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Minimum Wages in India

Minimum Wages in India

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Minimum Wages in India: Issues and Concerns 1. Introduction 2. Background- Minimum Wages in India 3. Issues in Wage Policy a.

Norms for fixing minim wages b. Coverage c. Enforcement d. Implementation e. Gender gap 4. Need for meaningful minimum wage policy Abstract The wage and employment policies relating to the unorganised workers and in particular the issue of minimum wages paid to them has been a subject of considerable discussion among union leaders and labour experts in general. While minimum wage legislation has to a large extent been effective in providing protection to workers in the organised sector, with periodic revision, this has not been the case with the unorganised workers, who remain largely outside the purview of minimum wage legislation. 1. Introduction In India 93% of the total workforce work in the informal sector. The workers in informal sector, work in different employments such as (i) contract labour, (ii) construction worker (78 per cent are unorganised workers), (iii) casual labour, (iv) workers in small units -handloom, power-loom, beedi making, tanneries etc. (75 per cent of workers in manufacturing are unorganised workers), (v) sweepers and scavengers, (vi) employees in shops and (vii) workers in agriculture (about 98 per cent of the workers engaged in agriculture ate in unorganised sector) (Ghosh and Bharadwaj, 1992, pp 150-154). The concept unorganized sector consists of ownaccount workers and employers employed in their own informal sector enterprise,

the policy on wage determination had been to fix minimum wages in sweating employments and to promote fair wage agreements in the more organised industries. where labour is vulnerable to exploitation due to illiteracy and does not have effective bargaining power. 2003). Wages in the organised sector are determined through negotiations and settlements between employer and employees. domestic workers employed by households and own-account worker engaged in the production of goods exclusively for own final use by their household (International Conference of Labour Statistics. while they do not cover the unorganised sector. Background . while that in unorganised sector are not well regulated and b) workers in the organised sector are covered under social security legislations. a living wage (emphasis added) conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural opportunities". industrial or otherwise. In India. The term .Minimum Wages in India The Constitution of India envisages a just and humane society and accordingly gives place to the concept of living wage in the chapter on Directive Principles of State Policy. informal sector enterprises). The minimum wage legislation is the main labour legislation for the workers in this sector. 2. in unorganised sector. On the other hand.contributing family workers (irrespective of whether they work in formal or informal sector enterprises). members of informal producers’ cooperatives. The directive of the Indian Constitution contained in Article 43 which states that. "The State shall endeavour to secure by suitable legislation or economic organisation or in any other way to all workers. agricultural. The workers in informal sector are distinguished from the workers in formal sectors in the following way: a) in the organised sector activities are regulated by legislation. employees holding informal jobs (whether employed by formal sector enterprises. work. the intervention of the government becomes necessary both from the perspective of social justice and also for increasing efficiency and productivity in the economy. As a rule of thumb the demarcation line between organized and unorganized enterprises is at 10 employees.

(1998). To regulate the manner of payment of wages and their realisation in case of non-payment. 1946 which was followed by the adoption of the Minimum wages Act on March 15 1848. 1926 The Industrial Dispute Act. To enable unions to raise industrial disputes on wages and the conciliation machinery to intervene. and tanning and the establishments of a statutory wage board for fixing in tea plantations. The Act requires the appropriate government to fix minimum rates . 1976 The Payment of wages Act. Workers in scheduled employment to be paid minimum wage. Coinciding with the adoption of the first ILO Convention (No. The commission recommended minimum wages for beedi making. Labour laws for most workers in the informal sector are enforced by the state governments. V 41(4). while that for contractors and casual workers in establishments is regulated by the central government. wool cleaning. The Indian Journal Of Labour Economics. The objective of the Minimum Wages Act. Table 1 gives a list of legislations that have a direct influence on wages in the informal sector. 1947 The Equal remuneration Act. 1948 The trade Union Act. Wage Policy Issues in the Informal Sector. To enable workers of a number of small units to form unions. As a first step towards the initiation of minimum wage legislation in India was the introduction of the minimum wage Bill in the Indian Legislative Assemble on February 11.S. Assure equal wage to women for same or similar work. 1936 Type of intervention To provide minimum compensation for work. p 896. Source: Das. K. mica factories.'Labour' is included in the 'concurrent list' of the Constitution which provides for labour legislation both by the central and the state governments.26) on the Minimum wages was the setting up of the Royal Commission on Labour in India in 1929 to look into the issue. All labour laws enacted by the central government directly or indirectly influence wage level and structure of wages in the informal sector. who can bargain wages and other condition of work. Table 1: Labour legislations influencing wages in the informal sector in India Labour legislation The Minimum wage Act. 1948 is to ensure a minimum subsistence wage for workers.

Also. While the Centre has already made provision in respect of all scheduled employments in the central sphere. the concept of linking it to the rise in the consumer price index was recommended at the labour ministers' conference in 1988. guaranteed time rate and overtime rate". 22 states and Union Territories have adopted VDA as a component of minimum wage. such minimum wage may be fixed by 1) an hour. The minimum wage rate may be fixed at "time rate. 2) different works in the same employment. 3) adult. adolescent and children. Since then the concept of Variable Dearness Allowance (VDA) linked to consumer price index has been floated. piece rate. The Minimum Wage Act. The norms for fixing . or 4) any other period as may be prescribed by the notified authority. Under the Minimum Wages Act. Once a minimum wage is fixed according to the provisions of the Act. the Indian Labour Conference in 1957 had said that the following norms should be taken into account while fixing the minimum wage. The VDA is revised twice a year in April and October. it is not open to the employer to plead his inability to pay the said wages to his employees. 3) month.of wages in respect of employment specified in the schedule and review and revise the minimum rates of wages at intervals not exceeding five years.. 1948 provides for fixation and enforcement of minim wages in respect of schedule employments to prevent sweating or exploitation of labour through payment of low wages. In order to protect the minimum wages against inflation. the appropriate governments are required to revise the minimum wages in all scheduled employments under their respective jurisdiction at an interval not exceeding five years. 2) day. Norms for fixing minimum wages In the absence of any criteria stipulated for fixing the minimum wage in the Minimum Wages Act. 4) different locations or 5) male and female. The Act also provides that different minimum wage rate may be fixed for 1) different scheduled employments.

minimum recreation.93 (including VDA) and for agricultural workers from Rs 86. food and clothing of a small family.27 to Rs 129. The Minimum Wage Act while being very progressive has led to specific problems. since capital is scarce and labour abundant and less productive.63 to Rs 129. medical requirement. 40 in 1998 and Rs. 35 in 1996. The Supreme Court in a historic judgment in 1992 said that children's education.25 to Rs 102. The minimum wages for unskilled workers in the central sphere vary from Rs 54. 3. In. 45 in 1999. Some of issues and concerns faced in India regarding minimum wages is summarized below: a. Doubts have been raised on the existence of a clear and coherent wage policy in India. wages are relatively lower in India. Minimum wages are expected to cover the essential current costs of accommodation. ceremonies. including festivals. Norms for fixing minim wages . (d) rent corresponding to the minimum area provided under the government's Industrial Housing Scheme and (e) fuel. lighting and other miscellaneous items of expenditure to constitute 20 per cent of the total minimum wage.78 (including VDA) and for agricultural workers from Rs 19. (b) minimum food requirement of 2700 calories per average Indian adult. implementation and coverage in various parts of the country. In case of different states and Union Territories.25 to Rs 165.93 per day. Issues in Wage Policy in India Theoretically speaking. (c) cloth requirement of 72 yards per annum per family. This is mainly due to its poor norms of fixation. provision for old age and marriage should further constitute 25 per cent and be used as a guide for fixing the minimum wage. Rs.minimum wage rate are (a) three consumption units per earner. But minimum wages are not market clearing wages. enforcement. the national minimum floor level wage was increased to Rs 80 per day for all scheduled employments from Rs 66 in 2004 to Rs. They are regulatory wages to ensure that market wages do not fall below subsistence level. it varies from Rs 19.

The MWA also has a clause which states that if wages are not revised. his/her spouse and two children. the National Commission on Rural Labour in 1990. this rarely happens and there are instances of wages not being revised for more than 20 years. It should also ensure automatic enhancement of wages every six months on the basis of the Consumer Price Index. the guidelines laid down for the minimum wage by the 15th Indian Labour Conference (ILC) and the Supreme Court suggest that a minimum wage for 8 hours of work should be high enough to cover all the basic needs of the worker. The Act stipulates that minimum wage rates are to be revised keeping in mind inflation. As per this system. skilled and highly-skilled. Additionally. different wages are fixed for the same work in different sectors. For instance. only one . To overcome these deficiencies. semi-skilled. Certain norms have been laid out including that of calorie requirements. yards of cloth per family and so on. However. unskilled. Fixation of different rates in different regions for different categories of workers often makes the structure of minimum wage very complex. that is. Also. Another inadequacy is that though the MWA requires wages to be revised every five years. leaving some workers to live below poverty line. the existing wages should continue.The Act does not set out a minimum wage in rupee terms but just stipulates that the wage be a living wage which is to be decided by each state. The machinery for fixation of minimum wages in India has not been uniform. they are not linked to the payment of dearness allowance. several states (examples) have rationalised all the different occupation categories into just four categories. a peon in the metal-rolling industry may be fixed higher or lower wages than a peon in the plastic industry or in a shop or commercial establishment though a peon's job will be the same wherever he may work. Further to overcome these inadequacies. recommended that the MWA should be amended to compel timely revision of wages and it should be linked to VDA. This has only led to greater laziness and unaccountability on the part of labour departments. in many states while fixing the minimum wages. real wages of workers keep eroding due to inflation (example). But this amendment has remained an unfulfilled dream for workers. As a result.

the employment or industrial activity has to be included in the schedule of Employments. d. Sate or Local) to fix a minimum wage for workers in unorganised sectors. Enforcement Poor enforcement of the Act is another issue prevalent in most of the states in India. c. As a result their wages have long since failed to keep pace with rising costs and continue to diminish in real value over time. rather than the time-consuming system of notifying wages individually for various industries. This is particularly true in remote areas and in areas where workers are not unionized or otherwise organised. including the Indian Labour Ministry website. Though the system gives a clear and detailed information of minimum wages. often exemptions from the payment of minimum wages have been granted to industries. In addition. This is mainly due to lack of awareness amongst the workers about minimum wage provisions and their entitlement under the labour laws. many activities are excluded from the list. b. minimum wage levels have been revised only at long intervals (where the actual . Currently the number of scheduled employments in the Central government is 45 whereas in the state sphere the number is 1232. The Act empowers the appropriate government (Central. Implementation The main problem of minimum wage legislation in India is its poor implementation.notification is applicable to all industrie. Thus. Coverage In order to have minimum wage fixed. This criterion for inclusion has left a very large number of workers in the unorganised sector outside the purview of the Minimum Wage Act. The criterion for inclusion in the list of scheduled employment is that there should be at least 1000 workers engaged in that activity in the state. it has not been adopted by all states. However. which gives the minimum wage rate (unskilled) for each occupation.

At times. This diversity in locations and nature of work has left them vulnerable to exploitation in the absence of a broad legal standard. Poor implementation of MWA does not affect organised workers as much as it does to workers in unorganized sectors. Conclusion A meaningful wage policy has to include besides a minimum wage fixed at a reasonable level. But much of the gender disparity in incomes among women wage workers is explained by imperfections in the labor market. Therefore the rules would be difficult to implement. Globalisation and informalisation of the workers. many workers for the fear of losing their jobs do not report about payments lower than the minimum wage rate. as domestic workers unions get stronger. the unorganised workers remain largely neglected. these workers are even forced by their employers to certify payments below minimum wages. Low incomes of women in informal wage employment appear to be mainly due to low level of education. Unorganised workers are employed with millions of employers (generally small trade.prescribed limit is within 5 years). sole proprietor or household) who are scattered and hence becomes difficult to cover them under law. While the existing legal provision enables the government to protect organised sector wages with periodic revisions. employers may be forced to shell out the required amounts. provision for assured employment for a minimum number of days. . the problem is the demand/supply equation. Whether laying down a decent wage for workers is workable…well. a mere national floor level of wages is not sufficient to protect all the workers. Also. There is a large supply of cheap labour and this is what keeps the wages of the domestics low. enterprise. (employment guarantee scheme). Such a failure in implementation of MWA is not only due to loopholes in policy design but is also an outcome of lapses in the administration. However.

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  1. 1. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA TIME MANAGEMENT for UNIVERSITY STUDENTS STUDENT HANDOUT PACKAGEWorkshop Objectives  Assess your use of time.  Identify obstacles and potential solutions to develop effective time management skills.  Analyze current time management practices.  Describe personal energy cycle.  Identify personal goals and practice a method of setting priorities.  Create a personal time management plan aligned with goals and priorities.  Identify more resources/tools to implement time management strategies. TIME MANAGEMENT OBSTACLES: WHAT IS STANDING IN YOUR WAY? 11. High School versus University Expectations2. Procrastination  Screen time is an obvious example (Facebook, YouTube, MSN, email, movies, TV, etc).  “Busy-work procrastination”3. Time between classes4. Commuting5. Perfectionism6. Unrealistic expectations  Expecting to finish large portions of work in short periods of time (i.e.“Catch-up time management”)  Spending too much time on one activity so one’s concentration dwindles.1 Adapted from: University of Guelph, “Learning Time,” The Learning Commons,<http://www.webshops.uoguelph.ca/learningtime/welcome.htm> (10 December 2004). 1
  2. 2. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA TIME MANAGEMENT EXERCISE It is important to acknowledge that time management, stress management and goal setting are all inter-connected to each other. Many factors affect how we manage our time, both internal and external. It is key to focus on the factors we are able to control. Fill in the chart below and ask yourself: What are my biggest problems? What are some potential solutions? Big Problem Often a Sometimes a Seldom a for me Problem Problem Problem1. Not setting goals and deadlines.2. Leaving things until the last possible minute.3. Priorities unclear or changing faster than you are aware of4. Leaving tasks unfinished5. “Fire fighting” or crisis management6. Not following through with plans.7. Attempting too much – unrealistic time estimates.8. Late for class9. Personal disorganization (e.g., cluttered desk)10. Handing in assignments late11. Lack of self-discipline12. Lack of motivation13. Not enough sleep14. Too many interests and commitments15. Easily distracted from task (e.g., by telephone calls, visits) My 2 Biggest Problems are:  _______________________________________________________  _______________________________________________________ Potential Solutions include: o _______________________________________________________ 2
  3. 3. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA WHERE DOES THE TIME GO? PERSONAL TIME SURVEY2Think about how many hours you spend on each of the following tasks considered the necessitiesand basic living tasks. Multiply that number by 7 to get an idea of how many hours you spend eachweek on that item.1. Number of hours of sleep each night ________ X 7 = _______2. Number of grooming hours per day ________ X 7 = _______3. Number of hours for meals/snacks per day (include ________ X 7 = _______ preparation time).4a. Total travel time weekdays ________ X 5 = _______4b. Total travel time weekends ________ X 2 = _______5. Number of hours per week for regularly scheduled functions (clubs, gym, get-togethers, etc.) ____________________6. Number of hours per day for chores and errands ________ X 7 = _______7. Number of hours of class per week ____________________8. Number of hours of work per week ____________________9. Number of average hours per week socializing, dates, etc. Be honest! ____________________ Now add up the totals: ____________________ Subtract the above number from 168 = 168- _______= _______Study Hour Formula*Easy class (# study hours needed) ________ x 2 = _______Average class (# study hours needed) ________ x 3 = _______Difficult class (# study hours needed) ________ x 4 = _______Total _______Compare this number to your time left from the survey box above. Have you left yourself enoughtime for your studies?*Remember that this formula is only a guideline, and actual times need to be based on the facultyand course in question.2 Adapted from: George Mason University, “Personal Time Survey,” Self-Development Center, <http://www.gmu.edu/gmu/personal/time.html> (10 December 2004). 3
  4. 4. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA YOUR ENERGY CYCLEConsider when you are “at your best” and plan activities according to your energy cycle. If this is ahard task to do on the spot, try charting a typical weekday and weekend sometime this week.100%Energy50%0 _______AM _______Noon ______PMREFLECTION QUESTIONS: 1. Do you plan your day to work with your energy cycle? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. How could you better utilize your period of peak energy? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4
  5. 5. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA PRIORITIZE your PERSONAL GOALSAnother important aspect of time management is goal setting and prioritization. You can’t prioritizebefore you have determined your life, career or personal goals. Take the time to think about yourgoals. Consider goals for the next: week, month, term, year, five years…Ask yourself: 1. Do your goals span all the areas of your life? (career, family, friendships, spiritual, pleasure, community, self-growth….) 2. How do you plan to achieve your goals? 3. Are there any obstacles to realizing your goals?Be sure your goals are SMART3:S – SpecificState exactly what you want to achieve. Can you break a larger task down intosmaller items?M - MeasurableEstablish clear definitions to help you measure if you’re reaching your goal.A - Action-OrientedDescribe your goals using action verbs, and outline the exact steps you will take to accomplishyour goal.R - RealisticGive yourself the opportunity to succeed by setting goals you’ll actually be able to accomplish. Besure to consider obstacles you may need to overcome.T - Time-BoundNow much time do you have to complete the task? Decide exactly when you’ll start and finish yourgoal.NEXT, Set Your Priorities  list things that need to be done.  prioritize by listing them according to: A - must do (top priority, critical) B - should do (worthwhile, but not essential) C - nice to do (low value, can be eliminated or postponed)3 Adapted from: Sanger Learning and Career Centre, Learning Handouts, SMART Goals,<http://www.lifelearning.utexas.edu/handouts/setting%20smart%20goals.pdf> (15 January 2011). 5
  6. 6. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA CREATE A PERSONAL TIME MANAGEMENT PLANYou have assessed and analyzed your current time management strategies, your biggest problemareas, your energy cycle, established your goals and prioritize now it is time to put this plan downon paper. To give you a head’s start on your weekly time management schedule – begin to fill outthis weekly timetable. Indicate your classes, regular & flexible study times, work schedule,recreational activities and other standing commitments on this scheduler. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday 6:00-7:00 7:00-8:00 8:00-9:00 9:00-10:00 10:00-11:00 11:00-12:00 12:00-1:00 1:00-2:00 2:00-3:00 3:00-4:00 4:00-5:00 5:00-6:00 6:00-7:00 7:00-8:00 8:00-9:00 9:00-10:00 10:00-11:00 11:00-12:00 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 6
  7. 7. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIAUBC Learning Commons: o Time Management Toolkit http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/get-started/study-toolkits/time- management-toolkit/ o Procrastination Concentration Toolkit http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/get-started/study- toolkits/procrastinationconcentration-toolkit/ o Stop Wasting Time Online http://learningcommons.ubc.ca/get-teched-up/getting-your- study-on/stop-wasting-time-online/UBC Library’s Assignment Calculator http://assignmentcalculator.library.ubc.ca/index.phpOnline timer stopwatch http://www.timeme.com/timer-stopwatch.htmUniversity of Guelph’s online guide to time managementhttp://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/guides/time_management/#homeStudy Guides and Strategies o Daily schedule http://www.studygs.net/schedule/index.htm o Weekly Schedule http://www.studygs.net/schedule/Weekly.html o Create a quick and easy prioritized ‘to do’ list. http://www.studygs.net/stressb.htm 7


Macbeth is better with beer. When Jonathan Owicki staged the well-worn Shakespearean tragedy in March, he decided to add a drinking game, which he says helped the audience—and actors—gain a deeper understanding of the original text.

"I decided to have a simple game, which is: Drink every time blood is mentioned. And this happens a lot," says Owicki, who stages "Shakespeare parties" in bars around Portland, where every attendee receives a role and script at the door and helps act out the plays while hitting the sauce. "You can read about the blood imagery in Macbeth on paper, but this really brought home 'this is how Shakespeare uses the language—I really notice how often Shakespeare mentions blood because I'm drinking every time.'"

Portland loves its Shakespeare. But this year, it feels like the interpretations have taken on an especially twisted bent.

In July, Hillsboro theater company Bag&Baggage staged Kabuki Titus, melding the grisly tragedy of Titus Andronicus with traditional Japanese kabuki theater, while Portland Shakespeare Project commissioned local playwright C.S. Whitcomb to reimagine King Lear, recasting the king as a tobacco tycoon in 1920s Virginia in Lear's Follies. And Sunday, Aug. 26, the Original Practice Shakespeare Festival—which performs without rehearsal, with each actor taking a different role for every performance and an onstage prompter who directs improvised entertainment every time a plane flies overhead—will perform its final show of the season, staging As You Like It in Mount Tabor Park.

But honors for the most original interpretation of the Bard for the 2012 season probably go to the Anjali School of Dance, which in September performs A Midsummer Night's Dream using the traditional, 200-year-old Indian dance form of bharatanatyam. Anita Menon, the school's founder and artistic director, says she wanted to tell stories that would resonate more with her young dancers, who all studied A Midsummer Night's Dream in sixth grade.

"I think they dance with a lot more passion if they relate to the stories," Menon says. "We have always passed down the traditional dance form, but I'm equally passionate about making sure…it's interesting for the next generation of dancers."

The Western world's intimate familiarity with the works of Shakespeare is key to their adaptability, says John Schmor, head of the theater arts department at the University of Oregon.

"They're known even if they're not known," says Schmor, who once staged a zombie version of Hamlet. "You could draw the balcony scene [from Romeo and Juliet] and someone who's never read the play or seen the title could tell you what scene it is."

Owicki agrees that a "Chekhov Party" wouldn't quite have the same appeal. His next Shakespeare Party will also feature As You Like It, performed in the graffiti-covered downtown basement of the Jack London Bar. He says to expect lots of "queer gender-bending fun" and five or six dance breaks.

"I think people enjoy reclaiming something that is often seen as a bit stuffy and a bit inaccessible and saying, 'No I'm telling this story,'" Owicki says, "'and I'm doing it while slightly drunk in a bar.'"

SEE IT: The Shakespeare Party performs As You Like It at the Jack London Bar, 529 SW 4th Ave., 227-5327, on Thursday, Aug. 23. 7 pm. $5 donation. The Original Practice Shakespeare Festival's As You Like It plays at Mount Tabor Park, Southeast 60th Avenue and Salmon Street, on Sunday, Aug. 26. 1 pm. Free.


Derbyan Parakeet

Derbyan Parakeet

COMMON NAME: Derbyan parakeet
KINGDOM: Animalia
PHYLUM: Chordata
ORDER: Psittaciformes
FAMILY: Psittacidae (true parrots)
GENUS SPECIES: Psittacula (parrot) derbiana

DESCRIPTION: These parakeets have a lilac breast and abdomen. The nape, back, and wings are emerald green with large yellow-green patches on the wings. The tapered tail is blue. The face is gray with an iridescent blue-green wash, large black moustache-shaped markings on the lower cheeks and neck, and a black line above upper mandible that runs back to the eyes.
MALE Males are distinguished from females by their bright coral-red upper mandible, tipped in yellow. The lower mandible is black.
SIZE: Approximately 33 cm (13.2 in.)
WEIGHT: Approximately 228.6 g (8 oz)
DIET: Includes wild figs, wild and orchard fruit, flowers, nectar, berries and leaves
INCUBATION: 20-30 days
CLUTCH SIZE 2-4 eggs
SEXUAL MATURITY: Approximately 2-3 years
LIFE SPAN: Approximately 15-20 or more years
RANGE: Southeastern Tibet, western Szechwan and northwestern Yunnan, China
HABITAT: Inhabits forests, orchards, and cultivated crop areas
STATUS: IUCN Not listed
CITES Appendix II
USFWS Not listed

1. The bills of Derbyan parakeets are designed to nest in tree cavities that woodpeckers have previously dug out.
2. Their markings are great for camouflage among the trees. The green and black feathers are perfect in matching them with the sun shining through the trees.
3. These parakeets are very noisy and are often spotted in flocks of about 40 individuals.
4. There are several different color variations between subspecies that depends on distribution.

Because these parakeets have fast digestive systems, the fruits, berries, and other seeds they eat help to disperse the seeds. This in turn propagates the plant life in the rainforest.

These birds are protected but not threatened other than by pet trade. The U.S. Wild Bird Act forbids the commercial import of any bird listed by CITES which includes most parrots - endangered or threatened.

Cooper, W. Parrots of the World. New Jersey. TFH Publications, Inc. 1973.

Forshaw, J.M. Parrots of the World. New Jersey. T.F.H. Publications, Inc. 1978.

Peterson, R. Handbook of Birds. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1980.

Simpson, D.P. Cassell's Latin Dictionary. New York Macmillan Publishing Company. 1959.


Tensile rock mass strength estimated using InSAR

[1] The large-scale strength of rock is known to be lower than the strength determined from small-scale samples in the laboratory. However, it is not well known how strength scales with sample size. I estimate kilometer-scale tensional rock mass strength by measuring offsets across new tensional fractures (joints), formed above a shallow magmatic dike intrusion in western Arabia in 2009. I use satellite radar observations to derive 3D ground displacements and by quantifying the extension accommodated by the joints and the maximum extension that did not result in a fracture, I put bounds on the joint initiation threshold of the surface rocks. The results indicate that the kilometer-scale tensile strength of the granitic rock mass is 1–3 MPa, almost an order of magnitude lower than typical laboratory values.

1. Introduction

[2] Knowledge of the tensional strength of rock is important for mining and construction, e.g., tunneling [Zhang, 2010], and for various research fields in earth science [Jaeger et al., 2007; Schultz, 1996]. However, laboratory tests of tensional strength are difficult to perform [Luong, 1988] and there is no general agreement on how such tests should be carried out [Coviello et al., 2005]. Another problem is that the strength of small intact rock samples determined in the laboratory does not represent the lower strength of larger rock masses [Schultz, 1996], which typically already contain numerous micro-cracks and imperfections. Therefore, empirical relationships are commonly used to estimate the failure strength of rock masses [Hoek and Brown, 1997].

[3] In this study, I estimate the tensional rock-mass strength of granitic rocks on a kilometer scale by quantifying offsets across a network of newly formed tensional surface fractures, or joints. I first use multiple Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) observations [Massonnet and Feigl, 1998] from the Envisat and ALOS satellites to map the 3D surface displacements of the study area in western Saudi Arabia and from the results calculate the different components of the surface strain tensor. I then quantify the total displacement across the joint network, which provides an upper bound of the extension needed to form new joints in the rock mass, and use the maximum extensional deformation observed outside the joint network to constrain how much the surface materials can deform before tensional joints begin to form. Together, these constraints provide an estimate of the tensional strength of the kilometer-scale rock mass, assuming that the surface rocks were not significantly pre-strained nor that they contained large fractures before the intrusion.

[4] InSAR observations have not been used before to estimate tensional fracture limits of rocks. However, other mechanical properties of surface materials have been inferred from InSAR data and from differential LIDAR. One example is from the co-seismic deformation field of the 1992 Landers and the 1999 Hector Mine earthquakes in California, where concentrated deformation can be seen in InSAR data correlating with fault zones in the vicinity of the coseismic rupture, indicating that the material in these fault-zones is about 50% more compliant than the ambient crustal rock [Fialko et al., 2002; Fialko, 2004]. Another example comes from the observed asymmetry of coseismic deformation of the 1997 Manyi (Tibet) earthquake, which was attributed to non-linear elasticity, i.e., that the elastic moduli of the crust under tension may be a factor of 2 smaller than under compression [Peltzer et al., 1999]. An alternative explanation for the observed coseismic asymmetry is a more complicated fault geometry in the earthquake [Funning et al., 2007]. More recently, differential LIDAR measurements were used to measure large shear strains (exceeding 1000 μstrain) in alluvial deposits near the fault rupture of the El Mayor (Baja California, Mexico) earthquake [Oskin et al., 2012]. Finally, InSAR observations of poro-elastic rebound after earthquakes have provided bounds on the difference between undrained and drained Poisson's ratios,νu − ν.Postseismic movements in fault step-overs of the Landers earthquake due to pore-fluid flow were explained using a Poisson's ratio difference ofνu − ν = 0.03 [Peltzer et al., 1996]. Similarly, near-fault poro-elastic rebound after two earthquakes in South Iceland was modelled usingνu − ν ≥ 0.04 [Jónsson et al., 2003].

2. Study Area

[5] The study area is within a Precambrian continental crust on the western Arabian Peninsula. Several basaltic lava provinces (called harrats) have developed on top of this craton during the past 30 million years along with the opening of the Red Sea [Camp and Roobol, 1992]. A few volcanic eruptions during the past centuries, including the 1256 AD Al Madinah eruption [Camp et al., 1987], show that these harrats are still active, although the lava provinces are seismically inactive most of the time. One of these areas, Harrat Lunayyir, reawakened in April–May 2009 with an intensive seismic swarm and surface faulting at the northern edge of the lava province, peaking on 17–20 May with six magnitude 4.6–5.7 earthquakes [Pallister et al., 2010], and continuing until August. The activity prompted the Saudi civil protection authorities to evacuate more than 40,000 people from the area.

[6] Significant surface deformation followed the earthquake activity and it was clearly recorded by satellite radar interferometry (InSAR). The deformation pattern is characterized by east-west extension, graben subsidence at the northern edge of the lava province, and numerous discontinuities on either side of the graben (Figure 1). The western side of the graben is bounded by a single ∼14 km long normal fault that has up to 1 meter of normal faulting. In contrast, the eastern side is marked by multiple fractures and faults that show up as irregular discontinuities in the radar interferograms (Figure 1a). Most of these fractures are north of the lava flows in the granitic Precambrian basement rock. The InSAR data have shown that the earthquake activity and the deformation were caused by a near-vertical dike intrusion and faulting of the surface above the intrusion [Jónsson et al., 2009; Pallister et al., 2010; Baer and Hamiel, 2010].

Figure 1.

Surface deformation above the 2009 Harrat Lunayyir dike intrusion in western Saudi Arabia. The inset shows the location of the study area as well other lava provinces (dark). (a) InSAR data with each color-fringe representing 11.8 cm of ground displacement into the line-of-sight (LOS) direction (arrow) of the imaging ALOS satellite. The area covered in Figure 1b is shown with a dashed rectangle. (b) Derived horizontal (arrows) and vertical (colormap) surface displacements, mapped faults and fractures (black lines), and photograph locations P1–P3 (seeFigure 2). Coordinates are in UTM-km, zone 37R.

3. Derivation of 3D Displacements

[7] To determine the full 3D surface displacement field caused by the dike intrusion, I use multiple single-component InSAR observations and invert for the three components of displacement in each pixel on the ground [Fialko et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2004]. The single-component displacement data consist of InSAR data from the Envisat and ALOS satellites and multiple aperture interferometric (MAI) along-track measurements [Bechor and Zebker, 2006; Jung et al., 2009]. The MAI measurements provide the horizontal displacement parallel to the satellite's flying direction and therefore complement the InSAR line-of-sight observations. I derive the 3D displacements using a total of five different datasets: Envisat InSAR data, acquired from both ascending and descending orbits, ascending ALOS InSAR data, and MAI measurements from the ascending and descending Envisat data (seeauxiliary material). The resulting horizontal displacements show almost 1.5 m of extension across the area, uplifting flanks and up to 60 cm of subsidence within the NNW-SSE oriented graben (Figure 1b). The pattern of 3D displacements is far from being symmetric across the graben. One major normal fault bounds the graben to the west, showing tens of cm vertical offset, while multiple fractures can be seen on the eastern side (Figure 1b). This asymmetry is clearly seen when vertical displacements along a profile crossing the graben are plotted (Figure 2). The profile displacements show over 60 cm vertical offset across the western boundary normal fault, but a gradual vertical change to the east, with no large vertical offsets. However, discontinuities in the InSAR data (Figure 1a) show that there is movement across fractures on the eastern side and the derived horizontal displacements confirm this, showing 10–20 cm offsets across three fractures (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Vertical and east displacement along profile A–B and photographs taken at locations P1–P3 (see Figure 1b), showing over 60 cm of normal faulting displacement in the west, but opening across fractures in the east. Green vertical bars indicate the photo locations along the profile.

[8] Field observations confirm the different style of movement on the graben bounding fractures. A clear normal faulting displacement of tens of cm can be traced on the western side for several km in the field (Figure 2, P1). In contrast, surface fractures in the east appear to have no significant vertical displacements (Figure 2, P2–P3). This lack of vertical offset was confirmed with leveling measurements at locations P2 and P3 and through visual inspection of the fractures to the north of P2 and P3. Therefore, the fractures on the eastern side of the graben are primarily tensional fractures, or joints, that formed when the extensional stresses, caused by the intruding dike and the normal faulting in the west, exceeded the tensional strength limit of the surface rocks.

4. Tensile Strength Estimation

[9] To estimate the tensional strength of the surface rocks, we need to gain insight into the magnitude of the tensional strain required to initiate jointing. From the derived 3D displacement field, we can calculate the amount of surface strain above the dike intrusion, which provides information to constrain the tensional strength. The total amount of extensional strain across the joint network on the eastern side of the dike, here termed as final strain εf, is composed of two parts [Segall and Pollard, 1983]:

display math

where subscripts e and j refer to the strain accommodated elastically and by open joints, respectively. This final strain, however, does not provide accurate information about the threshold strain needed to initiate jointing, here noted as εi, as the threshold has already been exceeded and joints have formed. Therefore, the following inequality should apply across the joint network:

display math

implying that the final strain must be larger or equal to the initiation threshold of the joints. In contrast, the strain in areas outside the joint network is composed only of elastic strain and that elastic strain must be smaller than the joint initiation threshold:

display math

as otherwise joints would have formed at these locations. This inequality also holds for the elastic strain accommodated within the joint network, i.e., between the joints. To constrain the joint initiation strain threshold, we can therefore both estimate the final strain across the joint network and find the maximum elastic strain in areas where there are no joints.

[10] To quantify the strain accommodated by the joint network east of the dike intrusion, I extract dike-perpendicular displacement values along two profiles, drawn on each side of the joint network (see profiles C–D inFigure 1b) and calculate the extensional strain. The maximum value is about 400 μstrain and drops to below 100 μstrain near both ends to the north and to the south (Figure 3). This amount of final strain implies that the initiation tensional stress for jointing is lower than 10 MPa, using the first inequality above and a Young's modulus of 25 GPa.

Figure 3.

Finite strain across the joint network east of the Harrat Lunayyir graben, as a function of the distance along profile C–D (see Figure 1b).

[11] The second inequality above can also help us to place bounds on the joint initiation threshold. First, I determine the different components of the strain tensor by computing finite differences of the 3D displacement field. This calculation requires some filtering, as the pixel-to-pixel values of the determined 3D displacement field are somewhat noisy, especially the poorly determined north-south component (seeauxiliary material). Looking at the east component of normal strain, εxx(similar to the dike-perpendicular component, but less noisy), there is a significant amount of compression to the east and to the west of the graben, while a clear extension is seen across the fractures and in the area to the south and to the north (Figure 4a). The extension to the north and south is mostly within 10–20 μstrain and systematic analysis shows that it scarcely exceeds 50 μstrain. The main exception is the area southwest of the graben that shows larger strains of up to 100–150 μstrain. This area, however, is covered by aa lava flows, which are likely underlain by a southward extension of the western graben normal fault. Faulting occurring under a thick pile of unconsolidated volcanic products is unlikely to propagate to the surface and will thus be expressed as highly strained areas. Therefore, I use 50 μstrain as a representative value for the maximum elastic strain and find that the joint initiation threshold is likely larger than ∼1 MPa, using the second inequality above (equation (3)).

Figure 4.

Horizontal εxxstrain in Harrat Lunayyir in (a) a map view and (b) along profiles E-F showing concentrated strain across the western fault and the eastern joints, but otherwise with strain ranging from −20 to +20μstrain.

[12] Above, I have used the two inequalities (equations (2) and (3)) to argue that the initiation stress for jointing has to be larger than 1 MPa and smaller than 10 MPa. The lower bound is unlikely to be much higher, as the surface strain exceeds 50 μstrain only in areas covered by aa lava flows or other unconsolidated volcanic products. In contrast, the initiation threshold is clearly below the upper bound of 10 MPa, as the extensive joint network indicates that the extension far exceeded the tensional strength of the material. A possible further constraint on the upper bound is to look at the maximum displacement across individual joints in the joint network and normalize the results with the joint spacing, because in some joints the local strain has well exceeded the initiation threshold, while in other cases it may have been just above the joint initiation limit. Displacement profiles across the joint network show that the individual joints accommodate displacement in the range ∼10–30 cm, which, along with the typical joint spacing of ∼0.5–1 km, suggests that the initiation strain may be as low as ∼100 μstrain, corresponding to a strength of 3 MPa. With this new upper bound, I estimate the bulk tensional strength to be in the range of 1–3 MPa.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

[13] The derived rock-mass tensional strength can be compared with tensional strength measurements of small rock samples in the laboratory. Direct tensional tests are not easy to perform, due to edge effects and the difficulty of gripping onto samples [Luong, 1988; Xu et al., 1988]. Therefore, tensional strength in the laboratory is usually determined using indirect tests, such as the so-called Brazilian or point-load tests [Butenuth, 1997]. However, there is no general agreement on how indirect tensile strength tests should be carried out [Coviello et al., 2005]. Harrat Lunayyir is mainly underlain and surrounded by Precambrian granitic rocks [Kemp, 1981] and the various laboratory tests on similar rock types show tensional strength in the range 8–15 MPa [Wijk et al., 1978; Butenuth, 1997; Gomez et al., 2001; Coviello et al., 2005], almost an order of magnitude higher than our estimate of tensional rock-mass strength of 1–3 MPa.

[14] It is important to keep in mind that our tensile strength estimate is based on three important assumptions. First is that we need to assume one material constant and here I use a relatively low Young's modulus of 25 GPa, as surface rocks are likely to be significantly more compliant than rocks at several km depth in the crust [Rubin and Pollard, 1987]. Using a larger Young's modulus of, e.g., 50 GPa [Segall and Pollard, 1983] would result in a tensional strength of 2–6 MPa, which is still significantly lower than laboratory values.

[15] The second assumption is that the surface rocks were not significantly pre-strained before the dike intrusion began, such that the large measured strain change during the intrusion reflects the total strain. We know from InSAR observations that there was no deformation in the area during the 5 years before the intrusion, but we have no quantitative information about the deformation history before that time. It is clear that shallow crustal rocks can store significant strains for years, e.g., strains induced by dike intrusions [Hamling et al., 2010], although these strains may relax somewhat on the timescales of decades, particularly in active rift zones [Hofton and Foulger, 1996]. However, Harrat Lunayyir is not an active spreading center like those seen in Afar and Iceland, where repeated intrusions occur during rifting episodes [Wright et al., 2012]. On the contrary, dike intrusions in Harrat Lunayyir seem to be rare and happen as isolated events, with the last known (possible) activity prior to the 2009 intrusion taking place in the 10th century [Pallister et al., 2010].

[16] The third and final assumption is that the observed joints are new fractures, but not reactivations of older structures. While the Harrat Lunayyir area has seen many intrusions and eruptions during the past several million years, it does not exhibit large surface faults or a rift zone. Repeated dike intrusions in rift zones like Afar have caused movement on primarily preexisting faults, rather than generating new ones [Grandin et al., 2009]. No such large-scale pre-existing fractures and faults were detected during fieldwork in the Harrat Lunayyir area and the observed fracture movement on the surface appeared to be on new faults and joints. That said, however, joints form along imperfections and cracks in the rock mass, which demonstrates the strength difference in laboratory tests.

[17] Mapping 3D displacements and strain from space with InSAR may help to put bounds on the strength limit of surface rocks in many other areas around the world and for other rock types. Where new surface fractures are observed, e.g., at the upper edge of landslides, near significant subsidence bowls, and in coseismic deformation fields, the location of the discontinuities and the surface strain can be mapped using InSAR. Similar to the work presented here, quantifications of the minimum strain resulting in a new fracture and the maximum strain without a fracture can help in providing information about the fracture initiation threshold and thus the rock mass strength.

[18] I thank Zhong Lu (USGS) for processing the MAI data, and Tim Wright and one anonymous reviewer for constructive comments on the paper. I also thank Sabrina Metzger, Ramon Hanssen, Gertjan van Zwieten, and the KAUST students in the 2011 Seismotectonics class for helping out with fieldwork. The satellite radar data were provided by ESA and JAXA through Category 1 project 6703.

[19] The Editor thanks Tim Wright and an anonymous reviewer for their assistance in evaluating this paper.


Benjamin N. CardozoBenjamin N. Cardozo, born in 1870 in New York City, was a U.S. Supreme Court justice renowned for his integrity, social consciousness, and elegant opinions. Cardozo rose to prominence during 23 years of private practice, becoming known as a lawyer’s lawyer before appointment to the New York State Court of Appeals in 1914. During his tenure there he became the nation’s best known and most admired state court judge. He added to his reputation through highly acclaimed off-the-bench writings, of which the most important is The Nature of the Judicial Process (1921). By asking and answering the monumentally simple question, “What is it that I do when I decide a case?” he helped many see the judicial role with greater clarity.

The Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law is founded on the values its namesake cherished and the ideals he served, and like him, seeks to further a tradition of legal practice that evolves with the times.


The Importance of Actual Data in the Did Jesus Exist Debate

Here are two posts of Larry Hurtado in response to the mythicists. See what you think.

On Competence, Scholarly Authority, and Open Discussion
by larryhurtado

A little over two weeks ago, I naively posted on reports of re-emergence of the early 20th-century claims (back then made by a few journalists and writers, none of them competent in the fields involved) that “Jesus” was an entirely mythical/legendary figure, and that no “Jesus of Nazareth” ever lived. Along with the view of pretty near all scholars in the field, I expressed surprise and a certain weariness that a claim rather effectively considered and refuted many decades ago was making the rounds again as if it were new and had any strong merit. Immediately, there were urgent comments from supporters of the so-called “mythicist” Jesus line, some of them in reasonable tones, many of them scurrilous, angry, haughty, disdainful, and most of these latter types I simply deleted. Those who made assertions that could be engaged, however, I have typically responded to, trying as patiently as I could to explain briefly what scholars tend to hold, with selected illustrative data that they draw upon (but I have to say that patience is a virtue that I have to work at).

Some of those who have commented seem to be preoccupied with this issue, and it appears that there are a few blog sites out there pretty much devoted to the matter (especially, it seems, devoted to promoting/defending the “mythicist” point of view), and trying to question the basis of dominant scholarly views. But, after two weeks of to-and-fro on the issue, I think it’s time to move on. I say this for two main reasons.

First, in the two weeks of comments/responses to my postings, I’ve seen nothing cited by way of new evidence or analysis of known evidence that comprises a new and sufficient basis to treat the latest re-assertion of the “mythicist” Jesus claim as any more credible than the earlier versions refuted decades ago. I’ve asked for such, but I don’t see any. Some have claimed that the current wave of popular-oriented books offer such, but in spite of repeated invitations to point out briefly and specifically the supposed evidence and new reasons, I don’t recall any forthcoming.

Instead, what we have are many unsupported assertions (e.g., about Paul, early Christianity, ancient Judaism, Pharisees, etc.), put forth often with surprising confidence, but for which there is scant support in relevant scholarly circles, often out-dated generalizations, and distortions (albeit perhaps unintentional) of evidence. I’ve taken the trouble repeatedly to point out these errors in responses to comments, although it’s not clear that it’s had any effect on those who asserted the errors in question.

So, for example, a few have challenged whether the early Jesus-movement was really a Jesus-movement after all, proposing that it may have been simply a (vaguely alleged) eschatological sect that later came to adopt a Jesus-figure (of imagination) as its iconic centre. Having devototed a good many years, and resulting pages, to the matter of how Jesus featured in earliest Christianity, with pretty much every other scholar who has considered the question, I have to say that doesn’t fly. For the fuller reasons and argument behind this view of things, you’ll have to read some books, among them my own: esp. Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (2003), and How on Earth did Jesus Become a God? (2005). (I hasten to add that, unlike the works cited by “mythicist” advocates, these and the other books to which I have referred are the sort that have been widely reviewed by other scholars in various countries and from various perspectives, and have been subjected to the most detailed attention in scholarly conferences and symposia. They haven’t necessarily survived without criticism on some points, as you’d expect, but they’ve certainly been examined in detail, and were published precisely to invite such critical analysis.)

Others have noted rightly that some matters widely held by scholars are inferences drawn from evidence, and have urged that it is possible to imagine some other inference here and there. To these I’ve tried to indicate briefly why it is that scholars tend to prefer certain inferences as more likely than others. It’s been disappointing that sometimes the response has been an unfair accusation that I haven’t given a basis for scholarly views. I have, and repeatedly, but necessarily in abbreviated form, and I have urged seriously interested people to work through the scholarly studies where the fuller analysis and arguments are presented.

Part of the problem may be an insufficient acquaintance with how historians work with the limited data available. Let me illustrate this by analogous examples. To someone with limited acquaintance with ancient historical matters, it may seem impressive, for example, to learn that no writing by Jesus survives, or that a contemporary Jew such as Philo of Alexandria doesn’t mention him. So, one might buy the accusation that people posit a historical figure named Jesus without any (or adequate) basis and out of insufficiently examined bias. But, actually, the situation isn’t really so unique.

For a “pagan” example, take Apollonius of Tyana, for knowledge of whom we have almost exclusively a “Life” of the figure written by Philostratus, completed sometime in the early 3rd century CE. Per Philostratus, Apollonius lived in the early-mid first century CE, which means that our earliest text about him was composed some 150+ years after the putative date of his death. Yet, although there are many questions about exactly what he was and did, most scholars readily accept that there was such a figure. Philostratus’ “Life” is full of miraculous accounts that generate some doubts about them, and Apollonius is presented as a divine-like figure, but behind the account most scholars think there was a historical Apollonius, and that he likely had some following.

To point to Jewish examples, let’s consider Akiva, the great early rabbinic figure typically thought to have been active in the time of the Bar Kochba revolt (132-135 CE). Our earliest texts mentioning him are rabbinic writings, the earliest layer of which (Mishnah) may have been composed ca. 200 CE(?). We have anecdotes about Akiva, but large gaps in biographical information. Nevertheless, I think pretty much every scholar who has considered the matter judges that he’s a real historical figure and was of some significance.

As yet another example, let’s take Hillel, typically posited as living sometime first century BCE. He left no writings, and no contemporary mentions him (no reference in Philo, or Josephus, for example), and our earliest texts mentioning him are, again, rabbinic material, from sometime after ca. 200 CE, well over 200 years after his death. But Hillel is pretty important in Jewish tradition, and scholars (whatever their religious stance) tend to think that he lived and obviously made an impact sufficient to generate traditions about him.

You see? In positing a Jesus of Nazareth, there’s no funny business, no special pleading, no unique moves going on. It’s pretty much the same sort of historical reasoning that we have in these and other cases of ancient figures, particularly those of major significance. So, when scholars don’t react excitedly to people noting, for example, that the earliest extant narrative accounts of Jesus were written ca. 40-50 years after his death, it’s essentially because this isn’t unique. In fact, the date of the gospel accounts in relationship to the time of Jesus is comparatively pretty close. And when we note the abundant references to Jesus in Paul’s letters, dated ca. 50-60 CE (specifically, references to Jesus as born a Jew and ministering among Jews, crucified, examples of his teaching), we have even stronger basis for thinking that Jesus wasn’t some legend composed wholecloth by the gospel writers.

In the discussion I several times asked that proponents of a “mythicist” Jesus view provide the detailed analysis of the evidence that scholars are required to produce to make any impact. I may not have made myself clear, and one or two respondents seem to have thought what I wanted was the sort of lengthy (inadequately supported and ill-informed) blog-comment they sent. But serious scholarly work won’t get done in blog-comments. The way things work is that those who seek to influence scholarly/informed opinion (1) do the hard work involved in mastering the evidence and scholarly procedures, (2) produce sufficiently informed and well-argued cases that are directed to those competent to judge matters, (3) these are reviewed and assessed by fellow scholars (and, as anyone who has been so assessed can vouch, it isn’t an easy ride), and (4) if found persuasive, or at least a cogent alternative view, the work gets recognized and its views treated as worth the time of scholars.

From a recent blog comment, it appears that Thomas Brodie (a NT scholar based in Ireland) has forthcoming a book in which he presents his own distinctive proposal that the gospel accounts of Jesus are heavily shaped by narratives of OT figures, and the “Jesus” of the gospels is, thus, essentially a literary figure. Here’s the URL on the book: http://www.sheffieldphoenix.com/showbook.asp?bkid=217

When Brodie’s book appears, it should receive close scholarly attention and review, and we’ll see what is made of it by other scholars with sufficient expertise to assess it. But nothing of any weight has been produced in the last two weeks of discussion here to call into question the dominant judgement of scholars that “Jesus of Nazareth” is a real figure of history who generated a following during his own lifetime, and was executed by crucifixion. So, for now, let’s move on, and await whatever future scholarly discussion produces.

The second reason for doing so is that I’ve got a lot of other things to do besides try repeatedly to explain scholarly views and correct mis-understandings of them and the evidence on this matter. For example, I still haven’t finished that essay on early Christian apocrypha that I had started on two weeks ago!

So, best wishes to all those who read and interacted with me on the matter, and let’s see where things go in scholarly debate hereafter.

Ian Rankin's Even Dogs in the Wild


Atheistic Moral Realism – Part 5

I am currently considering William Craig’s second objection to Atheistic Moral Realism (AMR):

Second, the nature of moral duty or obligation seems incompatible with atheistic moral realism. (WIAC, p.76)

The following is a third piece of the paragraph where Craig presents this objection:

Who or what lays such an obligation on me?  As the ethicist Richard Taylor points out, “A duty is something that is owed. … But something can be owed only to some person or persons.  There can be no such thing as duty in isolation.” (WIAC, p.76)

First of all, note the prejudicial phrasing of Craig’s question “Who or what lays such an obligation on me?” This question presupposes or strongly implies that an obligation can exist only if some person ‘lays’ that obligation on some other person. The word ‘Who’ obviously points to the idea of a person, but Craig adds the alternative ‘or what’ to avoid obviously begging the question.

However, the verb ‘lays’ requries both a subject and two objects:

For example, “My wife lays her keys on the table”. Strictly speaking, the subject of such a sentence does not have to be a person. It could be a machine or an animal:

The machine lays the record on the turntable.

The cat lays its paw on my face.

But these are derivative from and analogous with sentences about the actions of persons. They are anthropomorphic sentences, which treat machines and animals as if they were persons.

So, the way Craig phrases the question is biased towards the answer that he hopes to persuade others to accept.

Craig quotes Richard Taylor as a sort of authority here. It is important to note that Taylor represents himself as a rebel, as a philosopher who is challenging a basic and widely held view of ethics and morality in the Wester philosophical tradition.

As skeptics and atheists, we have a soft spot in our hearts for such rebels. We too are often in the role of rebels, challenging longstanding and widely held religious beliefs and superstitions. Richard Taylor is a recognized expert in the field of ethics, but we should keep in mind that his views, at least in terms of his key ideas, are at odds with most of the great thinkers in the history of ethics. What Taylor has to say about the nature of moral duties and obligations is likely to be controversial (as are most theories in ethics anyway).

Here is Taylor’s argument:

1. A duty is something that is owed.
2. Something can be owed only to some person or persons.
3. A duty is something that is owed to some person or persons.

The first problem I see is that premise (1) is not clearly and obviously true. It is not obvious to me that a duty is always and necessarily ‘something that is owed’. Perhaps some duties are ‘something that is owed’, but in order to make a universal claim, a claim that ALL duties are ‘something that is owed’ we are owed a good reason to believe this claim.

Premise (2) seems less objectionable, more plausible on its face. However, there is an ambiguity in premise (2) and also in the conclusion. So, there is the possibility of the fallacy of equivocation here, and at least there is the likelihood of misunderstanding and unclarity.

Suppose that a friend of mine has a family emergency, and he asks me to take care of his six-year-old son for the weekend while he is out of town dealing with the emergency. I promise to take good care of his son for the weekend. Because I made this promise, I have a duty to take care of my friends son for the weekend. To whom do I have this duty?

I made the promise to my friend, so you could say that I owe it to my friend to keep the promise I made to him. On the other hand, I promised to take care of the boy, so I have a duty to take care of the boy. One could say that I have a duty towards the boy. It is the boy who will benefit from my care if I keep the promise, and it is the boy who will suffer if I fail to keep the promise, and the point of the promise was to assure my friend that the boy would be safe and cared for. So, care of the boy is my duty, and the object of my duty is the boy.

So, the expression ‘I have a duty to X’ seems ambiguous, at least in some circumstances, like when I make a promise to care for someone other than the person to whom I make the promise. There is the person to whom I have made the promise, and there is also the person to whom I have taken on the duty of caring.

The object of promised care, however, need not be a person. If my friend must go out of town for a family emergency, and he asks me to water his vegetable garden while he is away, if I promise to water it every day, then I have taken on a duty towards his garden which is obviously NOT a person. I make the promise to my friend, so there is a person to whom I have an obligation, but the object of the promise is, in this case, a garden not a person.

So, in the sense of the object of a duty, a duty need not always be ‘to a person or persons’. The object of a duty may be to a plant or to a non-human animal.

To be continued….

What is Christianity? Part 8
Response to William Lane Craig - Part 11
Does God Exist? Part 1
When are Theistic Arguments "God-of-the-Gaps" Arguments?


Not for Its Own Sake: Knowledge as Byproduct of NLP

William Dolan and Stephen Richardson

Recent claims in the literature as well as current research trends suggest that a long-held goal of natural language processing, the ability to map automatically from machine readable dictionaries into structured knowledge bases that can be used for various artificial intelligence tasks may be impossible. This paper argues to the contrary, describing an extremely large and rich lexical knowledge base which has been created almost as a byproduct of ordinary morphological, syntactic and semantic processing within a broad-coverage NLP system. This approach to mapping between text and knowledge representation appears to offer the only viable hope for creating knowledge bases large and rich enough to support complex tasks like machine understanding and domain-independent reasoning.


How long was the 1906 rupture?

The following figure shows the extent of the 1906 rupture seen at the surface. (Slip on offshore segments of the San Andreas fault north and south of Shelter Cove is inferred from comparisons of geodetic observations made before and after 1906).

The total length is 296 miles (477 kilometers). For comparison, the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake had a rupture length of about 25 miles (40 km).

San Francisco City Hall after the 1906 Earthquake


Media centre

Climate change and health

Fact sheet N°266
Updated September 2015

Key facts

  • The direct damage costs to health (i.e. excluding costs in health-determining sectors such as agriculture and water and sanitation), is estimated to be between US$ 2-4 billion/year by 2030.
  • Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases through better transport, food and energy-use choices can result in improved health, particularly through reduced air pollution.

Climate change

Over the last 50 years, human activities – particularly the burning of fossil fuels – have released sufficient quantities of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to trap additional heat in the lower atmosphere and affect the global climate.

In the last 130 years, the world has warmed by approximately 0.85oC. Each of the last 3 decades has been successively warmer than any preceding decade since 18501.

Sea levels are rising, glaciers are melting and precipitation patterns are changing. Extreme weather events are becoming more intense and frequent.

What is the impact of climate change on health?

Although global warming may bring some localized benefits, such as fewer winter deaths in temperate climates and increased food production in certain areas, the overall health effects of a changing climate are likely to be overwhelmingly negative. Climate change affects social and environmental determinants of health – clean air, safe drinking water, sufficient food and secure shelter.

Extreme heat

Extreme high air temperatures contribute directly to deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disease, particularly among elderly people. In the heat wave of summer 2003 in Europe for example, more than 70 000 excess deaths were recorded2.

High temperatures also raise the levels of ozone and other pollutants in the air that exacerbate cardiovascular and respiratory disease.

Pollen and other aeroallergen levels are also higher in extreme heat. These can trigger asthma, which affects around 300 million people. Ongoing temperature increases are expected to increase this burden.

Natural disasters and variable rainfall patterns

Globally, the number of reported weather-related natural disasters has more than tripled since the 1960s. Every year, these disasters result in over 60 000 deaths, mainly in developing countries.

Increasingly variable rainfall patterns are likely to affect the supply of fresh water. A lack of safe water can compromise hygiene and increase the risk of diarrhoeal disease, which kills approximately 760 000 children aged under 5, every year. In extreme cases, water scarcity leads to drought and famine. By the late 21st century, climate change is likely to increase the frequency and intensity of drought at regional and global scale1.

Floods are also increasing in frequency and intensity, and the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation is expected to continue to increase throughout the current century1. Floods contaminate freshwater supplies, heighten the risk of water-borne diseases, and create breeding grounds for disease-carrying insects such as mosquitoes. They also cause drownings and physical injuries, damage homes and disrupt the supply of medical and health services.

Rising temperatures and variable precipitation are likely to decrease the production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions. This will increase the prevalence of malnutrition and undernutrition, which currently cause 3.1 million deaths every year.

Patterns of infection

Climatic conditions strongly affect water-borne diseases and diseases transmitted through insects, snails or other cold blooded animals.

Changes in climate are likely to lengthen the transmission seasons of important vector-borne diseases and to alter their geographic range. For example, climate change is projected to widen significantly the area of China where the snail-borne disease schistosomiasis occurs3.

Malaria is strongly influenced by climate. Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, malaria kills almost 600 000 people every year – mainly African children under 5 years old. The Aedes mosquito vector of dengue is also highly sensitive to climate conditions, andstudies suggest that climate change is likely to continue to increase exposure to dengue.

Measuring the health effects

Measuring the health effects from climate change can only be very approximate. Nevertheless, a WHO assessment, taking into account only a subset of the possible health impacts, and assuming continued economic growth and health progress, concluded that climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year between 2030 and 2050; 38 000 due to heat exposure in elderly people, 48 000 due to diarrhoea, 60 000 due to malaria, and 95 000 due to childhood undernutrition4.

Who is at risk?

All populations will be affected by climate change, but some are more vulnerable than others. People living in small island developing states and other coastal regions, megacities, and mountainous and polar regions are particularly vulnerable.

Children – in particular, children living in poor countries – are among the most vulnerable to the resulting health risks and will be exposed longer to the health consequences. The health effects are also expected to be more severe for elderly people and people with infirmities or pre-existing medical conditions.

WHO response

Many policies and individual choices have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and produce major health co-benefits. For example, cleaner energy systems, and promoting the safe use of public transportation and active movement – such as cycling or walking as alternatives to using private vehicles – could reduce carbon emissions, and cut the burden of household air pollution, which causes some 4.3 million deaths per year, and ambient air pollution, which causes about 3.7 million deaths every year.

In 2015, the WHO Executive Board endorsed a new work plan on climate change and health. This includes:

  • Partnerships: to coordinate with partner agencies within the UN system, and ensure that health is properly represented in the climate change agenda.
  • Awareness raising: to provide and disseminate information on the threats that climate change presents to human health, and opportunities to promote health while cutting carbon emissions.
  • Science and evidence: to coordinate reviews of the scientific evidence on the links between climate change and health, and develop a global research agenda.
  • Support for implementation of the public health response to climate change: to assist countries to build capacity to reduce health vulnerability to climate change, and promote health while reducing carbon emissions.

1: IPCC. Summary for Policymakers. In: Edenhofer O, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B., Kriemann JS, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx editors. Climate Change 2014, Mitigation of Climate Change Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.: Cambridge University Press; 2014.

2: Robine JM, Cheung SL, Le Roy S, Van Oyen H, Griffiths C, Michel JP, et al. Death toll exceeded 70,000 in Europe during the summer of 2003. C R Biol. 2008;331(2):171-8.

3: Zhou XN, Yang GJ, Yang K, Wang XH, Hong QB, Sun LP, et al. Potential Impact of Climate Change on Schistosomiasis Transmission in China. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;78(2):188-94.

4: WHO. Quantitative risk assessment of the effects of climate change on selected causes of death, 2030s and 2050s. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.


ICC speed limit increases to 60 mph

      Crews work to replace speed limit signs on the Intercounty Connector. Photo: Kris Van Cleave

      The speed limit on the Intercounty Connector (MD-200) will officially increase from 55 mph to 60 mph this weekend.

      The highway runs between I-270 and I-95 through Montgomery and Prince George's counties.

      As the old signs come down, crews are replacing them with slightly faster 60 mph signs.

      The move comes after the Maryland Transportation Authority completed an engineering study and analysis of crashes. Both indicated a speed limit of 60 mph would be safe.

      In January, two dozen Maryland lawmakers pushed for the speed limit on state highways to increase to 70 mph. While some nearby residents have expressed concerns about additional road noise, drivers were all for the faster pace.

      "I think it's fine to make it 60 mph," says Michael Zazanis of Darnestown. "It's not heavily traveled. I think it's a safe speed based on the roads design. Sixty is probably good enough."

      "I think five is fine," says Adam Fine of Gaithersburg. "Five is probably the perfect amount to raise the speed limit."

      "I would take 65 over 60 mph. We are happy for the ICC. We could speed it up a little more," says Delion Campbell, also of Gaithersburg.


29GPS Architecture: A geo located guide to architecture in your pocket

But it´s not just maps or directions. For example, 29GPS Architecture (developed by 29GPS) makes a very good use of this feature, featuring a daily selection of contemporary architecture and telling you exactly how far you are from it.

For example, works like the Hollywood House by XTEN or the recently opened Standard hotel in NY are presented with a set of photos (and even a video), with a radar (green,yellow or red, depending how far you are from the building) and a view that allows you to see the building pin pointed over Google Maps.

Screenshots and more info after the break.

Main screen, allows you to select the buildings, you can go page by page swiping with your fingers.

Introduction to a building. you can tap the arrow or swipe to see photos. Note that the radar tells how far I am from this house. If I was closer, it would be either yellow or red.

Tapping the radar, it takes you to a live Google Maps view. You can zoom in and see more details.

The recently opened Standard Hotel in NY is not only featured with photos, but also with a video:

Cite: Amber P. "29GPS Architecture: A geo located guide to architecture in your pocket" 30 Jun 2009. ArchDaily. Accessed . <http://www.archdaily.com/27347/29gps-architecture-a-geo-located-guide-to-architecture-in-your-pocket/>


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Is it really only our kidneys that control blood pressure?

The problem of high blood pressure has reached pandemic proportions, causing premature death through heart attacks, strokes and kidney disease in a third of the UK population. For decades, scientists have battled at length over its cause yet still cannot agree; is the kidney or the brain to blame?

This month, Experimental Physiology hosts a lively debate between two groups of world-leading experts. In the first ever published dialogue on the topic, Drs Montani & Vliet and Drs Osborn, Averina & Fink share their opinions with us and criticise each-others theories. Their frank exchange of views provides an interesting and informative summary of the latest research into how blood pressure is controlled.

When blood pressure increases the kidneys respond by extracting extra water and salts into the urine, causing blood volume and hence pressure to fall. But special nerve pathways mean the brain can also regulate urine production and hence influence blood pressure. So which organ is really in charge?

Montani & Vliet argue that controlling blood volume is the key, as the kidney automatically makes more urine as blood pressure increases.

However, Osborn and colleagues remind us that the cardiovascular system is controlled by multiple mechanisms including the automatic part of the nervous system, which directly controls the kidney. They also update us on a plethora of new findings supporting a role of the nervous system in controlling blood pressure long term.

But both groups acknowledge that new mathematical models are needed that incorporate both the kidney and the brain control systems. So the question of whether it is the kidney or the brain that has a firmer grip on the reins for controlling blood pressure may have to wait for a mathematician to answer.

Professor David Paterson, the Chief Editor of Experimental Physiology and instigator of the debate, said: "This frank exchange of views was needed as it highlights major issues that remain with blood pressure control and will undoubtedly guide future studies to reveal fundamental new knowledge that will inform the future treatment of high blood pressure."

Contact: Melanie Thomson

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2011-2012 Stats: 14.7 PPG 3.4 RPG 5.3 APG 1.5 SPG
2012-2013 Salary: $3.9 million

All Stephen Curry has to do is stay healthy. He has the potential to be a star in this league. Curry is a lights out shooter like his pops and can come up with a couple steals over the course of a game. His ankle injuries have impacted his lateral movement on the defensive end. Hopefully he can go to Germany or something and get that fixed. He's a good passer, but still has to learn how to be a true point guard and maybe cut down on the turnovers. This'll be his first year without Monta Ellis by his side, so maybe things will be different. There'll definitely be more shots to go around.


Secret Tunnels in Warfare Are Less of a Threat Than You Think

Israeli troops claim that they have discovered more secret tunnels that Hamas is using to get into the country. Though the tunnels sound terrifying, military strategy experts say they have little value when it comes to battlefield results.

Image via Israel Defense Forces

In the Washington Post this weekend, history professor Gerard Degroot explains that tunnels have always a heavily psychological tactic, though of course they can also lead to many deaths too:

In more than 2,000 years of warfare, tunnels may have mattered more for their impact on the psychology of the combatants — both aggressors and defenders — than for their battlefield results.

During the 1st century A.D., Germanic troops, finding that they were no match for Roman legions in open battle, dug concealed trenches linked by tunnels. By this means, they were able to ambush their enemy from ground that seemed unoccupied. The Romans grew to fear this hazard but found it difficult to develop an effective response, a problem familiar to the Israelis today.

A couple of centuries later, in 256 A.D., Sassanian armies, unable to breach the Roman fortress at Dura-Europos in modern-day Syria, dug a tunnel underneath the walls. The Romans, alerted to the threat, dug a counter-mine toward the Sassanian tunnel. The Sassanians responded by packing their tunnel with a noxious mixture of sulfur and pitch that produced sulfur dioxide gas, the first known instance of chemical warfare. The Romans were asphyxiated, and the fortress eventually fell ...

The value of tunnels is magnified in asymmetric conflicts, in which a small insurgent force takes on a larger, more powerful enemy. In the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea (132-136 A.D.), Jewish rebels used tunnels to launch lightning commando raids on superior Roman forces, the aim being to sow fear and undermine morale. The Americans encountered essentially the same threat in Vietnam. In that war, the main problem facing GIs was not fighting the enemy but finding it. Viet Cong rebels would hide in vast tunnel complexes such as those at Cu Chi, emerge to launch an ambush and then disappear ...

The main advantage of the tunnel, however, lies in its propaganda potential. The notion that tunnels alone have shifted the course of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is nonsense — but it is nonsense that gives heart to the Palestinians. The tunnel is an effective symbol of solidarity and struggle. That is what Cu Chi revealed: The tunnels, because of the immense effort required to construct them, demonstrated, in Vietnam and beyond, the enormous determination of the Viet Cong. This explains why the Vietnamese government is keen for tourists to visit the tunnels, which have become iconic symbols of patriotic struggle.

Propaganda, however, is a two-edged sword. For the Israelis, the tunnels are an effective way of encouraging images of an embattled nation. We fear most what we cannot see. In this case, the horror of what might lurk beneath inspires a reaction out of proportion to the actual threat.

You really should read the whole essay — it's a fascinating look at the role of tunnels in warfare, and why they have become such a potent symbol even today.


Katie Pavlich

Americans are fed up with Europe's lavish spending and complaining about so called "austerity measures," known as common sense economic policies in the United States. France and Greece continue to throw temper tantrums over being forced to retire at 60 instead of 62 and continue to receive bailouts as a result. With the election of Socialist Francois Hollande in France, expect to see even more of the same failed behavior with taxpayers countries like Germany and the United States footing the bill.

A new Rasmussen Poll shows the majority of Americans believe European countries need to cuts spending to get their economies back on track, rather than increase taxes on the "rich" by 75 percent and stimulus packages as Hallande has promised.

Newly elected leaders in France and Greece have signaled that austerity efforts in their countries may be coming to an end, but as far as Americans are concerned, that’s a move in the wrong direction.

A new Rasmussen Reports national telephone survey finds that 61% of American Adults believe cuts in government spending would do more to improve the economic and financial situation in France and Greece than increases in that spending. Just 20% think more government spending is the better way to go. Eighteen percent (18%) are not sure.

Katie Pavlich