So Now You Are a Guardian

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If you are reading this brochure, you are likely either considering accepting appointment as a guardian or you have recently been appointed by a Court. Guardians have many responsibilities, and in addition to carrying out any specific Court orders, are responsible for the ward’s general welfare and care. Guardians are usually given the authority over where the ward resides, their educational and/or vocational development, and medical decisions after the Court finds that, due to mental or physical incapacity the ward is unable to do so for his or her self.
Under Colorado law, a guardian is deemed to be a fiduciary, and as such, held to a very high standard of care. A guardian is accountable to the ward, interested persons, and the Court, and is expected to act prudently and in the best interests of the ward at all times.
This brochure is intended to give general information to guardians regarding their duties and responsibilities, and is not intended to be legal advice specific to your situation. Given the very serious risks of harm to the ward and personal liability, if you are uncertain about any of your responsibilities, rights, or powers as a guardian, you are strongly encouraged to consult with an attorney.

Guardianship v. Conservatorship
There are many instances when a guardianship and conservatorship are requested at the same time by the petitioner. If a petition is filed requesting both, the actions may be consolidated and only one hearing is required to address both petitions. In some situations, if there are not enough assets to warrant the appointment of a conservator, the guardian may be given authority to manage the ward’s assets. One person may serve as both a guardian and conservator, but if not, both are expected to work together in the best interests of the ward/protected person.

What is your authority?
Your authority is evidenced by two documents: “Letters of Guardianship” and the “Order Appointing Guardian.” The guardianship may be limited in duration, scope, level of Court involvement, and usually involves the filing of an Initial Guardian’s Report/Care Plan and an Annual Guardian’s Report.
The Court’s direction is given with the intent to maximize the ward’s independence and involvement, and may require specific actions to achieve this standard. It is important that you read the Court’s Order thoroughly and comply with the terms of the order of appointment.
Once appointed, you will usually have the authority to make most or all decisions related to the ward’s health, education, and welfare. You may usually sign legal documents on behalf of the ward, choose an appropriate living situation for the ward, and grant, withhold, and withdraw consent to medical treatment. In most situations it is necessary to disclose the guardian/ward relationship.
A guardianship may end for several reasons, including the ward regaining capacity to manage their personal affairs, upon the death of the ward, the resignation, removal, or death of the guardian, or a date set by the Court. A guardian’s duties to the ward continue until a successor guardian is appointed or otherwise directed by the Court.

Your duties as guardian—
Ethical and Administrative Ethical Duties

Generally speaking, a guardian owes a fiduciary duty to the ward, meaning that the guardian must always act in the best interest of and with undivided loyalty to the ward, avoid transactions that cause a conflict of interest, and make all decisions with care and prudence.
You have a fiduciary duty to the ward, meaning that you must always act in the best interest of and with undivided loyalty to the ward, avoid transactions that cause a conflict of interest, and to make all decisions with care and prudence.
You must always act in the best interest of the ward, and you must make efforts to include the ward in all decisions and encourage self-sufficiency.
You are expected to consider the ward’s known and reasonable desires and personal values when making decisions on behalf of the ward, and must become and/or remain personally acquainted with the ward.
You may make decisions and manage any of the ward’s assets. If so, such decisions must be made as a prudent person would in similar circumstances. You are ultimately accountable and may employ the use of professionals and other agents in order to carry out your duties, unless otherwise specified by the Court,

Administrative Duties
Required Reports to File with the Court and Interested Persons.

You must submit an initial care plan and annual reports that require a thorough description of the ward’s wellbeing, growth, health needs, financial resources available for care, any changes in your life or ward’s life, and the need for the guardianship to continue. The required form is JDF 850 and is available at www.courts.state.co.us. The due date for the reports will be identified within the Order and also on the Acknowledgment form. It is very important that you file the reports on or before the due date to the Court and send a copy to all interested persons as identified in the original Order of Appointment and/or any subsequent orders.
Accounting. If there are not enough assets to appoint a conservator, you are given the authority over the ward’s assets and must set up and keep complete financial records. You will need to report the financial activity in the annual report and detail all income, disbursements, and liabilities, and should show the opening and closing balances for all accounts for the reporting period. You should maintain all supporting documentation in the event that the Court or interested persons request to review the financial activity.
Taxes. If a conservator is not appointed, you are managing all or most of the ward’s affairs, and you required to file any required tax returns on the ward’s behalf.
Distributions to ward or on ward’s behalf. You may make distributions to the ward for their care and expenses or to third parties directly who provide a service to the ward. The terms under which distributions must or may be made can be restricted by the Court, or may be made mandatory for the ward’s health, education, and maintenance. Under certain circumstances you may be personally liable for improper distributions, and may be compelled by a Court to make a distribution at the ward’s or interested person’s request.

Personal Liability
You may be personally liable to the ward or a third party in certain circumstances, including when the relationship is not disclosed, you are directly at fault, grossly negligent, or acted criminally. In some situations, you may be personally liable even though their improper actions were not intentional or negligent, and for that reason, some guardians secure Errors and Omissions insurance.

Compensation and Expenses
You are entitled to reasonable compensation and reimbursement of out-of pocket expenses from the guardianship estate for acts on behalf of the ward during the guardianship. Reasonable compensation is determined on a case-by-case basis, and good record keeping and accounting is absolutely necessary. Any compensation is considered income to you, and as such, is generally taken as a tax deduction by the ward. In addition to your own fee, you may hire professionals, including an attorney, accountant, etc. as you manage the guardianship.


Journal of Biological Research, Vol. 4 (2003)

The Vasodilator Effects of Nifedipine and the Plant Extract, Rhinacanthus nasutus, in Hypertensive Rats.
Nicole Barnash
Department of Biology, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY 13820
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

Vasoconstriction of the blood vessels can result in a number of clinical diseases, some more potentially dangerous than others. The objective of the present study was to compare the effects of nifedipine, a proven vasodilator, and Rhinacanthus nasutus on blood pressure in hypertensive rats. Nifedipine is a calcium channel blocker used most often for the treatment of hypertension. In comparison, Rhinacanthus nasutus is a Thai plant also used to lower blood pressure. The hypothesis tested was that the administration of R. nasutus would lower blood pressure and prove to be an effective vasodilator. To observe their effects, both drugs were perfused into the cannulated aorta, just above the femoral artery, of a hypertensive rat at a constant but pulsatile rate of 3mL/min, for an extended period of time. Blood pressure was measured using a pressure transducer and results were recorded using Power Lab. Stastical results were calculated using the ANOVA system and they support the hypothesis that R. nasutus effectively lowers blood pressure to the same extent as the pharmaceutical drug (P > 0.05). Therefore this demonstrates that this herbal treatment is just as effective as the pharmaceutical drug in lowering blood pressure, possibly without the adverse side effects associated with nifedipine use.

Characterization of Microorganisms on Well-Exposed Igneous Surfaces and Their Role in Mineral Weathering.
Christopher Belnap
Dr. Mary Allen, Advisor, Dept. of Biology
Dr. Eric Johnson, Advisor, Dept. of Geology

Microorganisms have been shown to interact with rock and mineral surfaces using a variety of both passive and active processes. Many of these processes have been predicted to significantly affect mineral weathering. The purpose of this study was to examine and characterize the microbial community on well-exposed igneous rock surfaces and to make predictions regarding their role in direct nutrient acquisition. Bacteria isolated from rock samples were cultured in the laboratory and the number of different species per rock sample was determined. Bacteria were also characterized by their metabolic requirements using GP2 Microplate assays (Biolog). Rock samples from which the bacteria were collected were analyzed in thin section and molar volume of phosphate was quantified in terms of the mineral apatite [Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)]. Results suggest that complex communities of both eukaryotes and prokaryotes exist on well-exposed, nutrient poor rock surfaces, and that the chemical composition of the surface may not play a significant role in surface communities.

Click here for full text of this thesis.  Adobe Acrobat Reader is required to open this pdf document.

The Effects of Ginkgo biloba on Memory in Mice
Tiffany Bligen
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

Previous research has been done to study the effects of Ginkgo biloba on memory and has produced positive results giving hope to people that suffer from dementia and Alzheimer's disease. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Ginkgo biloba on memory in mice and to determine if there is enhanced memory with an increased dose. Six 18 week-old mice were trained and their memory abilities in the maze were observed. Three mice were used as controls, and the additional six mice were divided into 2 groups of three for the different concentrations of Ginkgo biloba, 12 mg and 24 mg. The T-maze was used to study memory in mice over a 5-week period. The variables used to detect change in memory were the time a mouse took to complete an arm of the maze, and the number of errors. The statistical results indicate that the time it took to go through the maze decreased 59% from the control with the 12 mg dose and 52% with the 24 mg dose. The difference in time was not significantly different between the two doses (P>.05). The number of errors going through the maze decreased 56% with the 12 mg dose and 61% with the 24 mg. dose. The difference in the number of errors was not significantly different between doses (P>.05). From my results, it was concluded that Ginkgo can be used to improve memory in mice, however doubling the recommended dose does not enhance memory.

Comparison of Malnutrition in Children Ages 0-5 in Northern Thailand Villages
Tiffany Campbell
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

Malnutrition is prominent in developing countries, as it weakens the bodies' defenses allowing diseases and infection to become prevalent, often times causing harmful and irreversible affects on growth and development in young children. Malnutrition was evaluated in the two northern Thailand Villages of Samsaipoye and Sampasat by the use of the anthropometric measurements of height (cm) and weight (kg) of children ages 0-5. A socioeconomic census was also given to the households in each village. Data collected was entered onto an international nutritional database (ANTHRO) to determine the actual level and severity of malnutrition of children in each village. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Chi-square statistical tests were used to compare the levels of malnutrition (normal, stunted, underweight, and wasting) within each village and between villages. There was no significant difference of malnutrition between ages or between villages. However, the level of malnutrition is still below the international standard.

The Effects of Nicotine and Caffeine on Human Peripheral Lymphocyte
Jennifer L. Ferguson
Advisor: Dr. Douglas Hamilton

The immune system fights off disease causing pathogens and is made up of hematopoietic stem cells, which give rise to red blood cells and white blood cells. Lymphocytes are a class of white blood cells and can be broken down into B and T cells that are produced in the bone marrow and then go into the blood and circulate through the body. Many compounds ingested by humans are known to have a variety of effects on the immune system. Nicotine and caffeine are the main psychoactive constituents of tobacco and coffee respectively. Nicotine is an immunosuppressive drug that appears to affect the immune system through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and can directly affect the immune cells. Caffeine is the safest recreational drug and is a particular type of trimethylxanthine. Caffeine enhances the response of nicotine thus it increases the immunosuppressive affects of nicotine. This experiment served to see whether the effects of nicotine and caffeine could be observed in tissue culture as direct changes in the growth of lymphocytes. The findings from this study indicated that the addition of caffeine and/or nicotine has no significant effect on the growth of lymphocytes in culture.

Morphological Development in the Salamander Necturus maculosus: Accumulate, Excise, and Surprise!
Nicholas G. Garbinsky
Dr. Stanley Sessions, Advisor

Necturus maculosus, the Mudpuppy, is a neotenic salamander and has the largest cells of any tetrapod. The purpose of this study is to examine the development and embryonic morphology of the developing mesopodial and metapodial regions of the limb in N. maculosus and compare my results with widely accepted models for the morphogenetic rules of limb development. Embryos of various stages of development were both cleared and stained with a cartilage-specific stain for whole mount study, or examined histologically using standard paraffin histological techniques to examine the arrangement of developing chondrogenic cells. Prior studies explain bone development in tetrapods, especially their limbs, using a model consisting of a series of condensation, bifurcation, and segmentation events. My observations on embryonic patterns of growth and development in N. maculosus do not appear to conform to this model. An alternative model is presented based on my observations.

The Role of Amino Acid 128 in the Induction of Chromosomal Aberrations by the SV40 Large T antigen
Rebekah Klingler
Advisor: Dr. Douglas Hamilton

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a monkey polyomavirus, which causes a lytic infection in simian host cells. When human cells are infected with the virus, many exhibit chromosomal damage and some become immortal (Chang et. al., 1997). In 1990, Ray et. al. reported that the SV40 early gene, Large T antigen (Tag), alone is necessary and sufficient to cause the observed cancer-like chromosomal damage within 48 hours of transfection. Since Tag is a nuclear protein with the ability to bind DNA, it was assumed that Tag must bind the DNA in order to cause chromosomal damage. This was supported by the research of Ray et. al. in 1998, when they created a mutation in the nuclear localization signal of Tag, which changes a lysine to an isoleucine. This mutation produces a cytoplasmic protein, which is unable to damage DNA. Other research has shown that if that same lysine is changed to a threonine, the protein is cytoplasmic, but retains the ability to cause chromosome damage at the magnitude of the wild-type protein (Woods et. al., 1994). Unfortunately, a confounding problem was that the plasmid constructs used for each of these experiments were different. The goal of the current research is to insert the wild-type Tag and the two mutant Tag genes into identical plasmid constructs and ascertain the effect of each on human fibroblast cells. Currently, the wild type and the lysine to isoleucine mutant genes have been successfully inserted into the pIND inducible plasmid. Future work will include obtaining pIND plasmid containing the lysine to threonine mutation of the Tag gene, as well as tissue culture assays to determine the effects of each of these genes in human fibroblast cells.

Leaf Litter Arthropod Communities at Pine Lake With Notes on Pseudoscorpion Ecology and Morphology
Justin D. Kratovil
Advisor: Dr. Allen Crooker

Studies of leaf litter arthropod diversity provide information about local fauna, community dynamics, and sensitivity to environmental changes; long term monitoring of litter organisms and soil ecosystems can ensue. This study focuses on pseudoscorpions and the arthropods associated with them. Samples of leaf litter were taken from Pine Lake, West Davenport NY, during the summer of 2002 to provide information about arthropod relative abundance and habitat richness in areas of old growth, new growth resulting from environmental disturbance, hemlock dominance, and bog leaf litter from Mud Lake. The mean density and relative abundance of pseudoscorpions and other orders remained consistent between habitats, with high variation within each habitat. Homoptera were present only at the Mud Lake and old growth sites, and centipedes were not present at the old growth site. Temperature range and sample size did not affect relative abundance or order richness between habitat sites. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study pseudoscorpion morphology.

The Comparative Effects of Lorazepam and Cassia siamea on Amplitude and Frequency of Brain Waves in Rats.
Stephanie Leigh Lawrence
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

Cassia siamea is a medicinal plant reported to promote sleep. Lorazepam, a benzodiazepine, has been well proven to be effective in treating insomnia, but this drug has many side effects associated with its use. In the study, Cassia siamea was compared to the reference drug Lorazepam to determine their effect on the amplitude and frequency of brain waves. Electroencephalography (EEG) was used to evaluate brain wave activity in eight rats exposed to a daily light/dark cycle. Brain waves were recorded prior to and after intubation with the two drugs. Amplitude of brain waves showed a marginal significance (p>0.05, p<0.10) with treatment of both lorazepam and Cassia siamea. The increase in amplitude is consistent with alpha brain waves, which are indicative of the quiet, resting state prior to sleep. There was no significant difference in the effects of the two drugs on amplitude (p>0.05). Neither drug significantly effected the change in frequency from control to treatment (p>0.05). There was also no significant difference between the effects of lorazepam and Cassia siamea on frequency (p>0.05). Cassia siamea may provide an effective and more affordable treatment for insomnia.

Response to Within- and Between-flock Distress Calls by Black-Capped Chickadees (Parus atricapillus)
Michelle Roser
Dr. Peter Fauth, Advisor

Black-capped chickadees form social groups in winter composed of family members and unrelated individuals. Individuals within chickadee flocks interact to improve foraging success and predator detection. During March-April 2003, I used playback experiments to study the responses of chickadees to distress calls produced by flock members and non-flock members. I recorded distress calls given by chickadees captured in walk-in traps at three baited feeders: two at Hartwick College's Pine Lake Environmental Campus and one at Cemetery Hill Road in Oneonta. I broadcast the distress calls to members of the same flock (within-flock treatment) and to members of different flocks (between-flock treatment). I alternated the sequence in which I presented the within- and between-flock calls during 3-4 trials at each of the sites. I recorded the distance the birds remained from the speaker (in 5m intervals) and the number of birds that approached the speaker during 4-minute playbacks of the distress calls and during an intervening 4-minute, silent control. I found no consistent difference in the number of birds responding to the playbacks. In two of the three locations, however, chickadees appeared to remain farther from the speaker during playbacks than during the control. Moreover, I found that chickadees remained slightly farther from playbacks of within-flock distress calls than playbacks of between-flock calls. The results suggest that chickadees can distinguish among individuals of different flocks and respond to distress calls as warning vocalizations.

Effect of Tinospora crispa and Megestrol acetate on appetite in Mice
Brooke Sartori
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

The purpose of this study was to determine if Tinospora crispa is an effective appetite enhancer. Hill people do not have access to expensive drugs to treat the wasting symptom of AIDS. Appetite enhancing qualities of this herbal drug was compared to a known appetite enhancer, Megestrol acetate. Twelve mice were divided into three treatment groups: Control, Tinospora crispa, and Megestrol acetate groups. Mice were intubated daily with saline or drugs for 7 weeks. Mice and food were weighed weekly. The food consumed by the mice over the 7 weeks period was significantly different in the drug groups as compared to the control (P=.02258). The food consumed by the mice was also significantly different between the two drug treatment groups (P=.045), with the greatest amount of food consumed by the Tinospora crispa group. The weight gained, however, was not significantly different between the control and the treatment groups (P=.905), or between the two treatments (P=.648). Therefore, Tinospora crispa is as effect an appetite enhancer as the reference drug Megestrol acetate. This herbal drug is readily accessible and affordable to the hill people for the treatment of wasting with AIDS

Effect of Androstenedione and Creatine on Muscle Size and Strength in Exercised Mice
Jessica Skrocki
Advisor: Dr. Linda Swift

The commercial dietary supplements Androstenedione and Creatine are used during resistance exercising to enhance muscle size and strength. This study examines the effect of these dietary supplements on endurance exercise and muscle size in mice. Four groups of mice were used: a control with exercise: a control with no exercise: mice intubated with Androstenedione and exercised: and mice intubated with Creatine and exercised. These mice were exercised daily by swimming till exhaustion for 6 weeks. Statistical analysis indicates no significant difference in percent change in swim time between the four groups (P>.05). However, the Androstenedione treated group showed a great percent change in swim time over the 6 weeks. Further statistics indicate there was a significant difference between muscle circumference in the group treated with Creatine (P<.05).These results indicate that Creatine enhances muscle size during resistance exercising and Androstenedione increases muscle strength.

The Effects of MTBE (Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether) on the Immune System of the amphibian, Rana pipiens.
Roxanne Suarez
Dr. Stanley Sessions, Advisor

MTBE is a fuel additive present in gasoline. It functions as an oxygenate in fuel to increase its oxygen content to reduce carbon monoxide and ozone levels. Four groups of adult R. pipiens frogs where exposed to three different concentrations of MTBE in aged, dechlorinated tap water for three weeks, and then chronically injected with sheep red blood cells for five days to create an immune response. Lymphocytes were isolated from the frogs' spleens and a hemocytometer was used to count the number of viable spleen cells. The number of antibody-producing B-cell lymphocytes was determined using a hemolytic plaque assay. The results indicate a dose response in which B-cell production increases with increasing concentration of MTBE. These results suggest that MTBE induces hypersensitivity of the immune systems in frogs.

Bacterial Response to Mosquito Larvae (Wyeomyia smithii) and Midge larvae (Metriocnemus knabi) in Sarranecia purpurea Pitcher Plant Inquiline Community.
Christa Welch
Dr. Mary Allen, Advisor

Pitcher plants, Sarrancia purpurea, hold a complex food web and community within there leaves. Bacteria feed on dead insects that fall in the pitchers. Pitcher plant mosquitoes, Wyeomyia smithii, oviposit their eggs in the pitchers and the developing larvae in turn feed on the bacteria. M. knabi fed on necromass allowing more surface area for the bacteria to decompose necromass. We tested to see if predation causes the formation of long filamentous bacterial cells which are grazing resistant. The alternative hypothesis tested if the nutrient availability effects filament formation. Results show an effect of predation and nutrients on the formation of filamentous cells. The formation of grazing resistant bacteria can change to dynamics of the pitcher plant communities with bottom up effects which eventually limit nutrients available to the upper trophic levels.

Amenorrhea and Stress Fractures in Female Athletes: A Survey and Case Study
Aleesha M. Zysik
Dr. Allen Crooker, advisor

The prevalence of amenorrhea and stress fractures in female athletes at the collegiate level was examined in this study. Data were collected from a survey of 103 female track and field athletes at colleges and universities across the United States. The results of the survey showed no correlation between amenorrhea and stress fractures. The effects of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on bone mass were examined through a case study comparing bone densitometries taken before and after an amenorrheic individual's treatment with estrogen. The bone densitometries indicated that HRT had been successful in increasing bone mass. In addition, an analysis of relevant medical research provided alternative treatment options for females with diminished bone mass.


To the Editor:

In his review of Bruno Bettelheim's ''Freud and Man's Soul'' (Feb. 6), Frank Kermode says that to call psychoanalysis a science of the soul would be ''disastrous,'' because of the religious, or religiose, overtones of the word ''soul.''

But it is precisely the contrast between the religious and scientific use of the word that will lead the reader to reflect on what the word means, on why Freud used its German counterpart and perhaps on the continuity between the work of Freud and that of the psychologists and poets who preceded him.

''Soul'' is and always has been a perfectly good term for the subject matter of psychology; Kermode is simply defending provincialism. WALTER WATSON, Stony Brook, N.Y.


BOSTON - The Ebola outbreak in West Africa is focusing a spotlight on an online tool that flagged a "mystery hemorrhagic fever" in the region several days before the World Health Organization formally announced the epidemic.

HealthMap is operated by a group of researchers, epidemiologists and software developers whose company, Epidemico LLC, is a Boston Children's Hospital spinoff.

Co-founder John Brownstein says the Ebola outbreak has triggered a massive increase in visitors to their online tool.

HealthMap Interactive Ebola Tool:


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With so many project management books in print, why do projects still come in late and over budget? While other books tell you how to plan, they don't explain how to save projects in real life, when things go awry. This book identifies the 18 most pervasive causes of project failure and their warning signs, explains why they happen, and shows exactly how to overcome them. Drawing on 20 years of frontline project management experience, Lonnie Pacelli shows you how to ensure you're working on the right problem, how to keep project sponsors committed, and how to ensure effective risk management. He offers hard-won insights on realistically determining a project's scope, involving the right people in cross-disciplinary teams, managing multiple project risks, and bringing each project to a strong finish. You'll discover new ways to get all your team members on the same page, streamline that endless final 10% of your projects, and reduce last-minuterework caused by unanticipated stakeholders. From start to finish, this book was crafted for working project managers. It's concise, relevant, easy to read, full of war stories, and packed with practical resources and advice to help real people cut real project problems off at the pass.


What Would It Have Meant to “Let Detroit Go Bankrupt”?

Edward Niedermeyer has an interesting WSJ op-ed on what it would have meant to let GM and Chrysler go through a traditional bankruptcy process, and whether this would have meant giving up on the domestic auto industry (ignoring, for the moment, the existence of other auto manufacturing in the US) and industry employment. Here’s a taste:

if the auto bailout is not simply the choice between government intervention and the collapse of an entire industry, what is the difference between the two candidates’ positions?


Bundesarchiv_Bild_183 1982 1208 022,_Schwerin,_Jugendstunde_im_Polytechnischen_MuseumWikimedia Commons

Osborne presented the paper today in London (Via Channel 4's Faisal Islam).

The main finding: 47% of total US employment is at high risk of getting replaced by a robots, "meaning that associated occupations are potentially automatable over some unspecified number of years, perhaps a decade or two."

Below are the results.

As we just mentioned, "47% employment" means 47% of the 702 occupations are at high risk of getting taken over. 19% could go either way. 33% are unlikely to.

They go on to sort the 702 occupations into 12 categories. The y-axis shows the number of people working in each of those categories, while the x-axis shows automization probability.

So, for instance, "sales and related" jobs have a huge chunk of positions that are at high risk of automization. Hence the big red section on the right. On the other hand, "education, legal," etc. have a greater chunk of positions with a low probability of getting taken over by robots (hence the big light blue on the left).

osborne robotsMichael Osborne

Osborne continues, by noting which skills least susceptible to being replaced by a robot:

..."fine arts”, “originality”, “negotiation”, “persuasion”, “social perceptiveness”, and “assisting and caring for others”, variables, all exhibit relatively high values in the low risk category. By contrast, we note that the “manual dexterity”, “finger dexterity” and “cramped work space” variables take relatively low values. Hence, in short, generalist oc- cupations requiring knowledge of human heuristics, and specialist occupations involving the development of novel ideas and artifacts, are the least susceptible to computerization.

So if you're, say, in the arts, and your job requires "negotiation" there's virtually no chance you're going to be replaced by a robot. If your job is in production or sales, and doesn't involve any of the above skills, then watch out.

Osborne admits there are lots of caveats here. First, thee measure is inherently subjective. he also says we will eventually reach a "technological plateau" that represents the gap between automation of manual repetitive labor and automation of tasks requiring human-specific abilities.

But it looks like the writing's on the wall.


Why does my back ache?

It's estimated that at least 70 percent of people suffer from backaches, either chronic or sporadic back pain. Backache may be caused by a number of factors, which is why it is important that your doctor diagnose your pains for proper treatment.

Preventing and relieving backaches

To prevent or relieve backaches there are a number of healthy lifestyle habits and safe postures you can keep in mind to keep your spine healthy and pain free. It is also advised to exercise regularly to avoid backaches.

Correcting your posture with exercises

Keeping a good posture is the first step to preventing back pain. However, if backaches do appear, there are simple ways to help you relieve them.

Exercising the back

These exercises relieve, prevent and stretch out the back. They are very simple routines that you can do at home to prevent and fight against back pain.

Yoga for a healthy back

For thousands of years, this Asian technique has been used as a way to balance and maintain the health of the spine. Yoga offers simple and effective techniques to tone the back muscles and to increase their flexibility.

Relieving shiatsu

Do-in… for a strong back!

Do-in is an ancient technique related to shiatsu “the physiotherapy of contact.” The technique revitalizes and relieves physical and mental tensions with gentle movements. These exercises act on the spinal column, stimulating energy flow and increasing flexibility.

Do-it-yourself express massages

This is a useful guide to simple massages that you can do anywhere and at any time to provide immediate relief for back pains caused by tiredness or daily stress.

The body's back bone on the feet

Reflexology is an ancient healing art based on the principle that there are reflexes in the body –especially on the hands and feet– that correspond to the body's organs and glands. Stimulating and applying pressure to the feet or hands can affect the health of other parts of the body, and may relieve back pain.

Nature's soothing power

Diet for a strong back

To prevent and fight backaches it's important to include the necessary nutrients in your daily diet. Many minerals and vitamins not only ensure your overall health, but may help to prevent back trouble.


The ATP and the WTA tours want the Grand Slam tournaments to give out more money.

Yesterday, the pro tours urged the chairmen of Wimbledon, and the United States, French and Australian opens to commit more of those events' profits to prizes, health benefits and pension programs.

Representatives of the tours and of the Grand Slam events spoke during the Australian Open in January about how they can work together to promote tennis. The four major tournaments are overseen by the International Tennis Federation.

The Grand Slam Committee met last week in Lausanne, Switzerland, and issued a statement yesterday outlining suggestions for improvements to the sport that included a longer offseason (at least two months) and a combined year-end tournament.


Readiness, Regularity Take Dismay Out of Taking Stock

Michi Trota |

At first glance, conducting a physical linen inventory may seem daunting. It requires a lot of time and energy, and can distract and disrupt the everyday order of things. However, with the proper organization and planning, conducting such an inventory is less complicated than it looks, and is a valuable part of a healthcare facility’s operation.
This was the basis of Taking Stock: Conducting a Linen Inventory, an audio conference presented by Janice Carter Larson, managing director of cost management services at Encompass Textiles and Interiors, and Dave Forrest, Encompass’ West Coast regional director of sales.
Larson told participants in the National Association of Institutional Linen Management (NAILM) conference that it's unfortunate that taking inventory isn’t always at the top of everyone’s “to-do list,” because the results are actually highly beneficial.
First, an inventory can provide a clearer picture of linen assets. You can obtain a more accurate amount of their cash value, the amount of linen products on hand, how often the items turn over for replacement, and how much is needed to purchase to bring circulating stock up to an adequate amount.
An inventory also clarifies the loss rate of linen items. Once an item’s rate has been determined, it can be compared to what’s considered average, Larson says. She recommends using the Phillips & Associates benchmarking report for this because it states the replacement factor – how often a product should be replaced per 100 uses – for individual items. Once the “problem children” items are identified, appropriate steps can be taken to correct the issue.
Lastly, an inventory helps to identify everything that can be considered dead stock. More often than not, overstocked linens will go for months without being used when they could have been in circulation if placed more conveniently.
Dead stock occurs in several instances, such as when linen carts are overstocked, multiple stocking locations are used in places like an emergency room (ER) or medical office buildings (MOBs), or hoarding in what Larson good-naturedly referred to as “informal stocking locations.”
“It’s amazing what you can uncover,” Larson laughs. “People can hide linen stock anywhere. I’ve heard stories about dead stock being hidden in ceiling tiles.”
Rental customers have an additional motivation to conduct a physical inventory. They’re often under contract to order a certain amount of replacement linen on a regular basis. The knowledge gained after conducting an inventory can help them determine if the contract replacement terms match their actual replacement needs.
These are all valid reasons, but what about the practicality of conducting the inventory? Will it interrupt day-to-day operations? How do you avoid irritating the patients and staff? Is there ever a good time to do this?MINIMIZE THE HARDSHIP FACTOR
Larson is confident that all these concerns are easily addressed with the right planning and execution. She lists five simple steps to organize a successful inventory:
1. Pick a date and a time.
2. Determine how many people are needed.
3. Notify the proper staff members.
4. Make sure to explain the reason for the inventory.
5. Make it as convenient as possible for everyone.
It’s entirely possible to schedule an inventory during regular working hours as long as you minimize the “hardship factor,” she says. There’s a greater chance of getting more cooperation from people and access to as many areas as possible.
Mondays should generally be avoided because they tend to be heavier nursing days or heavy linen delivery days. Holidays and any scheduled facility events are likewise out. Weekends or late nights can be tempting, but these times have their pitfalls as well.
“Doing an inventory off-hours can bring up issues of overtime and conflicting schedules,” Larson cautions.
“A lot of times, people have conducted inventories late at night, only to find that certain areas have been locked and that the people who normally provide access to those areas won’t be back until morning,” Forrest adds. “You also have to be careful about disturbing patients. In the long run, doing an inventory at night isn’t really that convenient after all.”
It’s also essential to involve the laundry department.
“Your linen personnel are invaluable to the inventory process,” Larson says. “They are the ones who know their way around, where all the linen stocking locations are, official and otherwise, and where the deliveries are made. They need to be involved to make the inventory work.”
“Soiled-linen pick-up is one of the biggest issues when attempting to keep counted and uncounted linens separate,” Forrest adds. “You have to be able to communicate to the laundry department how long the inventory will take and how much they will need to adjust their schedule for that day.
“Soiled linens should not be counted because of safety issues and to ensure count accuracy, so there will be an unusually large amount of soiled linens that day.”
If laundry service is outsourced, linen services will need to notify the service provider of the increased amount of soiled linen so that it can send a larger truck or schedule a special pick-up, as well as alert its production department.
If laundry service is handled on premises, the laundry department will need to adjust so it can handle the increase during the inventory.MORE IS NOT NECESSARILY MERRIER
The number of people appointed to the task also makes a big difference.
“In this case, more is not merrier,” Larson says. “Too many people can make the process more confusing and harder to handle. The general rule of thumb is that with one team of two people assigned per 100 beds, it will take approximately three hours for 14 people (seven teams) to cover 450 beds.”
Additionally, she recommends assigning separate teams to cover larger areas, such as the linen room, scrubs, the intensive care unit (ICU), maternal and child health, and MOBs. A “captain,” who doesn’t do any actual counting, should be assigned to oversee all aspects of the inventory.
If possible, consider assigning bilingual members to the counting teams working on patient floors. “It really helps when at least one of the team members can explain to the patient what they are doing,” Larson points out. “This is definitely an area of concern for facilities in places like Los Angeles.”A LITTLE EXTRA GOES A LONG WAY
Larson stresses consulting with the administration and management since they will have final say over the inventory budget. Make sure to convey the benefits of having the information an inventory can provide. It’s highly possible that you’ll end up saving money once you learn where the problem areas are and you’re able to fix them.
Also, be sure to have enough overtime pay if necessary, and try to secure funds to provide food and refreshment for those participating in the inventory.
“It really helps if you’re able to provide a little extra something for the people helping out with the inventory,” Larson says. “Providing lunch can go a long way to getting you the participation and cooperation you need.”
Gaining the cooperation of nursing is an area of particular concern. When Larson polled audience members about their biggest challenge in conducting an inventory, 51% answered “Getting nursing to buy in and participate.”
It might help if the nursing staff receives the news from within its own department, and Larson suggests asking the nursing director or manager to handle notification.
Also, she says it helps for each of the teams assigned to the nursing floors to bring along a cart of counted linens. This way, the nursing staff will still have access to usable linens during the count and will appreciate the extra steps taken to ensure minimal disruption.
The important thing to remember is to make the inventory as easy as possible for everyone involved. The day before, take the time to remind everyone about it. “It’s easy for people to forget the advanced notice or for reminder memos to get lost,” Larson notes.
To help separate counted and uncounted linens, make sure no additional uncounted, clean linens are brought into or taken out of a department during the count, Forrest says. The counters should remove any soiled linen from their areas so that when they leave, all the linen is either clean or in use.
“If there’s a linen chute system, make sure all chute access is taped off until the inventory is completed,” he points out.
If it’s possible, start counting linens the night before in areas like ancillary departments, off-site buildings and MOBs, Larson says. Operating rooms and recovery are also a good bet after they close because you’ll have easier access; counting scrubs by size can take a long time. During the actual inventory day, the counters can concentrate on the linen room, nursing floors and the rest of the facility.
It’s OK to make special considerations for sensitive areas, such as the ER, doctors’ sleep rooms, and labor and delivery, Larson says. Their use level can be unpredictable, but in general, try to avoid early mornings and mid-afternoons; lunchtime may work best, when the fewest staff and patients are present.
“Don’t worry if there’s so much traffic that your teams have to make an estimate instead of an exact count,” she says. “It’s better to have an idea of the linen contents of the rooms than no idea at all.” Also, it’s OK to “eyeball” the amount of high turnover, low-value items like washcloths, rather than handle each item.
Conducting a physical linen inventory may seem overwhelming at first, but just take it step by step, and it won’t be as difficult as it may have looked, according to Larson and Forrest.
The longer it’s put off, the more work there will be to do. Once a physical linen inventory has been integrated into your schedule, you’ll soon wonder how you could have gotten along without it.

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30 January 2007

Bioturbation all around you

This little freshwater snail, probably a Helisoma sp., created a record of its movement in the fine sediment layer covering the rocks on the bottom of a shallow pool next to a creek.

Bioturbation is the disturbing and mixing of soils and sediments by organisms that live or feed in them or simply pass thru them. It is a widespread phenomenon that takes place at different scales: the large mass of soil brought up among the exposed roots of a wind-toppled oak tree and the few-millimeter thick sediment layer disturbed along the trail of a tiny aquatic snail are both examples of bioturbation.

A recent review by Meysman et al.1 presents a good introduction to the subject. Charles Darwin was apparently the first naturalist to approach bioturbation from a scientific angle. The result was his book The formation of vegetable mould, through the action of worms, with observations on their habits.

Bioturbation is especially obvious on the ocean floor where many mollusks, worms and crustaceans live buried in the sediment while others plow thru it in search of food. The result is a complex interaction of biological and physical events: "Benthic organisms modify the microtopography of the ocean floor via pellet production, track formation and different types of construction, such as mounds and pits... This biologically induced roughness modifies the hydrodynamics above the sediment layer, which in turn affects erosion and resuspension."

However, Meysman et al. point out that "for most landscapes and seascapes, the importance of the biological imprint compared with purely physical processes remains largely unknown." To return to my original example, how significant is really the reworking of aquatic sediments by snails when a flooding creek after a heavy rain storm can remove or deposit more sediment than can a river full of snails over many, many generations?

When a process is as common as bioturbation, it becomes difficult to rule out what is not bioturbation. Is the imprinting of footprints in mud count as bioturbation? If the formation of footprints had a significant impact in the lives of other organisms, I suppose the process would be bioturbation. What about the weathering of rock outcrops by microorganism and plant roots? Many rock types start out as sediments and weathered rocks eventually turn into soil. But where do we draw the line?

Meysman et al. also assign a "revolutionary" position to bioturbation in the grand scheme of evolution: "Benthic fauna had to adapt to the newly emerging bioturbated sediment conditions, thereby fuelling the 'Cambrian explosion'". But that is pure speculation.

1Filip J.R. Meysman, Jack J. Middelburg and Carlo H.R. Heip. Bioturbation: a fresh look at Darwin’s last idea. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21:688, 2006. Abstract & Glossary

Anonymous said...

Fascinating...I never knew there were other kinds of -turbation aside from the kind reported to cause blindness!

What? I can't see what you wrote. I must be going blind!


Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color

Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color

5.0 1
by Nina G. Jablonski

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“Children begin to attribute significance to skin color at about three years of age,” observes anthropologist Jablonski (Skin: A Natural History). “But,” she continues, “they don’t develop ideas of race based on what they see.” The book’s first half addresses the biology of skin color, lucidly explaining the science of what happened with skin color as “people moved into solar regimes markedly different from those under which their ancestors had evolved.” The second half focuses on the social consequences of skin color; Jablonski moves succinctly through recorded history from ancient Egypt, the early faiths (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), the European Middle Ages and Renaissance, a review of the “natural philosophers” (such as Kant), a consideration of the impact of slavery and the slave trade in modern Europe and the Americas, and a review of how skin color is regarded in South Africa, Brazil, India, and Japan. In the concluding chapters, Jablonski brings biology, culture, and health together. Her fresh approach to the skin color/race conundrum is not only provocative, but persuasive and exceptionally accessible whether she’s writing about the science of skin color or Kant (”one of the most influential racists of all time”). Agent: Regina Brooks, Serendipity Literary Agency. (Sept.)
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"Accessible to general readers. . . . The book fascinates! Highly recommended."—Choice
Choice - D. C. Cook

“Accessible to general readers. . . . The book fascinates! Highly recommended.”
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"Clear [and] thorough, but not exhaustive or boring."

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Living Color

The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color

By Nina G. Jablonski

Copyright © 2012 Nina G. Jablonski
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-520-95377-2

Skin's Natural Palette

Skin does so much in so little space. It protects the body against most physical, chemical, and microbial threats and yet maintains an exquisite sensitivity to touch, temperature, and pain. It achieves this and much more in less than one millimeter (about 1/25 of an inch) of average thickness, with a layer of nearly impervious dead cells covering the living cells. Skin's highly economical construction consists of two layers, the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis (outer layer) is very thin, waterproof, and abrasion-resistant and contains important pigment-producing and immune cells. The thicker, denser dermis is tougher than the epidermis and contains most of the skin's plumbing and wiring, including blood vessels, sweat glands, sensory receptors, and hair follicles.

Skin color comes from several substances, which are visible to varying degrees in different people. For most of human history, people did not know exactly how skin got its color, so they spun creative tales and theories to explain it. Many of these explanations were ingenious products of astute observations, like that of the Greek philosopher Hippocrates, who ventured that skin became darker when it was parched by the sun over time.

In lightly pigmented people, the skin gets most of its color from blood and from the bluish-white connective tissues of the dermis. The red color produced by circulating hemoglobin becomes more obvious, especially on the face, when the small arteries in the skin expand and become engorged with blood. This is the classic blush. After long bouts of vigorous exercise, the face becomes flushed and sweaty as blood is pumped to the surface of the skin to supply the sweat glands with needed coolant. The most uncomfortable reddening occurs when people flush red with embarrassment or anger. When people "drain of color" as the result of fear or anxiety, the blood vessels narrow and reduce blood flow to the skin.

Although hemoglobin contributes to skin color, the most important substance imparting color to skin is melanin, which is a pigment produced in specialized skin cells. In moderately or darkly pigmented people, melanin provides most of the remarkable range of brown hues. Melanin is the collective term for a large family of molecules that can absorb broadly in the visible light spectrum and are dark in color. The unique chemical configuration of melanin also makes it protective against a variety of noxious environmental elements. It is found in a tremendous array of organisms, including fungi (figure 1; box 1), and its ubiquity in the natural world testifies to its long history and versatility. Melanin is one of many compounds that are repeatedly recruited during the course of evolution because they do their job well and usually only require minor tweaking through natural selection to be modified for new functional roles.

Eumelanin is the dominant pigment found in human skin, and I generally refer to it simply as melanin. The most important pigment in the animal kingdom, eumelanin both protects the body and gives it color. Its basic building blocks are chemically simple, but these chemical constituents are bound strongly to proteins in the body to make large, linked molecules, or polymers. Eumelanin polymers take on different physical configurations and are remarkably stable. This stability is essential to their function and makes them hard to study: even when bombarded by high-energy radiation or free radicals, eumelanin molecules don't fall apart. There are many kinds of eumelanin, each with a slightly different structure and resulting color.

Eumelanin is remarkable for its ability to absorb a wide range of the wavelengths of radiation generated by the sun, and in particular the higher-energy and potentially damaging wavelengths of solar radiation beyond the visible spectrum, collectively known as ultraviolet radiation, or UVR. Ultraviolet radiation can damage biological systems by breaking the chemical bonds that hold together important molecules, including DNA. This causes a toxic cascade of events in cells that involves the production of "free radicals"—highly chemically reactive atoms or molecules with free electrons that can bind to other molecules—which disrupt normal chemical reactions in cells. When UVR strikes eumelanin, the eumelanin absorbs the radiation without breaking down. This makes eumelanin a powerful sunscreen. Besides blocking damage through physical absorption of UVR, eumelanin prevents free-radical formation and neutralizes free radicals that do form. This is why it is also classified as an antioxidant.

Eumelanin's superior antioxidant properties are put to the test not only in the skin but also in less obvious places like the eye. There, eumelanin is one of the main components of the membrane just underneath the retina, which is the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball.

The retina is constantly bombarded with radiation in the forms of visible light and UVR. The delicate cells of the retina are largely spared damage, however, because the eumelanin in the layer below works to prevent free-radical damage. It is thought that other forms of melanin, tucked away in hidden parts of the inner ear and brain and thus not exposed to any light, may perform similar functions.

All melanins are produced in specialized cells called melanocytes. In the skin, melanocytes are found at the lowest level of the epidermis, at the junction with the dermis (figure 2). Melanocytes come to this position early in the development of the embryo, after their precursor cells migrate into the skin. At this point they establish connections with their neighboring skin cells, called keratinocytes. All babies are born quite pale: although melanocytes start producing melanin early in fetal development, they don't work at full capacity until puberty.

Melanin is made within small, membrane-bound packages called melanosomes. As these packages become full of melanin, they move into the slender projecting arms of the melanocyte and from there are transferred into adjacent keratinocytes. Under normal conditions, melanosomes aggregate on top of the nucleus of the keratinocyte and form a protective cap over the genetic material contained in it. One melanocyte supplies melanin to about thirty-six keratinocytes in an intricately choreographed process that is directed by signals from the keratinocytes. These cells also regulate melanin production and melanocyte replication. This is important because disruption of the relationship between melanocytes and keratinocytes wreaks havoc on the body. When melanocytes lose contact with their controlling keratinocytes, they start dividing rapidly and can break free from the confines of the skin altogether and initiate one of the most dangerous of skin cancers, metastatic melanoma. These processes are controlled by genetic and hormonal factors, but in most people they can be accelerated greatly by exposure to UVR.

People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amounts and kinds of melanin. The genetic mechanisms of melanin production involve the regulation of a series of chemical pathways largely governed by the enzyme tyrosinase. Differences in skin color are also caused by differences in the size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin. People with naturally darkly pigmented skin have melanosomes that are large and filled with eumelanin. Those with naturally pale skin have smaller melanosomes that contain varying amounts and kinds of eumelanin as well as of its lighter-colored cousin, pheomelanin.

Like eumelanin, pheomelanin varies in its structure, and its color ranges from yellow to red. It is most obvious in the hair of people from northern Europe (and the British Isles) and in the luxuriant coats of animals like golden lion tamarins and Irish Setter dogs. Pheomelanin not only looks different from eumelanin but acts differently too. Whereas eumelanin is an antioxidant that quenches harmful free radicals produced by UVR, pheomelanin actually produces free radicals when hit by UVR and so can further damage DNA and other components of living skin cells.

Subtle variations in skin color—the reddish, yellowish, bluish, and other hues that are often remarked on in artistic representations of human skin—are due to different proportions of the different forms of eumelanin and pheomelanin in the skin, and most people have both types of melanin in their skin in varying ratios.

Pigment can be unevenly distributed over the surface of the body, and an obvious example of this is freckles. Freckles are small, flat spots of melanin that develop in a random pattern on the skin in response to repeated sun exposure. Occurring mostly in people with very lightly pigmented skin, they vary in color from yellow to dark brown. Ephelides are the type of freckles that most commonly appear on the faces of children. They can occur elsewhere on the body if the skin is exposed to sunlight for longer periods. These freckles can fade if the skin is protected from the sun for a while, and they often disappear entirely by the mid-teens. Sometimes, though, they persist in fair-skinned people who are routinely exposed to strong sun. Another type of freckle is "liver spots" or "age spots" (solar lentigines) that appear on the hands and faces of older people. These tend to be darker than childhood freckles and occur in people with a wide range of skin colors as the result of sun damage. They do not fade, and their persistence is vexatious to many people as they age. Skin bleaching preparations are marketed to eliminate these marks, but this treatment is often not effective.

Large anomalies in the production of melanins in human skin usually leave conspicuous traces. Because the absence of normal skin color on part or all of the body can affect a person's health and self-image, extensive research has been conducted on these afflictions. Absence of pigmentation can arise for many reasons. Various types of albinism are due to genetic mutations affecting different parts of the pigment production pathway or melanocytes in different parts of the body. Melanocytes can be entirely absent or fail to produce melanin, or melanosomes can fail to mature and be transferred into keratinocytes. The end result is the same: no pigment. When the ability to produce pigment in the skin is lost in patches on the body, the result is a condition known as vitiligo.

Albinism is better known and is the collective term for many conditions that reduce pigmentation. Africa is home to people with many hues of brown, melanin-rich skin, but it is also home to many people with albinism, who have greatly reduced levels of melanin. They tend to stand out more in Africa because their pale skin, hair, and eyes contrast strikingly with the features of most of the people around them. Some types of albinism affect just the skin and hair; others affect the skin, hair, and eyes, or just the eyes. All are caused by different genetic mutations involving pigmentation. One of the most common types is oculocutaneous albinism, or OCA, which has many subtypes of varying severity that are caused by different genetic mutations (box 2).

Albinism, especially the OCA2 type, is a serious health problem in Africa because people with albinism are more susceptible to the harmful effects of UVR exposure, including extreme sun sensitivity, skin cancer, and eye damage (figure 3). They also face serious social discrimination because of their appearance. In recent years, this discrimination has taken a dramatic and grisly turn, with dozens of people being killed in ritual murders in Tanzania and neighboring Burundi. Local witch doctors aver that the limbs, hair, and blood of people with albinism are potent ingredients for magic charms, which are said to bring success in business and in gold prospecting. Prices for magic concoctions mixed with ground-up organs taken from people with albinism reportedly start at US$2,000, and witch doctors involved in the sale of products made from albino body parts are said to belong to powerful networks across East Africa. Despite well-publicized trials and government crackdowns against the perpetrators of these crimes, a climate of fear exists among people with albinism in Africa.

In doctors' offices and in scientific studies of skin pigmentation today, objective and reproducible measurement of skin color is important. This was an imperfect art for centuries. The earliest classifiers of humankind, working in early-eighteenth-century Europe, used simple and imprecise color words like yellow, red, black, and white to describe skin tone. They had not observed non-Europeans in person but had only read explorers' and traders' reports of journeys to distant lands.

By the late 1800s and early 1900s, it was evident that a more nuanced system was necessary to describe the many hues of human skin, and it was then that European scientists began to develop numerical codes for describing skin tone. These systems made use of numbered strips of painted paper or numbered tiles of colored glass in different shades; the latter system gained wide circulation under the name of its developer, Felix von Luschan.

These methods were an improvement over arbitrary color naming, but they failed. Matching methods arbitrarily divided the continuum of skin tones into discrete shades, and the measurements were hard to reproduce from one observer to another because the tiles looked different under different lighting conditions, and matches with skin tone were often judged differently. Because of the inaccuracy of these methods, and the benighted motivations of some of the people using them, the study of skin pigmentation and skin color inheritance lost direction and intellectual integrity during the early twentieth century. A more objective and reproducible method was skin-color measurement using reflected light of specific wavelengths, often called reflectometry.

The principle of skin reflectometry is simple. The reflectometer measures skin color by shining light through filters of different colors onto the skin and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back. Each colored filter allows light of a specific wavelength of the visible spectrum to pass through. Skin color is measured by the percentages of the different wavelengths of light reflected. Light skin reflects more visible light of all wavelengths than dark skin and gives higher reflectance values, but different skins reflect different amounts of different wavelengths (box 3). Darker-toned skin absorbs more short-wavelength (blue) light than long-wavelength (red) light. Lighter skin absorbs less blue light and more red light. Over the past sixty years various kinds of portable reflectometers have been invented to make it easier to measure skin pigmentation in field situations and in doctors' offices.

Our skin "tans" when exposed to strong, UVR-containing sunlight, but some of us develop a much darker tan than others. (Tanning as a series of physiological responses to UVR exposure is distinct from sun-tanning as a recreational activity, which I refer to as recreational tanning; see chapter 14.) Everyone, regardless of skin color, has about the same number of melanocytes, but people with naturally dark skin possess melanocytes that can produce about four times as much melanin as those in people with lighter skin. Higher melanin content offers more protection against damage to DNA and other important molecules. The fourfold difference in melanin content between darkly pigmented and lightly pigmented people translates into a seven- to eightfold difference in protection against damage to DNA, but even the darkest skin does not protect a person completely. Even very low UVR exposures cause measurable DNA damage.

Excerpted from Living Color by Nina G. Jablonski. Copyright © 2012 Nina G. Jablonski. Excerpted by permission of UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS.

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Photos and Videos: 2010 BMW X6 SUV Videos

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Summary: What happens when you remove the utility from a Sport Utility Vehicle? You get this, the BMW X6. While SUVs have steadily become more civilized in recent years the BMW X6 takes the concept of a road-focused SUV to new extremes.
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History of Photography

photography, still

still photography, science and art of making permanent images on light-sensitive materials.

See also photographic processing; motion picture photography; motion pictures.

Early Developments

The Invention of Photography

The Daguerreotype

Daguerreotypy spread rapidly, except in England, where Daguerre had secretly patented his process before selling it to the French government. The legal problems attending the pursuit of photography as a profession account in part for the widespread influence of amateurs (e.g., Nadar, the French pioneer photographer) on the early development of the medium. The popularity of the daguerreotype is attributable to two principal factors. The first of these was the Victorian passion for novelty and for the accumulation of material objects, which found its perfect paradigm in these silvery, exquisitely detailed miniatures. The second was the greatly increasing demand from a rising middle class for qualitatively good but—compared to a painter's fee—inexpensive family portraits. The cheaper tintype eventually made such likenesses available to all.

The principal shortcoming of the daguerreotype and its variants was inherent in its nature as a direct positive. Unique and unreproducible, it could not serve for the production of any image intended for wide distribution. This factor, combined with the lengthy exposure time necessitated by the process, restricted its function to portraiture. The vast majority of surviving daguerreotypes are portraits; images of any other subject are exceedingly rare. Nevertheless, for 20 years the daguerreotype completely overshadowed the greater utility of the calotype. In the United States, where it was equally popular, the daguerreotype was promoted by John W. Draper and Samuel F. B. Morse.

The Calotype

The calotype's paper negative made possible the reproduction of photographic images. The unavoidably coarse paper base for the negative, however, eliminated the delicate detail that made the daguerreotype so appealing. This lack of precision was understood and used to advantage by the Scottish painter David Octavius Hill and his assistant, Robert Adamson. From 1843 to 1848 they made an extensive series of calotype portraits of Scottish clergymen, intended to serve only as studies for a group portrait in oils, that stands today among the major bodies of work in the medium. Hill and Adamson composed their portraits in broad planes, juxtaposing bold masses of light and dark, creating works that are monumental in feeling despite their small size.

The Collodion Process

The dilemma of detail versus reproducibility was resolved in 1851 by an Englishman, Frederick Scott Archer, who introduced the collodion process. This method, also known as the "wet plate" technique, involved coating a glass plate with silver iodide in suspension, exposing it while still wet, and developing it immediately. Once fixed and dried, the glass plate was covered with a thin, flexible film containing the negative image, the definition and detail of which approached that of the daguerreotype. As this process merged the advantages of both its predecessors, it was universally adopted within a very short time.

The Impact of Early Photography

With the advent of the collodion process came mass production and dissemination of photographic prints. The inception of these visual documents of personal and public history engendered vast changes in people's perception of history, of time, and of themselves. The concept of privacy was greatly altered as cameras were used to record most areas of human life. The ubiquitous presence of photographic machinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable for observation. The photograph was considered incontestable proof of an event, experience, or state of being.

To fulfill the mounting and incessant demand for more images, photographers spread out to every corner of the world, recording all the natural and manufactured phenomena they could find. By the last quarter of the 19th cent. most households could boast respectable photographic collections. These were in three main forms: the family album, which contained cabinet portraits and the smaller cartes-de-visite and tintypes; scrapbooks containing large prints of views from various parts of the world; and boxes of stereoscope cards, which in combination with the popular stereo viewer created an effective illusion of three-dimensionality.

A number of photographers, including Timothy O'Sullivan, J. K. Hillers, and W. H. Jackson, accompanied exploratory expeditions to the new frontiers in the American West, while John Thomson returned from China and Maxime Du Camp from Egypt with records of vistas and peoples never before seen by Western eyes. Roger Fenton, who photographed the Crimean conflict, and Mathew Brady's photographic corps, who documented the American Civil War, provided graphic evidence of the hellishness of combat.

Further Developments

Art and Documentary Photography

The Aesthetics of Photography

Seeking to determine the particular aesthetics of photography, the American Berenice Abbott and the Frenchmen Eugène Atget, André Kertész, and Henri Cartier-Bresson developed intensely personal styles. The exponents of surrealism in France and of futurism in Italy and the various German art movements that were focused in the Bauhaus all explored the medium of photography. The international exhibition "Film und Foto," held in Stuttgart in 1929, helped to make formal a purely photographic aesthetic. The works exhibited combined elements of functionalism and abstraction. Photographic subject matter shifted from the past to the present—a present of new forms in machinery and architecture, new concern with the experience of the working classes, and a new interest in the timeless forms of nature.

In California during the 1920s and 30s Edward Weston and a handful of kindred spirits founded the f/64 group, taking their name from the smallest lens opening, that which provides the greatest precision of line and detail. This small and unofficial group—which included Imogen Cunningham, Ansel Adams, and Willard Van Dyke—came to dominate photographic art, overshadowing the pictorial aesthetic. They and their imitators eschewed all post-exposure handwork, and worked with 8 × 10-in. view cameras in order to obtain the largest possible negatives from which to make straightforward contact prints. They limited their subject matter to static things: the still life, the distant or closely viewed landscape, and the formal portrait. The influential teacher Minor White became known for his poetic, visionary work related in technique to this straightforward approach.

The Impact of New Technology

Modern Photography

Other Aspects of Photography

In the contemporary world the practical applications of the photographic medium are legion: it is an important tool in education, medicine, commerce, criminology, and the military. Its scientific applications include aerial mapping and surveying, geology, reconnaissance, meteorology, archaeology, and anthropology. New techniques such as holography, a means of creating a three-dimensional image in space, continue to expand the medium's technological and creative horizons. In astronomy the charge coupled device (CCD) can detect and register even a single photon of light.

Digital Technology

By the end of the 20th cent. digital imaging and processing and computer-based techniques had made it possible to manipulate images in many ways, creating revolutionary changes in photography. Digital technology allowed for a fundamental change in the nature of photographic technique. Instead of light passing through a lens and striking emulsion on film, digital photography uses sensors and color filters. In one technique three filters are arranged in a mosaic pattern on top of the photosensitive layer. Each filter allows only one color (red, green, or blue) to pass through to the pixel beneath it. In the other technique, three separate photosensitive layers are embedded in silicon. Since silicon absorbs different colors at different depths, each layer allows a different color to pass through. When stacked together, a full color pixel results. In both techniques the photosensitive material converts images into a series of numbers that are then translated back into tonal values and printed. Using computers, various numbers can easily be changed, thus altering colors, rearranging pictorial elements, or combining photographs with other kinds of images. Some digital cameras record directly onto computer disks or into a computer, where the images can be manipulated at will.

See B. Newhall, The History of Photography: 1839 to the Present Day (5th ed. 1988); R. Bolton, Contest of Meaning (1992); G. Batchen, Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography (1999); J. Szarkowski, Looking at Photographs (1999); M. J. Langford, Basic Photography (2001); T. Ang, Digital Photography: An Introduction (2003); E. Morris, Believing Is Seeing: Observations on the Mysteries of Photography (2011). Among the many outstanding volumes of collected photographs are E. Steichen, ed., The Family of Man (1955) and American Album (1968; comp. by the ed. of American Heritage); V. Goldberg, Photography in Print (1988); W. J. Mitchell, The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-Photographic Age (1993); M. S. Alinder, Group f.64 (2014).

History of Photography: Selected full-text books and articles

Photography: An Illustrated History By Martin W. Sandler Oxford University Press, 2002
The Photography Handbook By Terence Wright Routledge, 1999
Librarian’s tip: Chap. 1 "Historical Outline of Photographic Representation"
The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics By Berys Gaut; Dominic McIver Lopes Routledge, 2001
Librarian’s tip: Chap. 40 "Photography"
On the Margins of Art Worlds By Larry Gross Westview Press, 1995
Librarian’s tip: Chap. 8 "'A Photograph Is Not a Picture': Distinguishing Anarchy from Art in the Late Nineteenth Century" and Chap. 9 "Between Art and Industry: Amateur Photography and Middlebrow Culture"
Art History and Its Institutions: Foundations of a Discipline By Elizabeth Mansfield Routledge, 2002
Librarian’s tip: Chap. 15 "Photographic Perspectives: Photography and the Institutional Formation of Art History"
Art after Modernism: Rethinking Representation By Brian Wallis Museum of Contemporary Art, 1984
Librarian’s tip: "Photography after Art Photography" begins on p. 75
Handbook of American Popular Culture By M. Thomas Inge Greenwood Press, vol.2, 1989 (2nd edition)
Librarian’s tip: "Photography" begins on p. 887
To Light Such a Candle: Chapters in the History of Science and Technology By Keith J. Laidler Oxford University Press, 1998
Librarian’s tip: Chap. Three "Daguerre, Talbot, and the Legacy of Photography"
Photographic Portraiture and the Forgetting of Colour By Smith, Lindsay Journal of European Studies, Vol. 30, No. 1, March 2000
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Study: Games do not unequivocally correlate to violence

The first long term study of a single game's affects on real world violence …

The debate over the role video games play in promoting violence reached a more dignified level with the publication of a new study that poses problems for those who want to make facile correlations between video games and violence.  Internet Fantasy Violence: A Test of Aggression in an Online Game (Williams, D. & Skoric, M.) [PDF] is the first long-term study of the affects of a video game on players' aggressiveness, measured according to sociological standards (particularly, the Normative Beliefs in Aggression scale, or NOBAGS). The study saw "no strong effects associated with aggression," and even provided the basis for questioning just who it is that is most affected by so-called "violent video games." The method of analysis precluded the detection of "small effects."

The study was comprised of a test group of 213 participants, of which 75 logged an average of 56 hours in a single month playing Asheron’s Call 2. The remaining participants formed the control group. The study's lead, Dmitri Williams of the Speech Communication department at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, said that the players showed no more aggressiveness than the control group's non-players.

The study looked at two aspects of aggression: the acceptance of violent behaviors among the test subjects, and the potential increase of violent behaviors on the part of those subjects. The test subjects were all new to the world of massive online role playing games (referred to in the study as MMRPGs), although some had played other sorts of video games before. While Williams and his team are careful to note that this study does not indicate that other games can't possibly have negative affects on gamers, the study was designed to test a threshold of violence that is statistically significant in the world of gaming.

The study tested for the effect of a particular kind of content that is substantially more violent than the average video game and should have more effect, given the highly repetitive nature of the violence. To make an analogy to television, this study took individuals who watched a wide range of television content and asked them to watch a large dose of known, violent fare. The results show that the exposure to this violent game exceeded their prior exposure, but more importantly, this exposure was much more violent than the average across the universe of content. In keeping with the analogy, this would be the equivalent of having television viewers displace most of their regular viewing with only strong violence and having the new total number of hours go up.

The 213 participants (167 male, 45 female, 1 "unstated") that were involved in the study had a mean age of 27.7 years, spanning 14 to 68 (!). The participants were primarily white and male (85% and 84% respectively), educated, and "middle class." The study noted that while it was not possible to measure "small effects," a population that would be appropriate for that determination would likely not change the results in any significant manner.

One thing about the study that immediately jumped out at me was the observation that "older participants in the experimental group were perhaps more strongly influenced by game play and argued with friends more than their younger counterparts," and that they were "overall less likely to report aggressive cognitions and
behavior." Could it be that the Concerned Parents and Politicians Everywhere® are seeing the violence in video games largely on account of their own dispositions toward the games? The possibility cannot be ruled out. On the other hand, the researchers said that studying the MMRPG realm couldn't provide a full picture, because few adolescents play those games, as the mean age of the study clearly shows.

Of course, the study does not provide a definitive answer to the issues. Longer periods of playing time than one single month would be needed, and the population study, while robust, would be more convincing with greater numbers. Nevertheless, the picture revealed by Williams et al. should complicate the rhetoric of the opponents of adult-themed gaming, although one must always keep in mind the way an ostrich reacts to problems. One very important point remains, however:

Thus, if the content, context, and play length have some bearing on the effects, policy-makers should seek a greater understanding of the games they are debating. It may be that both the attackers and defenders of the industry’s various products are operating without enough information, and are instead both arguing for blanket approaches to what is likely a more complicated phenomenon. Researchers can play an important role by refining our gross-level understanding of violent game effects into something more rigorous.

So, at the very least, this study is proof of the fact that talking about what "violent video games" "do" to "gamers" is a gross generalization, and will always call for a critical eye. The situation is considerably more complex, and further study—not grandstanding—is needed in the public discourse.

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The Undoing of Nonet

Beginning of the end: dancers in <i>The Undoing of Nonet</i>
Beginning of the end: dancers in The Undoing of Nonet
Photo courtesy of Stephen Pruitt

The Undoing of Nonet

Salvage Vanguard Theater, 2803 Manor Rd.
Dec. 6

"It's not the lightest work I've ever made," said Kathy Dunn Hamrick during her preshow introduction of The Undoing of Nonet. But it wasn't the most devastating, either. The 50-minute piece, danced to two vastly different pieces of music performed onstage by the percussion trio line upon line, was less shattering than Hamrick's The Big Small, which premiered in June. I was glad I'd seen both. While The Big Small considered a catastrophe, Nonet was quietly unsettling, depicting the undercurrent of malaise in the keepin' on and inevitable unraveling that might have followed that event.

Nonet refers to the nine dancers in the group, which was experiencing an actual undoing, as eight-year veteran Roxanne Gage was set to retire after the performances. At first, the dancers, costumed in variations of beige day-wear (by Laura Noose and Mandie Pitre), moved as one organism, forming soft shapes in silent waves until a mallet made a ground-splitting strike on a drum and one dancer tore herself away from the chain. This point seemed overamplified, but I realized later that I needed such calling of attention to important moments: Because I was watching the musicians, I didn't notice when or how the first dancer left the stage. But then there were eight.

Hamrick developed the dance without music, selecting Iannis Xenakis' "Okho" and Ben Isaacs' "several inflections" from line upon line's repertoire six weeks into the process. "Okho" is loud, dynamic, aggressive; the musicians moved their mallets down to the drums as butchers with meat cleavers, and the dancers were at times propelled by their rhythms. But "several inflections" is a subtle, constant, tiny composition for three partial glockenspiels no bigger than babies' xylophones, which were played with red mallets thin as chopsticks. The intense concentration required of the three men to make these tiny, sustained sounds seemed to suggest a madness, or the oblique focus that makes art, in general, possible.

During "several inflections," the number of dancers onstage dwindled to five, and they required more of one another. Each took turns lifting others to help them raise their limbs toward the ceiling. The lighting, designed by Stephen Pruitt, came from 65 or so halogen bulbs suspended from a wooden grid above the stage, and whenever a dancer's toe or finger brushed one of the bulbs, the entire apparatus swayed. Near the end of the piece, groups of the lights flickered, as if their power source was faltering. Soon after, the instruments' final tones faded into nothing, and dancer Shari Brown was alone, curled, just off-center. She stayed there long enough that, as though seasons had passed, her crouching human form surrendered its defense and became a beautiful, earthly shape.

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9 eco-friendly diets

Jan. 15, 2010, 11:47 a.m.
Vegan Diet

Photo: ammanteufel/Flickr

8 of 11

Vegan Diet

Taking the extra step from vegetarian to vegan doubles the impact on your carbon footprint — reducing it by about two tons. In addition to meat, vegans consider dairy, eggs and other animal-derived ingredients or those processed using animal products off limits, too.


Sunderland have recalled Billy Knott from his loan at Wycombe Wanderers. The 21-year-old midfielder initially joining the Chairboys in August and agreed a loan extension in November and had been due to stay with the League Two club until 29 January.


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Tachyon Energy: A New Paradigm in Science and Health

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Holistic health; harmony and healing of the body; balance on the emotional, mental and spiritual levels, are all based on an energy source that is integral to our existence. Therefore, healing at any level is very dependent on tapping into the primordial energy that is the source of existence. From maintenance and rejuvenation, to the deepest levels of holistic healing, all are made possible by our ability to tap into the energy source that energizes and creates the form of all material existence as we know it.

Formless Zero-Point Energy, (in Quantum Physics), is considered to be the starting point, ("SOURCE") of the energetic continuum, and the first formed energy to emerge from it is called 'Tachyon'. Named after the Greek word meaning swift, the word Tachyon, like the word electricity, merely describes a type of energy. But it is to Tachyon Energy, and its qualities and uses as a balancing tool for the human form, that I now direct your attention. What makes these Tachyon particles so special? Well, just like Zero-Point Energy, they move faster than the speed of light, are everywhere at the same time, have no frequency, spin, or gravitation, are the source of all energies, and contain the perfect potential of the entire universe within themselves,but remember, now they have form.

So how can we get more of this Tachyon Energy if we want to function at optimal levels? The answer may be found in new advancements in technology that have allowed for the creation of "antennae' that attract and focus Tachyon Energy. These 'antennae', when applied directly to the body, 'feed' the SOEF's. Tachyon does not heal. Rather, it provides the energy for the body to heal itself and do it in a self regulating fashion.

That's right, you see the SOEF's use only that amount of Tachyon Energy necessary to rebalance unorganized areas of the body elim inating the need to monitor dosage requirements.

For example: The sun is a magnificent source of photon energy. Approximately 20 - 30 minutes of exposure per day is necessary for optimum health. Yet, this same ball of photon energy will burn you to a crisp if you are exposed for 4 or 5 hours. The reason for this is that photon energy, like all frequencies, has no intelligence. It doesn't know when to start or stop! Ultimately, it is up to the user to decide when to stop the exposure, by getting out of the sun.

Another example is excess exposure to magnetic energy. For instance, it is known that magnets work on a specific frequency with the North and South Poles having opposite effects. The South Pole is activating. If it is used for too long, it can create a hyper-activity in the system and cause harm. Dr. Gabriel Cousens, director of the Tree of Life Rejuvenation Center and author of "Spiritual Nutrition and the Rainbow Diet," "Sevenfold Peace," and "Conscious Eating," demonstrated through clinical experience that some people using magnetic mattresses developed high blood pressure, which fortunately went away when they were told to stop using a magnetic mattress. This can happen because magnets operate on a frequency and have intensity, but do not have a built-in intelligence to know when to stop broadcasting.

Tachyon Energy is totally different than both of these examples. Tachyon is not a frequency, nor is it a frequency approach. Frequency, oscillation or spin do not exist at the level at which Tachyon operates. Its effects are regulated by the internal wisdom of the SOEFs. When Tachyon is applied to an area, the SOEFs convert what they need to restore themselves to perfect balance and order.

What are some of the things you might experience from increased Tachyon Energy exposure?

By Robert Ziegler Certified Tachyon Practitioner

Author: Certified Tachyon Practitioner

Biography: Robert Ziegler, a Certified Tachyon Practitioner, and Member in good standing with the Tachyon Institute for Spirituality and Science, Santa Rosa, CA, is located in Central Florida. His practice is devoted to bringing balance to the mind, body and spirit complex through the utilization of Tachyon Energy. This article may be freely published, provided it is published in its entirety, including the byline, copyright information, and author's bio. If you wish to publish this piece, kindly notify the author.

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EMFs Affect on Biological Systems
Tachyon Energy: A New Paradigm in Science and Health
The Energetic Continuum
What Is Tachyon Energy?

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