a buyer must know the type of loan they are getting and the lender they are working with. Every lender is different, but most will follow the standard method, which is based on the kind of loan and the buyer’s debt-to-income total.

The following are the type of loan and respective DTI:

  • Conventional Mortgages: This is a loan that is not backed by a government program. A mortgage broker or lender exclusively offers it. Typically, a bank wants the front-end below 28 percent, with the back-end not moving any higher than 36 percent.
  • FHA Loans: FHA loans are those backed by the government, but they allow for a higher DTI than conventional loans. In fact, NerdWallet found that some may go as high as 43 percent on the back-end.
  • VA Loans: This is another government-backed loan by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. However, it is only available for active duty members of the military or retired veterans. According to the VA, any debt-to-income ratio higher than 41 percent is typically not accepted. There are instances where an underwriter will approve a higher ratio, but they must justify such.

The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau does state that the 43 percent debt-to-income ratio is still acceptable, and some lenders will go as high as 43 percent on the back-end for a buyer.

What about the Debt to Asset Ratio?

Debt and buying a homeThe debt to asset ratio is an amount assessed by the lender to determine the overall risk.

The number measures the mortgage or proposed debt to the total value of the home. This amount will then influence the terms a person is offered for a new mortgage. If the debt to asset ratio is too high, the lender may decide that the home’s loan is not worthy or require a higher down payment to offset the ratio calculation.

If, however, the debt to equity or debt to the asset is lower than the lender’s maximum value, then they could offer a better rate, favorable loan terms, or faster approval. For example, a bank may prefer a ratio of 60 percent than one pushing 90 percent.

Every lender is different when comparing the debt to asset ratio for a new home loan. FHA-guaranteed loans, for example, may permit a higher value than a conventional loan. VA loans could approve a higher asset ratio than a conventional loan, but it depends on the government program the buyer is considering.

In Addition to Debt, Banks Consider Other Factors

Now that a buyer knows the definition of debt and how it affects their home purchasing power, they must also realize that other factors influence loan approval. Even a buyer that falls under the thresholds for debt-to-income and debt to asset ratios could be denied a loan.

Items like credit history and credit score play a massive role. Government-backed loans, as well as conventional lenders all, have a minimum credit score that they consider “worthy” for a new loan.  For example, the VA typically requires a score of at least 620, while conventional loans prefer a buyer with a score of 740 or higher.


Date of Award

Degree Type

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical Engineering

Electrical, Computer, and Biomedical Engineering

First Advisor

Haibo He

Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are the new generation of engineered systems integrated with computation and physical processes. The integration of computation, communication and control adds new capabilities to the systems being able to interact with physical world. The uncertainty in physical environment makes future CPS to be more reliant on machine learning algorithms which can learn and accumulate knowledge from historical data to support intelligent decision making. Such CPS with the incorporation of intelligence or smartness are termed as intelligent CPS which are safer, more reliable and more efficient.

This thesis studies fundamental machine learning algorithms in supervised and unsupervised manners and examines new computing architecture for the development of next generation CPS. Two important applications of CPS, including smart pipeline and smart grid, are also studied in this thesis. Particularly, regarding supervised machine learning algorithms, several generative learning and discriminative learning methods are proposed to improve learning performance. For the generative learning, we build novel classification methods based on exponentially embedded families (EEF), a new probability density function (PDF) estimation method, when some of the sufficient statistics are known. For the discriminative learning, we develop an extended nearest neighbor (ENN) method to predict patterns according to the maximum gain of intra-class coherence. The new method makes a prediction in a ``two-way communication" style: it considers not only who are the nearest neighbors of the test sample, but also who consider the test sample as their nearest neighbors. By exploiting the generalized class-wise statistics from all training data, the proposed ENN is able to learn from the global distribution, therefore improving pattern recognition performance and providing a powerful technique for a wide range of data analysis applications. Based on the concept of ENN, an anomaly detection method is also developed in an unsupervised manner.

CPS usually have high-dimensional data, such as text, video, and other multi-modal sensor data. It is necessary to reduce feature dimensions to facilitate the learning. We propose an optimal feature selection framework which aims to select feature subsets with maximum discrimination capacity. To further address the information loss issue in feature reduction, we develop a novel learning method, termed generalized PDF projection theorem (GPPT), to reconstruct the distribution in high-dimensional raw data space from the low-dimensional feature subspace.

To support the distributed computations throughout the CPS, it needs a novel computing architecture to offer high-performance computing over multiple spatial and temporal scales and to support Internet of Things for machine-to-machine communications. We develop a hierarchical distributed Fog computing architecture for the next generation CPS. A prototype of such architecture for smart pipeline monitoring is implemented to verify its feasibility in real world applications.

Regarding the applications, we examine false data injection detection in smart grid. False data injection is a type of malicious attack which can threaten the security of energy systems. We examine the observability of false data injection and develop statistical models to estimate underlying system states and detect false data injection attacks under different scenarios to enhance the security of power systems.


Thinking of playing live music in your venue?

When used effectively, live events have the potential to enhance your business or organisation.

Live music has the power to bring people together, be it in a small club or pub or a huge muddy field, everyone is there for the same reason.  There are no teams, no different sides, no competition. They are simply there to hear the music they love and have a good time.

These days live music is booming. It has become so much more accessible than it was 30 years ago. Parents are introducing their children to gigs before they can even sing along, festivals have become family weekends away, we are travelling around the world to watch acts perform live.

This wouldn’t be possible though if many of the global superstars we know and love hadn’t been able to start performing in grassroots venues. In June 2003, Alex Turner took to the stage in The Grapes pub in Sheffield, and the phenomenal rise of The Arctic Monkeys began. Without small venues hosting bands like this, the UK live music scene would almost definitely decline.

Attract new interest

Showcasing both well-known artists and local talent could help your business grow by attracting the artist’s own fans and other fans of the music/genre/style.

If your venue is hosting events containing live music, recorded music or both, you will probably need TheMusicLicence.

At PPL PRS we have a specialised team of Live Music Advisers who will take you through your music licence application step-by-step, making it easy for you to obtain a music licence for the playing or performance of music at your event.  They will help you to manage all the licensing elements of your events and live performances.

How is the cost calculated?

The cost of TheMusicLicence depends on a number of factors. For live events and performances TheMusicLicence fees are calculated on your specific event, which means our licence is tailored to your individual needs.

To get a quote for TheMusicLicence for your event or performance please contact our dedicated Live Music Team on 0208 338 1407 or email [email protected] to get TheMusicLicence for your live event or performance.

Protecting the future of music

TheMusicLicence from PPL PRS has been introduced to help make playing music to the public more straightforward.

After our business costs, music licence fees are distributed to those involved in making music via our parent companies PPL and PRS for Music. Our parent companies each have databases storing millions of musical compositions and recordings. Together with information about what music is being played or performed at your event, PPL and PRS for Music can determine fairly and efficiently which of their members to pay and how much to pay them. This means that by purchasing TheMusicLicence, you are supporting the future of music.


Arguments for and against the Idea of Universal Grammar

  • Christian Hejlesen Christensen Aarhus University
Keywords: generative grammar, the innateness hypothesis, English syntax, child language acquisition, Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker, Universal Grammar, Current Topics in English Linguistics

For many, language is viewed as something that is actively learned through sensory stimulus and training. However, the idea of Universal Grammar (UG) challenges this notion by pointing at the inconsistencies in the behaviorist model of language learning. Proponents of Universal Grammar argue that language is acquired rather than learned, meaning that linguistic structures are a biologically innate part of the human mind. This paper explores arguments on both sides of the issue, beginning with the classical behaviorist model and then turning to two selected arguments for UG before finally discussing the theory in light of more recent criticisms. In the end, I conclude that while Universal Grammar is still controversial in the field of linguistics, it at the very least succeeds in showing that there are still unanswered questions regarding the way the human mind acquires language.

How to Cite
Christensen, C. (2019). Arguments for and against the Idea of Universal Grammar. Leviathan: Interdisciplinary Journal in English, (4), 12-28.


Friends Skills

Two classical figures, Quintilian and Cicero have influenced the modern state of rhetorical education. Both were influenced by Isocrates and looked for orators with a natural ability to communicate. They emphasized a cultural approach to rhetoric and viewed reading and writing as essential tools to effective oratory. Both were Roman figures crucial to the development in rhetoric in later eras such as the Renaissance. Cicero influenced Quintilian especially in his ideas of teaching rhetoric. Here is an overview of their different ideas about rhetoric.
Quintilian argued that writing isn't just a skill but encourages personal growth. It serves as an example of transformative learning that is ethics-grounded and civically oriented. He organized oratory into five canons, invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. The goal was to learn to sift through information in order to present the most relevant and persuasive case in a given situation. He was concerned with developing a field of study in what seemed to have no specific subject and determined that rhetoric was the theory of effective communication and is based on a citizen capable of analysis, reflection and action. He emphasized real life application such as political action and as a means of entertainment and cultural criticism.
Cicero was another classical figure who argued that the orator who needed to live a good life in order to be persuasive. Further, he has to empathize with his audience and believe in what he is saying. To become a good orator, one must recognize that truth is the aim of rhetoric and truth didn't exist prior to when it was communicated. He connected the virtue of the orator with the stability of the state. A virtuous democracy is maintained by the citizen's virtue and reflected in good public discourse. Rhetoric has the goal of proving claims, winning the audience, moving them to action through their emotional response and recognizing that ethical, evaluative and emotional...


Kim Kardashian recently admitted that her husband, Kanye West, is the mastermind behind all of her iconic looks.

She was dubbed one of People magazine’s most stylish women of the year and owes it all to Kanye. Kim revealed to People that she has models from the Yeezy showroom try on a bunch of looks before she decides what she wants to wear. The team makes sure that the model has Kim’s exact measurements, including her bootylicious curves, and once they’ve tried everything on, they’re photographed and sent to her for approval.

Kim said, “At one point I sent over my entire closet to my husband’s office, I had full time security because I was so nervous, that was just to photograph it with the fit models there and put looks together.” This seems a bit excessive, but maybe this is what being rich is all about.

The 37-year-old reality star admitted that it is a detailed process, but it makes her life so much easier. Using the photos saves her time in and out of the closet and allows her more time to spend with their three children.

But my question is, where do they find models with Kim’s exact sizing? Hmm.

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Electromagnetic Radiation and Human Health

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Radiation Exposure in Humans

After the war, a joint Japanese-U.S. effort was made to study the biological effects of radiation exposure on the survivors of the atomic blasts and their children. Somatic mutations were examined by studying radiation sickness and cancer among the survivors germ-line mutations were assessed by looking at birth defects, chromosome abnormalities, and gene mutations in children born to people that had been exposed to radiation. Geneticist James Neel and his colleagues examined almost 19,000 children of parents who were within 2000 meters of the center of the atomic blast at Hiroshima or Nagasaki, along with a similar number of children whose parents did not receive radiation exposure. Radiation doses were estimated for the child's parents on the basis of careful assessment of the parents' location, posture, and position at the time of the blast. A blood sample was collected from each child, and gel electrophoresis was used to investigate amino acid substitutions in 28 proteins. When...

Treatment Implications Ionizing Radiation

Exposure to ionizing radiation (IR) results in DNA damage, most significantly DSBs. In normal cells, DNA damage induces cell cycle arrest to prevent the spread of deleterious cells and activates repair pathways to correct genomic defects. IR as the basis of radiotherapy is a standard treatment used against cancer and is indicated for approximately 60 of cancer patients (41). Yet, even though it is an important cancer therapy, improving outcomes after radiation therapy remains an important clinical goal. To date, certain biologically targeted therapies have been shown to enhance radiation response. However, currently available agents are targeted to specific gene mutations and benefit only a small subset of patients with solid tumors (41). The ideal radiosensitizer then should be relatively nontoxic and enhance the clinical effectiveness of IR in a broad range of tumors. Are there aspects of BRCA1 and BRCA2 function that might impact radiation treatment

Ionizing Radiation

Acute high dose radiation (> 250 rads). An acute overdose of ionizing radiation during pregnancy can cause fetal microcephaly, mental retardation, growth retardation, and leukemia. After exposure to more than 25 rads, classic fetal defects will be observed termination of pregnancy should be offered as an option. Much information concerning acute high-dose radiation has come from studies of the atomic explosions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Diagnosis of deepvein thrombosis Introduction

The diagnosis of venous thrombosis in pregnancy can be challenging because (1) unilateral left leg swelling can be caused by compression of the left iliac vein by the gravid uterus (2) leg swelling can be caused by isolated common iliac vein thrombosis that may not be detectable by CUS, and (3) venographic examination of pelvic veins is problematic because ofirradiation risk to the foetus. CUS is the initial test of choice in all patients, and the use of venography is limited to patients with suspected isolated iliac vein thrombosis, when the vein cannot be identified by CUS. Although venography exposes the foetus to irradiation, the risk of a fatal pulmonary embolism from a missed iliac thrombus probably outweighs the risk of radiation exposure to the foetus. Examination of the external and common iliac veins is technically feasible in the first two trimesters and can sometimes be done even in the third trimester with appropriate positioning. As in non-pregnant women, patients who...

Effect Does Not Equal Effect

Stochastic effect Even minimal radiation doses have an effect. They increase the likelihood of developing malignant tumors (somatic effect) and sustaining genetic damage (genetic effect) that might otherwise also occur without interference by man-made technology though less frequently. There are therefore no real threshold values below which the administration of x-rays is totally safe. This effect is also called the stochastic effect. It is a fundamental effect associated with the use of all ionizing radiation in diagnostic radiology and the major reason for the general radiation protection efforts today. a pioneer of intrathoracic surgery, tried to save him with a last-minute operation but was unsuccessful. A large-bowel carcinoma as one likely cause of the ileus could only be attributed to the stochastic effect. X-ray tubes were prohibitively expensive even in those early days and they survived but a few exposures. For that reason R ntgen's total radiation exposure was probably...

Working With What You Have Tactics To Augment The Oncolytic Ability Of y1345 Mutant Derivatives

Although y134.5 mutant derivatives appeared safe in preclinical animal studies, their restricted replication resulting from their inability to counter components of the innate host response needed to be addressed if they were to emerge as efficacious oncolytic agents. One approach to deal with this concern combines conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy with oncolytic virus treatment of mice with human tumor implants, taking advantage of specific properties associated with each treatment modality (46-50). On the one hand, traditional systemic treatments, although highly toxic, are able to effectively debulk a tumor. Oncolytic y 4.5 mutant derivatives, on the other hand, appear safe but have limited replicative ability in many human tumor cells. The question at hand then, was if the two therapeutic components together were more effective than each individual component. In support of this idea, head and neck derived squamous cell carcinomas implanted into mice subcutaneously and...

Pathophysiology Of Cold Injuries

Heat is lost through the following four mechanisms radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation. Radiation, in which heat is transferred by electromagnetic waves, accounts for almost two-thirds of heat loss in a cold environment. Radiant heat loss can be minimized by wearing appropriate warm clothing and minimizing the body surface area exposed to the cold environment. Conduction refers to the transfer of heat from warmer to cooler objects by direct contact. Heat loss through this mechanism is usually minimal, but it becomes a major source of heat loss in wet clothes or with cold-water immersion. Convection is the loss of heat to surrounding air and water vapor. Heat loss by convection is dependent on a combination of environmental factors, including wind velocity and temperature. The wind chill index, which estimates the equivalent temperature effect on exposed skin, is a combination of the ambient temperature and the wind velocity. It is a more important consideration than the...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRI is emerging as a particularly advantageous modality for MI because of its high spatial resolution (when compared with PET and SPECT), very good sample penetration (when compared with optical imaging methods), it's widespread clinical availability, and lack of ionizing radiation. A tremendous drawback, however, is its low sensitivity compared with these other methods, which necessitates the development ofpowerful amplification strategies. MR contrast agents that could serve as potential bases for molecular imaging probes are in clinical use but specific derivatives for molecular imaging have not yet been approved (23). In general, MR contrast agents are designed to shorten the relaxation times of the tissue of interest and therefore increase the relaxation rates (37). There are two major classes of MR contrast agents paramagnetic contrast agents which are designed to predominantly affect T1 and thus tend to provide increased MR signal and superparamagnetic agents and agents...

Biology of DNA Repair in Tumor Cells and Normal Cells

One of the main advantages of brachytherapy is related to the radiation biology of continuous low-dose irradiation, which tends to substantially damage proliferating tumor cells while allowing normal tissue a chance for repair of sublethal damage (19,21,22,24,30). Normal tissue is more efficient at repairing the sublethal damage, but as the dose rate increases there is less separation of this effect the higher the dose rate, the lower is the total dose at which damage to normal tissue is observed. Cells commonly respond to DNA damage from ionizing radiation by activating cell-cycle checkpoints. These checkpoints permit cells to correct possible DNA damage before proceeding through the cell cycle. Ionizing radiation induces arrest in the Gj, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle (31). In addition, cell survival data have shown that cells are most sensitive to radiation during mitosis and G2, are less sensitive in G1, and are least sensitive during the latter part of S phase (32,33)....

Body Fat Distribution

However, there is not yet sufficient evidence on the relationship between these indices and visceral fat to justify ethnic specific cutoff points for body fat distribution (58-61), and there is not yet enough information about the relation with these indices with morbidity. Generally African-Americans (children as well as adults) have less visceral adipose tissue as found by CT or MRI than their white counterparts (59,60,62,63). On the other hand, a comparative study among Pima Indians showed that there were no differences in visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fat areas (MRI) with age-, sex-, and BMI-matched Caucasians (64). The main limitation of most studies is the relatively small number of subjects, due to the nature (cost and radiation exposure) of the measurements. Data from NHANES III (65) show that for the same level of apparent body fatness (BMI) the corresponding WC values are higher in Caucasians than in Hispanics and African-Americans. This seems contradictive to the fact...

Antisense Oligonucleotides

A more recent study examined the feasibility of using adenovirus-mediated, heat-activated expression of antisense Ku70 RNA as a gene therapy approach to sensitize cells and tumors to ionizing radiation. The adenovirus vector contained antisense Ku70 under the control of hsp70 promoter. Their data showed that heat shock induces antisense Ku70 mRNA expression, reduces the endogenous Ku70 expression level, and significantly increases the radiosensitivity of cells. This approach was then extended to in vivo models where heat-shock-induced expression of antisense Ku70 mRNA using this same vector attenuated Ku70 protein expression in murine FSa-II tumors, and radiosensitized the FSa-II tumors (113). Based on these results it appears that adeno-virus-mediated, heat-activated antisense Ku70 expression is a novel approach to radiosensitize human tumors.

Angiogenesis Inhibitors

Over the last years, tumor-specific vasculature formation (angiogenesis) has emerged as a promising new target for inhibiting the growth of tumors (114-118), using antiangio-genic agents either alone, or in combination with conventional therapies (114,115, 117-119). The key advantages of this approach are that because it targets normal endothelial cells rather than tumor cells, the development of drug resistance is less likely (114), and that antiangiogenic therapy can exert a powerful antitumor effect with little or no systemic toxicity to the host (114,115,117,118). The combination of antiangiogenic agents with ionizing radiation has demonstrated a local synergistic antitumor interaction between the two modalities (120-123) for angiostatin (120), antivascular endothelial growth factor antibody (121), and endostatin (122). Several investigators have produced adenoviral based vectors for delivering the genes that encode these or similar proteins thereby enabling future tests of...

Nucleotide Excision Repair

This mechanism is used to replace regions of damaged DNA up to 30 bases in length. Common examples of DNA damage include ultraviolet (UV) light, which induces the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine-pyrimi-dine dimers, and smoking, which causes formation of benzo pyrene-guanine adducts. Ionizing radiation, cancer chemotherapeutic agents, and a variety of chemicals found in the environment cause base modification, strand breaks, cross-linkage between bases on opposite strands or between DNA and protein, and numerous other defects. These are repaired by a process called nu-cleotide excision-repair (Figure 36-24). This complex process, which involves more gene products than the two other types of repair, essentially involves the hydrolysis of two phosphodiester bonds on the strand containing the defect. A special excision nuclease (exinuclease), consisting of at least three subunits in E coli and 16 polypep-tides in humans, accomplishes this task. In eukaryotic cells the enzymes cut...

Acquired mtDna Mutations

We have used two slightly different computational models to represent the somatic mutations that occur in mtDNA as part of the aging process. One method is to tie mutation to the replication process, to represent mutations that arise from replication errors. In this case, at every mtDNA replication event there is some probability Pmut that a new mtDNA mutation will be created. An alternative method is to model mutation formation independent of the mtDNA replication process. Then, over every time interval At there is a probability Pmut that a mtDNA molecule may be converted to a new mutation. Unless the replication rate is varying with time in the model, there is little significant difference between these two models for de novo mtDNA mutation formation. The parameter Pmut can also be made a function of time to represent changing mutation conditions, such as periods of increased radiation exposure, for example.

PIKK Family Members as Guardians of Nucleic Acid Structure Function and Integrity

It has been proposed that a common feature of the PIKK family may be an ability to interact with nucleic acids 41,42 . This is clearly established for DNA-PKcs, which stably binds to DNA upon interacting with DNA-bound Ku. Through this DNA-protein-protein interaction, the protein kinase potential of DNA-PK is released 4,25 . A role for DNA-PKcs in binding to telomeres has also been proposed 28 . In addition, ATM has been shown to bind in vitro to DNA with a preference for DNA termini or DNA that has been treated with ionizing radiation 43,44 . Also, within minutes of treating cells with ionizing radiation, ATM kinase activity is significantly increased 45,46 and the protein becomes associated with chromatin 47 . Likewise, stimulation of ATR activity by DNA in vitro has been observed 48,49 , suggesting a direct interaction with DNA or potentially an indirect interaction through its newly discovered partner ATRIP 50 . Indeed, recent work has revealed that the S. cerevisiae ATR ortholog,...

Neoplastic Conditions

But can be associated with previous radiation exposure and Paget's disease. It is treated by a combination of chemotherapy and surgery. Ewing's sarcoma is a poorly differentiated, small, round, blue cell tumour seen in the long bones of children and young adults. It is treated with a combination of chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery. Chondrosarcomas are usually low-grade sarcomas occurring in long bones and flat bones in middle-aged and older people. They have a tendency for recurrence rather than metastasis. They do not respond to chemotherapy and treatment is surgical removal. The dedifferentiated chondrosarcoma is a high-grade tumour, typically large in size occurring in the pelvis and proximal femur of older people. These tumours metas-tasise early and have an extremely bad prognosis.

Diagnostic Investigation

Although the basic diagnostic approach to thromboembolism is the same in pregnant and non-pregnant women, concern about radiation exposure and the normal anatomical changes seen in pregnant women add complexity to the diagnostic algorithm. Leg studies for PE One way to avoid radiation exposure in the setting of pregnancy is to perform non-invasive leg studies. This is prudent even in cases of a suspected pulmonary embolism since deep venous thrombosis will be present in 30-70 of women with proven pulmonary embolism. If deep venous thrombosis is present, this establishes the need for anticoagulant therapy and negates the need for further studies.

Effects of Oxidative Stress and Genotoxic Stress on Zebrafish Aging and Senescence

Several lines of evidence suggest that genotoxic or oxidative stress promote the aging process (Campisi, 2005 Finkel and Holbrook, 2000 Lombard et al., 2005). It is well known that the aging process diminishes the capability to adapt to environmental stresses. We hypothesized that genotoxic and oxidative stress leads to mutations and general declines in reproductive ability, ultimately producing the spectrum of age-related characteristics in zebrafish. Support for this idea comes from the fact that radiation increases genetic mutations and leads to premature aging in animals, such as mice and Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) (Curtis, 1963 Egami and Eto, 1973 Ferbeyre and Lowe, 2002 Trifunovic et al., 2004 Tyner et al., 2002 Celeste et al., 2002). Therefore, we have subjected embryos and adult zebrafish to genotoxic or oxidative stress and measured aging markers over the lifespan of the fish. To determine the effects of genotoxic and oxidative stresses on zebrafish aging, we have analyzed...

Protection of the Examining Physician

Mri Cable Burns

Most factors that serve the radiation protection of the patient also diminish the radiation exposure of the radiologist. These include the adequate experience of the examining physician, short fluoroscopy times, strict collimation of the x-ray beam, dose-minimized x-ray equipment, and a strict adherence to the indication list. One very effective protective measure is to keep the greatest possible distance (dose decreases by the square of the distance) from the primary or secondary sources of radiation (the tube and the patient). Another measure is to protect the physician with lead-lined, sometimes movable, walls, lead aprons, gloves, thyroid protectors, and awkward-looking lead-glass goggles or spectacles (Fig. 5.3). Further risks to human life and health due to the commonly used MR techniques are not known. Elective MR studies of women in early pregnancy (up to the third month) are nonetheless discouraged because of residual safety concerns. In vital indications in this patient...

Overview Of Biomarkers

Cytogenetic biomarkers currently applied in molecular epidemiological studies include chromosome aberrations (CAs), sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), and micronuclei (MN). Chromosome aberrations are structural alterations, breaks, and rearrangements in chromosomes. Recently developed analytic methods using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) provide detection of new types of rearrangements and translocations of specific regions in certain chromosomes (39, 40). Exposure to ionizing radiation, alkylating cytostatics, tobacco smoking, benzene, and styrene has been found to induce CAs in humans (18). Sister chromatid exchange represent symmetrical exchanges of DNA segments between the sister chromatids of a duplicated metaphase chromosome. Tobacco smoking, alkylating cytostatics, and ethylene oxide can induce SCEs in human lymphocytes (41). Micronuclei are small additional nuclei observable in interphase cells. Increased MN frequencies in human...

Angiogenesis Basic Mechanisms and Role in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Maintaining Spice Quality

Irradiation, first approved by FDA for use on spices in 1983, exposes spices up to a million rads of ionizing radiation, the highest amounts allowed for any food. Approved by ASTA, this process more effectively kills microbes than EtO. Concerns have been expressed by EPA that irradiation changes the chemical composition of a spice, potentially creating toxic and carcinogenic by-products in the food. This method is banned in Japan. It also reduces the sensory and nutritional quality of the spices and gives a lower consumer acceptance.

Inflammatory Autoimmune

Radiation therapy, with or without chemotherapy, has become the primary treatment for oropharyngeal cancer. Primary treatment of head and neck neoplasms with radiation most commonly ranges from 60 to 70 Gy. Radiation exposure greater than 5 Gy may induce some degree of acute and or chronic pharyngitis in nearly all

Experimental Results and Comparison

The imaging justification for blending is readily apparent a cancer is visible in a mammogram because of its (slightly) higher X-ray attenuation, which causes a lower radiation exposure on the film in the appropriate region of a projected image.

Therapeutic Implications

Several lines of investigation identify PI3-kinase as a regulator of cellular responses to ionizing radiation. Biochemical inhibitors of PI3-kinase, LY294002, and wortmannin, enhance the anti-neoplastic effects of radiation 64-66 , and recent data indicate that PKB Akt mediates LY294002-mediated radiosensitization 82 . Ionizing radiation has been shown to activate PKB Akt and p70S6K in epithelial tumors in vitro, however this has not been shown to be the case in malignant glioma cell lines (Nakamura and Haas-Kogan, unpublished data). In addition to direct effects on tumor cells, PKB Akt mediates responses of vascular endothelium to ionizing radiation 67 . PI3-kinase inhibition may provide a means of targeting elements in the tumor microenvironment such as vascular endothelium 68 . Thus, PI3-kinase inhibition may have anti-neoplastic effects through direct tumor killing as well as through disruption of the supportive microenvironmental components such as vascularization 69 . 67. Zingg,...

Health Policies and the Physical Environment

When people are exposed to harmful agents such as asbestos, dioxin, excessive noise, ionizing radiation, or toxic chemical and biological agents, their health is directly affected. Dangerous exposure possibilities pervade the physical environments of many people. Some of the exposure is through such agents as synthetic compounds that are introduced into the environment as by-products of technological growth and development. Some exposure is through wastes that result from the manufacture, use, and disposal of a vast range of products. And some of the exposure is through naturally occurring agents such as carcinogenic ultraviolet radiation from the sun or naturally occurring radon gas in the soil.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

The etiology of ALL is unknown in the vast majority of cases. Environmental agents, such as ionizing radiation and chemical mutagens, have been implicated, and there is evidence to suggest a genetic factor in some patients. Children with Down syndrome have an increased risk of leukemia, particularly precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia. There is a higher frequency of childhood ALL in industrialized countries compared with in developing countries. It has also been postulated that some cases of childhood leukemia stem from an adverse cellular response to common infections that occur at a later time than was typically experienced in past centuries.45,46 These delayed exposures are believed to increase the risk of genetic mutations in the lymphoid precursors, leading to the development of leukemia.

Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated

Other Imaging Modalities

There are applications when it is not practical to use the mammogram for assessment of breast density and instead, it is preferable to use another imaging method for this purpose. One example is in young women (under age 40) who do not normally receive routine mammograms. Another may be in high-risk women where it maybe advisable to monitor changes in the breast more frequently than is considered appropriate with mammography. In both cases, an imaging method that does not employ ionizing radiation would be desirable. Two modalities can be immediately considered ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Not only do these avoid radiation concerns, but they also produce three-dimensional image data, thereby facilitating volumetric analysis.

Telomeric Rearrangements

Chromosomal anomalies may be numerical or structural. Structural changes result from the breakage and rearrangement of chromosome parts, and animal experiments have shown that they can be induced by a variety of exposures, including ionizing radiation and certain viral infections and toxic substances. They occur as duplications, deletions, translocations, insertions, or inversions of chromosome parts or as rings on selected chromosomes. Numerical anomalies arise through nondisjunction during meiosis or mitosis, through lagging of chromosomes at anaphase of cell division, or through fertilization by two sperm (i.e., triploidy). Chromosomal anomalies as a whole contribute more to fetal loss than to live births and MR. Kline, Stein, and Susser (1989) estimated that from 8 weeks after the last menstrual period, the proportion of chromosomal aberrations lost by miscarriage exceeds 90 for all but trisomy 21 (DS), XXX, XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), and XYY. In survivors after birth in...

Management of extremity injury

X-ray facilities are generally designated essential for the diagnosis, treatment and successful outcome of skeletal injuries. It is essential that such facilities be available at appropriate levels in the system, particularly where orthopaedic surgical expertise is available. It is desirable to have X-ray facilities at a lower level (e.g. GP-level hospital or even basic facilities) to facilitate primary diagnosis and decisions regarding transfer of the patient. Portable X-rays assist in the management of patients in traction and during operative procedures. Capabilities for portable X-rays should be essential at the tertiary care level and are desirable at lower-level hospitals. C-arm image intensifier (fluoroscopy) is considered an integral part of the orthopaedic armamentarium in many settings these days as it offers accuracy, reduces operative time, decreases radiation exposure, allows closed procedures and hence saves blood loss and reduces infection rate (37, 38). It is...

Applications of Magnetic Resonance Imaging to the Study of Development

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with its lack of ionizing radiation and capacity to provide exquisite anatomical detail, has revolutionized the study of human brain development. Other imaging modalities, such as conventional radiography, computerized tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT), use ionizing radiation. Although these latter techniques may be used with pediatric patient populations when clinically warranted, the ethics of exposing children to radioactive isotopes for the advancement of science are less clear (Casey and Cohen, 1996 Morton, 1996 Za-metkin, 1996). The advent of functional MRI (fMRI) has further extended the utility of MRI to explore the developing human brain in ways not previously possible.

Gene Replacement Therapy

Roth et al. (33) were the first group to demonstrate the safety and feasibility of using a retroviral wt-p53 construct in patients with advanced NSCLC. Currently there are several ongoing trials using adenoviral-mediated p53-based gene therapy for human cancers of the lung, brain, ovary, head and neck, and bladder (34-38). Similar trials have previously shown that p53 gene replacement therapy is feasible and safe using both retroviral and adenoviral vectors, and that it induces tumor regression in patients with advanced NSCLC and recurrent head and neck cancer (36). Based on these reports, Swisher et al. (39) extended their previous studies of Ad-p53 as a single agent in NSCLC and initiated a clinical trial of Ad-p53 combined with external beam ionizing radiation. These investigators reported that intratumoral injection of Ad-p53 followed by radiation therapy was well tolerated, led to successful p53 gene transfer, had low toxicity, and produced tumor regression. A high metastatic...

ATM and ATR Signalers of Genome Damage

Frameworks For Exposure Assessment 21 Concepts and Models of Human Exposure

A 1991 report of the National Research Council offers a useful framework for considering the linkages from pollution sources to exposures to doses and subsequent human health effects (NRC, 1991). In general, pollutant sources are linked to human exposure through the three principal environmental media air, water, and food. Pollutants may contaminate food directly or through transport of the toxic agent by an environmental medium. Food sources often concentrate toxic environmental agents across the food chain, as with the example of methylmercury in fish. In addition to these three media, some agents reach people through direct physical contact, which is how ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, for example, exert their effects. In urban environments, water may be contaminated centrally at treatment facilities or at buildings through aged or contaminated pipes, which may contain potentially toxic materials, such as lead.

Other Types of DNA Repair

The DNA repair pathways described so far respond to damage that is limited to one strand of a DNA molecule, leaving the other strand to be used as a template for the synthesis of new DNA during the repair process. Some types of DNA damage, however, affect both strands of the molecule and therefore pose a more severe challenge to the DNA repair machinery. Ionizing radiation frequently results in doublestrand breaks in DNA. The repair of double-strand breaks is frequently by homologous recombination. Models for homologous recombination were described in Chapter 12.

Pyrimidine dimers result from Ultraviolet light

Ionizing radiation also frequently results in double-strand breaks in DNA. Attempts to repair these breaks can produce chromosome mutations (discussed in Chapter 9). Ultraviolet light has less energy than that of ionizing radiation and does not eject electrons and cause ionization but is nevertheless highly mutagenic. Purine and pyrimidine bases readily absorb UV light, resulting in the formation of chemical bonds between adjacent pyrimidine molecules on the same strand of DNA and in the creation of structures called pyrimidine dimers (Figure 17.24a). Pyrimidine dimers consisting of two thymine bases (called thymine dimers) are most frequent, but cytosine dimers and thymine - cytosine dimers also can form. These dimers distort the configuration of DNA (Figure 17.24b) and often block replication. Most pyrimidine dimers are immediately repaired by mechanisms discussed later in this chapter, but some escape repair and inhibit replication and transcription.

The Genetic Legacy of Chernobyl

Radiation is a known mutagen, causing damage to DNA. More than 13,000 children in the area surrounding Chernobyl were exposed to the radioactive isotope iodine-131 many had exposures 400 times the maximum annual radiation exposure recommended for workers in the nuclear industry. The rate of thyroid cancer among children in the Ukraine is now 10 times the pre-Chernobyl levels. Chromosome mutations have been detected in the cells of many people who resided near Chernobyl at the time of the accident, and birth defects in the population have increased significantly.

Cancer Surveillance And Prevention

Recently the American Cancer Society issued new guidelines for breast screening based on level of risk (89). These recommendations include annual screening with MRI as an adjunct to mammography for women with a 20 to 25 lifetime breast cancer risk, based on evidence accumulated from prospective trials of BRCA mutation carriers, and Expert Consensus Opinion for LFS. The BRCA studies indicated an increased sensitivity, but reduced specificity, for MRI as compared with mammography. Importantly, fewer interval cancers occurred in the annual MRI screening groups. The recommended age to begin MRI and mammography screening was 30 years, although it was noted that consideration should be given to individual factors such as age of breast cancer diagnosis in the family. The use of MRI is particularly appealing for LFS patients, given the previously cited concerns regarding radiation exposure.

Risks of Radiological Procedures

The terrifying experiences of the early x-ray pioneers, some of their patients, and the victims of Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Chernobyl demonstrate the risks of exposure to large doses of ionizing radiation with dire clarity. However, the number of human beings who have been helped by the use of radiation in diagnosis and therapy exceeds that of the victims by several orders of magnitude. The injuries that can be induced by the normal procedures in diagnostic radiology are less frequent and less severe than those that occur in the course of other routine medical therapies (for example, drug intoxications) or other diagnostic procedures (for example, pancreatitis after ERCP). All the same, many patients continue to feel uneasy about x rays. They need to be comforted with truthful information, and we need to strive to limit the use of diagnostic ionizing radiation to proper indications.

Microwave Coagulation Therapy

Microwave coagulation therapy (MCT) uses dithermic heat energy to cause thermal coagula-tive necrosis. MCT utilizes a much higher frequency electromagnetic field. Polarization of water molecules in the alternating electromagnetic field leads to heating of intracellular water. The higher frequency energy allows for more localized energy but, as is the problem with other thermal techniques, causes reduction in tissue penetration. The therapy can be delivered during laparotomy, laparoscopy, or by a percutaneous approach.

Environment as determinant of i genotype and ii disease

Second, the environment presents many exposures that directly alter the probability of occurrence of various diseases. Ionizing radiation contributes to the risks of breast cancer and leukemia. Asbestos causes asbestosis and mesothelioma. Environmental tobacco smoke increases the risks of lung cancer and coronary heart disease. Heavy metals induce various forms of organ dysfunction, for example, environmental lead exposure in early childhood impairs neurocogni-tive development. Patterns of exposure to various antigens in early childhood influence the maturation path of the young immune system, and also

Posttranslational regulation signaling of DNA damage

Conventional NMR Spectroscopy

Solution state NMR spectroscopy is the study of molecules by recording the interaction of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation with the nuclei of molecules in solution when placed in a strong magnetic field. The circulation of electrons around nuclei in different electronic environments creates local magnetic environments. These local magnetic fields give rise to characteristic chemical shifts suitable for functional group identification. Moreover, the presence of coupling between pairs of nuclei extending over 1-3 bonds establishes the connectivity between atoms and provides a powerful tool for structural elucidation including stereochemical information. However, the quantum basis of NMR, first described in 1946 by Bloch and Pur-cell (awarded a Nobel prize in 1952), is beyond the scope of this review. The interested reader is referred to several excellent textbooks on the principles of NMR 20, 21 . Here, the pivotal features that pertain to toxicology are presented in Table 8.1....

Progress Toward Identifying Common Lowpenetrance Alleles

Perhaps the only confirmed low-penetrance breast cancer susceptibility allele identified to date is the 1100delc variant in CHEK2. CHEK2 encodes a G2 checkpoint kinase that plays a critical role in DNA damage repair. It is the human ortholog of the yeast Cdsl and Rad53 G2 checkpoint kinases (19). Activation of these proteins in response to DNA damage prevents cellular entry into mitosis. In mammalian cells, activation of CHEK2 in response to ionizing radiation is regulated through phosphorylation by ATM (20). Activated CHEK2 phosphorylates critical cell-cycle proteins, including p53, Cdc25C, Cdc25A, and BRCA1, promoting cell-cycle arrest and activation of DNA repair (21-24).

Introduction And Epidemiology

For the majority of patients in whom a meningioma develops, the etiology remains unclear 1-3,6,7 . Potential etiologic factors that have been investigated include radiation exposure, cranial trauma, viruses, hormonal stimulation, and molecular genetic events. The most consistently documented etiological factor appears to be prior cranial radiation exposure. Meningiomas have been shown to be induced by low- and high-dose irradiation 6,7,9,10 . To meet the criteria for a radiation-induced tumor, the mass must occur within the irradiated field, develop after a period of latency following irradiation (e.g., 20-30 years), and be histologically different from any preexisting neoplasm in the region. Children treated with

Types of Radiation Delivered

The radiation doses delivered to tumor and normal tissues during BNCT result from energy deposition from three types of directly ionizing radiation that differ in their LET characteristics (1) low-LET y rays, resulting primarily from the capture ofthermal neutrons by normal tissue hydrogen atoms 1H(n,Y)2H (2) high-LET protons, produced by the scattering of fast neutrons and from the capture of thermal neutrons by nitrogen atoms 10N(n,p)14C and (3) high-LET, heavier charged alpha particles (stripped down 4He nuclei) and lithium-7 ions. These are released as products of the thermal neutron capture and fission reactions with 10B 10B(n,a)7Li . The greater density of ionizations along tracks of high-LET particles results in an increased biological effect compared to the same physical dose of low-LET radiation. This usually is referred to as relative biological effectiveness (RBE), which is the ratio of the absorbed dose from a reference source of radiation (e.g., X-rays) to that of the...

Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Fig. 6.3 Tandem in time MS systems implemented as (a) 3D ion trap or (b) 2D (linear) ion trap. In the central part of these analyzers, the ions are trapped, selectively fragmented, and mass-analyzed by dynamic electromagnetic fields in the presence of a mediator collision gas (mostly He). Fig. 6.3 Tandem in time MS systems implemented as (a) 3D ion trap or (b) 2D (linear) ion trap. In the central part of these analyzers, the ions are trapped, selectively fragmented, and mass-analyzed by dynamic electromagnetic fields in the presence of a mediator collision gas (mostly He).

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Sures the absorbance of radio frequency electromagnetic energy by certain atomic nuclei. NMR-active isotopes of biologically relevant atoms include H, 13C, 15N, and 31P. The frequency, or chemical shift, at which a particular nucleus absorbs energy is a function of both the functional group within which it resides and the proximity of other NMR-active nuclei. Two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy permits a three-dimensional representation of a protein to be constructed by determining the proximity of these nuclei to one another. NMR spectroscopy analyzes proteins in aqueous solution, obviating the need to form crystals. It thus is possible to observe changes in conformation that accompany lig-and binding or catalysis using NMR spectroscopy. However, only the spectra of relatively small proteins, < 20 kDa in size, can be analyzed with current technology.

Component Reference Methods

Total body potassium can also be measured using dilution of the radioactive isotope 42K (7). This method is useful in specialized whole-body counter calibration studies, but has no practical application in the study of human obesity. The 12.4-hr half-life of 42K and the radiation exposure involved preclude the routine use of

The Genotoxic Mechanism

Growth Factor-Induced Cell Proliferation. Hormones. Rodent thyroid follicular cell tumor in contrast to human thyroid tumors that are mostly induced by ionizing radiation, thyroid follicular cell tumors in rodents are induced by genotoxic or nongenotoxic carcinogens. Several nongenotoxic chemicals (such as perchlorate, thiorueas, lithium, lupiditine) are known to perturb the balance of the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in rodents. These chemicals are referred to as goitrogens and their modes of action are different. They may deplete iodine accumulation by inhibiting iodine trapping in the thyroid or by blocking binding of iodine and coupling of iodothyronine to form thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Alternately, they may inhibit thyroid hormone secretion by pro-teolysis or enhance metabolism of thyroxine by inducing liver metabolic enzymes (78). Disruption of thyroxine function activates the pituitary-thyroid feedback mechanism, which increases the production of TSH. An increase...

Conventional Methodologies

Comparison to the heart's total surface area. Thus, to obtain adequate electrical activity for activation patterns, it often dictates the placement of multiple catheters at numerous locations within the chamber of interest, which in turn requires a considerable amount of time this also leads to extensive use of fluo-roscopy, hence exposing the medical staff and patients to undesirable levels of ionizing radiation (15). Second, and perhaps more important, fluoroscopy does not sufficiently allow for the visualization of the complex 3D cardiac anatomy and or soft tissue characteristics of the heart's chambers (Fig. 1).

Loss of Chromosome 5 or del5q

In primary MDS, abnormalities of chromosome 5 are observed in the 5q- syndrome (described below) or, more commonly, in RAEB 1, 2 of the WHO classification in association with a complex karyotype. Clinically, the patients with del(5q) coupled with other cyto-genetic abnormalities have a poor prognosis with early progression to leukemia, resistance to treatment, and short survival. Abnormalities of 5q are associated with previous exposure to standard and high dose alkylating agent therapy, including use in immunosuppressive regimens (Aul et al. 1998 Larson et al. 1996 McCarthy et al. 1998 Pedersen-Bjergaard et al. 2000). A role for exposure to benzene (Hayes et al. 1997) as well as therapeutic ionizing radiation (Fenaux et al. 1989 Rowley and Olney 2002) as risks for MDS is emerging.

Biomedical Importance

The genetic information in the DNA of a chromosome can be transmitted by exact replication or it can be exchanged by a number of processes, including crossing over, recombination, transposition, and conversion. These provide a means of ensuring adaptability and diversity for the organism but, when these processes go awry, can also result in disease. A number of enzyme systems are involved in DNA replication, alteration, and repair. Mutations are due to a change in the base sequence of DNA and may result from the faulty replication, movement, or repair of DNA and occur with a frequency of about one in every 106 cell divisions. Abnormalities in gene products (either in protein function or amount) can be the result of mutations that occur in coding or regulatory-region DNA. A mutation in a germ cell will be transmitted to offspring (so-called vertical transmission of hereditary disease). A number of factors, including viruses, chemicals, ultraviolet light, and ionizing radiation,...

Specific Occupations And Parkinsonism

Occupational exposure to magnetic fields may be a risk factor for PD (70). A death certificate (population-based) case-control study in Colorado, U.S.A. utilizing a tiered exposure matrix found an adjusted odds ratio of 1.76 for PD subjects exposed to magnetic fields. Occupations included in this study were electronic technicians and engineers, repairers of electronic equipment, telephone and telephone line installers and repairers, electric power installers and repairers, supervisors of electricians and power transmission installers, power plant operators, motion picture projectionists, broadcast equipment operators, and electricians (70). Another study of electrical workers in a similar group of occupations found a nonsignificant, elevated odds ratio of 1.1 for PD compared to controls, but the study lacked power (71).

Multiple Myeloma 21 Epidemiology

Hematologic malignancies.6 A declining immune system and increased accumulation of certain chemicals and toxins, such as herbicides, insecticides, asbestosis, and rubber, plastic, wood, or petroleum products, may increase susceptibility among older individuals or people with increased occupational exposure.11,12 Radiation exposure from the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or occupation related in nuclear plant workers or radiologists also increases the risk.13

Adenosine Deaminase Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency

Unlike the end products of purine catabolism, those of pyrimidine catabolism are highly water-soluble CO2, NH3, P-alanine, and P-aminoisobutyrate (Figure 34-9). Excretion of P-aminoisobutyrate increases in leukemia and severe x-ray radiation exposure due to increased destruction of DNA. However, many persons of Chinese or Japanese ancestry routinely excrete P-aminoisobutyrate. Humans probably transaminate P-aminoisobutyrate to methylmalonate semialdehyde, which then forms succinyl-CoA (Figure 19-2).

Pet Experimental Design And Data Analysis

The range of experimental design strategies for PET is limited by the physical constraints associated with delivering and measuring radioisotopes. At a minimum, 150 studies involve an aggregation of activity occurring over 30 seconds or more, and for metabolism and neurotransmitter studies the aggregation covers 20 to 60 minutes. This temporal resolution precludes event-related types of designs and makes it difficult to dissociate the different processes involved in a task. The total number of radiotracer injections (and hence scans) is limited by radiation exposure and the need to allow previously administered radiotracers to decay substantially before starting the next scan (this takes hours for nC and 18F and about 8 to 10 minutes for 150). With 150, one is typically limited to about 12 scans in a 2-hour scanning session, and with 18F and nC, one is typically limited to 2 to 4 scans (usually scheduled on different days because the subjects would need to spend hours waiting for the...

The main imaging techniques (MRI, CT, DEXA) differentiate tissues on the basis of density. Single-slice measurements of the abdomen and extremities (subcutaneous adipose tissue SAT, visceral adipose tissue VAT) and more complex three-dimensional reconstructions have been used to calculate regional or total body fat. Limitations of these methods include most notably their expense, availability and radiation exposure (CT). Consequently, CT and MRI should only be considered in routine clinical practice for selected patients (e.g. extended dorso-cervical fat pads, differential diagnosis of non-benign processes and infections).

Endometriosis in captive colonies of female rhesus monkeys can occur in relatively high incidence ( 26 ). The causes of endometriosis appear to be varied and range from surgery to radiation exposure (Fanton and Golden, 1991). One of the major issues of endometriosis, especially in rhesus macaques, is diagnosis at a treatable stage of the disease. As observed by a number of laboratories, endometriosis is difficult to diagnose until relatively advanced (Rippy et al., 1996). Use of indicators, such as plasma levels of CA-125, have been examined as a possible indicator of endometriosis (Rippy et al., 1996). The condition is accompanied by lesions, cyst formation, adhesions to organs, anorexia, and abdominal masses

Most cases of leukemia are sporadic with no identifiable cause. Certainly, exposure to ionizing radiation and other carcinogens such as certain chemotherapeutic agents can be implicated in some cases. Many recurring genetic lesions have been described that result in the disruption of normal regulatory pathways. Autonomous proliferation may occur as a result of activating mutations. Increased self-renewal, loss of cell-cycle control, escape from apoptosis, and a block of cellular differentiation have all been reported (8). Acute promyelocytic leukemia (AML M3), which frequently presents with a low white blood cell (WBC) count and evidence, either laboratory, clinical, or both, of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), is associated with the t(15 17) in most cases. The resulting fusion transcript promyelocytic leukemia-retioic acid receptor alpha (PML-RARa) predicts responsiveness to all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), which has been used along with chemotherapy to manage this...

HERKinase EGFR Axis

Radiation exposure causes phosphorylation and activation of EGFR as if by ligand, which results in activation of downstream kinases that inhibit apoptotic response (e.g., MAPK, Akt). In addition, Rao and colleagues have shown that transfection of human glioma cell lines with dominant negative EGFR mutants causes radiosensitization (4). Inhibition of EGFR by C225 anti-EGFR MAb or by CI-1033 tyrosine kinase inhibitor also sensitizes cells to radiation (4).

In addition to the inherent processes that destabilize emulsions, other factors may be involved. Storage temperature has been shown to affect emulsion product stability. Generally, elevated temperatures result in destabilization, while reduced temperatures improve emulsion stability. Aqueous-phase evaporation may also contribute to instability over the life of a product. Microbial contamination can also cause a breakdown of emulsion stability. Finally, chemical reactions within the emulsion can lead to a change in the stability of the emulsion. While these types of reactions can be initiated by temperature increases, they can also be prompted by UV light or other types of electromagnetic radiation.

Family history of breast cancer in a first degree relative and history of benign breast disease also increase the risk of breast cancer. The use of estrogen replacement therapy or oral contraceptives slightly increases the risk of breast cancer. Radiation exposure and alcoholic beverage consumption also increase the risk of breast cancer.

Since mutations occur in the natural process of DNA replication, how shall we define mutagens It would be strange to define the natural replication of DNA as mutagenic. Thus we will define mutagens as factors that increase the rate of mutation over and above that of the spontaneous mutation rate. Two categories of mutagens will be discussed. One is electromagnetic radiation and the other comprises various chemicals. First, let us look at electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation ranges from radio waves to X rays and gamma rays. Our eyes see just a small portion of this spectrum, the visible wavelengths of light. Microwaves are used in microwave ovens, while infrared radiation can be thought of as heat waves. These two types of electromagnetic radiation are not mutagenic. Electromagnetic waves shorter than visible light, including UV, or ultraviolet rays, gamma rays, and X rays are mutagenic they increase the mutation rate above the spontaneous rate.

Concepts Summary

Mutations and DNA damage are not only the result of exposure to exogenous carcinogens. Endogenous DNA-damaging agents result in a background level of damage (6-8). Table 2 gives some examples. The endogenous part can be subdivided into chemical and biochemical processes, and it includes the consequences of oxygen stress. The exogenous sources have been subdivided according to the question of avoidability rather than type. Numerous exogenous sources can hardly be eliminated. Physical carcinogens, such as UV and ionizing radiation, have for a long time been accepted to result in a background DNA damage. Accordingly, exposure standards at the workplace have been set in relation to a background dose. For chemical carcinogens, this has not been done. The idea prevailed that chemically induced DNA damage could be avoided if it were possible to exclude exposure to exogenous carcinogens. On this basis, exposure standards for exogenous genotoxic carcinogens were often set to 0 (i.e., the...

Causes of stress

US is universally the most widely available imaging modality for screening of liver masses or obstructive jaundice. It is noninvasive, quick, portable, and relatively inexpensive, and it uses no ionizing radiation. The most significant advances in abdominal US are harmonic imaging and the use of intravenous contrast agents to characterize and detect lesions in the liver (Leifer et al, 2000). Analysis of image quality has shown that sonograms obtained with the harmonic imaging technique are significantly better than those obtained with the conventional B-mode technique, and most investigators have recommended routine use of harmonic imaging for abdominal US studies, especially in adult patients. In experienced hands, US can accurately distinguish a benign or insignificant lesion, such as a cyst or cavernous hemangioma, from a malignant lesion, such as a hepatic metastasis or a hepatocellular carcinoma (Wilson et al, 2000). Harmonic imaging has significantly enhanced the uses of...

Dose Escalation

There has been significant interest in the use of halogenated pyrimidines, bromodeoxyuridine (BudR) and iododeoxyuridine (IudR) as radiosensitizers. The incorporation ofthese compounds into DNA of rapidly dividing cells weakens the DNA structure and makes it mores susceptible to ionizing radiation. Gliomas represent an ideal target for the study of such radiosensitizers because highly proliferating tumor cells are surrounded by nonproliferating normal brain tissue that shows little to no DNA incorporation of the halogenated pyrimidines. Radiosensitizers are only effective in cells that take up the Brachytherapy. Brachytherapy involves insertion of permanent or temporary radioactive sources within tumor harboring tissues. One of the advantages of brachytherapy is the rapid reduction in dose that allows higher doses to be delivered to high-risk areas while minimizing radiation exposure to surrounding normal tissues. It has been used as a method for dose...

General Precautions

Reducing time, increasing distance, and using shields are methods to reduce radiation exposure. Keeping the time of exposure at a minimum is the principal method of dose reduction for autopsy personnel. Extremity distance can be achieved through the use of long-handled instruments. Shielding with a radiology lead apron (0.5 mm lead equivalent thickness) would provide some protection for gamma radiation from 99mTc and 125I but would do little for highly penetrating gamma rays from 103Pd, 131I, 182Ta, and 198Au. Common barrier protection as determined by consensus standards (6) includes numerous items that minimize external radiation exposure from beta-emitting radioisotopes (when body cavities are opened) and assist in the prevention of personal contamination. These include double-gloves, hair covers, long-sleeved jump suits that are fluid resistant, foot covers, and facial protection (splash guards). Any wound sustained during procedures on a radioactive body should be attended...

Precautions designed to reduce radiation exposure of employees included the use of personal protective equipment, limiting personnel time (20-min rotations), instructing staff to maintain increased distance from the cadaver when feasible, and general methods to reduce room contamination. When this was tested, employees other than the lead pathologist received a maximum of 13 mrem to the whole body and 59 mrem to the hand (9). Radiation Exposure Rates From Radioactive Implants Radiation Exposure Rates From Radioactive Implants

Hazard Types

Radiation exposure limits for members of the general public have been determined by federal regulatory agencies and radiation protection consensus groups (4,5). Individuals who are infrequently exposed to sources of radiation, for example, funeral home directors, are allowed to receive 100 mrem whole body annually. Individuals who are frequently exposed may receive 500 mrem whole body annually. Hands are relatively insensitive to radiation and therefore have a recommended annual limit of 5,000 mrem.

Energy therapies

Energy therapies is a collective term used to refer to a variety of alternative and complementary treatments based on the use, modification, or manipulation of energy fields. Most energy therapies presuppose or accept the theory that matter and energy are not exclusive opposites, but that matter is simply a denser form of energy that is more easily perceived by the senses. Some energy therapies are associated with systems of traditional Indian or Chinese medicine that are thousands of years old others draw upon contemporary scientific theories. Energy therapies can be divided for purposes of discussion into two groups those that utilize energy fields located in, affecting, or emanating from the human body (biofield therapies) and those that use electromagnetic fields in unconventional ways. In addition, there are energy therapies that combine biofield therapy with some aspects of bodywork Breema, polarity therapy, and qigong are examples of this combined approach.

Technology has provided us with both a safer, more nutritious food supply and purified water sources. Tampering or malfunction of these processes may alter their quality with the potential for widespread outbreak of food-borne or waterborne disease. Care of these patients should focus on hydration and antibiotic therapy in certain instances. Trichothecene mycotoxicoses may be of natural or artificial origin with a clinical presentation consistent with vesicant or radiation exposure. Treatment for these cases is supportive. Decontamination of equipment status post any food or waterborne outbreak requires special attention.

Nuclear Agents

A Radiation Dispersal Device is more commonly known as the dirty bomb. A dirty bomb combines a conventional explosive, such as dynamite, with radioactive material. The conventional explosive itself would cause more casualties than the radioactive material. At the levels created by most probable sources, not enough radiation would be present in a dirty bomb to kill people or cause severe illness. However, the detection of radiation after an overt terrorist attack would lead to the development of panic and probably require decontamination or evacuation of the affected urban area with considerable disruption. A second use would be to hide a strong radiation source in a public place, exposing persons to radiation until it was detected. For further details, please chapter 40 on Nuclear Detonation Ionizing Radiation Exposure.

In 1927, Herman Muller demonstrated that mutations in fruit flies could be induced by X-rays. The results of subsequent studies showed that X-rays greatly increase mutation rates in all organisms. The high energies of X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays (< Figure 17.23) are all capable of penetrating tissues and damaging DNA. These forms of radiation, called ionizing radiation, dislodge electrons from the atoms that they encounter, changing stable molecules into free radicals and reactive ions, which then alter the structures of bases and break phosphodiester 17.23 In the electromagnetic spectrum, as wavelength decreases, energy increases. (Adapted from Life 6e, figure 8.5).

Risk Factors

Research into the etiology and possible contributing causes of gliomas is ongoing, but is hindered by many factors including the relative rarity of the disease and rapid death of patients with aggressive subtypes. As such, studies to date have revealed little with regard to specific causal factors. High-dose therapeutic ionizing radiation to the head, administered for benign conditions or for cancer treatment, has been shown to increase the risk of glioma as well as meningioma and nerve sheath tumors (9).

Still, a useful iUS system is attractive because it has a lower price tag than iMRI or iCT. Also, ionizing radiation would not be used, and room shielding or instrument modification would not be needed. As a result, investigation of iUS imaging and navigation technology continues 14 .

Intraoperative Ct

Digital imaging in the neurosurgical OR was first done using CT, where a dedicated unit was installed at the University of Pittsburgh 11 . In general, CT scanners are less expensive than MRI units, but acceptance of this technology has been limited by several factors. These include the lower soft tissue contrast compared to MRI, bone hardening artifact in the posterior fossa, the use of ionizing radiation, and likely need for a dedicated technologist to operate the system. Nonetheless, the rapid scan times and the potential applications for spine surgery make iCT potentially useful, and investigators have continued to evaluate its use 12 .