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Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun, but two-and-a-half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants; the other two giant planets, Uranus and Neptune are ice giants. Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity.[13] The Romans named it after their god Jupiter.[14] When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of −2.94, bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows,[15] and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.

Jupiter Astronomical symbol of Jupiter
Jupiter and its shrunken Great Red Spot.jpg
Pronunciation /ˈpɪtər/ (About this sound listen)[1]
Adjectives Jovian
Orbital characteristics[5]
Epoch J2000
Aphelion 816.62 million km (5.4588 AU)
Perihelion 740.52 million km (4.9501 AU)
778.57 million km (5.2044 AU)
Eccentricity 0.0489
  • 11.862 yr
  • 4,332.59 d
  • 10,475.8 Jovian solar days[2]
398.88 d
13.07 km/s (8.12 mi/s)
Known satellites 69 (as of 2017)
Physical characteristics[5][9][10]
Mean radius
69,911 km (43,441 mi)[b]
Equatorial radius
  • 71,492 km (44,423 mi)[b]
  • 11.209 Earths
Polar radius
  • 66,854 km (41,541 mi)[b]
  • 10.517 Earths
Flattening 0.06487
  • 6.1419×1010 km2 (2.3714×1010 sq mi)[b][6]
  • 121.9 Earths
  • 1.4313×1015 km3 (3.434×1014 cu mi)[b]
  • 1,321 Earths
  • 1.8982×1027 kg (4.1848×1027 lb)
  • 317.8 Earths
  • 1/1047 Sun[7]
Mean density
1,326 kg/m3 (2,235 lb/cu yd)[c]
24.79 m/s2 (81.3 ft/s2)[b]
2.528 g
0.254 I/MR2 (estimate)
59.5 km/s (37.0 mi/s)[b]
9.925 hours[8] (9 h 55 m 30 s)
Equatorial rotation velocity
12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h)
3.13° (to orbit)
North pole right ascension
268.057°; 17h 52m 14s
North pole declination
Albedo 0.343 (Bond)
0.538 (geometric)
Surface temp. min mean max
1 bar level 165 K (−108 °C)
0.1 bar 112 K (−161 °C)
−1.6 to −2.94
29.8″ to 50.1″
Surface pressure
20–200 kPa[11]; 70 kPa[12]
27 km (17 mi)
Composition by volume

by volume:

89%±2.0% hydrogen (H
10%±2.0% helium (He)
0.3%±0.1% methane (CH
0.026%±0.004% ammonia (NH
0.0028%±0.001% hydrogen deuteride (HD)
0.0006%±0.0002% ethane (C
0.0004%±0.0004% water (H

Formation and migration

Physical characteristics

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 88–92% hydrogen and 8–12% helium by percent volume of gas molecules. A helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom, so the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms. Thus, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining one percent of the mass consisting of other elements. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The interior contains denser materials - by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.[22][23] Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found.[24]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.[25] Helium is also depleted to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet.[26]

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more ices and are thus now termed ice giants.[27]

Mass and size

Jupiter's diameter is one order of magnitude smaller (×0.10045) than that of the Sun, and one order of magnitude larger (×10.9733) than that of Earth. The Great Red Spot is roughly the same size as Earth.

Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center.[28] Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive.[5][29] Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of the Sun,[30] and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar.[31] A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ, while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of 12.8 MJ.[32]

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present, it would shrink.[33] For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, and above about 500 M (1.6 Jupiter masses)[33] the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve.[34] The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.[35]

Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter.[36][37] Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives.[38] This additional heat is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism through contraction. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year.[39] When it was first formed, Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.[40]

Internal structure

Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium, and an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen.[39] Beyond this basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often described as rocky, but its detailed composition is unknown, as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements,[39] indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth, or roughly 4%–14% of the total mass of Jupiter.[38][41] The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter's history is suggested by models of planetary formation that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming it did exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior. A core may now be entirely absent, as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out entirely.[39][42]

Animation of four images showing Jupiter in infrared light as seen by NASA's Infrared telescope facility on May 16, 2015

The uncertainty of the models is tied to the error margin in hitherto measured parameters: one of the rotational coefficients (J6) used to describe the planet's gravitational moment, Jupiter's equatorial radius, and its temperature at 1 bar pressure. The Juno mission, which arrived in July 2016,[18] is expected to further constrain the values of these parameters for better models of the core.[43]

The core region may be surrounded by dense metallic hydrogen, which extends outward to about 78% of the radius of the planet.[38] Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[26][44] Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur on Jupiter, as well as on Saturn[45] and ice giants Uranus and Neptune.[46]

Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K.[47] In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas in the upper layer extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km,[38] and as liquid in deeper layers. Physically, there is no clear boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends.[48][49]

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily toward the core, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. At the pressure level of 10 bars (1 MPa), the temperature is around 340 K (67 °C; 152 °F). At the phase transition region where hydrogen—heated beyond its critical point—becomes metallic, it is calculated the temperature is 10,000 K (9,700 °C; 17,500 °F) and the pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36,000 K (35,700 °C; 64,300 °F) and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500 GPa.[38]

Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, spanning over 5,000 km (3,000 mi) in altitude.[50][51] Because Jupiter has no surface, the base of its atmosphere is usually considered to be the point at which atmospheric pressure is equal to 100 kPa (1.0 bar).

Cloud layers

The movement of Jupiter's counter-rotating cloud bands. This looping animation maps the planet's exterior onto a cylindrical projection.
South polar view of Jupiter
Enhanced color view of Jupiter's southern storms

Jupiter clouds
(Juno; December 2017)

The cloud layer is only about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer. Supporting the idea of water clouds are the flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.[53] The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.[54]

The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[38][55] These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.[56]

Great Red Spot and other vortices

Time-lapse sequence from the approach of Voyager 1, showing the motion of atmospheric bands and circulation of the Great Red Spot. Recorded over 32 days with one photograph taken every 10 hours (once per Jovian day). See full size video.

The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,[57] a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth, located 22° south of the equator. It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831,[58] and possibly since 1665.[59][60] Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.[61][62] The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger.[63] The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days.[64] The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloudtops.[65]

Great Red Spot is decreasing in size (May 15, 2014).[66]

The Great Red Spot is large enough to accommodate Earth within its boundaries.[67] Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature of the planet.[68] However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi).[69] Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size again to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi),[69] and is decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[67][70]

In April 2017, scientists reported the discovery of a "Great Cold Spot" in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole that is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. The feature was discovered by researchers at the Very Large Telescope in Chile, who then searched archived data from the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility between 1995 and 2000. They found that, while the Spot changes size, shape and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere across more than 15 years of available data. Scientists believe the Spot is a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot and also appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. Interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the planet's strong magnetic field likely resulted in redistribution of heat flow, forming the Spot.[74][75][76][77]

Aurorae on the north pole of Jupiter as viewed by Hubble

Orbit and rotation

Jupiter is the only planet whose barycenter with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7% of the Sun's radius.[80] The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (about 5.2 times the average distance between Earth and the Sun, or 5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance between the two largest planets in the Solar System.[81] The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1.31° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.048, Jupiter's distance from the Sun varies by 75 million km between its nearest approach (perihelion) and furthest distance (aphelion).

Conjunction of Jupiter and the Moon

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5°. That is, the planet always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[84] A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere.[85] A large telescope will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.

Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.[86] To the Babylonians, this object represented their god Marduk. They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.[29][87]

The astronomical symbol for the planet,  , is a stylized representation of the god's lightning bolt. The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.[d]

The Chinese, Koreans and Japanese called it the "wood star" (Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five Elements.[91][92][93] Chinese Taoism personified it as the Fu star. The Greeks called it Φαέθων (Phaethon, meaning "blazing"). In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru", which literally means the "Heavy One".[94]

History of research and exploration

Pre-telescopic research

The observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC.[97] The ancient Chinese also observed the orbit of Suìxīng (歲星) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on its approximate number of years; the Chinese language still uses its name (simplified as ) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac,[98] with each year associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky; these beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals, now often popularly assumed to be related to the arrival of the animals before Buddha. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, discovered one of Jupiter's moons in 362 BC with the unaided eye. If accurate, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.[99][100] In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.[101] In 499, Aryabhata, a mathematician–astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and astronomy, also used a geocentric model to estimate Jupiter's period as 4332.2722 days, or 11.86 years.[102][verification needed]

Ground-based telescope research

During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colorful bands on Jupiter and observed that the planet appeared oblate; that is, flattened at the poles. He was also able to estimate the rotation period of the planet.[105] In 1690 Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes differential rotation.[38]

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, allowing predictions of the times when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, it was observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected),[23] and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.[108]

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. The discovery of this relatively small object, a testament to his keen eyesight, quickly made him famous. This moon was later named Amalthea.[109] It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by visual observation.[110]

Infrared image of Jupiter taken by ESO's Very Large Telescope

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.[111]

Radiotelescope research

  • Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimeters) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[38] The origin of this signal was from a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator. This signal is caused by cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[115]
  • Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[38]

Since 1973 a number of automated spacecraft have visited Jupiter, most notably the Pioneer 10 space probe, the first spacecraft to get close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about the properties and phenomena of the Solar System's largest planet.[116][117] Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s[118] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.[119] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.[120]

Flyby missions

Perijove 6 pass of Jupiter as viewed by JunoCam
Flyby missions
Spacecraft Closest
Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000 km
Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000 km
Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000 km
Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000 km
Ulysses February 8, 1992[121] 408,894 km
February 4, 2004[121] 120,000,000 km
Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000 km
New Horizons February 28, 2007 2,304,535 km

Cassini views Jupiter and Io on January 1, 2001

In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided some of the highest-resolution images ever made of the planet.[124]

The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist en route to Pluto. Its closest approach was on February 28, 2007.[125] The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail, as well as making long-distance observations of the outer moons Himalia and Elara.[126] Imaging of the Jovian system began September 4, 2006.[127][128]

Galileo mission

Jupiter as seen by the space probe Cassini

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7.[34] It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1600 mph)[34] and collected data for 57.6 minutes before the signal was lost at a pressure of about 23 atmospheres at a temperature of 153 °C.[130] It melted thereafter, and possibly vaporized. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003 at a speed of over 50 km/s to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly contaminating Europa, a moon which has been hypothesized to have the possibility of harboring life.[129]

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.[34] The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (>570 °F) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vapourised.[34]

Juno mission

NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, and is expected to complete 37 orbits over the next 20 months.[18] The mission plan called for Juno to study the planet in detail from a polar orbit.[131] On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first fly-by of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter’s north pole.[132]

Future probes

The next planned mission to the Jovian system will be the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2022,[133] followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission in 2025.[134]

Canceled missions

Jupiter has 69 known natural satellites.[138] Of these, 53 are less than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only been discovered since 1975. The four largest moons, visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night, known as the "Galilean moons", are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.

Galilean moons

The Galilean moons, compared to Earth's Moon
Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period
km % kg % km % days %

Regular moons
Irregular moons
Pasiphae group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons.

Planetary rings

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.[143] These rings appear to be made of dust, rather than ice as with Saturn's rings.[38] The main ring is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis. Material that would normally fall back to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of its strong gravitational influence. The orbit of the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by additional impacts.[144] In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring.[144] There is also evidence of a rocky ring strung along Amalthea's orbit which may consist of collisional debris from that moon.[145]

Interaction with the Solar System

Due to the magnitude of Jupiter's mass, the center of gravity between it and the Sun lies just above the Sun's surface.[149] Jupiter is the only body in the Solar System for which this is true.

Hubble image taken on July 23, 2009, showing a blemish of about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) long left by the 2009 Jupiter impact.[150]

Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner,[151] because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. It receives the most frequent comet impacts of the Solar System's planets.[152] It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the inner system from cometary bombardment.[34] However, recent computer simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them.[153] This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt while others think that Jupiter protects Earth from the alleged Oort cloud.[154] Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.[34]

A 1997 survey of early astronomical records and drawings suggested that a certain dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar. The survey initially produced eight more candidate sites as potential impact observations that he and others had recorded between 1664 and 1839. It was later determined, however, that these candidate sites had little or no possibility of being the results of the proposed impacts.[155]

More recent discoveries include the following:

  1. A fireball was photographed by Voyager 1 during its Jupiter encounter in March 1979.[156]
  3. On July 19, 2009, an impact site was discovered at approximately 216 degrees longitude in System 2.[159][160] This impact left behind a black spot in Jupiter's atmosphere, similar in size to Oval BA. Infrared observation showed a bright spot where the impact took place, meaning the impact warmed up the lower atmosphere in the area near Jupiter's south pole.[161]
  5. Yet another fireball was seen on August 20, 2010.[163]
  6. On September 10, 2012, another fireball was detected.[156][164]
  7. On March 17, 2016 an asteroid or comet struck and was filmed on video.[165]

See also

  1. ^ This image was taken by the Hubble Space Telescope, using the Wide Field Camera 3, on April 21, 2014. Jupiter's atmosphere and its appearance constantly changes, and hence its current appearance today may not resemble what it was when this image was taken. Depicted in this image, however, are a few features that remain consistent, such as the famous Great Red Spot, featured prominently in the lower right of the image, and the planet's recognizable banded appearance.
  3. ^ Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure

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Further reading

External links


Maurits Cornelius Escher

A lot of people will have heard of him, some will only know his work visually. I don’t have an encyclopaedic knowledge of the Master but I know a lot of his work having studied him since I was in my mid-teens. M.C. Escher is one of the artists the following generations try to replicate, but never quite have the talent or vision to pull it off.

We (Scotland) hosted a collection of his works at the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in 2015 and it was the first time I had a chance to see his work in person. I was captivated. Enchanted all over again.  I saw his earlier woodcut masters, each one with a crisp hole drilled through, to prevent forgeries. I saw his mezzotint and stone lithograph masters. Such dynamic, intricate 3-Dimensional craftsmanship to arrive ultimately at a flat 2-Dimensional print.

Above all his tessellation’s and geometrical masterpieces, the Self Portrait is my most favourite piece. No not that one. This one. The 1922 woodcut from the “Italian Period” of his collection, when he was just starting to master the craft on his jaunts around Italy, and before he found mosaic tessellation on the walls of Spanish architecture, which flourished in to his mathematical fascinations and obsession with repeating patterns.

There’s a purity and clarity to this piece that resonates with me.

A true master of the graphic arts.


A Tale of Two Textbooks

Stephen Lazarus

May 29, 2006

A nation's school textbooks speak volumes about its culture. A review by the human rights organization Freedom House found that textbooks used in Saudi Arabia routinely teach an ideology of hatred and violence against non-Muslims (Washington Post, 5/21). Eighth graders learn, for example: "Some of the people of the Sabbath [Jews] were punished by being turned into apes and swine." Twelfth graders: Jihad in the path of God. . .is the summit of Islam."

Americans recoil at such reports but one could ask, what, if anything, American schools do to educate students about religions, cultures, and conflicts? Many independent schools work hard at doing this, understanding the integrality of religion to everyday life. Many government-supported schools, however, have steered away from dealing with religion altogether. For the past few decades, conventional wisdom has held that religion is controversial and divisive and does not belong in public schools alongside reading, writing and arithmetic, which are presumed to be "non-religious."

However, as Clinton administration luminary and former Secretary of State Madeline Albright notes in her new book, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs, it is essential to convey accurate knowledge about Islam today, and the importance of religion in the lives of most people in the world, in order to prepare students for responsible citizenship. Otherwise American students are likely to conform to the stereotype that they are narrowly parochial and ethnocentric—a dangerous trait in a post-9/11 world.

Too often government-run schools try to function as religion-free zones, indoctrinating students with the belief that religion is not relevant to public life—an ideology that appears to be the opposite of Saudi doctrine, but which is just as dogmatic. Yet, an unusual effort in the Modesto, California public schools merits a closer look.

Six years ago, Modesto's schools introduced a required course on world religions and religious freedom for all ninth-grade students. Modesto's population of 190,000 is home to a diverse range of immigrants and religious communities—Muslims, Jews, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and atheists. Two social scientists, Patrick Roberts and Emile Lester, interviewed more than 400 students to assess the impact of the course. Last week, USA Today reported the results.

Students who began the course with a strong commitment to a particular religious tradition were also likely to finish the course still believing in the truth of their own faith compared to others. After the course, students were more likely to defend the religious freedom of people from different religious backgrounds and to support their right to practice their particular faiths. They advocated extending important political and First Amendment freedoms to those with whom they disagree religiously. Students appeared far more knowledgeable and informed about the significance of religion in the world today, and they could apply this knowledge in everyday situations with their peers.

The Modesto model breaks new ground and exposes the foolishness of the conventional wisdom. Pushing religious identity and beliefs underground actually creates more problems than it solves. This new approach shows that American education does not have to be oblivious to the obvious, something that religiously distinctive schools already know. Religion has never disappeared from the world's stage or from the public square close to home. Researchers have reached conclusions that should make us question some of the deeply held assumptions that have guided American public policies for generations. Summarizing their findings, Roberts and Lester write: "Limiting deeply held beliefs to the private sphere breeds suspicion and tension. True religious liberty prevails not only when people are comfortable expressing their beliefs, but also when they learn to discuss religious differences with respect."

—Stephen Lazarus, Director of The Civitas Programs
Center for Public Justice


Monday, 27 December 2010

What Makes a Good Writer?

Next time: Overcoming writer’s block.

Sunday, 19 December 2010

Why is Reading Important for Writing?

So, you have to like reading in order to like writing...

Well, no, that’s not always the case. Some people hate reading, but love writing, while others read as much as they can and love writing.  But why is reading important to any writer? What difference would it make, if any?

Reading novels can make quite a difference, in fact.  Although reading novels isn’t a necessity, it certainly helps if you’re a committed writer with the aim to publish your novels/stories. Even if you dislike reading, by reading a wide range of fiction novels, not just the genre you plan to write, or what you are used to writing, really does widen your skills as a writer. Reading different genres gives you an appreciation of styles and voices and the unique ways that writers approach their work.

Whether you choose the classics or contemporary authors to read, there is a lot you can learn from them. Consider them as teachers; they can show us everything we need to know about the basics of fiction writing, so it is worth studying them.

Questions to Ask

As writers we don’t just read a novel for enjoyment, we’re asking several important questions as we reflect on the story, such as:

• Did you enjoy it? Why did you like it so much?
• Who were your favourite characters and why?
• How did you feel about the pace, setting and tone?
• Did it make you turn the page and you couldn’t put it down until you’d read it?
• Is there any event you would change, and could you improve it?
• What did you think of the ending – was it satisfactory, did it tie up the loose ends?

By analysing how writers have written their stories, it helps you as a writer to understand your own writing and how to make it better.

What are the benefits of reading novels if you are a writer?

There are several benefits to reading a whole gamut of different stories, novels, poetry and genres:

• Perhaps the greatest benefit of reading novels is that it gives writers a sense of how it should be done. They show us how to create effective dialogue, narrative and characters, as well as how to place flashbacks, insert tension and atmosphere and how to maintain tone and pitch to sentences. By analysing how they have set out the story, you can learn from this and adapt your own writing.

• The second most important benefit is that reading novels offers us inspiration. Sometimes our writing comes to a stop, we hit a wall and our creativity dries up – what we might call ‘writer’s block’. The best way to overcome this is to pick up a book and read one of your favourite authors. This usually kick starts that creative fire in your belly, simply because of your aspirations. You can see what this author has achieved and how they’ve done it – you can too.

• Another great benefit is that it improves your vocabulary. Most novels will act as a kind of dictionary, so when you see words that you don’t understand, you can look them up and find out what they mean and use them for future use in your own stories.

• They also help fire up your imaginations. Reading a cross section of genres helps writers to formulate and put together new ideas for their writing,

• Reading helps with research. Reading genre-specific novels about certain historical incidents, or places, or people or even cultures will also help you form new ideas with your own stories.

• Reading novels will improve your creativity. As already mentioned, it works in the same way as inspiration, and it tends to make you want to get writing once that inspiration kicks in and this sparks our creativity.

• Reading novels increases your understanding of the fundamental building block of writing: the need to explore and understand the human condition - behaviour of human beings. This is at the heart of every single book out there.

In the days before the instant information presented by the internet, new writers relied heavily on published writers for ideas, inspiration, guidance and creativity and how to go about writing. The best way to learn is to read. My advice is simple: if you want to be a great writer, read as much as you can.

Some of my favourite writers include classic writers like Charles Dickens, Shakespeare and Thomas Hardy, as well as modern writers like Isaac Asimov, Stephen King, Dean Koontz, Lee Child, Robert Ludlum and Matt Hilton, as well as authors I’ve liked, such as H G Wells, Aldous Huxley, George Orwell and James Joyce.

All of these writers have inspired and taught me in many ways.

There are countless resources at hand for writers. The internet is our biggest pool of information, so it’s worth looking up the best books to read and learn from. Some of the best novels ever written are not necessarily the classics. Some are modern day classics, written in the last 100 years or so.

I want to thank Tim Handorf for contacting me with a recently published list of '20 Essential Works of Utopian Fiction, which is an amazing list of some of the greatest authors, some of whom I’ve had the pleasure to read and learn from.

Please see the link below to take a look at this list.  There is some excellent reading material in this list and it is well worth a visit.

There are also plenty of novels available to read online, such as Project Gutenberg. It’s a great resource centre and one of the largest collections of free, online books.

Useful links:

Next time: What makes a good writer?

Saturday, 11 December 2010

Creating Four Dimensional Characters

Four-dimensional characters? Is that possible?

When we talk about four-dimensional characters, we are talking not in terms of physics and mathematics, but rather metaphysics. Rather than science, we are dealing with personalities and emotions, their being in the world you’ve created for them.

We tend to think of our fictional characters as real people, and more often than not, our characters are drawn from, or based on, real people. Our job is to make our characters seem real to those who read our stories.

We’ve all heard that characters should be three dimensional – that the three dimensions should encompass length, width and depth. This means they would have height, weight and a personality, but the fourth dimension brings something else entirely.

First and Second Dimensions

Width and depth - These dimensions encompass the physical aspects of your characters, how tall or short they are, what weight they are, what they look like generally, what their skin colour is and so on. These are the basic physical attributes to your characters, and although they may seem insignificant, you should always pat attention to the finer details.

Imagine if you sketched your main character. You would have general facial features, eye colour, hair colour, skin tone. They might wear glasses, they might have a beard, they might have a scar or birthmark, or a mole, or some other physical mark. They might look dark and brooding, or they might look light and happy. They might appear with slouched shoulders, or maybe they stand bolt upright. They may stand in a particular way and dress in a particular way.

You have the beginnings of a two dimensional character.

Third Dimension

Depth – this is where your character’s personality comes into play. The depth of your character means his or her emotional being and the attributes they make up their entire individuality and character. This encompasses everything – how he or she would react in certain situations, or with other characters, all the things he or she likes and dislikes, what he or she thinks about the events around them. With whom do they have emotional attachments? Do they friends and enemies? If so, why?

Not only that, but are they religious or spiritual? Do they hate such higher thoughts? What makes them believe, or not? Do they have deep seated fears or phobias? If you think how complicated our own personalities are, then creating one for your characters is a complicated process too.

And just like real people, your characters will have flaws. We’re not perfect, and neither are your characters.

We all act and react in certain ways to certain people and certain situations. We also tackle daily life differently. So should your characters.

Fourth Dimension

The fourth dimension concerns time. Every character you create has a present, the story of now, but that means they also have a past, and because of these two elements they will have a future (however short or long that may be).

A character with a past is fascinating. We all have a past, and this is what shapes who we are now, in the present. What happens in the present will shape what happens in the future.

Each main character has a timeline. Whether the history you construct for them becomes part of your novel or story or not, by developing them this way, so thoroughly, it will enable you to write the characters with ease because you know so much about them. Their background, their childhood, growing up, their experiences...all should be part of the character make-up and timeline. Give them a past to make them who they are in the present.

As your novel or story progresses and reaches a conclusion, your characters need to have a future. What will happen to them after the final page? Have some of them died, have they survived the story, and if so, how will this impact their future? How will the story change them now for the future yet to come?

Many beginners miss out this fundamental background for their characters, wrongly assuming that by giving them a name, hair and eye colour and a sense of style, that it’s all that’s needed.

It’s not. Fully rounded characters require length, width, depth and a sense of time.

My advice to writers is to try to create as much of a background as you can for your characters. This isn’t set in stone – it’s simply a template for you to refer to as you write, because you will find, just as a child grows and develops, your characters will also grow and develop as you write your story. They will mature in every sense before you. Allow that to happen, they may surprise you!

• First and second dimensional qualities – Physical and external features.
• Third dimension qualities – Emotions, thoughts, attitudes and spirituality.
• Fourth dimension qualities – Time. Their past history, the present and the future.

Next time: How reading helps you become a better writer.

Tuesday, 7 December 2010

Using the Senses

How often do you use the senses when writing? Probably not enough. The senses are the most amazing tool available to a writer, yet the most underused. This is probably down to simple forgetfulness. We tend to overlook some of the senses when we describe scenes, but by including them, we can enrich our writing.

The most important tool in creative writing is observation. When you want to convey any scene, you highlight the colours, the people, situations and everything else around you by bringing the narrative to life. More importantly, you will be using the five senses to convey to the reader a sense of belonging to your writing.

Observation brings in the five senses:

• What can you hear?
• What can you taste?
• What can you touch?
• What can you smell?
• What can you see?

Using these senses is important when constructing your prose. Your reader will want to see and feel the scene – that means the background, the people, the actual setting. They will want to smell the scene – what odours are there? Can you describe the hint of flowers, or cooking...or maybe trash bins? Can your reader hear the scene – the traffic, the people, the noise, the chatter or music drifting in from somewhere? Do your characters speak in their individual voices and tones?

Can your reader taste the scene? For instance, if your character is walking along the beach, can they taste the salt in the air, or if your character is in a coffee shop, can they taste freshly made coffee?

Lastly, can they feel the various elements within the scene? This is the element of touch. Touch can convey emotions and say do much without the aid of dialogue. What about the softness of a petal, or someone’s skin or maybe the prickle of nettles? Touch heightens emotions within a scene and adds extra dimension to the narrative.

Sense of Sight

You normally see the scene within your mind’s eye when you write and observation is perhaps the most used of the five senses. Of course, you will need to realise what you imagine, and be able to translate that to the page. There are so many questions to ask within a scene that you should elicit as much information as possible by encouraging the use of observation in order to place your reader within that scene.

Remember, what your character sees is what your reader sees, and if you fail to describe very much, your reader won’t fully appreciate what it is you are trying to describe. What does the character see? What’s in the background? What’s in the foreground? What surrounds them?

Bring the scene to life with what the character sees because this will enrich your narrative.

Sense of Smell

The sense of smell invokes powerful memories; a certain perfume may remind you of someone, or a hint of tobacco, freshly cut grass, or the hint pine. By allowing the sense of smell to creep into your writing, you create a subtle sense of atmosphere and you add another layer to the overall descriptive passages for the reader to enjoy. This is an often overlooked sense, but it provides background colour to an otherwise mundane narrative.

If you have a character that is walking through the narrow market streets of Marrakech, and you fail to let you reader in on the scene by not mentioning the hint of spices lingering in the air, the sweet scent of fresh fruit, the juicy, tantalising meats cooked while you wait, then you’ve let your reader down. The idea if to try to bring them into the scene so they can fully imagine it.

Sense of Hearing

Most of what the reader will hear will come from your dialogue. The fundamental aspect of dialogue is to move the story forward, and in doing so, each of your characters should be able to speak with their own unique voice. That means your reader should be able to recognize the characters from the way they speak, their tone of voice.

Of course, this is just one aspect of the hearing sense. What your character hears is also important. How many other sounds can you hear within your scene? What sounds can you conjure? Is there a distance foghorn? Perhaps a cacophony of car horns represents a busy, bustling city. Does the character hear the lapping of water against a boat? What about the call of a bird, a barking dog? All these limitless sounds bring a sense of realism into the scene.

Sense of Taste

Perhaps this is the most neglected sense in writing. Eating can be a shared, sensual pastime, therefore your reader will want to be involved if your characters are eating, and they’ll want their taste buds aroused. Simple details count. Description is the cement that binds your story, and if you don’t enhance it enough for your reader, they will quickly become bored.

Next time you have a scene with characters eating; hint at what they taste, and how it might affect them. What does that wine taste of on the tongue? Or that steak? How does the dessert taste?

There are also certain elements in the air which can define taste. What about salt in the air, or perhaps the acidity of burning rubber on the tongue? What about a passionate kiss? What does your character’s lips taste like? Are they sweet, bitter...fruity? Never neglect this sense, especially in romantic scenes.

Try to let your reader experience as much as possible.

Sense of Touch

Touch is another neglected sense. Unless you can describe the feel of something within a scene, you will not be involving all the readers’ senses, and like hearing, the sense of touch has a broad spectrum.

Can you describe the feel of material of a character’s dress, the feel of a baby’s skin, the roughness of sand, the sting of salt against the skin? Or what about the feel of water around your ankles as you walk through the surf? What does it feel like? If a character is touching something, don’t be afraid to describe it. Let your reader in on the action too.

By incorporating a sense of touch and feeling, aromas, observation and taste into your writing, you will add depth to your narrative and you will therefore draw your reader into an enjoyable, fully rounded read.

Remember, it’s all in the detail.

The best way to remind yourself of these senses is to have a little note on your desk or computer which asks:

What can I see?
What can I hear?
What can I taste?
What can I touch?
What can I smell?

This will act as a prompt.  You don't have to overload your narrative with ALL the senses, but every now and then, let the reader in and let them enjoy key scenes; let them see it, feel it, touch it, taste it, smell it.  Poor description gives nothing, great description gives everything.

Next time: creating 4 dimensional characters.


Thursday, March 24, 2011

Wolf, the Guardian of Miniature Ficus Forest

Wolf, the Guardian of Miniature Ficus Forest - group of 5 ficus benjamina variegatedAlthough in my miniature landscape it is just a "lone wolf",  I consider the wolf a very friendly and social creature. One of the first historical stories heard in my childhood about Romans, one of my forefathers, was the legend of the she-wolf, the founder of Rome, who found, suckled and raised two twins brothers named Romulus and Remus.

 Romulus and Remus are Suckled by a Kindly Wolf Giclee Poster Print by Victor Jean Adam, 18x24

The Dacians and Thracians (my other ancestors) were known as fearless fighters under  the Wolf-Dragon flag (named also "dracones"). The Wolf-Dragon banner, having a Wolf head ending through a Dragon tail, was symbol of the brotherhood and bravery of the warriors and also a symbol of the immortality and protection against evil forces.

In Native American tradition, the Wolf is the keeper of knowledge and wisdom, and the teacher who tells people to learn to value their inner knowledge and spirituality.The totem wolf appears frequently in North American amulets and totem poles as a representative of friendliness, deep faith, loyalty, generosity and profound understanding - I know this because we are located in Vancouver and in British Columbia the wolf is a frequent native American Indian symbol presents in carvings, artisan crafts or dream-catchers.

   Magic Howling Wolf Head Unique Black Onyx Gemstone Spiritual Protection Amulet Pendant Necklace    Dreams Of The Wild Wolf Art Native American-Style Dreamcatcher Wall Decor by The Bradford Exchange    Lone Wolf Statue Figure Magnificent Sculpture

The wolf is also among with many ancient cultures: among the ancestry of Genghis Khan or with the Odin's victory from the Norse mythology. In Egypt the wolf-headed god Anubis was the guardian of the dead and the protector of the souls that entered the underworld. In Celtic tradition, the wolf teaches people to feel strength and power when acting in groups, and represents a symbol of loyalty, intuition, transformation and protection.

The wolf related to the dogs symbolizes  friendship, freedom and toughness, and I had the privilege to have a wolfdog as a companion for a short period. He possess a high intellect and is making himself very well understood using body movements, subtle sights and vocal expressions... anybody wants to have such qualities ;-)

Wolf figurine, the Guardian of Miniature Landscape

Well... he is the wolf guardian of the "miniature ficus forest".  He protects the Ficus Benjamina Variegated plants ( a group of 5 plants) that grow on top of the hill and is wandering throughout the meadows (accent plants, moss, grass) that streching to the downhill and on the wide plains downward the forest :-)

This wolf  is the source of power and good luck for those around him and pathfinder to find new creative ideas ;-)  Anybody want to be protected and to dream in a magical world... Do you like such a guardian?

Wolf figurine, the Guardian of Miniature Ficus Forest

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Glossary of Astrological Terms

AFFLICTED: Unfavorable planetary aspect: Squares, Oppositions and Quincunxes.

AIR SIGNS: Signs possessing the qualities of the element Air: intellect, thought process etc. The Air signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius.

ANERETIC DEGREE: The final degree of a sign (29th). Also refered to as the degree of fate.

ANGLES: The lines of the chart wheel which lie at 0 degrees (Ascendent), 90 degrees (I.C.), 180 degrees (Descendent), and 270 degrees (M.C.). These major points represent Cardinal Qualities.

AQUARIAN AGE: 2000 year period influenced by the qualities of Aquarius starting approximately at the new millenium.

ARC: An angular measurement between two celestial planets or points. Any part of a circle, measured around it's circumference.

ASCENDANT: The Rising Sign. The degree at which the Zodiac rests over the horizon of the birthplace at the time of birth. The Ascendant represents the persona and image to the world.

ASPECT: The angular distance, calculated in specific number of degrees of the chart wheel, between two celestial points or planets. It shows the nature of the relationship between planets.

BIRTHCHART: A diagram showing the exact positioning of the planets in the signs at the moment of birth.

COMBUST: When a planet is very near the Sun in the birthchart. It is theorized that the planet loses some of its force.

CARDINAL SIGNS: Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn. Represents initiative.

COMPOSITE CHART: Two individual charts which are merged to form one. It shows the relationship between two individuals.

CONFIGURATION: An Aspect which has three or more planets.

CONJUNCTION: Two or more planets sitting next to each other. A conjunction gives great strength to the energies of the interacting planets.

CUSP: A line dividing the twelve houses. The midway point between two signs.

CYCLE: The time it takes a planet or point to make one complete revolution in the heavens.

DECANATE: The division of each sign into three equal parts of 10 degrees each.

DECLINATION: The distance of a planet north or south of the celestial equater

DEGREE: 1/360 of a circle.

DESCENDANT: The opposite point from the Ascendant: cusp of the 7th house. Describes one's interaction with another.

EARTH SIGNS: Signs belonging to the element Earth (practical etc.). Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn.

ELEMENTS: Four-fold division of the Zodiac: Fire, Earth, Air, Water. Signs of the same element share qualities of that element.

EPHEMERIS: Astrological almanac listing Zodiacal positions of the planets and other Astronomical data.

EQUATOR: The imaginary line drawn around the Earth, dividing it into the northern and southern hemispheres. When this line is extended into space, it is called the celestial equator.

EQUINOX: A time of equal day and equal night occuring twice a year at the beginning of Spring and Autumn.

FEMININE SIGNS: The Earth and Water signs. Feminine signs are refered to as negative and indicate passive and receptive energy.

FIRE SIGNS: Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius. Signs with the qualities of the element of Fire (Willfull, energetic, etc.)

FIXED SIGNS: Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and Aquarius. Fixed signs are stubborn.

GEOCENTRIC: The convention that the Earth, rather than the Sun is at the center of the Solar System.

GRAND CROSS: Configuration in which four planets form mutual squares. It creates a lot of tension.

GRAND TRINE: When three planets meet each other to form a triangle. This is a harmonious configuration.

GREAT YEAR: The period when the pole makes a complete circle.

HARD ASPECT: Squares, oppositions and quincunxes. Aspects which create tension and/or friction.

HOUSES: The celestial sphere as a 360 degree circle is divided into twelve sections called houses. They are numbered counterclockwise from the Ascendant (9:00 position). Each house represents certain aspects of life.

I.C.(Immum Coeli): One of the four major angles of a birth chart. It is the beginning of the fourth house and is a very personal point in a chart.

Joys: Places in the zodiac where planets, being harmoniously located, have the most beneficial effect. Rarely used in modern astrology. According to William Lilly, the joys of the planets are: Saturn joy in Libra; Jupiter joy in Sagittarius; Mars joy in Scorpio; Sun joy in Leo; Venus joy in Taurus; Mercury joy in Virgo; Moon joy in Cancer.

Judicial Astrology
Relates to the forecasting of principal events which will befall a country and public conditions which will prevail.

Juno: The queen of the gods. An asteroid seen by modern astrologers as significant.

Jupiter: The king of the gods, a planet symbolising matters to do with the law, religion, authority, the higher mind and so on. Ruler of Sagittarius and Pisces. Exalted in Cancer. The greater benefic.

Jyotish: Indian (Vedic) astrology. This is based on the sidereal zodiac, as opposed to the tropical zodiac favoured by most contemporary Western Astrology.

Key Words: Words that encapsulate the meaning of an astrological factor. For example, Cancer: "I feel".

Kepler: Johann Kepler, born in Weil, Wurtemburg, Germany on December 27, 1571 was a famous astrologer who became the father of modern astronomy.

Ketu: Name for the Dragon's Tail, in Indian Astrology.

Kite: A Grand Trine with one of the planets making an opposition to a fourth planet which in turn makes sextile aspects to the two others of the Grand Trine.

Latitude (Celestial): Measurement of distance of any planet or star north or south of the ecliptic. The Sun never has any latitude.

Latitude (Terrestrial): Degree of distance of any place north or south of the Earth's equator.

Leo: This regal sign is the fifth sign of the zodiac. Ruled by the Sun. The exaltation of Pluto. Leo's symbol is the lion.

Lights: Sun and Moon.

Lilith: The "Black Moon", a supposed invisible satellite of the Earth, also an energy vortex in the Sun-Moon-Earth system. There is as well an asteroid called Lilith. Lilith, the Dark Goddess, is a Hebrew name for Caput Algol, the Demon Star. In mythology, Lilith was the first wife of Adam, formed like him from the earth, rather than from his rib, like Eve.

Logarithms: Tables by which when a planet's motion is known its position at a given time may be readily calculated.

Long Ascension
Signs of long ascension take longer to ascend than others. Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius. Long and short ascension are reversed in the southern hemisphere.

Longitude (Celestial): Measurement along the ecliptic in terms of signs and degrees from the point of the vernal equinox (0° Aries). The longitude of a planet in the 126th degree of the zodiac is 6° Leo.

Longitude (Terrestrial): Distance in degrees, minutes and seconds of any place east or west of Greenwich, England. Also measured in hours, minutes and seconds.

Luna: The Moon. More about the Moon .

Lunar Node: See Nodes

Lunation: A lunar period, measured from one place in the zodiac until the Moon's return thereto. For example, the time taken by the Moon from one conjunction with the Sun until the next, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds, is called a synodical lunation. Lunation is also used to describe different aspects of the Moon to the Sun, thus accounting for her phases. The New Moon is also called a Lunation. A chart made for the moment the Moon conjoins the Sun is called a Lunation Chart.

M.C.(Medium Coeli): One of four major points in the birth chart and is at the top af the chart (beginning of the tenth house. It represents public life and reputation.

MASCULINE SIGNS: Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagittarius and Aquarius. Masculine signs are assertive and self-assured.

MERIDIAN: The Meridian at Greenwich. The point from which time and space is measured. It divides longtitude into east and west.

MIDPOINTS: The midpoint between two planets or angles and sometimes house cusps.

MUTABLE SIGNS: Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces. Flexible nature.

NATAL: Birth. The natal chart refers to a chart for the time of birth.

NODES: The north and south nodes of the moon are those points on the ecliptic where the moon crosses it going either north or south.

OPPOSITION: An opposition is when planets are exactly opposite each other in the chart wheel. Oppositions create stress.

ORB: The space in the chart wheel measured in degrees, between planets and points, by which an aspect may vary from exactness and still remain effective.

POLARITY: Opposite signs effect each other: each sign has a relationship with its partner across the Zodiac.

QUALITIES: Cardinal, Fixed, Mutable.

QUINCUNX (INCONJUNCT): An arc of 150 degrees. An uneasy aspect with karmic lessons.

QUINTILE: An aspect of 72 degrees. An easy aspect representing accomplishments.

RETROGRADE: When a planet appears to be traveling backwards from Earth's perspective. The energy of a retrograde planet is less assertive.

RULERSHIP: Different signs are "ruled" by different planets and their influences can be affected by this fact.

SIDEREAL TIME: Time reckoned by the stars rather than by the Sun.

SOLSTICE: When the Sun reaches its maximum declination. This occurs twice a year, at the beginning of Summer and Winter.

STELLIUM: A group of planets gathered in one area of the Zodiac; sometimes, a multiple conjunction.

SUN-SIGN ASTROLOGY: As seen in newspaper Astrology columns, predictions for the day, month or year ahead on the basis of Solar Charts.

SYNASTRY: Comparing natal charts to find strengths and weaknesses in the area of compatability.

TRANSIT: A planet's movement through a sign or house.

Under the Sun's Beams: Within 17 degrees of the Sun. Any planet here is weakened, though more so if combust (within 8 degrees 30 minutes). Not so important in natal astrology.

Uranian Planets: Planets postulated to lie beyond the orbit of Pluto.

Uranus: Formerly known as Herschel, after its discoverer, this planet was not discovered until 1781. It has been deemed to rule Aquarius. It stands for unexpected disruptions and sudden catastrophes. Esoterically, it calls forth the genius in the character of the native.

VOID OF COURSE: A term describing a planet that does not make a major aspect before changing signs. It is primarily wit respect to the Moon.

Water Element: One of the four astrological elements. A feminine element, it stands for emotion, feeling, matters to do with intuition and so on. The other elements are, Fire, Air and Earth.

Water Signs:Cancer (cardinal), Scorpio (fixed), Pisces (mutable)

There are no terms in Astrology beginning with X, save some medical expressions used in Medical Astrology.

Yod: A powerful aspect.

Youth (phase of): The period of life from birth up to the first Saturn Return .

ZODIAC: From the Greek 'zodiakos', meaning 'circle of animals'. A band in the heavens divided into twelve signs, each containing 30 degrees of longtitude and acting as a barometer for various human traits.

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Konzo in the Democratic Republic of Congo

In the Congolese dialect Yaka, the word konzo means "tied legs"—describing the strained gait of people afflicted with the paralytic disease, konzo. This ailment is caused by the consumption of insufficiently processed cassava, which naturally contains cyanide.

More than 600 million people worldwide, mostly in equatorial regions, rely on cassava (yucca) as the main source of food. However, insufficiently processed cassava results in outbreaks of konzo in thousands of children and women of childbearing age.

Despite its severity, konzo remains a neglected disease. It is feared that global warming could lead to even more consumption of the highly drought-tolerant cassava, which will further proliferate outbreaks of konzo in economically depressed countries. Cases of konzo doubled between 1993 and 2011.

The factors that catapult these outbreaks are consistent: poverty associated with agricultural crises provoked by drought or war. Those affected belonged to the poorest segments of the most remote rural areas of Africa, perpetuating the silence and worsening the severity of the disease.

Field Notes on Konzo in the DRC

Photojournalist Neil Brandvold recounts his journey to a village called Kahemba, or "The Town of Suffering," to look for those afflicted by Konzo.

Meet the Journalist: Neil Brandvold

Photojournalist Neil Brandvold investigates the paralytic disease Konzo that has inflicted polio-life symptoms on thousands of the most impoverished people in Democratic Republic of Congo.


Category Archives: MONEY FINANCE BANKS

De Beers Sees Gem Price Rebound as Jewellery Sales Hit $81 Billion

(Bloomberg) — De Beers, the world’s biggest diamond producer, expects gem prices to rebound as cutters and polishers restock after the market was depressed by “softer than expected” holiday season sales.“We should see a slight rebound,” Chief Executive Officer Philippe Mellier said in an interview with Bloomberg Television. “Now we think that polished prices have bottomed and rough prices have also bottomed,” he said, referring to polished stones sold in jewelry and the uncut gems it mines.Rough diamond prices fell in the fourth quarter as banks that lend to the industry tightened credit. De Beers said the outlook for diamond jewelry growth in 2015 is positive across all the main markets after sales rose 3 percent to $81 billion last year.

Demand in the U.S., the biggest diamond market, rose 7 percent to $37 billion, while sales in China rose 6 percent to 62 billion yuan ($10 billion), according to De Beers, a unit of Anglo American Plc.

To contact the editors responsible for this story: Will Kennedy at Dylan Griffiths, Tony Barrett

Henry Sapiecha

This pink diamond gold coin is set to make history

This pink diamond gold coin is set to make history

The Perth Mint unveiled Tuesday a gold coin worth over US$6,000 (almost A$9,000), which features a rare Argyle pink diamond to depict a Kimberley sunset over a boab tree in the northwest wilderness region of Western Australia.

Struck in two ounces (56 grams) of 22-karat gold to proof quality, the 2015 Kimberly Sunset Pink Gold High Relief coin comes at a special moment, says the Mint, as the end of mining at Rio Tinto’s (LON:RIO) Argyle mine is around the corner.

This pink diamond gold coin is set to make history

Reports estimate the Argyle open-pit mine, where the coin’s gem is from, will remain open about five more years.

The reverse side of the piece, the first Australian legal tender gold coin to include a rare Argyle pink diamond, features an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II and the monetary denomination.

This pink diamond gold coin is set to make history

Henry Sapiecha

Term contract pricing in the diamond market- Paying for supply security

————————PRICING METHODS———————–

A term contract for a commodity is a long term agreement where material is transferred at intervals over the contract duration for a certain price. The price paid can take many forms; fixed price, tiered price, formula price etc. A common pricing form is an indexed price where the price of each delivery references a pricing index. This is typically the corresponding spot market for the type of material being contracted. Various adjustments take place surrounding quality aspects and timing with a quotational period (average of month/quarter + 1/2/3 months of delivery).

————————PRICE DISCOVERY———————–

The essence of a term contract is that the price is being set in the spot market. Now this poses a question for price discovery mechanism – is the spot market an accurate reflection of the total market preferences?

When we look at market efficiency and try to see if the market is thick (enough buyers and sellers to transact), we typically think of liquidity – are enough transactions going through the spot market exchange in order for the prices to be fair? However, this doesn’t go far enough. To be sure the market is efficiently pricing we need to ensure that the right market participants are transacting in the spot market.

If we were to find the equilibrium for the market as a whole (i.e. all transactions through spot), all demand preferences would be ordered from the highest willingness to pay to the lowest and the supply preferences ordered from the lowest cost to the highest. If participants are split into term and spot markets would arrive at the same price as the total market if the highest willingness to pay buyers and lowest cost sellers entered into the term contract. These market participants hold preferences that always lead to transactions regardless of the price. This then leaves the more marginal players in the spot market to arrive at the clearing price and quantity.

Ins4Luckily, the incentives are such that market participants act in this way and self-select. Those with high willingness to pay want to enter into term contracts to ensure security of supply and avoid volume risk. Those with the

Luckily, the incentives are such that market participants act in this way and self-select. Those with high willingness to pay want to enter into term contracts to ensure security of supply and avoid volume risk. Those with the lower willingness to pay would not want to lose their flexibility and so will be less inclined to enter long term agreements.

Inefficient outcomes can occur when term contract buyers are receiving material but have a willingness to pay less than the market clearing rate. In this case the buyer would want to leave the long term contract and be replaced by the high bidders in the spot market.  This process might take some time, but as an intermediary measure, material could be resold (subject to resale clauses etc.) in the spot market in order to increase quantities available here and reduce clearing price.

If buyers are willing to reveal their preferences and self-select as being a high willingness to pay by requesting a term contract then we should expect some interesting games surrounding how sellers to use this information. Producers could start charging a premium for the privilege. Any price greater than the market clearing would incentivise high willingness buyers to shift over to the spot market under the expectation that they would achieve the market clearing price and avoid paying the premium.

Buyers would be unlikely to entice over any low willingness buyers into term contracts because of the perverse price effects (market clearing price would increase because it would be set by the high willingness buyers in the spot market). The market would probably shift onto a full spot exchange with the same clearing prices as before any attempt to charge a premium.

However, the fact is that risk is reduced for the buyer and seller under a term contract. Quantities are known in advance and with certainty. There is also a market failure risk with unknown timing problems where supply may be thin for nothing other than mismatches between when producers and consumers enter bids and offers the exchange. This will have positive value and suggest a premium would be paid for by the weaker bargaining party.

A good way to allocate term contract volumes to those that are willing to pay the most are to use an auction approach in order to help reveal true preferences. Obviously careful planning of the auction would be necessary in order to avoid collusion between buyers. Self-selection could also be used to allocate. If term contracts were offered with an estimated premium attached then only those with the highest willingness to pay would take them up.

Henry Sapiecha

pink diamonds line image

Evidence from commodity markets that have implemented a competitive auction of term contracts have realised a c3% premium relative to the underlying spot index.


Now Place:2uzhan.com » Calculate the computation time

Calculate the computation time

Visual Basic .NET @ September 13, 2007   Views:0

I would like to calculate the computation time for my program.
But it seems not function.
What's wrong with my code?

Timer1.Enabled = True

*****my program

End Sub

That's not what the Timer class is for. A Timer is like an alarm clock, not a stopwatch. The Timer raises its Tick event every the Interval elapses, just like an alarm clock will set off its alarm every 12 or 24 hours. What you want is, oddly enough, a Stopwatch object:

Dim timer As Stopwatch = Stopwatch.StartNew()

'Do something here.

Thank you!
I get it.

© 2018 2uzhan.com Contact


In order to know the phrase health is wealth we should put some thought on the person meaning and significance of each phrases. Primary Health Care ( PHC ) adalah pelayanan kesehatan pokok yang berdasarkan kepada metode dan teknologi praktis, ilmiah dan sosial yang dapat diterima secara umum baik oleh individu maupun keluarga dalam masyarakat melalui partisipasi mereka sepenuhnya, serta dengan biaya yang dapat terjangkau oleh masyarakat dan negara untuk memelihara setiap tingkat perkembangan mereka dalam semangat untuk hidup mandiri (self reliance) dan menentukan nasib sendiri (self dedication).health

Our award-successful, greatest-in-class team of compassionate health and medical experts is aware of the healthcare system inside and outside and motivates individuals to take an active function of their well being. Contoh artikel bahasa inggris bertema kesehatan dengan judul Determinants of Health. Aside from the current health, the character’s maximum health may change beneath specific circumstances.health

To be healthy on this space, one should not solely protect the meals, water, and land from oneself, but globally, the whole world’s setting, like recycling paper, glass, and so on and doing neighborhood service. Again, a standard thought one has is that being healthy with this means being the most well-liked child in school, however in reality these are the ones that undergo essentially the most in this area. Pick up a duplicate of my guide and skim all about my journey, suggestions for ED restoration and help, and a great deal of food puns!

To perceive the field of medical insurance, it is helpful to start with probably the most basic things. I wager many teenagers, even myself as soon as, thought being physically well being meant having abs and being the fittest and sportiest person within the grade. Healthy coronary heart perform: The omeg-3 contained in walnuts is a good source of monounsaturated fatty acids just like oleic acid in other substances which boosts wholesome coronary heart.health

International Sanitary Conferences dan L’Office Internationale d’Hygiene Publique (OIHP): Latar belakang lahirnya konferensi ini ditandai antara lain, bahwa pada kurun waktu 1830 – 1847,wabah kolera melanda Eropa. We supply a full range of scientific and administrative providers as well as behavioral health and wellness applications supported by medical claims data science and a know-how platform that uses machine studying to drive people to have interaction of their well being and nicely-being.


VIII. 813 - Tobacco Policy

Effective 8-1-11

Through the University's respective commitments to wellness and sustainability, we are committed to presenting a healthy, safe and clean campus environment for students, visitors to campus, and the Drury community. Tobacco use, including but not limited to cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, e-cigarettes, snus, hookah, or any other tobacco product is prohibited on campus and inside University owned vehicles. The policy is enforceable for all general use and academic buildings, residence halls and apartment style housing, athletic facilities, open airspaces and common areas.


buy this star Random Star Random Location

QJK838: red dwarf star with 2 planets

Solar system 'QJK838' comprises the star 'QJK838' and the retinue of celestial objects gravitationally bound to it: 2 planets and their 159 moons, as well as asteroids, meteoroids, planetoids, comets, and interplanetary dust.

The principal component of this star system is the star 'QJK838', a red dwarf class star that contains about 99.98% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally. QJK838 is located more than 2705 lightyears from the center of the galaxy.

QJK838.1, the first planet in this system, may feature life forms. Its average temperature is 323K (50C) and it's atmosphere contains 8% of oxygen. One year on QJK838.1 lasts 253 days, one day lasts 5 hours. It's diameter is 15918 km, 1.2 times the diameter of the Earth.

This solar system comprises 2 planets

QJK838.1 is a large terrestrial planet (7959 km radius) which orbits its star in 253 Earth days, one day on QJK838.1 lasts 5 Earth hours. Its average temperature is 323 K (50 C), its atmosphere mainly consists of nitrogen and it has 8 moons.
QJK838.2 is a medium gas giant (25296 km radius) which orbits its star in 1180 Earth days, one day on QJK838.2 lasts 2 Earth hours. Its average temperature is 1013 K (740 C), its atmosphere mainly consists of hydrogen and it has 151 moons.
More planetary details...

Planetary Orbits

Use the following URL to link to this solar system:

Planetary Statistics

distance from star:54*106 km151*106 km
radius:7959 km25296 km
mass:4033*1021 kg129492*1021 kg
surface gravity: 4.24 m/s2
0.43 Earths
13.5 m/s2
1.38 Earths
escape velocity:8.224 km/s26.14 km/s
year: 1214 QJK838.1 days
253 Earth days
14160 QJK838.2 days
1180 Earth days
day:5 hrs2 hrs
axial tilt:23°
temperature:323 K
50 C
1013 K
740 C
atmosphere:84% N2
8% O2
8% CO2
0% other
97% H2
3% He
0% other

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Android Compatibility: a Primer for iOS Developers

I’ve been developing iOS apps since the end of 2010, so have only ever seen the world of Android from a distance. Where I’m from, you hear a lot of talk about the problem of fragmentation on Android. Whereas the adoption stats for new versions of iOS are pretty impressive (apparently iOS7 hit 33% iOS market share in just 24 hours, and 58% after one week) the situation on Android looks very different, with the second most popular Android version remaining Gingerbread, released in 2010.

With my iOS hat on, when PrayerMate launched on Android earlier this year, I assumed it would be far too much hassle for one independent developer working in his spare time to take on this fragmentation issue, so I decided to support only Honeycomb upwards – a major OS update which introduced some significant new changes to the core Android UI.

But what they don’t tell you over in iOS developer world is that the Android ecosystem provides some pretty impressive tools to make supporting older Android versions really easy. Let me give you a quick overview of just three reasons why adding support for older phones isn’t nearly as hard as you might imagine:

1. Compatibility-aware compiler

When you set up your Android project (I use Eclipse) you specify the minimum version your app supports. Out of the box, the compiler knows exactly which API level each feature was introduced at, and will throw a compiler error if you try to use functions that are too modern for the versions you claim to support. If you use conditional statements to alter behaviour by Android version, then you can use attributes in your code to say what API level a given function is designed to run against, to disable these compiler errors on just those bits of code. It also warns about deprecated APIs so that you can use more modern alternatives where appropriate.

This makes the situation so much easier than the native state-of-affairs on iOS. It wouldn’t surprise me if there was some way to figure out how to make XCode throw such compatibility errors, but out of the box you get no warning whatsoever if you use functions introduced in an iOS version later than the minimum one you hope to support, and the only way to discover this is through thorough testing and waiting for the crashes to happen (which needless to say is not very scalable!)

2. Compatibility support libraries

Another seriously impressive feature of the Android SDK is the compatibility support libraries. In many situations, where a new API has been introduced, the SDK then goes and adds an alternative implementation that conforms to the same method signatures but which ports the new functionality back so that it also works on older OS versions. This avoids the need to have lots and lots of conditional branches running separate codepaths on separate Android versions, and instead means you can just write one lot of code that works everywhere.

3. ActionBarSherlock

Ok, so this one isn’t native to the Android SDK (although a very similar library is) but there’s a great open source project out there called ActionBarSherlock which lets you add the “action bar” UI paradigm introduced in Honeycomb even when running on older Android versions. It requires a minimal amount of setup, and works almost identically to the real action bar. So, again, rather than having to invent two separate user interfaces depending on the Android version, you can have the same functionality running everywhere.

In conclusion, the Android fragmentation problem doesn’t seem nearly so scary to me as it once did. I managed to get PrayerMate to support Android versions all the way back to Froyo (v2.2) in a single (pretty relaxed) weekend, and because of support from the compiler I can be pretty confident of not having missed anything.

PrayerMate on older Android phones

New downloadable “Prayer gallery”

Support for older Android versions

Improved Dropbox support

Enter a list of names

Download it today

PrayerMate iOS v3.3.0

The update also includes some other minor updates:

  • Subject ordering should now be respected properly in prayer mode

New PrayerMate for Android Features!

There’s also plenty of bug fixes:

  • Fixed a few crashes whilst managing your data

How an ancient story from the Old Testament still affects software development today

Want to make a computer programmer groan? Just ask them to explain “unicode” to you and watch what happens, as all of the joy drains out of their face in an instant.

It turns out that an ancient story from one of the very earliest chapters of the Old Testament still casts a shadow over software development in the 21st Century. Which story? The account of the Tower of Babel and God’s subsequent judgement on the world – a judgement which still makes itself felt these many thousands of years later.

In the days of Noah, God recognised that the intentions of man’s heart was “only evil all the time”, and so he made a fresh start of the world, beginning again with just Noah and his family. Yet the human capacity for evil was undiminished, and it’s not long before we see the human race trying to exert their independence from God: “Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth.”

In one of those verses that proves what a sense of humour God has, we read that whilst they were busy trying to build the tallest tower imaginable, reaching to the very heavens, God still found it necessary to “come down” to get a closer look at the city and the tower, which the children of man had built.

It was a period of unprecedented harmony for the human race, but how did they choose to use that spirit of co-operation? To rebel against God and try to throw off his shackles, making a name for themselves. Even then, God loved us too much to leave us to this rebellion, and so he proposed a judgement fitting the crime:

Whilst their great intention was to prevent themselves being dispersed across the face of the earth, God did the very thing that they were afraid of and caused them to divide and spread out across the earth. He muddled their languages so that the unity they had previously enjoyed was destroyed, and in its place there was misunderstanding and gobbledegook.

And that, my friends, is why software developers today still have problems making their programs handle foreign characters properly. It’s not simply that computers can’t agree on what language to speak – in many ways, English is the common tongue of most software. It’s that even when there IS agreement on the language, computers can’t even decide quite how to represent that language. As Joel on Software explains in his excellent little introduction to Unicode:

The humble apostrophe causes no end of problems in even otherwise very straightforward English documents, if you use the curly kind rather than the straight line variety, since depending on the character encoding you use to save your document its codepoint could be presented in all manner of different ways: ISO-8859-1, UTF-8, UTF-16, big-endian, little-endian, blah blah blah. When you start getting in to languages with lots of accented characters like French, or even whole different alphabets such as Chinese, then it starts to get completely unmanageable unless you understand what you’re doing. And even when you understand what you’re doing, chances are you’re having to interact with libraries and services which DON’T understand what they’re doing, or which decide to handle things in an ever so slightly different manner.

So God’s curse on the sinful intentions of our hearts is still making itself felt even today. It can add all sorts of overhead when trying to get software based on different platforms to talk to each other. We’ve come a long long way from where we were a few years ago, but even so it can still cause much banging-ones-head-against-a-wall.

And so we cry, “Come, Lord Jesus!”

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