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The Guatemalan Black Iguana (Ctenosaura palearis) is one of five species of Spiny-tailed Iguanas found in Guatemala.

Ecology and Traditional Use of the Guatemalan Black Iguana (Ctenosaura palearis) in the Dry Forests of the Motagua Valley, Guatemala
Paola Cotí1 and Daniel Ariano-Sánchez2
1 Biology Department, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala ( and Conservation Projects Direction, Zootropic Organization (; 2 Research

Photographs by the authors.

he Semiarid Region of the Motagua Valley (SRMV) is one of the few regions of Mesoamerica in which the unique tropical dry forest and thorn scrub ecosystem still remains. One of the principal characteristics of this region is the presence of many endemic species (Nájera 2006), such as the Guatemalan Black Iguana (Ctenosaura palearis). The genus Ctenosaura is represented by five species in Guatemala: C. alfredschmidti (northern Guatemala), C. flavidorsalis (eastern Guatemala), C. similis

(general distribution), C. acanthura (Nentón Valley), and C. palearis (Köhler 2003, Acevedo 2006). Ctenosaura palearis was described by Stejneger in 1899. Since then, few studies have addressed the species. Buckley and Axtell (1997) studied populations of C. palearis in Guatemala and Honduras, and described the Honduran population as Ctenosaura melanosterna. Ctenosaura palearis is believed to have a total distribution range of less than 100 km2. Total population size is unknown, but may consist of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals in the wild (Köhler 2004). The males of this species have been reported to attain a total length of 56.5 cm, and the females 48.5 cm (Köhler 2003). Ctenosaura palearis is included in the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered (CR), but the lack of ecological information makes developing conservation strategies difficult. To facilitate that process, we herein describe some ecological aspects and traditional uses of the Guatemalan Black Iguana in the dry forest of the Motagua Valley. Material and Methods The SRMV is located in northeastern Guatemala. This region has the lowest average rainfall in Central America (500 mm) and comprises an area of about 200,000 ha, covering portions of the departments of El Progreso, Zacapa, and Chiquimula. Fieldwork was conducted in the mountains of El Arenal Village, Cabañas, and Zacapa. Cabañas is located 150 km from Guatemala City at the geographic coordinates 14º56’32” N and 89º48’24.9” W. The vegetation in this area is composed mainly of Mimosaceae, Cactaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Burseraceae. Representative species include Zacapan Oak (Bucida macrostachya), Quebracho (Licania hypoleuca), Palo de Jiote (Bursera simaruba), Yaje (Leucaena sp.), Zarza Blanca (Mimosa platycarpa), Manzanote (Pereskia autumnalis), Cactus Cabeza de Viejo (Pilosocereus albocephalus), Stenocereus spp., Subín (Acacia spadicigera), Opuntia sp., Naranjillo (Jacquinia spp.), and Piña de Coche (Hechtia guatemalensis) (ArianoSánchez 2003).

Hatchling Ctenosaura palearis observed in June 2007.

To determine the actual use of C. palearis by local villagers, we visited different areas of the Motagua Valley and surveyed inhabitants of the local communities. We used the quadrant point method to determine if iguanas select any particular microhabitat. The quadrants were established in areas with known iguana shelters and each one was assigned a random replicate in a zone without known shelters. The location of random replicates was determined by using a computerized random number generator. Quadrants were 10 x 10 m in size and centered on the iguana shelter. In the random quadrants, the largest tree in the quadrant was designated as the center. Quadrants were oriented from north to south. We measured tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH). A Wilcoxon test was used to evaluate differences in DBH and tree height within areas with and without iguana shelters. We used JMP version 5 (SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina) for statistical analyses. The general location, exact position, and date were recorded for each iguana captured. Each iguana also was weighed and the following measurements were taken: snoutvent length (SVL), tail length (TL), head length, head width, and total length. We used a mark-recapture technique to determine the population size in the study area, using the Jolly (1965) method. Captures took place from May 2007 to March 2008. Iguanas were marked with bead tags (Binns and Burton 2007), using seven different colored beads in a unique identification code. The sequence for each iguana was recorded for the next capture. Also, we permanently marked each individual with PIT Tags, using AVID microchips. To evaluate feeding habits, we collected fecal samples and stored them in 80% propanol. Contents of the samples were classified and identified using reference collections of plants and insects. We also considered direct observations of animals eating. Results Traditional Use A large percentage (88%) of the people surveyed indicated that they had eaten iguanas in the past, but only 38.6% of them eat them currently. No preferred hunting season exists, but some people hunted preferentially in February–April during the egglaying season. The number of iguanas killed ranged from two to five and as high as 60, depending on whether hunting is for consumption or trade. Twenty percent of people who make personal use of iguanas use them strictly for meat, 58% use the meat and egg yolks, and 22% use the meat, egg yolks, and skin. Locals have a marked preference for the consumption of C. palearis meat over that of C. similis. The Guatemalan Black Iguana is not used for any traditional handicrafts because of its small size. Hunting is the primary method for obtaining iguanas (84%); some people buy iguanas (8%) or combine both methods (8%). Iguanas are hunted primarily for food for local families; however, we detected two areas in the department of El Progreso where C. palearis is hunted for the illegal pet trade. Local people will collect 60 or more animals and sell them to random buyers who then sell them to international illegal traders. Guatemalan Black Iguanas, especially soup made from their meat, are believed to have medicinal properties. People say it is used to heal eye problems and cancer (especially if the meat is

The dry forests of El Arenal Village in the Motagua Valley of Guatemala.

consumed), and the fat is used to relieve swellings and for healing earaches. Habitat Characterization Using 22 quadrants and their respective replicates, we sampled a total of 6,400 m2 (0.64 ha). Trees in quadrants with C. palearis shelters are significantly larger (P = 0.0002) and taller (P = 0.0001) than trees in the replicates. Mean DBH of tree in areas with C. palearis shelters was 8.84 ± 6.68 cm, whereas those in the randomly chosen areas had a mean DBH of 7.84 ± 6.37 cm. Tree height averaged 4.96 ± 2.5 m in areas with C. palearis shelters, whereas mean height in replicate quadrants was 4.53 ± 2.5 m. The range of C. palearis included areas of dry forest and thorn scrub at elevations of 350–700 m above sea level. The predominant species in areas with iguanas were tree cacti (Stenocereus pruinosus, Ximena americana, Tecoma stans, and Licania hypoleuca). For randomly defined replicates, predominant species were Bucida macrostachya, Mimosa zacapana, Lonchocarpus rugosus, Psidium sp., and Stenmadenia obovata. Population Size and Habitat Use We captured 70 individuals (36 males and 34 females). The estimated total population size for the study area was 99 individuals. Maximum estimated population size for the entire study site (3,000 ha) was 651 individuals with a 95% level of confidence. This works out to an average density of one individual every 1.69 ha. Most iguanas were found in trees, confirming that this species is primarily arboreal. The tree cactus Stenocereus pruinosus was the species most frequently used by C. palearis (N = 33), followed by L. hypoleuca (N = 4), T. stans (N = 5), X. americana (N = 3), and a few other species selected only once. Three individuals used fallen logs. Actual shelters were usually hollow trunks or branches. Iguanas in shelters used their spiny tails to block the entrances. Lizards leave shelters as daytime temperatures rise. During the day, they use the crowns of trees and the highest parts of cacti for basking and displaying. They return to their shelters at 1600–1700 h. Individuals demonstrate fidelity to a set of shelters, which are used as refugia. One adult male used five shelters covering an area of 475 m2 (0.047 ha). A juvenile male used two sites

Hollow tree stumps and branches used by Ctenosaura palearis.

within a distance of 200 m. Two females were recorded making use of only two shelters. Feeding Habits We examined 19 fecal samples (9 from females and 11 from males). The diet consists mainly of insects (47.83%) and plant material such as flowers (15.37%), fruits (7.69%,), and leaves (26.92%). The most frequently represented insects were ants (19%) and crickets (15.38%). One fecal sample contained large numbers of fly larvae that may have been ingested adventitiously with fruit. Species recognized in the plant material were leaves of Licania hypoleuca, flowers of Cochlospermum vitifolium, and the fruits and seeds of Stenocereus pruinosus. We also found stones and resin. We frequently have seen C. palearis feeding on fruits of S. pruinosus. Faces and forelimbs colored by the red pigment of this

A male Ctenosaura palearis on the branch of a Timboque tree (Tecoma stans) displays his dewlap.

Biologist Paola Coti with her first-ever captured Ctenosaura palearis. The male in the photo was the first marked with PIT tags for the project.

cactus fruit are a common site. We captured three individuals with evidence of residual pulp and seeds stuck to their faces. These fruits are available from March through early May. Food varied by season. The samples from May to September were composed mainly of leaves, fibers, and ants. In contrast, samples from November to December had smaller quantities of fiber and an increased number of leaf sprouts. Samples from February to March contained flowers, beetles, crickets, and ants (and other hymenopterans). Sample sizes were too small to determine if observed seasonal differences were significant.
Evidence of the feeding habits of Guatemalan Beaded Lizards (Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti). The crushed eggshell on the right was found inside the nest of an iguana. Also found in the same nest were skin remnants from a Guatemalan Beaded Lizard.

Reproduction Female C. palearis have an annual reproductive cycle. Copulation occurs during January and February, and gravid females are found in February and March. Females dig sand tun-

Searching for Ctenosaura palearis inside a hollow trunk using a bore scope funded by the San Diego Zoo.

nels in which they lay their eggs. Nests were in banks of dry streams and gullies and in sandy patches within the dry forest. Six to twelve eggs are deposited from late March to late April. Eggs begin hatching in late May, which coincides with the beginning of the rainy season. Both males and females lose weight during the reproductive season. We also found evidence that Guatemalan Beaded Lizards (Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti) are predators of C. palearis nests. Discussion Traditional Use Local villagers use C. palearis primarily as a protein source. The species is heavily hunted in some areas, especially during the breeding season when the killing of gravid females has a substantial impact on the survival and viability of wild populations. Although iguanas have been eaten by humans for many generations, the impact is exacerbated today by habitat loss, illegal trade, and non-sustainable hunting practices. Habitat loss is due primarily to the increasing amount of land used for watermelon cultivation and the construction of new residential zones

within the valley. Local people say they have seen a dramatic diminution in wild iguana populations compared to 20 years ago. Hunting of gravid female iguanas is non-sustainable. Animals are consumed or hunters make an incision to remove eggs, sew the iguanas up and let them go free. These individuals soon die in the wild from bacterial infections and internal hemorrhages. Illegal trade is proving to be a much more serious threat to the species than hunting. People who catch iguanas for meat usually catch six a month, while illegal traders often catch 50–60 iguanas a month. Web and market surveys have shown that this species is sold in countries such as Greece, Germany, and the United States for an average price of $25.00 per individual. All Ctenosaura palearis sold outside Guatemala are illegal, as governmental biodiversity authorities in Guatemala have not issued any export permit for this species (CONAP 2008). These factors seriously affect the viability of the extant populations of C. palearis. Subsistence hunting as currently practiced may cause long-term depletion of this species unless we develop a sustainable extraction plan accompanied by legislation that regulates the use of this species for such purposes. Farming iguanas may be a way of meeting the demand for iguana meat and eggs within the valley. The more important threat at this time is the illegal trade of this species on the international market. This may be diminished by incorporating C. palearis in Appendix II of the CITES convention. This iguana species certainly meets the criteria for inclusion. Habitat Characterization Habitat selection may be determined by the availability of food resources or the availability of trees providing suitable refugia and basking sites (Valenzuela 1981, Lara-Lopez and Gonzales 2002). Our results indicate that species composition, average height, and DBH of trees are important factors in habitat selection by C. palearis. The tallest trees provide appropriate sites for males’ territorial displays (Werner 1987). They also are used for thermoregulation. Trunk diameter is an important factor in shelter selection, mainly for the adults that require larger cavities for use as refugia. For example, in the cactus Stenocereus pruinosus, the species most frequently used by C. palearis as shelters, we have found

Evidence of the feeding habits of Ctenosaura palearis (from left to right): Fruits of the cactus Stenocerus pruinosus, iguana with seeds adhering to the throat, and fruit pulp of S. pruinosus staining the throat of another individual.

Researchers and the field vehicle (financed by the IRCF and Zoo Atlanta) used for the research project.

quently contribute to forest cover regeneration. Seeds of S. pruinosus have been found in the feces and also attached to the gular region of iguanas. Also significant is the fact that iguana eggs are an important food source for Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti (ArianoSánchez 2007). We have found a C. palearis nest with remnants of shredded Heloderma skin. The latter species is in extreme danger of extinction (Ariano-Sánchez 2006, Ariano-Sánchez and Salazar 2007). Therefore, maintaining a stable population of C. palearis might be important for conserving wild populations of H. horridum charlesbogerti. These data suggest that C. palearis might be a keystone species for the dry forests of the Motagua Valley (Mills et al. 1993). More detailed studies, especially on the diet of the iguana, are crucial in determining the role the species plays in seed dispersal and germination. Conservation Status The conservation status of C. palearis is better than previously believed. However, threats to this endemic species are increasing, making the development of conservation strategies an imperative. The promotion of sustainable hunting practices should become part of the existing program of environmental education conducted in the region. Nest monitoring and further research into the demographic status and the effectiveness of the Guatemalan Black Iguana as a keystone species are also important. Data from such studies will provide more information about the ecology of C. palearis and might allow us to develop an ecologically sustainable harvest for local villagers. Other techniques, such as radio-tracking, could significantly help scientists learn more about the activities of these ctenosaurs. No species of Ctenosaura is included in the CITES appendices. However, limited protection is provided by certain countries. For example, in Mexico, the majority of species of Ctenosaura are cataloged as threatened or under special protection (Alvarado and Suazo 1996). In Guatemala, C. palearis is considered a threatened species on the red list of endangered flora and fauna of the National Council of Protected Areas (CONAP). However, the lack of a regulatory entity for the international trade makes it difficult to control illicit commerce in this species. Inclusion in the CITES appendices would provide a tremendous impetus for the conservation of these animals, both nationally and internationally. However, if this position is not supported by the countries with native populations of ctenosaurs, the inclusion of the Guatemalan endemic Ctenosaura palearis in Appendix II of CITES could still contribute to diminishing the threat of commercial trade on international markets. Acknowledgments We thank Gilberto Salazar and Pedro Mejia for their invaluable field assistance. Zootropic, the International Reptile Conservation Foundation, and Zoo Atlanta provided financial and technical support for the present study. CONAP issued permits for the research. Special thanks to Luis Alvarado, John Binns, Brad Lock, Jack Schuster, Elfriede Pöll, Cesar Castañeda, Mario Véliz, and Doris Carbonell. The present paper is part of the Biology degree thesis of P. Cotí at Universidad del Valle de Guatemala.

females, subadult males, and juveniles. However, in Licania hypoleuca, which is thicker, we have found only adult males. The composition of the vegetation also predicts the presence of C. palearis. In areas where iguanas occur, the more abundant species were S. pruinosus, Ximena america, Tecoma stans, and L. hypoleuca. The first three species provide food and the last one offers shelters for adult males. Feeding Habits Ctenosaura palearis is omnivorous and this may be a function of the species’ size. Unlike other ctenosaurs, such as C. similis or C. pectinata, that are large enough to feed on small vertebrates (Krysko et al. 2000, Alvarez del Toro 1960, Campbell 1998, Suazo and Alvarado 1994, Valenzuela 1981), we have not found any vertebrate remains in the fecal samples of C. palearis. Fecal samples were taken only from adults, and these contained an abundance of insect remains. These data suggest that the consumption of arthropods corresponds to the dry season, when trees shed their leaves. At this time, adults must regain body mass lost during the breeding season, so the consumption of insects, flowers, and fruits contributes significantly to the rebuilding of body condition. Evidence from fecal samples indicates that ants are the insects most commonly ingested. Iguanas presumably take opportunistic advantage of the abundance of social insects that are associated with the trees in which they live, similar to other lizards that consume large numbers of ants (e.g., Phrynosoma spp. and Moloch horridus; Pianka and Pianka 1970, Pianka 1966). Alternately, ants may be inadvertently ingested with fruit. However, the great frequency and quantity of ants consumed is strongly suggestive of intentional consumption. Ecological Role of Ctenosaura palearis Iguanas are important pollinators and seed dispersers (Godínez 2004, Olsen and Valido 2003, Traveset and Riera 2005). Ctenosaura similis is one of the main seed dispersers for some plants in the deciduous forests of Costa Rica (Traveset 1990). Ctenosaura palearis is one of the most important species that feeds on fruits of the cactus S. pruinosus, suggesting that it could serve as a seed disperser of this endangered cactus, and conse-

IGUANA • VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3 • SEPTEMBER 2008 149 Stejneger, L.C. 1899. Description of a new species of spine-tailed iguana from Guatemala. Proceedings of the United States Natural History Museum 21:381–383. Traveset, A. 1990. Ctenosaura similis Gray (Iguanidae) as a seed disperser in a Central America deciduous forest. American Midland Naturalist 123:402–404 Traveset, A., and N. Riera. 2005. Disruption of a plant-lizard seed dispersal system and its ecological effects on a threatened endemic plant in the Balearic Island. Conservation Biology 19:421–431. Valenzuela, L.G. 1981. Contribución al conocimiento de la biología y ecología de Ctenosaura pectinata e Iguana iguana (Reptilia: Iguanidae) en la costa de Jalisco. Degree thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. Werner, D. 1987. Manejo de la iguana verde en el bosque tropical. Interciencia 12:226–229.

Literature cited
Acevedo, M. 2006. Anfibios y reptiles de Guatemala: Una breve síntesis con bibliografía. In: E. Cano (ed.), Biodiversidad de Guatemala. Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Álvarez del Toro, M. 1960. Los Reptiles de Chiapas. Instituto Zoológico del Estado Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, México. Ariano-Sánchez, D. 2003. Distribución e historia natural del Escorpión, Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti Campbell y Vannini, (Sauria: Helodermatidae) en Zacapa, Guatemala y caracterización de su veneno. Biology degree thesis, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. Ariano-Sánchez, D. 2006. The Guatemalan Beaded Lizard: Endangered inhabitant of a unique ecosystem. Iguana 13:178–183. Ariano-Sánchez, D. 2007. Distribución potencial, ámbitos de hogar y patrones de comportamiento del lagarto escorpión Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti (Sauria: Helodermatidae) con notas sobre el primer reporte de caso de envenenamiento por esta especie en Guatemala. Master of Science thesis, Universidad de Costa Rica. Ariano-Sánchez, D. and G. Salazar. 2007. Notes on the distribution of the endangered lizard, Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti, in the dry forests of eastern Guatemala: An application of multi-criteria evaluation to conservation. Iguana 14:152–158. Binns, J. and F. Burton. 2007. Beads Tags. International Reptile Conservation Foundation and Blue Iguana Recovery Program, USA. Buckley, L. and R.W. Axtell. 1997. Evidence for the specific status of the Honduran lizards formerly referred to Ctenosaura palearis (Reptilia: Squamata: Iguanidae). Copeia 1997:138–150. Campbell, J. 1998. Amphibians and Reptiles of Northern Guatemala, Yucatán and Belize. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. CONAP. 2008. Wildlife and CITES department database. Electronic data. Godínez, H. 2004. Pollination and seed dispersal by lizards: A review. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 77:569–577. Köhler, G. 2003. Reptiles de Guatemala. Herpeton, Frankfurt. Köhler, G. 2004. Ctenosaura palearis. In: IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <>. Krysko, K., F.W. King, K. Enge, and A. Reppas. 2000. Distribution of the introduced Black Spiny-tailed Iguana (Ctenosaura similis) in the southwestern coast of Florida. Biological Science 66:74–79. Lara-López, M.S. and A. Gonzáles. 2002. Alimentación de la iguana verde Iguana iguana (Squamata: Iguanidae) en La Mancha, Veracruz, México. Acta Zoológica Mexicana 85:139–152. Mills, S., M. Soule, and D. Doak. 1993. The keystone-species concept in ecology and conservation. Bioscience 43:219–225. Nájera, A. 2006. The conservation of thorn scrub and dry forest habitat in the Motagua Valley, Guatemala: Promoting the protection of a unique ecoregion. Iguana 13:185–191. Olsen, J. and A. Valido. 2003. Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: An island phenomenon. Ecology and Evolution 18:177–181. Pianka, E. 1966. Convexity, desert lizard, and spatial heterogeneity. Ecology 47:1055–1059. Pianka, E. and H. Pianka. 1970. The ecology of Moloch horridus (Lacertilia: Agamidae) in Western Australia. Copeia 1970:90–103. Scott, N.J. and S. Limerick. 1983. Reptiles and Amphibians. In: D. Janzen (ed.), Costa Rican Natural History. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. Suazo, O.I. and J. Alvarado. 1994. Iguana negra: Notas sobre su historia natural. Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Ecotonica, A.C.

Guatemala supports a phenomenally diverse flora and fauna, which we will feature in an upcoming issue. The Northern Tamandua (Tamandua mexicana) is a slow-moving anteater that inhabits the dry and tropical forests of Guatemala. It feeds exclusively on ants and termites. The prehensile tail is well-adapted to a semi-arboreal lifestyle, as are the claws, which also are used for defense and tearing open termite nests.


New Perspectives

We Are All Affected By A Past Life, And The Answer Is In Your DNA

Soul Dreams /

Have you ever felt, even for a second, that you've been reincarnated.

That there are certain memories, fears, dreams, and behaviors that you just can't explain.

For example, I'm a great swimmer, but I've always had a huge fear of drowning.

It's extremely hard to push that fear aside when I get in water, and I always wonder why I show signs of PTSD from something I've never experienced before.

If you're religious or spiritual, then you've definitely thought quite a bit about the soul.

The soul, or consciousness, is an essence that has boggled the minds of even the greatest scientists.

Many people believe these unexplained feelings come from their "old soul," which they believe to have been reincarnated once or many times.

If you're like me, and like to hear what science has to say about all this, there's actually scientific research explaining that memories can pass between generations.

These studies from a couple years ago will blow your mind...

Making Sense Of The Past

A 2016 study by Tel Aviv University found that stress and trauma can be passed from one generation to the next.

What's interesting is that memories can be passed down for several generations, meaning the memories of our ancestors are imprinted on our DNA.

By studying worms, these researchers were able to identify specific genes that can "produce and transmit" pertinent information "across generations."

"We previously showed that worms inherited small RNAs following the starvation and viral infections of their parents. These small RNAs helped prepare their offspring for similar hardships," lead author Oded Rechavi said.

In another study, researchers found that mice can also pass on learned information.

For example. rodents that have been trapped in a particular maze can transfer memories of what they've experienced so that their offspring don't have to start from scratch.

Isn't that mind-blowing! So what do these studies translate into for you?

What This All Means

If you can't seem to be able to explain certain memories or phobias, there's a chance that your ancestors, parents, or grandparents, have gone through those traumatic experiences.

Modern humans have learned quite a bit of their survival instincts from their ancestors, which has greatly shaped our genetic material.

So just how certain instincts, like the fear of spiders, is a defense mechanism, so can your irrational phobias.

The idea that humans can pass down memories can also explain how some people have a natural gift for something.

As more research is being done to understand genetic memory, the closer we'll get to better treating disorders like irrational phobias, anxiety, and PTSD.

Have you ever felt like you've been reincarnated?

Click here to read 15 signs that may hint that you have an "old soul."

[H/T: Science Daily / Hashem Al-Ghaili Facebook]


B Dominant 7 flat 9 chord intervals and notes
Intervals 1 - 3 - 5 - b7 - b9
Notes in B 7b9 B - D# (Eb) - F# (Gb) - A - C

B Dominant 7 flat 9 Chord Charts, Fingering, Voicings

Here are 6 voicings of the B7b9 guitar chord, with a chord chart to each voicings' fingering.

Chord learning tip 1.

Chord learning tip 2.


A food calorie is a unit of energy that you take on when consuming most food and drink. While for most people, we won't be counting each calorie, we can adjust your portions to manipulate how much energy you consume through food and expend through exercise.

We do this in accordance with the Law of Energy Balance.

In other words, and simply put:

- If you consume more calories than you burn off, you put on weight.
- If you burn off more calories than you consume, you lose your weight.
- If you roughly level your consumption and expenditure of calories, you stay the same weight.

This means that, typically speaking, you could burn off 400 calories in a workout and balance it out by eating 400 calories worth of ANY food source.

Obviously, the better the sources of food, the more additional nutritional benefit you will gain.

Its worth mentioning that some foods are more dense in calories than others (these tend to be, processed foods, but not always). For example, 100 calories worth of chocolate has much less volume than 100 calories worth of broccoli. This means that it will do less to throw off hunger.

Some sources of calories provide little to no nutritional benefit, these are known as 'empty calories' and are often seen in alcoholic beverages. Though they can provide mental and social benefits, they can slow down your results. That means reducing (not eliminating entirely) these calorie sources would be a positive step for a fat loss goal.

The majority of our clients monitor their intake through portion control. We look at increasing/decreasing portions as a means to achieving the desired effect. These portions are in relation to the size of your hands/palms etc, and are easy to assess by eye. This is ideal for those that have a hard time working with numbers and data tracking.

Other clients prefer a more accurate, detailed approach. This requires you to weigh, count and log your food as we will provide you with specific calorie and macronutrient requirements. This takes a bit more time and effort and requires a habit unto itself.

Both methods are equally effective, provided that the person following them is suited to that method. There is no better or worse - it depends on the client.

If you are very strict and disciplined, then you may prefer to work with specific numbers. However, if you cant imagine yourself realistically logging and weighing food, you are far better off working with portions. If in doubt, portion control is often ideal.


April 2012 home page

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Rich Simons | 11th Street

Q: What is your favorite way of relaxing? – b.a.

Certainly, after a long, hard day of solving all the world’s problems, I need to “unwind.” What I like best is to curl up in front of the old fireplace with a glass of chardonnay in my hand and something from one of my favorite authors, Allan Gottlieb – editor of the Puzzle Corner in MIT’s magazine Technology Review. His works are a constant source of comfort, as I think you will discover in the following excerpt:

“A medallion hangs from a 30-centimeter (weightless, frictionless, etc.) string that is attached asymmetrically to the wall, one end at (x,y) = (0,0), the other end at (15,-12) (coordinates are in centimeters). With the medallion at its equilibrium position, the string will form a lopsided V. Find the (x,y) coordinates of the point on the string from which the medallion hangs.“

In his more lyrical passages, his prose glides along like a series of high, puffy clouds:

“Suppose there are four dice: Blue, Green, Red, and White. These dice have different numbers than usual printed on their six faces. After observing a long sequence of experiments rolling pairs of these dice, you conclude the following:

- When both are rolled simultaneously, the blue die gives a higher number than the green die two-thirds of the time.
- When both are rolled simultaneously, the green die gives a higher number than the red die two-thirds of the time.
- When both are rolled simultaneously, the red die gives a higher number than the white die two-thirds of the time.

You are now asked to consider rolling the blue and white dice simultaneously. What can you conclude about the probability that the blue die will produce a higher value than the white one?”

But just when you have relaxed and think you know where his narrative is going, Gottlieb will challenge you to decipher his true intent:

“What size cube has the same number of square inches in its surface area as it has cubic inches in its volume? What about spheres?”
And send you on a search for even deeper meanings:
“How many integers from 1 to 100 can you form using the digits 2,0,1, and 3 exactly once each.; the operators +,-,x (multiplication), and / (division); and exponentiation? We seek solutions containing the minimum number of operators; among solutions having a given number of operators, those using the digits in the order 2,0,1,3 are preferred. Parentheses may be used; they do not count as operators. A leading minus sign, however, does count as an operator.”

So if it is a long evening of relaxation you are after, I can definitely recommend a roaring fire, a wine of your choice, and Gottlieb. You will be asleep in no time.


Appendix D: Sample Contractual Terms

The Physician’s Control of the Patient’s Medical Record

  1. The Parties acknowledge and agree that in order to ensure clarity in respect of the rights, responsibilities, and management of Medical Records, it is necessary to designate a Responsible Physician for each Patient. The Parties will cooperate in determining who shall be so designated. No Party may be so designated without their own prior knowledge and consent [and the Patient’s prior knowledge and consent].
  2. A Party is designated in the Patient’s Medical Record as the Responsible Physician for any Patient who that Party brings with him or her upon joining the Practice, unless otherwise instructed by the Patient.
  3. For new Patients, a Party shall be designated as a Patient’s Responsible Physician in accordance with the Patient’s consent indicated on the [as appropriate: Intake form or Patient file Opening form or in accordance with the Responsible Physician Policy attached as Schedule to the Agreement].
  4. The Responsible Physician has the right:
    1. to access to the Medical Record at any time;
    2. to authorize or refuse to authorize who may access their Patient’s Patient Information;
    3. to be given notice of any access, use, or disclosure of any Patient Information held by the Practice in any form whether in the Medical Record or otherwise, upon request;
    4. to require the Practice to transfer a complete copy of the Medical Record into the custody of the Responsible Physician, or to the custody of any third party as directed by the Responsible Physician; and
    5. [insert any other right as agreed ]
  5. The Responsible Physician shall cooperate with the Practice in promptly responding to a Patient’s request:
    1. for access to his or her Medical Record;
    2. for correction or notation of his or her Medical Record;
    3. for provision of a copy of the Medical Record or portion thereof to any third party;
    4. to designate another physician within the Practice as Responsible Physician for that Patient; or
    5. to transfer his or her Medical Record to another physician or clinic.
  6. In the event that a Party wishes terminate his or her designation as the Responsible Physician in respect of a Patient, he or she shall notify the Patient and provide the Practice [# days] written notice.
  7. In the event that a Party is unable to fulfill the obligations of the Responsible Physician due to illness, disability, or death, he or she shall, if reasonably possible, cooperate with the Practice and the other Parties to facilitate transfer of his Patients to his or her designated successor.


1. Understanding molecular mechanisms underlying breast cancer risk due to breast density.

Patients with “dense” breast tissue have a four- to six-fold increased risk of developing breast carcinomas.  In fact, 1/3 of all breast cancer cases are attributed to breast density, making it one of the greatest risk factors for carcinoma.  Increased breast density is associated with a significant increase in the deposition of connective tissue, or ECM components, most notably the protein, collagen.  We have been developing model systems to understand why increased breast density results in an increased risk for developing breast carcinoma.  We find in a simple in vitro model that increasing the density of collagen in the matrix is sufficient to disrupt breast epithelial differentiation, suggesting that matrix density is itself an important regulator of cellular behavior.  Additionally, we are employing a mouse strain engineered to have more collagen in its connective tissue.  We find evidence for changes in collagen organization, termed Tumor Associated Collagen Signatures (TACS), that occur during tumor progression.  We are investigating whether this signature can be developed as a tool to aid in diagnosing human breast carcinoma at an earlier stage.

2. Molecular signaling events related to cell interactions with the ECM.

3. Intravital Imaging to recognize cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions in a native environment

Our ability to understand cancer has been significantly enhanced by the techniques of multiphoton fluorescence excitation microscopy (MPM) and second harmonic generation imaging (SHG).  Applying these techniques using the rodent mammary imaging window allows us to study tumor formation, progression, and metastasis within single animals. Through the use of animal models that express extrinsic flourophores and the characterization of endogenous fluorescence we are able to identify specific cell types and examine the interplay between the immune system and cancer. The use of ported imaging windows allows access to the tumor microenvironment in vivo to characterize the collagen structure in normal glands and around tumors.  These procedures helps us better understand the physical relationship between cells and the collagen fibers found during breast cancer progression.

4. Inflammation and immunosuppressive signaling within the collagen dense tumor microenvironment
Our lab demonstrated that breast carcinoma is among several solid tumors in which it is clear there is a role for the extracellular matrix in tumor progression. Further investigation into mammary tumor progression identified several inflammatory signals and mediators of immunosuppression that are dramatically increased when tumors arise in a collagen dense microenvironment, including carcinoma associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and expression of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1).  It is well documented that CAFs can regulate the immune response within the tumor microenvironment by secreting multiple factors that either inhibit or enhance tumor growth. The cytokines found in the collagen dense tumor microenvironment activate CAFs toward an immunosuppressive phenotypeto subsequently enhance tumor progression. Thus, we seek to investigate collagen density in the breast tumor microenvironment as a predictive biomarker for immune therapy.


2010-09-20 09:48   来源：外语教育网       我要纠错 | 打印 | 收藏 | | |

　　1、On Responsibility 关于个人责任

　　As loyal Chinese citizens, we must have a strong sense of responsibility to our country. I t is our duty to keep China strong in the eyes of the world. Therefore, we should study and work hard for China’s strongness which also depends on the advanced science and technology. We must be willing to join the Army and defend our country, would we be threatened by an invader. In short, to be a responsible citizen ,we must put our country’s welfare above our own needs.

　　Finally, we must remember that we have a responsibility to the world we live in. It is important that we learn to live in peace with the other nations of the world and to protect our environment.If we carry out these responsibilities, we will be respected citizens of our country.

　　相关话题：守时，独立、乱刻乱划、信心的重要性、幽默感的重要性、能力与分数， 聪明与勤奋， 能力与长相、合作与竞争等对比性的文章、各种健康问题， 减肥等。

　　2、Motives 运动

　　Behind every daily activity lies a motive. Generally speaking, those who have good motives may succeed both in their career and life. For example, prominent men like scientists usually have very clear motives in fields they are exploring. Ordinary men like those young parents work hard to support families. Students study diligently either to rank the top in their class or to be prepared for future success. So holding positive motives will contribute to people leading a healthy and useful life.

　　Evil can also be a motive. The motive for obtaining money without hard work makes a pickpocket steal a purse. To fulfill his evil desire, a robber can grab others’ belongings, and a murderer can kill an innocent person. These wicked motives are the kind that people need to get rid of because they are harmful to other people and society.

　　But all good motives do not necessarily result in satisfactory outcomes. Some of them lead to bad ends. Actions should not be guided solely by a motive without any attention to effects. We often find people who tend to be good to others end up with the oppositeresults. It is those people who pay attention both to their motives and effects can achieve worthy goals.

　　3、Is the Spirit of Lei Feng out of Style 雷锋精神是否过时

　　There are some voices claiming Lei Feng’s spirit has gone out of style in today’s society. They reason that in commodity economy people should seek more practical things, such as fame, money and the comfortable life. To them nothing is more important than those things, which is often regarded as the views of the present generation.

　　There are some other voices claiming that the spirit of Lei Feng still has an enormous echo in millions of Chinese people. The great soldier’s story has such a strong influence on people’s ideas, values and ways of life that in every field of society there arise countless “Living Lei Fengs”, who follow the example of Lei Feng and serve the people heart and soul.

　　In my opinion, the spirit of Lei Feng will never be out of date. Instead, it has been brought forward. Today more and more “Lei Fengs” are coming forth from various circles among whom “Xu Hu” has already set a good example to the whole nation. The spirit of Lei Feng---anunselfish spirit will always encourage us to go forward.

　　4、Challenges 如何看待挑战

　　For thousands of years, people have accepted challenges in different fields. There are not only physical challenges, but also social and intellectual challenges. Some people risk their lives in playing sports to see how well they can do. Others try to make and invent something to make life easier. They all enjoy challenges.

　　Why do people enjoy these challenges? There are probably many reasons. One is curiosity. The other is the personal feeling of success, of achievement, and nowadays, for some people, it is a business.

　　Today, we still have many challengers before us. Medical science faces the challenges of conquering many diseases which still attack human beings. Engineers and planners must build new cities, design and produce new kinds of transportation. Scientists must develop new forms of energy. In short, we live in an age of challenges.

　　5、How to Face up to Your Difficulties 如何面对困难

　　Life is not always full of smiles and flowers. Every personhas his own difficulties no matter how high his position or how great his achievement is. So it is of vital importance to have a correct attitude to face up to difficulties.

　　Some people feel so dejected about their difficulties that they fall into pessimism; others resort to putting the blame on others, the society or circumstance; still others are frightened by difficulties and give up halfway. All these people don’t use their abilities to overcome difficulties. So their attitudes are negative.

　　 The positive method is to utilize your ability to clear away your difficulties that appear in your way of life rather than run away from them. Confront difficulties with joyful energy and enthusiasm , and you will find the difficulties are really not so hard as they appear and they will disappear in due course.

　　6、More Academic Pressure Does Harm to Health 过多压力是否有害健康

　　Some people think working under pressure keeps us motivated. Maybe a little pressure does good to us, but too much pressure is not beneficial to students.

　　Scientific studies show people working under too much pressure generally don’t perform as well as they do when are not under extreme pressure. Psychologically, too much pressure can lead to mental problems or disorders. In recent years, there has been an increase in stress-related diseases among college and high-school students.

　　Psychologists say it is due to too much pressure from their academic studies. A newspaper article says many students admit that they have cheated in exams because of excessive pressure coming from their parents and teachers who demand high marks in their examination. When they fail to live up to their parents’ expectations, some may even commit suicide.

　　Student should be self-motivated. Fair competition should be encouraged. Most students do better when they are studying for themselves, not for their parents or teachers and definitely not under more pressure from school.

　　7、Family and Personal Development 家庭与个人发展的关系

　　Family has a great influence on our personal development. If we are from a happy family, we tend to be cheerful and optimistic. If we are brought up in an unhappy family, we may grow up miserable and pessimistic. If we are not loved by our family, we may not learn to love others.

　　An ideal family should be a place where we can get warmth, help, comfort and strength. It should also be a source of laughter, and a good means to lessen the tension and pressure we all face every day. A family should be a place where we can cultivate our self-confidence, which is crucial to our further development and to our mental health.

　　Since family plays a very important role in our life, it is up to every family member to contribute to the building of such a family. We should be considerate and understanding. We should love and show concern for each other. We should strive to establish a happy family. After all, if every family is happy, the whole society will be stable.

　　8、Wealth and Health 财富与健康

　　(1)some think that wealth means everything.

　　(2)Actually, health is more important than wealth.

　　(3)Keep healthy first if you want to become wealthy.

　　So far as the topic Health and Wealth is concerned, different people have different opinions about it. Some think that wealth means everything. To them , wealth or having a lot of money can help them to do what they want to do. With a lot of money , they can buy the beautiful house, expensive car, beautiful clothes , and so on. They even have the idea that they can buy happiness which they like.

　　On the other hand, some other people don’t agree with those people mentioned above. They believe that Healthy is more important than wealth. First, you can enjoy a happier life with healthy body than those wealthy people with poor health. Second, a healthy body is the foundation for a successful career. Third, a healthy body is also necessary for accumulating wealth.

　　In a word, keeping health first if you want become wealthy. It is well-known that a person can make a large fortune if he has the right opportunities during his life. But if the person suffers from a terrible illness, then no matter how much money he may earn, he will still lead a miserable life. Therefore, health is much more important than wealth.

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Zhao becomes suspicious that the explosion was not an accident and when he investigates further, fellow miner WANG SANBAI and the mine owner LI YI are murdered. As the body count increases, Zhao becomes the prime suspect and he must use his skills as a blaster to clear his name.


Arundel Volleyball rallies against Atholton to obtain the first seed

By Connor Haynie

The Arundel Volleyball team showed persistence through their sweep of the defending 3A state champions, the Atholton Raiders, last Monday the 25th.

As the first set started, Arundel seemed to have no hope as they went down to an early 12-3 deficit, but the tides began to turn as Arundel went on a crucial 6-0 run that eventually led to a hard fought 29-27 win by the Wildcats.

“I think we just picked our energy level up, we were nervous going into the game because we knew they were going to be one of the hardest teams we’re playing this season, so I think once we got the nerves out and played our game we were okay and knew how to work around their defense,” Mackenzie Meehan said.

Arundel remained dominant in the second set, outscoring the Raiders 25-12. The momentum in the game was dominated by the Wildcats as they went on three 4-0 runs throughout the set.

“I think we definitely carried the momentum to help us run away with the second set.  I think once we started playing to our level we realized we can come from a 3-12 deficit, we really just pushed the whole game, and that momentum was key,” said court captain Alicia Eldredge.

Finally, the Wildcats completed their sweep with a huge 25-20 win in a tightly contested match.  This win helps Arundel maintain their spot of first seed in the county.  Arundel advances to a record of 6-0 and keeps their undefeated season alive after coming off of an astounding weekend, where they won the Arundel Volleyball Invitational posting wins against 5 teams.


Before Hops: Exploring the Flavorings Used in Ancient Beers

20180101 - Before Hops.jpg

Today, we take it for granted that the beer we’re consuming will use some type of hops. In fact, hops have been one of the key ingredients for beer for quite a long time – dating back to the Reinheitsgebot in Germany, although it took quite some time for the use of hops to spread throughout Europe and even longer for England to get on board.

When Did Hops First Appear?

Beer dates back at least 6,000 years into the dim and misty past of human history. However, hops don’t actually make an appearance until about 77 AD, when Pliny the Elder wrote his Naturalis Historia. Of course, hops were probably used to bitter beer before this point – it was just a very regional thing, and not particular well known.

Nevertheless, beer was flavored before the use of hops became widespread. Without some sort of bittering agent or other flavoring, fermented wort is cloyingly sweet and hardly drinkable. So, what did ancient brewers use to flavor their beers?

Ancient Beer Flavorings

First, before we get too far into this discussion, understand that beer flavorings and additives have evolved a great deal over time, and from region to region. They also varied depending on the type of government or governing body in a particular area. For example, during the middle ages, gruit was the primary seasoning mix for beer. However, the Catholic Church controlled the availability of gruit, and charged licensing and usage fees for brewers. To get around those extra costs, many brewers turned to ingredients not included in gruit.

Since we’re on the topic, let’s talk about gruit for a moment. Pronounced “groot”, it is low German for “herbs”. What herbs were in the typical brewers batch of gruit, though? Some of them include the likes of rosemary, sage and bog myrtle. There were others in the mix, too, such as broom, wormwood, nettles, bergamot and the like. You’ll even find things like ground ivy and ginger included. It varied from place to place depending on growing conditions, availability and time of year.

So, how did gruit fall out of favor? Actually, you can thank Martin Luther for that – the same guy who nailed the 95 Theses to the door of the church and started the Protestant Reformation. Unlike most of his modern Protestant descendants, Luther enjoyed beer a great deal. However, because the Catholic Church controlled gruit, he had trouble brewing his tipple of choice.

To counteract that, he and his followers started using and promoting hops as an alternative. They weren’t taxed by the church, or controlled by the government. They were also plentiful and weren’t used for much of anything. In fact, most people thought of them as an invasive weed.

The rest, obviously, is history.

Additional Spices, Seasonings and Additives

To combat the sweetness of plain wort, some brewers would add other ingredients to their beers. For instance, juniper berries and twigs were heavily used in Scandinavian countries. Wormwood was also a popular addition in those areas. Interestingly, horseradish was also a popular additive.

Scotch breweries used a number of other ingredients, depending on the style of beer in question. For instance, heather was needed to make froach, as was sweet gale. Meadowsweet and gooseberries were used in the making of grozet. Pine and spruce tips were used in other Scottish beers, and even seaweed made an appearance here and there.

It wasn’t all about bitterness, though. Some additives were put in to boost sweetness, or at least sugar content. For instance, London in the 1700s was home to quite a wide range of fruit beers and additives frequently used included apricots, cherries, strawberries, blueberries and raspberries. Londoners also famously used a number of ingredients that we would really not expect to see in beer today at all, like peppercorns and tea, or licorice and cloves.

Some of the more exotic brewing ingredients used throughout Europe and into Asia include star anise, cumin, vanilla, coriander, black pepper, parsley, sage, thyme and elderflower.

So, as you can see, ancient brewers used pretty much anything they thought would bring flavor and taste to their brews.

The Shift in Today’s Beers

While you’ll find that almost all beers brewed today use hops to at least some extent, many brewers are starting to experiment with ingredients that would definitely not be found in the German Beer Purity Law. Dogfish Head is a great example of a brewer doing this, but you’ll find others out there, including Stone, New Belgium, Left Hand, and even stodgy-seeming Sam Adams.

Given the fact that today’s brewers have access to an incredibly wide range of hops grown all around the world, this focus on ancient additives might seem a little confusing. Why, if they could source hops from England, Germany, New Zealand or the Pacific Northwest, would brewers play with things like nettles or spruce?

Part of it is simply a reconnection with the ancient past. There’s a lot to be said for recreating ancient beers, something that Dogfish Head has done several times with great results. Part of it is also tied to the wealth of hops available today. Once, only noble hops were available. Then, English hops were added to the mix, bringing earthy, grassy and floral notes to the table. US hops are often citrusy or piney, while those from the Southern Pacific often have tropical fruit notes.

The explosion of hop varieties means that brewers have an even wider palette to use when crafting their beer, and they are trying to pair other ingredients with those newer hops in the hopes of creating something completely unique and surprising.

Where do you fall in the argument, personally? Are you all about the hops, or would you like to see more options made with nontraditional spices and seasonings? Add your thoughts to the comments section below.

Posted on January 1, 2018 and filed under 2018, Facts & History.


How to use "each" in sentences with meaning in English and Hindi

by BuildMyVocab

Example sentences for "each" in popular movie and book plots

  • In the distant future, Mankind has colonized space, with clusters of space colonies at each of the five Earth-Moon Lagrange points.  - Mobile Suit Gundam Wing
  • They fight at equal strength, each immune to the other's attacks.  - Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah
  • The JSDF then decides to transport Kong via balloons to Godzilla, in hopes that they will kill each other.  - King Kong vs. Godzilla
  • All the voices begin speaking and yelling at each other.  - Follies
  • Beatty tells Montag that he had a dream in which they fought endlessly by quoting books to each other.  - Fahrenheit 451
  • The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing each other, and the General attacks her with an axe.  - Carmilla
  • Hanging on in each other's arms, the pair travel through the cloudy, moonlit sky.  - Chrono Trigger
  • When they first race against each other, Liddell beats Abrahams.  - Chariots of Fire
  • He and Lobo physically struggle with each other, and this time Vornoff emerges the victor.  - Bride of the Monster
  • The five seasons of the series each correspond to one fictional sequential year in the period 2258–2262.  - Babylon 5
  • Robin confronts Bane and defeats him, while Batman and Freeze begin to fight each other, with Batman defeating Freeze.  - Batman & Robin (film)
  • At a masquerade ball hosted by Shreck, Wayne and Kyle deduce each other's secret identities.  - Batman Returns
  • Jeffrey and Sandy find themselves attracted to each other, though Sandy has a boyfriend.  - Blue Velvet (film)
  • As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film.  - Anyone Can Whistle
  • The night before he is to return from leave, he stays up with her, exchanging small expressions of love and concern for each other.  - All Quiet on the Western Front

Meaning of "each" in English

Can you explain the meaning of "each" in simple English? Help us by submitting your answer as comments.

Meaning of "each" in Hindi

Do you know the Hindi meaning for "each"? Let us know by posting a comment and earn good karma.


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Bachelor of Science [B.Sc] (Neurophysiology Technology) - Course Overview

    3 YEARS

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology Colleges, Syllabus, Scope and Salary

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology is a 3- year full- time course divided into 6 semesters, with each semester lasting a period of 6 months. Neurophysiology is a discipline within Healthcare Science where healthcare practitioners and healthcare scientists measure the functions of the nervous system to ensure normalcy and help in the diagnosis and monitoring of the progress of neurological disorders.

Healthcare practitioners and healthcare scientists perform a range of different tests, in patients of all ages, all of which require a considerable amount of patient contact and also good communication skills, as each involves attaching electrodes to the patient and encouraging co-operation before the recordings can be made.

Clinical Neurophysiology departments are usually based in hospitals and linked to neurological centres. Most investigations in neurophysiology are recorded in dedicated environments, however they are also performed at the patient’s bedside, in intensive care units, special baby care units, and also in operating theatres.

B.SC (Nursing) Colleges In HaryanaB.SC (Nursing) Colleges In Tamil NaduB.SC (Nursing) Colleges In Andhra PradeshB.SC (Nursing) Colleges In Karnataka

These studies measure the function of the peripheral nerves responsible for movement and sensation. The nerves are tested by applying a small electrical current to them and recording the response. These tests are used in neurological and other conditions that affect the function of the peripheral nerves. These tests are performed by healthcare practitioners, healthcare scientists, and also Clinical Neurophysiologists.

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology: Course Highlights

Listed below are some of the major highlights of the course.

Course LevelUnder Graduate
Examination TypeSemester System
Admission ProcessCounselling after taking entrance examination
Course FeeINR 10,000 to 1,90,000
Average Starting SalaryINR 2,00,000 to 16,00,000

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology: What is it About?

The course is designed to offer eligible candidates the requisite knowledge, skills, and practical experience to work as professional healthcare scientists in neurophysiology. The role involves working closely with patients of all ages to investigate the functioning of the nervous system in order to diagnose and monitor neurological disorders, such as epilepsy, strokes, dementia, nerve and muscle dysfunction, and multiple sclerosis.

The average annual course fee in India ranges between INR 10,000 and 1,90,000, depending upon the institute offering the course. The average annual starting salary offered in India to successful graduates of the course ranges between INR 2 and 16 lacs, depending upon the candidate’s expertise in the field.

This course offers to eligible candidates, the requisite skills and practical experience to operate as professional healthcare providers in neurophysiology.

Top Institutes Offering B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology

Christian Medical CollegeVelloreINR 1,31,000
JIPMERPondicherryINR 60,000
KLE UniversityBelgaumINR 80,000
SGT UniversityHaryanaINR 1,20,000
SVCAndhra PradeshINR 11,540

Eligibility for B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology

Candidates wishing to apply for the course need to meet a minimum criterion of eligibility, which is a 10+2 (Higher Secondary School Certificate), or equivalent qualification completed from a recognized educational Board, in the science stream, and with a minimum aggregate score of 45%.

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology: Admission Process

Admission to the course is based on the candidate’s performance in the qualifying examination, which is a competitive examination called the Undergraduate Entrance Test, and is conducted by the Controller of Examinations, across multiple locations.

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology: Career Prospects

Successful professionals of the discipline can pursue both medical and non-medical career options, as Neurosurgeons, Neurophysicians, Neurologists, Neuro-anaesthetists, Neuropathologists, Neuro-ophthalmologists, Neuro-radiologists (interventional and non-interventional), Neuro-physiologists, Psychiatrists, Clinical psychologists, Physic, Rehab and Occupational therapists, or Speech therapists.

Radiographers trained in CT, MRI, CAT labs, may pursue Interventional Neuroradiology. Researchers in Neurophysiology, Neuropharmacology and basic neurosciences including biomedical engineers and scientists serve the ever- expanding equipment needs in the field.

For most medical options mentioned above, super specialisation in subspecialties is required. Neurophysiology involves monitoring and treating people who have disorders affecting the brain, including viral encephalitis, meningitis, strokes, or are suffering with dementia.

Neurophysiology Technology
Cardio-consultantCardiologists review one’s medical history and perform physical examinations which may include checking blood pressure, weight, heart, lungs, and blood vessels. They carry out additional tests such as an ECG, x-ray, or blood test, and prescribe lifestyle and medicine- related changes.INR 16,00,000
Neuro-anesthetistNeuro-anesthetists are the physicians trained to administer and manage anaesthesia given during a surgical procedure. They are also responsible for managing and treating changes in one’s critical life functions - breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Also, they diagnose and treat any medical problems that might arise during and immediately after surgery.INR 11,00,000
Medical RepresentativeMedical Representatives are the key points of contact between pharmaceutical and medical companies and healthcare professionals. Excellent sales skills are a key requirement for medical representatives.INR 2,57,000
LecturerLecturers undertake teaching, research and administrative duties within a specific subject matter.INR 3,00,000

B.Sc. in Neurophysiology Technology: Syllabus and Course Description

Physiological sciences 1
Healthcare science 1
Healthcare science 2
Physiological science 2
Professional practices

Clinical neurophysiology
Research methods and professional practice
Medical instrumentation and imaging
Neurological conditions

Applied clinical neurophysiology 1
Applied clinical neurophysiology 2
Professional practices

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From the Executive Editor

The New Year is sure to be an exciting one for investors with India going to the polls to elect a new government, writes Executive Editor Sarbajeet K Sen.
     Print Edition: January 2014

The New Year is sure to be an exciting one with India going to the polls to elect a new government. Investors, domestic as well as global, will be keenly watching how that one major event during the middle of the year unfolds.

While the run-up to the elections would keep everyone engaged, conjectures are already being made on the post-poll scenario. There is a growing feeling that change is round the corner. And there are expectations that change, if it happens, would improve market sentiments and spark a fresh bull run in the equity market.

History suggests that elections have had a salutary effect on the stock markets. As we bring out in our cover story starting on page 18, markets moved up during the run-up to all but one elections since 1991, and have given thumbs-up after elections whenever there are hints of stability and reforms.

Already, various estimates of markets touching new highs are being put out by investment banks and brokerage houses on the assumption that the polls would see the end of the 10-year stint of the United Progressive Alliance government and the new formation will be pro-reforms and swift in decisionmaking.

Should you invest based on these electoral predictions and market projections? Our view is that you should not. That is because nothing is certain. The Indian electorate, with its diverse composition and views, is known to spring surprises.

A clear mandate will definitely add to investor wealth. However, any coalition perceived to be unstable or comprising parties known to create roadblocks to reforms might drag the market the other way. Moreover, the new government will have to struggle with the issues of inflation and slow growth.

There are no quick-fixes. There would be global events beyond the control of the Indian government, such as the US Federal Reserve tapering its liquidity injection programme, which has already been initiated in small measure. Hence, positioning your portfolio on assumptions of the look of the new government is fraught with danger.

Investors should have plans of their own and work according to them. Systematic and spaced-out investment works better since it takes care of all ups and downs and eventually, more often than not, leads to wealth creation. Moreover, every portfolio should have a mix of assets, including debt, mutual funds, commodities and real estate. A diverse portfolio is less exposed to sudden shocks.

So what are the investment options for the New Year? What are the likely major events during 2014 and how would they impact your portfolio? How should you react to them? How are the various sectors likely to perform in the ongoing milieu, and which stocks are the best bets?

We try to answer all these questions in our cover package. We also bring you a string of views from industry experts spread across various sectors on how they see 2014 panning out.

We wish you a happy and prosperous New Year.

Executive Editor

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Blue Moon To Rise Tuesday, But What Does That Mean?

A blue moon is expected to rise Tuesday night, but what does that really even mean?

According to the Examiner, blue moons describe a situation when two full moons appear in the same lunar month.

But for those of you who follow along with the lunar cycles, you’ll know the blue moon we are expected to have on Tuesday night isn’t the second full moon in the month of August.

So then why all the hype? The blue moon that we are expected to have Tuesday night is actually the marking of the third full moon in a season.

According to the Weather Channel:

“When Tuesday’s full moon rises to its peak at 9:45 p.m. eastern time, it’ll be a “seasonal blue moon” — the third of four full moons in a season. A seasonal blue moon hasn’t happened in nearly three years, EarthSky reports.”

The Examiner continued on to say that while blue moons usually occur once a year, once every 19 years two blue moons occur in one year.

Yahoo reported that full moons occur every 29.5 days on average, when the moon is directly opposite the sun from the perspective of Earth.

“This causes its whole disk to be fully illuminated as a large, bright circle.

Ever heard the expression “once in a blue moon”? Well, the expression actually comes from the fact that blue moons don’t occur too often.

Here is another question people seem to be asking, will the moon actually be blue? According to the weather channel it isn’t actually blue.

After Tuesday’s blue moon, Yahoo reported that the next blue moon of this kind won’t occur again until 2015.

[photo credit: atomicshark via photopin cc]


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Oliferenko Group

The Oliferenko Group

Group Leader: Dr Snezhana Oliferenko

Cellular dynamics of growth and division

We study how cells establish polarized states and navigate the mitotic division.  These processes require a defined intracellular organization that is robust across a variety of environmental conditions. Yet, it shows a remarkable plasticity as cells progress through the cell cycle and respond to the extracellular cues. This balance between order and plasticity is at heart of cellular physiology. Its disruption has severe physiological consequences and could lead to developmental defects and disease.

We focus on how the endomembrane system functions together with the cytoskeletal polymers in defining the cellular organization. The essential feature of eukaryotic cells is the presence of internal membranes and in particular, the membrane-bound nucleus. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and therefore the dynamics of these organelles are tightly linked. Nuclear and ER geometry change as cells grow, divide and interact with their environment. During mitosis cells remodel their nuclear membranes to accommodate the mitotic spindle assembly, chromosome segregation and formation of the daughter nuclei. Understanding how nuclear organization is controlled during cellular growth and proliferation is of major biological and medical interest. We study how the nuclei grow and remodel, how the nuclear envelope dynamics is entrained into the cell cycle and how different strategies of mitotic nuclear envelope management arise in evolution.

We use two related species of fission yeast with markedly different mitotic programs, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Schizosaccharomyces japonicus, as the sister model organisms. We integrate yeast genetics, genomics, biochemistry and experimental biophysics together with high-end live cell imaging and image analyses. Importantly, the unique comparative approach allows us to understand how the basic functional modules underlying cellular physiology are assembled to achieve phenotypic diversity.

Eukaryotic cells segregate chromosomes in either "open" or "closed" mitosis, depending on whether the nuclear envelope breaks down or remains intact. Higher eukaryotes such as humans undergo open mitosis whereas many unicellular eukaryotes divide chromosomes without losing nucleocytoplasmic integrity (left). Similarly to higher eukaryotes and in stark contrast to its relative Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces japonicus ruptures the nuclear envelope during mitosis (right).

Please click here for more information about our work.


Best graduate admissions essays

best graduate admissions essays

Freds condition had been discovered in China, the (very poor) orphanage in which he spent the first 8 years of his life would have recognized his DMD as a death sentence and denied him sustenance to hasten his demise. This gives the impression that she is an engaged and dedicated student. On multiple occasions I tasted the failure that comes with studying complex issues in a foreign land. I keep my nose pointed at the ceiling. This was a successful personal statement; I got into (and attended!) the program.

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Graduate School Personal Statement Examples You Can Find Online So you need more samples for your personal statement for graduate school? Help us improve Peterson's, your feedback is very important in helping us improve the Peterson's website. Showing rather than telling, he depicts a person who is prepared to do the work to overcome obstacles and learn from mistakes. If youre e-mailing or attaching a file, be sure its named appropriately, and keep the formatting simple (or as directed). Keep it clean, you should have impeccable spelling, grammar, and punctuation throughout your essay, and avoid texting slang or vulgar language unless there is an absolutely compelling reason why it needs to be in your story.

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Distance from Mount Croghan, SC to Puxico, MO

Driving distance between Mount Croghan, SC and Puxico, MO is 706.28 miles (or 1,136.64 kilometers). If you drove an average car (using about 3.6 gallons of gas per mile), the gas would cost you around $, since you would need about gallons of fuel.

Leaving from Mount Croghan, SC you would reach Puxico, MO in about 11 hours 40 mins if you keep an average speed of miles per hour, assuming you don’t make any breaks or get stuck in traffic.

Driving distance in miles

706 mi1,137 km

CO2 emissions icon

CO2 emissions: kg

Emission estimated with the eco2 norme
(185 CO2 grams/mile)

This is a map overview of the best driving route from Mount Croghan, SC to Puxico, MO in which you can see the origin and destination points marked with A (Mount Croghan) and B (Puxico) respectively as well as blue line along the road route you can take. You can zoom in to see more details, including road numbers and even street names both in Mount Croghan, SC and Puxico, MO as well as every other town you may pass by on your way.

Fuel consumption if you drive from Mount Croghan, SC to Puxico, MO

To cover the 706.28 mi that separate Puxico from Mount Croghan you are going to need between of fuel, considering you drive an average car (30 mpg) and , if you drive an SUV or a heavy car (20 mpg). If you drive a fuel efficient car (45 mpg), your consumption will only be .

Cost of driving from Mount Croghan, SC to Puxico, MO

Depending on the fuel efficiency level of your car, driving from Mount Croghan to Puxico will cost you between and . An average car would make the trip for . We calculate the route cost using real time average gas prices for the US and other costs such as tolls are not included in this calculation.

Driving directions

To help you plan your trip from Mount Croghan to Puxico, we offer a detailed map together with full, turn by turn, driving directions from Mount Croghan, SC to Puxico, MO.

Flying or direct distance between Mount Croghan, SC and Puxico, MO

The flying distance represent the straight distance from Mount Croghan to Puxico, the length of an hypothetical flight trip between the geographic center of Mount Croghan, SC and the geographic center of Puxico, MO. We also offer nearby airports to both Mount Croghan to Puxico and a flight ticket price comparison form, in case you want to make that hypothetical flight real :).

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Worklife balance

Half of the workforce in the world comprises of women who share equal burdens and perform at par with their male counterparts. Despite proving themselves time and again, they have to face the biggest challenge in the form of work and family responsibilities. Women have to relentlessly choose between being a mother who has to take care of her children and her duty or her job. This is a very difficult decision, and a working woman has to make such a choice on a daily basis. The only way this problem can be solved is by reducing any conflict between work and family. Let us discuss the conflict and ways of reducing them.

Work-life conflict

In developed and developing countries, the conflict between work and life has been seen to a greater extent. Long and tedious working hours play havoc with the personal life and demand for one’s attention and time make roles interfering with one another. This results in conflict.
When professional work demands a lot of time and starts encroaching on your time, it has a negative impact on your personal life. Conversely, if your family demands your more time, this can have a drastic impact on your working lives, it results in a conflict. This is a situation that can have a bearing on the performance of a person bogging her down intensely.

How to tackle this conflicting situation?

It is very difficult and sometimes challenging to choose between family and work. An experiment conducted on this subject indicated that there is always more pressure on one side relative to another side. It was seen that whichever side exerted more pressure, people tend to move to that side. If the pressure at the professional front is greater than the family front, people tend to sway towards greater pressure. It turns out to be a precarious situation for people. When there is equal pressure on both sides, a person can choose the side which is more significant for her.

Life Quality

It is very important to strike a balance between work and personal life. It is also significant to note that life quality of a person improves or deteriorates with ups and downs in work-family balance. This is why people who are more involved with their work experiences more stress and family conflict thereby reducing their life quality. Conversely, people who are more involved in their family enjoy a greater life quality. Tensions and stress levels are low, and they can enjoy their life to a greater extent.

Conflict Reduction

For peace of mind and high-end performance, it is very important that conflict is brought to a minimum. This is possible only when you can structure your life in such a way that both work and life gets equal time. Keeping your work and family life distinct from each other is very important. Allocate your time to both and ensure there is no encroachment on work or family time. This way, the reduced conflict between work and family life can help enjoy best of both worlds.

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About Buseedo
We create an educational platform, where users can get skills they need to land the job they want.
Every year millions of students graduate from universities and looking to find their 1st job and eager to be successful in their lives. In general, they come from great schools, they had the same courses with the same books, so that they have almost the same theoretical knowledge base.

On the other hand, employers are looking for students that they think will be best qualified and will be able to work well and very quickly make a positive impact on their businesses.
United States had 7,136,000 job openings in August, the highest on record since the Labor Department began keeping track of this data in late 2000...
...and so many businesses complain they cannot find enough employees, especially ones with skills and industry knowledge.

"One of the biggest mismatches in history between help wanted and labor available."
The Washington Post, 16 October 2018
So the main challenge sounds like:
What can students do to get the job they want?

The answer is simple and logical:
They need to offer something more & something different, that employers value and seek out - right skills and industry knowledge.
Stop watching - start doing.

Buseedo users get a series of practical exercises and activities crafted by industry specialists & educators to complete every day to master a needed set of skills in a particular discipline and achieve top results in life and career.

In other words, if a recent grad Liam wants to be an expert in digital marketing, Buseedo will give him the necessary practical experience so that he can talk intelligently about this field, its challenges and opportunities with the person interviewing him. As a result, he will stand out from the crowd….and increase his chances of getting the dream job.

We strive to create a tailor-made experience by implementing real-life learning methods to increase efficiency of online education.
Buseedo Founder
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“Before you can discuss the nature of (a) God, however deep and nuanced your discussion, you have to provide rational arguments for the existence of a god.”

“Absent such convincing evidence, theology simply becomes academic speculation about the nature of an unevidenced being.”

Brain science is wonderful but very hard/takes a LOT of time -decades..

To crack the code of the brain,… two fundamental problems must be solved.

The first is: “How does the machine work, starting with its building blocks, cell types, going through their physiology and anatomy,” he said. That means knowing all the different types of neurons in the mouse visual cortex and their function — information that science doesn’t have yet.

It also means knowing what code is used to pass on information. When a mouse sees a picture, how is that picture encoded and passed from neuron to neuron? That is called neural computation.

“The other highly related problem is: How does that neural computation create behavior?” he said. How does the mouse brain decide on action based on that input? Continue reading

Culture = Pathogen Stress Avoidance….

Anyone with a basic grasp of biology knows that all animals have immune systems that battle pathogens—be they viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi—on the cellular level. And it’s also fairly well understood that animals sometimes exhibit outward behaviors that serve to ward off disease. ….humans likewise manifest such instinctual behaviors to avoid infection and illness. Some of these habits very much parallel those seen in other creatures..everyday life is full of small defensive moves against contamination, some motivated by feelings, like disgust, that arise without conscious reflection.


A group of school kids reduced the internet to tears after they learned sign language to wish their deaf caretaker a surprise happy birthday.

Reception class at Hickerson Elementary in Tennessee, US, stood on one side of their classroom waiting for their caretaker, Mr James, to walk in. As soon as he did, the teacher kickstarted the singing of happy birthday, while the children all signed the song.

By the look on his face, Mr James wasn’t expecting the gesture at all. His mouth dropped, his hands shot up to his head, and he had a beaming smile on his face.

As expected, the internet is going crazy for this and we absolutely love it.


What lies beneath the pink veil

October is Breast Cancer Awareness Month and a special and unique exhibition is showing at the Humanities Department Gallery (Mayagüez Campus, University of Puerto Rico) in joint collaboration with the Breast Cancer Art Project. The latter is a project based on an online platform that now, with this exhibition, transcends into the physical realm, where women suffering from, survivors, and those not so fortunate can expose their experiences with breast cancer and the resulting art, sharing it with the wider public. What makes this exhibition unique is the possibility to know the artwork -and inherently their makers- in a more intimate and detailed way, shattering notions that breast cancer is anything remotely close to the color pink and the happy or mellow connotations this color implies. Started by a breast cancer survivor for others afflicted by the ailment, the platform includes all kinds of mediums and levels of knowledge. Mostly made up of Outsider Art, what they may lack in formal elements, they more than make up in emotional power. This exhibition is sure to sucker punch you in corners unknown of your soul and create a more humane picture towards the pink ribbon.

The exhibition is made up of different artists and mediums and it may appear at first glance as if the only aspect uniting the works is the fact that it was made by women afflicted by breast cancer. Yet, intricately shown, there is a process. Not from arrangement and it is definitely not made intentionally, but from the artwork and the artists themselves there is a story to be told. The linoleum work titled Diagnosis by the currently in-training artist Susan Olivera shows that first encounter with the reality of cancer. That formal confirmation through a tiny piece of paper that the subject holds, contains the power to shatter the world around you, as it is depicted by the fragmented background. A dark climate overcomes the doctor’s office, as we can tell from the black and white colors, and Olivera finds herself with the weight that holds news like this on her shoulders. What could possibly come next after knowing something like this? Hopefully not known from experience, but we can tell that there is an attempt to accept reality. Additionally, there is an exploration of the breasts, a body part so closely linked to the subjects’ femininity and one that finds itself in the possibility of being extirpated. A piece that touched me deeply speaking in a very simple visual manner is the mixed media titled Limited Edition by Amabel Mortimer. It is compounded of two elements. First, there is a black and white photo of Mortimer’s breasts painted purple -a nod to International Women’s Day, the day she made this work- and we know they are painted purple because the second component of this work is an impression of her chest onto white paper. A simple yet very effective method to explore and know, in more than one way, her chest. It is also a way to preserve the memory of her breasts, as Mortimer explains on the platform regarding the piece, because it was made due to the fact that she would have surgery done on them the next day and her chest would never be the same.

Limited Edition, Amabel Mortimer

What seems to come next is dealing with the cancer in the form of the medical approach (appointments, chemotherapy, the horrible side effects, etc.) and all the physical and psychological tolls this has on the women. Even though I cannot speak from personal experience and I would definitely not try to impose my point of view over that of the survivor’s, as I respect it too much, this is simply what I perceive from the works shown at the exhibition. One piece, actually done after a therapy session, that I think speaks in very literal terms about how sometimes cancer patients put on a strong façade for others and themselves and the toll this takes, is the work untitled done by Adriana ESF. The work is a simple watercolor drawing that depicts a bottle with cracks and bandages attempting to cover them up, a tentacle -cancer’s tentacles, as is written in the work- attacking the bottle, and the contents on the bottle spilling through the cracks. The bottle means to depict the literal action of bottling emotions up -more specifically, as it is written all over, emotions of heartbreak, pain, trauma, failure, loss, fear, sadness, shame, betrayal and guilt- and how cancer attacked this safeguard and inevitably created the puddle of emotions made on the floor. It could try to show how Adriana tried to maintain herself strong through shoving her emotions into a bottle and keeping them there, but cancer inevitably made that bottle crack, ‘spilling’ them all over, creating the inescapable confrontation she must face. We see the complexity and the variety of emotions the patients feel, some resulting directly from cancer, others as a result of it affecting other aspects of the patient’s lives, as Adriana explains since she went through a difficult separation during her time in chemotherapy. A piece worth mentioning relating to this part of the experience is the series Barbies Losing It by Annie Dannison. The series is made up of photographs of Barbies altered to fit the author’s physical reality and arranged with different humorous approaches to the results of being affected by breast cancer. One that stands out for me is the photograph titled It’s not a free boob job: a very poignant way to respond to the insensible comment that some people make the mistake of saying, that the reconstruction in result of the extirpation of the breasts should be seen as a “free boob job”, as if it this was the result of a ‘good’ thing or actually ‘free’ -and not just monetarily speaking-. They may not mean any harm, but one definitely needs to measure what one says. Issue apart, I found this particular approach an unexpected one. It’s hard finding the fun or humor in cancer, but this series sure sheds a different light on a rather heavy subject and makes us think about all the ways people deal with rough times.

‘It’s not a free boob job’ from the series Barbie’s Losing It by Annie Dennison

The devastating and ugly truth about cancer is the fact that there are only two possible outcomes. Nobody likes to speak or think about the other but reaching remission must surely feel like cheating death. There is no work that better encompasses this feeling of triumph like Sobreviví by Susan Olivera. Her first work done after reaching remission in 2012 and the first time picking up a brush after many years, this piece beautifully captures the sense of being liberated, the sense of power and joy surely felt after knowing you are -for the moment- free of cancer. The subject, which is Susan, descends from what seems to be a mountain with a dark background and specifically nineteen geometric figures, each one representing the sessions of chemotherapy she received. She comes into a lightly colored background, made up of orange, blue, and green organic figures which aim to represent the sense of calm and relief that she felt once she knew she had beaten cancer. The piece is unrelenting, using a clear visual language that perfectly communicates what she explains she felt.

Sobreviví, Susan Olivera (2012)

The exhibition, while being made up of works from all kinds of different backgrounds and sent in from different places in the world, speaks a universal visual language shared by those affected by breast cancer. A similar experience that can be seen through different lenses, each patient adds their personal touch to make the insufferable bearable. A serious dose of empathy and reality makes one realize that pink may be the color which represents the breast cancer ribbon, but what lies underneath is anything but. All the things these women endure should be deserving of much more than just the veil of delicate or joyous the color pink circumscribes to this fight. This is a true phoenix like, life-altering transformation in the making.


Private Equity

Private equity is the money invested in firms that have not gone public, or in other words, firms not listed in the stock exchange. This can range from investing start-up capital in a brand new business to multibillion-dollar buyouts of well-known public corporations, like Burger King and Dunkin' Donuts. Usually, private equity investors - accredited individuals or institutions - will pool their money into a fund that is set up like a limited partnership, with a private equity firm as a general partner and investors as limited partners.

Investors are looking for long-term gains and usually make an investment between 5 to 20%. Investors are also often likely to take an active role in the company, becoming board members to cut costs, adding to the management team for more efficiency and trying out new technologies in order to leverage debts and grow business. To exit the agreement, equity investors can resell, merge or take the company public with an initial public offering (IPO).

Private equity investments are not subject to the same high level of government regulations as public stock offerings and are far less liquid than regular stock. In recent years, the private equity industry has seen massive growth in America with new deals making the news daily. There are several types of private equity strategies also, such as leveraged buyouts, growth capital, venture capital, seed capital, distressed investments and mezzanine capital (which is a combination of debt and equity).

With recent changes due to the global financial crisis, many private equity investors see this as a good opportunity to catch good investments. Like other times of financial turbulence, such as the late 80's and the initial dot com collapse, many investors took advantage of the opportunity and came out with huge returns while many struggling companies managed to get through tough times and come out ahead of the pack.


Nigerians are very innovative despite the stifling conditions that mitigate against success and individual progress in the country.

The 32-year-old man identified as Augustine Otuokwa Ogar, who became an online sensation after constructing a 200 Mega Watts mini Hydroelectric power plant that generates electricity for the plant site and its surrounding early this year, is back again with another cool invention.

The graduate of Electronic and Computer Technology, University of Calabar (UNICAL), who comes from Wula village, Eastern Boki in Boki Local Government Area of Cross River State, has constructed a Hydroelectric power machine that uses a bucket of water to run using locally sourced materials.

The talented man explained his research on Hydroelectricity to Calabar Reporters as he revealed that the system generate up to 20 watts (20W) of power that powers the injector pump and some phones and it operates when the top Tank is filled with a bucket of water.

He said, “The device has two wooden tank (the up and down tank) for collection of water, a pen stock to control water out of the upper tank to the turbine, the turbine that convert the potential energy of water into mechanical energy that rotate the alternator through the pulley system, the alternator that generates power and lastly a riding machine injector pump motor which pump back water from the down tank to the upper tank and the process continues”.

Explaining how it works, Ogar said, “A bucket of water if emptied in the tank and water is allowed to flow and hit, turn the turbine which rotate the alternator, then electricity is generated which then energizes a small pumping machine that pump back the water into the first tank then process continues. The system carries two tanks, up and down tank. I decided not to show everything here for technical reasons

“It operates without a repulsive force or zero back electromotive force (emf). I invented it to be used for practical demonstration on hydroelectricity. It generates up to 20 watt during operation but I stepped down the power to power one blinking LED for demonstration and technical reasons.

“The system generate up to 20 watt of power that Powers the injector pump and some phones and it operates when the top tank is filled with a bucket of water and it’s a continues system. Although, not every part of the system is shown here for technical reasons because it’s going to be a huge technology in the nearest future.

“It shouldn’t be a surprise to any one that water contains both potential and kinetic energy and the law energy that it can be converted from one form to the other. On like mechanical generators, this device has two major sections also, the turbine that does the conversion of the potential energy of the River into motion serves as the mechanical part of the device while the alternator which convert this mechanical energy into electricity, is the electrical part of the device.

“The river that carries both the kinetic and potential energy is the fuel or the power house of the device. This is an era of renewable energy, can we join hands together to really developed this local innovation to solve the problem of power outage in Rural and Urban areas? And also to combat the challenges of global warming? What about training of youths on hydroelectricity by establishing renewable energy? Building training centers across the country and also creating job opportunities. God bless Nigeria”, Ogar concluded.

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