Instead, the hearing will revolve around family members, psychiatric professionals, and public health representatives, making decisions with potentially very serious implications about medical privacy for mentally ill people.  This event is occurring in a larger context of national panic about mental health and violence — with few public figures brave enough to stand against the tide, as Al Franken recently did, and warn against continued stereotyping and stigma of mentally ill people.

Rep. Murphy’s claim is that HIPAA “may interfere with the timely and continuous flow of health information between health care providers, patients, and families, thereby impeding patient care, and in some cases, public safety.” In other words: mentally health patients shouldn’t receive patient confidentiality, because mentally ill people are violent, and it’s in the best interest of society overall to lift privacy restrictions that limit the disclosure of their health information. This is part of a larger attack on HIPAA rights for mentally ill people with potentially grave implications that’s wrongheaded from a number of perspectives.

Despite the public perception that mentally ill people are violent and dangerous — one fostered by dangerous pop culture depictions, scaremongering media, and public comments by politicians and other leaders — it’s just not the reality. In fact, the link between mental illness and violence goes the other way round; mentally ill people are far more likely to be the victims than the perpetrators of violence. They also experience sexual assault, financial exploitation, and discrimination at very high rates because they’re viewed as easy victims. Of those who do commit violence, the vast majority engage in acts of self-harm like suicide, not violence against others.

The vast majority of violent crimes are perpetrated by people without mental health conditions. And, in unsurprising news, the largest factors involved in a violent crime that does involve a mentally ill person are lack of access to treatment (a perennial problem in the US) and drugs, which some patients may turn to for self-medication when they cannot get care through other means.

The larger issue here is that mentally ill people tend to be vulnerable and marginalized. And if public health is a concern, which well it should be, the focus should be on ensuring that people with symptoms of mental illness have access to the treatment they need without stigma, financial obstacles like high copays, or social risks like job loss or ostracization. That’s part of what HIPAA offers to patients: with privacy protections in place, people can seek treatment and guidance without fear of being outed, which makes it safer to get mental health care. Patients experiencing psychiatric crisis, as well as those who are extremely frightened about seeking care, rely on that privacy to help them gain the confidence to walk into a doctor’s office.

That’s why proposals to erode HIPAA should be viewed with alarm. In the wake of New York’s troubling gun bill, a number of psychiatrists articulated that alarm, pointing out that patients afraid of being reported to authorities — or put on a national registry — are not going to be as frank with their care providers. They could conceal suicidal or violent thoughts during counseling sessions instead of addressing them due to fears that their private information might be shared with their families or officials. This would be utterly contrary to the goal of providing measured psychiatric treatment intended to help a patient manage a mental health condition, and, in the long term, it would undoubtedly undermine public safety overall, which is precisely the opposite of what laws like this one are claiming to do.

Georgia, alarmingly, has upped the stakes considerably by extending the powers of forced psychiatric holds and commitments, striking even more fear into the hearts of patients who need mental health services. People who recognize that they need help and want to reach out are less likely to do so when they’re aware that care providers might be forced to report on their sessions to government officials, or could have broader powers when it comes to committing them.

These proposals to relax medical privacy laws, in other words, actively endanger patients with mental health conditions.

In the case of the HIPAA hearing, the discussion also highlights the tension between autonomy for mentally ill patients, who deserve the right to private medical treatment, and communities like parents who demand more information. In the wake of rampant violence involving mentally ill suspects, parents often complain that they weren’t informed or were powerless to do anything, creating a dangerous scenario where parents are effectively demanding the right to control adult children, and to be familiarized with their private medical information. But health care is a human right, and privacy is a civil right. Restricting either is a grave disservice to mentally ill patients. And those who don’t support human rights for mentally ill people may want to consider the consequences of these restrictions, since limiting access to safe, private care could actually endanger public health even more.

Mental health absolutely is a public health issue, with an estimated one in four people experiencing symptoms of mental illness each year, and many of them struggling to get the treatment they need. It’s definitely time to talk about improving access to mental health services in the United States. But demonizing mentally ill people isn’t the right approach to be taking.

Mental health advocates are calling for the inclusion of mentally ill people in the Congressional hearing, citing the longstanding disability rights slogan “nothing about us without us.” At this hearing, as in the larger national conversation about mental health, it’s critical for the voices of mentally ill people to be represented; and for people to step outside outdated narratives about mental health and violence to focus on improving access to health care.

Our guest blogger is s.e. smith, a writer and editor based in Northern California with a journalistic focus on social issues, particularly gender, prison reform, disability rights, environmental justice, queerness, and class.


Established in 1853

 The fraternity or sorority experience is a unique opportuinty for F&M students spanning over 165 years.  Generations of students and alumni have chosen this gateway to advance involvement and  social opportunities . Fraternities & Sororities are a values-based life-long experience.  Commitment requires living to a higher standard as a college student.  F&M Fraternities & Sororities focus on 5 key areas of Excellence.

#1 Seeking Purpose

 Seeking Purpose | Living with purpose through understanding and being guided by our values as taught by our Rituals. We believe in having organizations that provide an experience which promotes individual growth and development toward authentic lives and purpose. This is F&Mily!

#2 Leadership Development

 Leadership Development | The development of positive leadership skills, practices and beliefs grounded in the ability to make a difference in the world. This is F&Mily!

#3 Intellectual Advancement

 Intellectual Advancement | The development of the intellect inside and outside the classroom, with students engaging in their academic pursuits as well as intellectually stimulating conversations and actions to achieve a passion for lifelong learning. This is F&Mily!

#4 Responsible Citizenship

 Responsible Citizenship | Giving of ourselves through engagement in the community, serving others, being socially responsible and providing the means for the advancement of others. This is F&Mily!

#5 Community Building

 Community Building | Contributing to the multiple communities that exist in our world. We believe in authentically respecting others, engaging in cross-cultural conversations and activities, removing barriers and creating an environment where all kinds of people are welcomed and embraced. This is F&Mily!


Massage and Bodywork with Georgina

Are you feeling tense, tired and disconnected?
...burnt-out, overwhelmed, stressed or anxious?
...depressed or going through emotional turmoil?
...experiencing insomnia or digestive problems?

Are you seeking more ease, joy, clarity and meaning in your life?
Are you looking to navigate changes or decisions in life?

A massage supports you to ease out tension, rest, re-connect and get centred in yourself in order to tap into the wisdom, energy, health and natural healing capacity of your body.

It is an opportunity to surrender into deep restorative relaxation.

Healing bodywork can feel like a « reset » when feeling tense and disconnected, allowing you to walk away with a renewed sense of calm and ease.

Each massage is an offering of self-love that brings you « home » to you.

My integrative therapeutic massage is oil-based, healing bodywork that incorporates physical, energetic, emotional, and spiritual elements, as appropriate, in an intuitive journey around the body.

The massage may include different therapeutic techniques such as deep tissue massage, compression, stretching, rocking, sound, aromatherapy and hands-on energy work to stimulate, relieve, relax and balance body, mind and spirit.

If relevant I incorporate heart intelligence or present moment coaching, to accompany you in developing integrated awareness and getting clear on your truth.

Each session is adapted to you in the moment.

My purpose is to focus on your joy and wellness (as opposed to your pain). You do not need any 'fixing'. You have the answers. You have the wisdom. You know your truth.

In all individual sessions I emphasise mutual listening, respect and confidentiality.  They are based on the understanding that patterns of physical tension that we hold in our bodies often mirror emotional and psychological tension or trauma. This in turn can affect our vitality, our health and our interactions with others.

Through awareness, intention and deep rest, we can begin to let go of that which is weighing us down, reconnect with the self to enhance our body’s own healing capacity, and open ourselves to a renewed sense of calm, joy and well-being in our daily lives.

I offer treatments through English and French.


Sexual Health/GYT

Common Sexually transmitted infections

how to protect yourself from acquiring a STi

STi statistics

* Statistics from Core Concepts of Health, 10th edition, brief *

Ways to make love without doing it!

Tell the other person that you love them - Give or get a hug -Make the other person feel important and respected -Kiss - Have fun together - Tell the other person that you care -Hold hands -Go for a long bike ride -Give a special gift -Be there when is a friend is needed - Spend time together - Go to a movie -Walk arm in arm in the woods - Make a special tape of love songs - Talk openly about your feeling - Share dreams with each other - Snuggle up together - Sit together in the park -Take a walk together -Go out to eat -Have a picnic -Play a game of frisbee -Give complements - Relax in a whirlpool - Go swimming - Just be close - Go grocery shopping - Cook a meal together - Touch each other in a loving way - Do homework together - Plan and go on a road trip together - Throw a party together - Bake cookies - Go to the library -Browse in a museum - Just be there - Find out what special for the other person and do it - Exercise together - Gaze at each other - Wash each others cars -Go fishing - Talk to each other -Listen to hurts - Do a work project together - Choose a special favorite song - Listen to joys - Hold one another close - Use eye contact to share a private thought - Write each other letters - Talk on the telephone - Trust one another -Give or receive a promise ring - Meet each other's family - Go hiking together - Make sacrifices for each other - Send candy - Respect each other - Go for a moonlight walk -Hide a love note where the other will find it - Give each other sexy looks - Write a poem - Send flowers - Eat dinner by candlelight - Go to a concert - Watch the sunrise together - Take a drive together - Give each other pet names -Go sightseeing - Rent a video - Do things for each other without being asked - Propose marriage - Whisper something nice into the other's ear - Be best friends - Take a carriage ride through the park - Go out dancing - Play music together - Flirt with each other - Laugh at something funny together - Be faithful - Impress each other - Make a list of things you like about each other - Read a book and discuss it - Meet each other's friends - Go horseback riding - Cook each other's favorite meal - Find out what make the other happy - Make each other gifts - Be caring - Watch the sunset - Give diamonds - Dedicate a song on the radio - Send a funny card - Share lifetime goals with each other - Play "footsies" - Share private jokes - Think about each other - Find out what makes the other sad - Go skating - Trade class rings - Share an ice cream cone - Have your picture taken together.

Protect Yourself!

Education, Prevention, Diagnosis & Treatment.  Be sure to make responsible, careful decisions about being sexually active.  Ask yourself if you are ready, and if you have doubt... WAIT!

For more information on STI testing on campus, contact Health Services at 392-2656 or visit


Six Small Choices that Transform Leadership

What you see, when you observe successful leaders in action, is the result of small, private, unremarkable choices.

Small decisions determine destiny.

A leader’s trajectory is unnoticed at first. But, the congealing of small, insignificant actions makes leadership. On their own, individual choices often feel insignificant. But, the piling up of insignificant decisions forms you.

Little things make us who we are.

Six small choices:

Create small:

Big choices become small when you add the word, “today.” For example, Stop using others as excuses, today. Choose vulnerability over wall-building, today.

Accept dull:

The path to remarkable begins unremarkably.

What small choices make leaders?


Car Workshop Manuals - Fiat - Fiat Palio 1.2 EL

Fiat Palio 1.2 EL Workshop Manuals

If you wish to conduct fixes on your Fiat Palio 1.2 EL then it is always a good idea to have access to a Workshop Manual to keep just for a reference in the event you want to know techniques to take out a particular part for example Wheel Bearing and fit it again adequately.

Fiat Palio 1.2 EL Workshop Manuals can provide specified diagnostic guidelines on your automobile so if something is not working it will help you understand what the issue is and how you can correct it. You can then analyse if you can do this yourself or in the event the job is simply too big you can book your Palio 1.2 EL right into a nearby friendly mechanic.


Pensacola, Florida
Saturday October 10th 2015

By Jessica Forbes

Thanks to an Internet-celebrity cat named Buddha, fat cats no longer have to suffer in silence. Buddha is leading the movement for overweight cats everywhere to get off the couch and feel the burn.

Buddha was dropped off at a Nashville, Tenn. shelter in early August weighing in at 32 pounds. If you don’t know anything about cats, well, that’s pretty big. A local pet store is currently fostering Buddha and working with an animal clinic to get his weight down. Now on a regimen of cat food and exercise—Buddha works out on a veterinary water treadmill—the feline is slowly shedding those extra lbs. and serving as an example of what’s possible when a cat’s diet and fitness are improved. Yes, you read that right—a cat on a treadmill.

Although Buddha’s case is a bit extreme—he’d been eating human food only—anyone with an indoor cat knows it’s easy for them to start putting on the pounds.

“Obesity is a problem with indoor cats,” said Dr. Laura Tonetti Hall of Pensacola’s East Hill Animal Hospital. “Normal, healthy cats will sleep 18 hours a day anyway. If they’re inside, they’re going to be less stimulated and probably going to sleep more than that.”

Just as with humans, finding higher quality food with less filler is an important first step for managing a pet’s weight. “All food is not created equal,” said Hall, who recommends veterinary prescription diets as indoor cats are prone to steady snacking. “It’s the difference between eating a big, huge salad and being filled up versus eating French fries. It’s just a lot more food they can eat for the calories.”

For indoor cats, owner-initiated activity is especially important, and there is a range of products out there aimed at getting felines to break a sweat. If you don’t have a water treadmill handy or room for a cat-sized hamster wheel in your place, there are easier ways to get a cat in motion.

“Those laser light pointers are awesome,” said Hall, mentioning the main goal is to burn calories.

If you’re looking to save some cash, batting around an old water or milk bottle caps or tying together pieces of ribbon from gifts or clothing tags is a good, on-hand source of endless cat entertainment.

“Feather toys, climbing things… anything to stimulate them and encourage them to get up and get moving,” added Hall. While there’s no rule of thumb for how long cats should exercise, “It really depends on the cat. Whatever they’re doing, just step it up gradually.” Hall says it’s important to keep an eye on the cat’s breathing—if it gets heavy, know it’s time to give them a rest.

Also, keeping a cat’s food and water bowls in separate areas or even separate floors if possible is a good way to guarantee your cat will have to migrate to eat. “Some cats, it’s just really hard to motivate. You can do different enrichment things like they do at the zoo,” said Hall, including moving their bowls around in between feedings to keep them stalking their meals.

And like Buddha, with enough activity and time, your husky cat will shed some weight and totally rock that teeny little bikini by next summer.

For updates on Buddha’s progress, check out facebook.com/CatShoppe.


October 10, 2015

Chickens – Digestive System

Chickens, as with most birds, use their beaks to pick up food and as they have no teeth they are unable to chew their food. A chicken’s mouth contains glands which secrete saliva which wets the food to make it easier to swallow. The saliva also contains some enzymes which start the digestion process. The chicken’s tongue is then used to push the food to the back of the mouth so that it can be swallowed.

The food then moves into the esophagus which is the flexible tube that connects the mouth with the rest of the digestive tract. It carries food from the mouth to the crop.

The Crop

The crop is an out-pocketing of the esophagus and is located just outside the body cavity in the neck region.  Any swallowed food and water is stored in the crop until it is time to pass it on to the rest of the digestive tract. When the crop is empty, or nearly empty, it sends hunger signals to the brain so that the chicken will eat more. Although salivary glands of the mouth secrete the digestive enzyme amylase very little digestion actually takes place in the crop, it is simply a temporary storage pouch.

The crop evolved for birds (in fact it was present in some dinosaurs) that were easy prey for larger animals but which needed to move into the open to find food. This enables them to consume relatively large amounts of food quickly and then move to a more secure location to digest the food they consumed. Occasionally the crop becomes impacted or ‘backed up’ (crop impaction, also referred to as crop binding or pendulous crop).

The Proventriculus

The esophagus continues past the crop to connect the crop to the proventriculus. The proventriculus (also known as the ‘true stomach’) is the glandular stomach where digestion begins. As with human stomachs, hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes (e.g. pepsin) are added to the food here and digestion begins. At this point, however the food has not yet been ground up. The term ‘proventriculus’ is used since it comes before the ‘ventriculus’ or gizzard, with ‘pro’ being the Latin term meaning before.

The Gizzard

The gizzard, or ventriculus, is a part of the digestive tract unique to birds. It is often referred to as the ‘mechanical stomach’. It is made up of two sets of strong muscles which act as the bird’s teeth. Consumed food and the digestive juices from the salivary glands and the proventriculus pass into the gizzard for grinding, mixing, and mashing, which is aided by the small stones or grit the bird consumes. These stones remain in the gizzard until they become ground into pieces small enough to pass through to the rest of the digestive tract. The stones/grit are weakened by the acidic environment created in the proventriculus and then are ground into tiny pieces by the strong muscles of the gizzard.

Small intestine

The small intestine starts at the exit of the gizzard with the duodenal loop and ends at the ileo-caecal-colon junction. Food in the duodenum is neutralised by the addition of more enzymes excreted by the pancreas. These enzymes break down protein. Also added here is bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, bile aids in fat digestion. The products of digestion are absorbed from the small intestine and carried to the liver primarily for remanufacture into body tissue or to provide energy.

The caeca are two blind-ended tubes which provide space for fermentation. Here undigested food particles are subjected to microbial breakdown. The caeca normally contain a mustard to dark-brown froth which is excreted about once every day.

Large intestine

This part of the gut is very small in the chicken and serves as a further absorption site especially for water.

The cloaca or vent is a chamber common to the digestive and urogenital systems. It is responsible for the elimination of faeces, urine and the passage of eggs or seminal fluid.

More details of  chicken anatomy


German Defence Minister questions role of Nato in Afghanistan war

This was the message conveyed by the German Defence Minister, Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, during a lecture at a London think-tank yesterday.

He was speaking after two days of talks with British officials, at a time when operations in Afghanistan are at a crucial juncture and the alliance is engaged in a comprehensive review of its future.

In his remarks on Afghanistan, Dr zu Guttenberg, who is a key member of Angela Merkel's government and one of Germany's most popular politicians, spoke of the difficulties of "selling" the Afghan mission to a sceptical German public, a problem he noted was common to governments throughout the alliance. But in calling for strict criteria to govern Nato missions, he drew lessons from the Afghanistan experience and effectively called into question the wisdom of the whole project.

He set out four criteria, which – he said – should have to be met before Nato embarked on any military operation. First, action should be taken only if there is "great and imminent danger to another Nato member".

Second, there had to be "a clearly defined political goal". Third, an alliance military campaign should be mounted "only if there is no alternative", and finally, Nato should act "only if the capability for success was provided from the beginning". Arguably, none of these criteria were met when the Afghan operation was designated a Nato mission.

Elsewhere in his address, Dr zu Guttenberg spoke of the need for "commitment to match capability" and for the national security of alliance members and the collective security of the alliance always to be paramount in decision-making.

Dr zu Guttenberg's call for the goals of the Afghan operation to be revised downwards is likely to receive a favourable reception among many members of the alliance, including Canada and Poland, which are withdrawing their forces from Afghanistan. But it could put Germany on a collision course with the British army, which has argued that the sort of counter-insurgency war being fought in Afghanistan is the shape of the future. It is using this argument to justify maintaining the strength, and funding, in the run-up to the Strategic Defence Review this autumn.

With the Chief of the Defence Staff, Sir Jock Stirrup, informed that he will be retiring after the review, however, and every government department facing swingeing cuts, it appears no option has been ruled out.


NCAA Football Big 10 FootballIndiana Hoosiers

Hoosiers Quarterback Nate Sudfield Named Big Ten Freshman of the Week

Indiana Hoosiers quarterback Nate Sudfield has reportedly been named the co-Big Ten Freshman of the Week, according to a press release made by the team. Sudfield won it alongside with Penn State defensive end Deion Barnes.

Sudfield, who hails from California, is the first player since Tre Roberson in 2011 to win such an honor as a member of the Hoosiers. Sudfield played well filling in for backup quarterback Cameron Coffman, who was filling in for Roberson after it was announced he was out for the rest of the season with a broken ankle.

Coffman would then get injured during Saturday’s loss to the Ball State Cardinals after injuring his hip, according to reports. Sudfield did all he could, going 13-of-20 for 172 yards and two touchdowns but it wasn’t enough as IU lost, 41-39. The impressive part of his statistics from Saturday night is that all of those were recorded in the fourth quarter!

Congratulations to Nate! He is well deserved of it!


Restaurants in Thailand

The atmosphere and views are the main attraction at Vertigo, perched atop the 61st floor of the Banyan Tree Hotel. Acrophobics beware: tables are placed close to the edge, leaving little more than a glass wall between patrons and the endless city view.

Part of the international restaurant chain, Blue Elephant Bangkok is located inside a renovated colonial building and exudes an elegant, yet inviting feel with dark wood tables and crystal chandeliers.

Ruen Mallika, with a menu as thick as the Talmud, is as much a restaurant as a veritable encyclopedia of Thai food. A traditional nobleman's teak house, where overweight carp make the rounds of a peaceful outdoor pond, Ruen Mallika graces a poverty-stricken stretch of the Asoke neighborhood.

The seaside restaurant at the Rayavadee hotel serves yum talay (spicy seafood salad) and chu chi goong (prawns in red curry) are the dishes to order.


Home   >   CSFS   >   Admissions

Admissions Requirements - Criminology and Criminal Justice

The California School of Forensic Studies (CSFS) and Alliant International University have different admissions requirements for undergraduate bachelor's and graduate level programs.

Undergraduate Bachelor's Admissions Requirements

Visit the undergraduate website to see Alliant's undergraduate admissions requirements.

Graduate Admissions Requirements

Applicants to the master's in Applied Criminology program must meet the following requirements:

  1. Degree: Applicants must hold a bachelor's degree from a regionally accredited U.S. institution of higher education or its international equivalent (BA or BS accepted).
  2. Transcripts: The applicant must submit copies of official transcripts from all colleges and/or universities previously attended.
  3. Recommendations: Applicants must provide two letters of professional recommendation speaking to their experience, skills and proven accomplishments.
  4. Personal Statement and Resume: Applicants must provide a current resume plus an essay.
  5. Application and Fee: Applicants must complete our admissions application and pay the $65 application fee.

Get started! Contact us to speak with an Admissions Counselor.


Report a vulnerability

If you are a security researcher and have discovered a security vulnerability in our products, we appreciate your help in disclosing it to us in a responsible manner.

The Sophos Responsible Disclosure Policy walks you through how to properly report a potential vulnerability and the necessary information you need to include in your submission.

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English   español
Title: A new gravitational wave background from the Big Bang
Authors: García-Bellido, Juan; García Figueroa, Daniel
Keywords: Big Bang
Gravitational Wave Background
General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology
High Energy Physics - Phenomenology
Issue Date: 27-Jan-2008
Citation: 17th Workshop on General Relativity and Gravitation in Japan (2008)
Series/Report no.: IFT-UAM/CSIC-08-05
Abstract: The reheating of the universe after hybrid inflation proceeds through the nucleation and subsequent collision of large concentrations of energy density in the form of bubble-like structures moving at relativistic speeds. This generates a significant fraction of energy in the form of a stochastic background of gravitational waves, whose time evolution is determined by the successive stages of reheating: First, tachyonic preheating makes the amplitude of gravity waves grow exponentially fast. Second, bubble collisions add a new burst of gravitational radiation. Third, turbulent motions finally sets the end of gravitational waves production. From then on, these waves propagate unimpeded to us. We find that the fraction of energy density today in these primordial gravitational waves could be significant for GUT scale models of inflation, although well beyond the frequency range sensitivity of gravitational wave observatories like LIGO, LISA or BBO. However, low-scale models could still produce a detectable signal at frequencies accessible to BBO or DECIGO. For comparison, we have also computed the analogous background from some chaotic inflation models and obtained similar results to those of other groups. The discovery of such a background would open a new observational window into the very early universe, where the details of the process of reheating could be explored. Thus, it could also serve as a new experimental tool for testing the Inflationary Paradigm.
Description: 20 pages, 8 figures.-- To appear in the Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on General Relativity and Gravitation (JGRG17), Nagoya (Japan), 3-7 December 2007.-- arXiv:0801.4109v1 [gr-qc]
URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10261/5461
Appears in Collections:(IFT) Comunicaciones congresos
Files in This Item:
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0801.4109v1.pdf536,64 kBAdobe PDFView/Open
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Gender: Unisex (Male and Female)

People having the name Henley are in general originating from United States of America.

The Growth number corresponding to this first name is 6.

Learn more with our free

The name Henley is ranked on the 35,260th position of the most used names. It means that this name is rarely used.

The name Henley has six characters. It means that it is relatively medium-length, compared to the other names in our database.

The graph below represents the number of people who were given the name Henley for each year since 1900 in the U.S.A.:

We do not have a name day for Henley.

For other names check our Name Day Calendar


" Traditional" Mincemeat (For Pies)

Total Time
Prep 1008 hrs
Cook 2 hrs

I have 5 mincemeat recipes that I've used for making pies over the years, (4 of them are meatless). However my dad always preferred the "traditional" mincemeat pies and so do I. (I would be happy to post the "meatless" recipes on request). This is the Traditional (with meat) Mincemeat recipe that I made for many years. The only change I ever made in the original recipe was to substitute stew beef for the calves' tongues. Prep time includes the 4-6 weeks "standing" time.

Ingredients Nutrition

  1. Chop the boiled calves' tongues (or boiled stew beef) very finely.
  2. Add the sugar, raisins, currents and citron; mix together well.
  3. Chop apples finely (do not mash) and add to the meat.
  4. Add all the spices, suet, candied peels, almonds and salt, and mix thoroughly.
  5. Pour over this mixture the fruit juices and grated peels, the brandy and the whiskey; and mix together.
  6. Put the mixture into a large crock with a lid.
  7. Place a clean cloth over the top of the crock and put the lid on.
  8. Place crock in a cool place for 3 weeks.
  9. Add more salt and spices at this time, if needed.
  10. Let stand at least 4 weeks before using.
  11. Mincemeat may be canned by water bath method.
  12. If using it for pie filling, bake between double crusts.


Love & the Middle Way

The Love of Nature is the Middle Way

My ol’ teacher was a Taoist, he taught of the old sages in China and their wisdom and their gentle ways. There is a concept in Taoism called wu wei—non action. Here’s what Wiki’ says about it:

 “Wu wei is an important concept in Taoism that literally means non-action or non-doing. In the Tao te Ching, Laozi explains that beings (or phenomena) that are wholly in harmony with the Tao behave in a completely natural, uncontrived way.

As the planets revolve around the sun, they “do” this revolving, but without “doing” it. As trees grow, they simply grow without trying to grow. Thus knowing how and when to act is not knowledge in the sense that one would think, “now I should do this,” but rather just doing it, doing the natural thing, is the way. The goal of spiritual practice for the human being is, according to Laozi, the attainment of this natural way of behaving”. Wikipedia

Strengthen Your Loving Relationships by Stuart Wilde
“Loving Relationships are one of the greatest gifts that you can give to others and receive from them. It
is actually how we experience our true spirituality…”

Order Strengthen Your Loving Relationships by Stuart Wilde


Lower East Side

Restaurants in Lower East Side

Inoteca, located on a bustling corner in the lower East Side, offers an extensive wine selection, small-plate Italian dining, and (perhaps best of all) top notch people-watching.

Chef Iacopo Falai's brilliant trifecta of Italian eateries illuminates the culinary scene in SoHo. Although his main restaurant is temporarily closed, the cafe and bakery remain neighborhood favorites as they bring gourmet Italian fare to your power breakfast or lunch hour. The menu shines just a

After closing the original Harry's in 2003, the son of the original owner reopened and revived the space in 2006 by dividing it into two parts: one part formal steakhouse, one part casual café.

Multiethnic small plates, handcrafted cocktails, and late night DJ’s make the Stanton Social a trendy go-to for tapas in the Lower East Side. Established in 2005 by chef-owner Chris Santos, the restaurant has a three-level interior inspired by the 1940’s garment industry.

A famous grump and short-order cook, Kenny Shopshin is one of those only-in-New-York characters tolerated for his culinary skills. Formerly of Shopshin's Diner in the West Village, the infamous grouch now plies his wares in a bright, but cramped, corner of the Essex Street Market.

Located in Chinatown, Pho Grand is a local favorite for authentic Vietnamese food. The restaurant's dining room, made up of cedar-paneled walls and wooden beams, is often filled with patrons who come to enjoy the pho - a rice noodle soup that comes with a choice of meat.


The war heats up as

"Parade's End" (9 p.m., HBO, TV-MA, part five of five) concludes. This extraordinary hour features harrowing trench battle scenes and depictions of the bravery, confusion and fear of men mired in mud and subject to unceasing bombardment. It's quite remarkable.

The drama's powerful anti-war message centers on the action far from battle, condemning the vanities and delusions of a high command far more interested in appearances, pro-

fessional advancement and social connections than the lives of millions of men squandered in the trenches.

Viewers hoping "Parade's End" would provide a "Down ton Abbey" substitute will have to focus on the wardrobes and interior decoration. That happier series used World War I as a melodramatic plot device. "Parade's End" concludes with the war obliterating almost everything that

---Hank comes closer to

locating his wife on "Zero Hour" (8 p.m., ABC, TV-PG). He'd better hurry up because the audience for this show is harder to find than the answers to a hundred-year-old Rosicrucian mystery. The ratings for the debut of "Zero" set a new low for scripted series on ABC. That sad number shrank by more than 20 percent for the second episode.

---The terminally deadpan series "Nathan for You" (10:30 p.m., Comedy Central, TV-14) consists of mock videos of a young business school graduate pitching ideas to up sales for small businesses. Low-key laughs give way to crude scatological jokes when he advises a strip mall yogurt shop to develop a flavor similar to manure. Help yourself.

---Similarly affected with low energy, "The Ben Show With Ben Hoffman" (10 p.m., Comedy Central, TV-14) follows the title star as he tries to buy a gun, engage in inappropriate conversation with the gun dealer and consult with his therapist about his decision. The most novel sketch features a rapper turning newspaper death notices into angry,

obscene songs.

---The gang takes a course with professor Cornwallis (Malcolm McDowell) on "Community" (8 p.m., NBC, TV-PG).

---The top 40 semifinalists emerge on "American Idol" (8 p.m., Fox, TV-14).

---Ben's new job gives Leslie pause on "Parks and Recreation" (8:30 p.m., NBC, r, TV-PG).

---An enforcer's life hangs in the balance on "Person of Interest" (9 p.m., CBS, r, TV-14).

---Pam brings uninvited guests to work on "The Office" (9 p.m., NBC, r, TV-14).

---It's the last straw for Olivia on "Scandal" (9 p.m., ABC, r, TV-14).

---The contestants compete with designs aimed at senior citizens on "Project Runway" (9 p.m., Lifetime, TV-PG).

---Erica and Tina may be ending more than their tour on the season finale of "Mary Mary" (9 p.m., WE, TV-PG).

---Charlie gets a celebrity patient (Cee Lo Green) on "Anger Man agement" (9:30 p.m., FX, TV-14).

---Martin Ennis evades capture on "Elementary" (10 p.m., CBS, r, TV-14).

---A former victim becomes a suspect on "Law & Order: Special Victims Unit" (10 p.m., NBC, r, TV-14).

---"Jimmy Kimmel Live" (10 p.m., ABC, TV-14) repeats its post-Oscar party.

---"American Greed" (10 p.m., CNBC) profiles the fraudulent claims of a wealth-building club.

---Anderson Cooper hosts "The Bully Effect" (10 p.m., CNN).

TCM's Oscar-month salute to specific studios concludes with a glance at Embassy Pictures, which released three memorable films

directed by Mike Nichols, including "The Graduate" (8 p.m.), "Carnal Knowledge" (2:15 a.m.) and "The Day of the Dolphin" (4 a.m.).

---Rebekah returns with a shock for Elena on "The Vampire Diaries" (8 p.m., CW, r, TV-14).

---A visitor (Miley Cyrus) makes Walden feel ancient on "Two and a Half Men" (8:30 p.m., CBS, r, TV-14).

---A chance to relax on "1600 Penn" (9:30 p.m., NBC, TV-PG).

---Rachel Maddow is on "The Daily Show With Jon Stewart" (11 p.m., Comedy Central).

---Julian Newman and Eugene Mirman appear on "Conan" (11 p.m., TBS).

---Kate Mara, Ben Gleib, April Richardson and Kurt Braunohler are booked on "Chelsea Lately" (11 p.m., E!).

---Jon Favreau sits down on "The Colbert Report" (11:30 p.m., Comedy Central).

---Jay Leno welcomes Steve Carell and Shooter Jennings on "The Tonight Show" (11:35 p.m., NBC).

---Jim Parsons, Gavin Newsom and Ziggy Marley appear on "Jimmy Kimmel Live" (11:35 p.m., ABC).

---Tina Fey, Bill Nighy and Bob Mould visit "Late Night With Jimmy Fallon" (12:35 a.m., NBC).

---Craig Ferguson hosts David Duchovny and Ashley Madekwe on "The Late Late Show" (12:35 a.m., CBS).

Kevin McDonough can be reached at


Top Definition
A phenomenon occurring when the sun shines through a mass of clouds and its beams strike you in such a way that you feel a beautiful mixture of joy and unicorn giggles.
The setting December sun sat like a king on his cloud-throne, and a heavenly light shone down upon the village below. The entire scene was shrouded in pink. It was godjizz.
ayon kay Robumewomu ika-12 ng Enero, 2011

Libreng Koreo Araw- araw


my sustainable experience

One of the many hats that Janet St. Laurent, program assistant in Development, wears at Colby-Sawyer is that of the college's recycling coordinator. In her 15 years on campus she has worked to make sure there are recycling stations in every building.

St. Laurent is one example of how individuals in the Colby-Sawyer community of faculty, staff and students walk the talk of sustainable living to which Colby-Sawyer is committed. Colby-Sawyer's GreenROUTES is a campus-wide initiative to eliminate the college's greenhouse gas emissions, integrate sustainability into the curriculum and overall educational experience, and achieve our shared vision of personal well-being, social justice, financial security and environmental stability for ourselves and our larger global community.

What does it mean to you to live a satisfying and sustainable life?

It is satisfying to work on living a more sustainable life knowing I am making slow but steady progress. It is also satisfying to know that the environmental decisions we make (even small ones when combined with others across the world) can have a significant impact on the quality of life on the earth now and for generations to come.

What kinds of things are you currently doing in your life to live more sustainably?

In addition to being avid recyclers, my husband and I grow some of our own fruits and vegetables using compost that we create ourselves. We combine trips to save gasoline, and we use cloth shopping bags. Here at work, I have two trays under my desk, one for scrap paper to use in my printer for drafts, etc. The other is my recycling bin. I print double-sided whenever possible.

What is the most fun or interesting action you're taking to reduce your environmental impact and/or make the world a better place?

I attended a workshop on green cleaning supplies and learned some interesting facts about chemicals in many cleaners that are harmful to our bodies as well as the environment. I now use more and more green cleaners, some of which I make myself.

What would you like to do, and what is stopping you?

I would love to own a hybrid car and switch to a geothermal heating/air conditioning system, but unfortunately haven't been able to afford either.

What project or idea would you like to see our GreenROUTES initiative tackle next?

It would be exciting to see alternative energy systems on campus even if they are miniature versions of turbines or solar panels. I know there are people working to make something like this happen.

For years I've had a dream about a reuse store on campus that students would run for the campus community to use, similar to how the Courier and WSCS Radio Station are run. Maybe at some point, GreenROUTES, along with backing from SIFE, SFGC, faculty and a sponsor, could make this a reality. It would be a wonderful opportunity to provide students with a valuable learning experience as well as a way to reduce items going into the trash.

What benefit do you feel the GreenROUTES initiatives are offering our students, now and in the future?

GreenROUTES has helped the college analyze where it is and where it could be regarding sustainable issues. They lead by example, and their beneficial reports have helped to inform the campus community, thus setting the stage for students (as well as faculty and staff) in their personal and professional lives.

In the face of all of the challenges in the world, what keeps you hopeful?

As far as sustainability goes, I am hopeful because I see some progress being made world-wide to protect the earth's resources. It isn't happening quickly, and some countries are much more advanced than others, but maybe there will be a domino effect and things will start to improve more quickly as more and more people begin to think sustainably.


Porcelain Raft: Permanent Signal

Music  |  Reviews
Porcelain Raft: <i>Permanent Signal</i>

Porcelain Raft’s second album in two years begins with the towering electronic slowcore gem “Think of the Ocean.” The moments when Italian native Mauro Remiddi finishes a verse allow the production from Antlers’ bassist Darby Cicci and the shaking strings of cellist Gaspar Claus to cast a spell on the listener. From there, Remiddi’s strengths and weaknesses as a songwriter are slid under the microscope, as the aesthetic of his sophomore album, Permanent Signal, grabs but does not hold attention, but rather constructs an ornate stage for Porcelain Raft to perform upon.

“Minor Pleasure,” just two songs later, finds Porcelain Raft pissing on the stage, sappy and flat, recalling the sound of ‘90s also-rans Remy Zero, a band whose memory comes flooding back on the Porcelain Raft album in a rush of embarrassment for both myself and the artists. What was full of class and tension on “Think of the Ocean” quickly becomes overwrought and melodramatic, with “Night Birds” containing lines like “I’ve been living with these feelings for so long, I don’t need to make sense of you.”

The thing about the Porcelain Raft album is that you can clearly see it wants to be great. It wants to be The Antlers as a singer/songwriter, but even The Antlers walk dangerously close to the edge of good taste. Remiddi’s voice is no help, either, often times too delicate and dainty to extract much emotion from, and only convincing when it flaunts imperfections, as on the winning piano ballad “I Lost Connection.”

The highlight of Permanent Signal is the finish, with instrumental “Five Minutes From Now” again showcasing the talent Remiddi has assembled, and closing track “Echo” resonating as a tribute to lost love. Wading through to that point can borderline on tedium and recall some of the more forgettable moments of the ‘90s. On “The Way Out,” Remiddi sings “Where do we go from here?” and it sounds like he is addressing his studio team band, literally lost on his own record. He does find the way out, but not before earning slanty-faced reactions for a collection released before the songs had finished incubating.


Portable OooPlayer2.1.2.2212

11.6 MB   883 downloads
100% FREE GPL
4.2/5 11
An easy-to-use music player that supports all the popular audio formats and enables you to record radio stations or organize your tracks in playlists

editor's review

Portable OooPlayer is a simple audio player that enables you to enjoy all your favorite music and create playlists that can be loaded at a later time. As its name implies, it is a special version of OooPlayer, which can be launched from a removable drive, without leaving traces in the registry of the host PC.

Create your playlist

Adopting a forthright approach, this application is a good alternative if you are looking for nothing more than a plain and simple music player. Thanks to the user-friendly interface, working with it shouldn't pose any problems to users.

The main window includes the entire playlist, displaying information such as the song and the artist name, the album, the file duration, the covert art, as well as details regarding the audio rate, the used encoder and the number of channels.

Variate array of compatible formats

One of the main advantages of Portable OooPlayer is related to the array of supported formats. Aside from common files such as MP3, AAC, OGG, FLAC or WMA, it can also load , ALAC, APE, MPC, TTA, WV, AC3, SPX, TAK or OFR files. In addition to this, it can save and load playlists in PPF, M3U and M3U8 format.

To add new files to your playlist, you can either select them one by one or choose an entire folder and let the application do the rest. Songs can be played in the default order or randomly using the shuffle option.

Enjoy your songs no matter where you are

Portable OooPlayer includes basic playback and song navigation controls, providing a forthright audio player suitable for any user type. It can handle multiple input formats, including playlists and can be used on the go, directly from a USB drive.

Portable OooPlayer was reviewed by Mihaela Teodorovici
Last updated on March 3rd, 2015
Portable OooPlayer - Portable OooPlayer is a simple application that enables you to play your favorite songs and download lyrics for them.Portable OooPlayer - From the File menu of the OooPlayer you can add multiple sound files and save or load your playlists.Portable OooPlayer - You can hide the lyric panel or the queue list and switch from the Radio to Music tab from the View menu.Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #4Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #5Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #6Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #7Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #8Portable OooPlayer - screenshot #9

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3. The symmetry of crystals
If you do not see a menu on the left, please, use this link.
Go to the introduction

We don't often notice it, but we continuously live with symmetry...

Symmetry is the consistency, the repetition of something in space and/or in time, as is shown in the examples below: a wall drawing, the petals of flowers, the two sides of a butterfly, the succession of night and day, a piece of music, etc.

A wall drawing with translational repetition
Flower wit a rotation axis of order 8
Flower wit a rotation axis of order 3
Mirror symmetry in a butterfly
Symmetry by repetition of patterns in a wall drawing or in flowers. The wall drawing shows repetition by translation. The flowers show repetitions by rotations. The flower on the left shows repetition around an axis of rotation of order 8 (8 identical petals around the rotation axis). The flower in the middle shows an axis of rotation of order 3 (two different families of petals that are distributed around the rotation axis). In addition, each petal in both flowers shows a plane of symmetry which divides it into two identical parts (approximately)., the same as it occurs with the butterfly shown on the right. If the reader is surprised by the fact that we say that the two parts separated by a plane of symmetry (mirror) are only "approximately" identical, is because they are really not identical; they cannot be superimposed, but this is an issue that will be explained in another section.

Symmetry by repeating events: Night - Day - Night  ...

Symmetry in music. A fragment from "Six unisono melodies" by Bartók.
(The diagram at the bottom represents the symmetrization of the one shown above)

The word "Symmetry," carefully written with somewhat distorted letters, shows a two-fold axis (a rotation of 180 degrees) perpendicular to the screen.

This phrase also serves to illustrate the concept of symmetry:

where, if we forget the commas and the colon, it becomes:

which can be read from right to left with exactly the same meaning as above. It is a case similar to the "palindromic" numbers (232 or 679976).

There are many links in which the reader can find information on the concept of symmetry and we have selected some of them: symmetry and shape of space, some others in the context of crystallographic concepts, some with decorative patterns, or in the context of minerals. There is even an international society for the study of symmetry.

The essential knowledge on crystal morphology, symmetry elements and their combination to generate repetitive objects in space, were well established between the 17th and 19th Centuries, as stated elsewhere in these pages...

Specifically, in finite objects, there are a number of operations (elements of symmetry) describing repetitions. In the wall-drawing (shown above) we find translational operations (the motif is repeated by translation). The repetition of the petals in the flowers show us rotational operations (the motif is repeated by rotation) around a symmetry axis. And, although not exactly, the symmetry shown in the phrase or in the music fragment (shown above), lead us to consider other symmetry operations known as symmetry planes (or mirror planes). The same operation occurs when you look into a mirror. Similarly, for example, if we look at the relationship between the three-dimensional objects in the pictures shown below, we will discover a new element of symmetry called center of symmetry, which is an imaginary point between objects as shown in some drawings below.

Polyhedron showing a two-fold rotation axis (2) passing through the centers of the top and bottom edges

Polyhedron showing a symmetry plane (
m) that relates (as a mirror does) the top to the bottom

Hands and molecular models related by a twofold axis (
2) perpendicular to the drawing plane

Hands and molecular models related through a mirror plane (
m) perpendicular to the drawing plane

Hands (left and right) related through a center of symmetry

Two objects related by a center of symmetry

Polyhedron showing a center of symmetry in its center

The association of elements of rotation with centers or planes of symmetry generates new elements of symmetry called improper rotations.

A four-fold improper axis implies 90º rotations followed by reflection through a mirror plane perpendicular to the axis.
(Animation taken from M. Kastner, T. Medlock & K. Brown, Univ. of Bucknell)

Axis of improper rotation, shown vertically, in a crystal of urea.
The meaning of numerical triplets shown will be discussed in another chapter.

Combining the rotation axes and the mirror planes with the characteristic translations of the crystals (which we'll see below), new symmetry elements appear, with some "sliding" components: screw axes (or helicoidal axes) and glide planes.

Twofold screw axis.
A screw axis consists of a rotation followed by a translation

Glide plane.
A glide plane consists of a reflection followed by a translation
2-fold screw axis

Twofold screw axis.
Plano de deslizamiento

Glide plane.

The symmetry elements of types center or mirror plane relate objects in a peculiar way; the same way that our two hands are related one to the other: they are not superimposable. Objects which in themselves do not contain any of these symmetry elements (center or plane) are called chiral and their repetition through these elements (center or plane) produce objects that are called enantiomers with respect to the original ones. The mirror image of one of our hands is the enantiomer of the one we put in front of the mirror. Regarding the chirality of the crystals and of their building units (molecular or not), advanced readers should also consult the article by Howard D. Flack to be found through this link.

The mirror image of either of our hands is the enantiomer of the other hand. They are objects not superimposable and as they do not contain (in themselves) symmetry centers or symmetry planes, are called chiral objects.

Chiral molecules have different properties than their enantiomers and so it is important that we are able to differentiate them. The correct determination of the absolute configuration or absolute structure of a molecule (differentiation between enantiomers) can be done in a secure manner through X-ray diffraction only, but this will be explained in another chapter

Thus, any finite object (such as a quartz crystal, a chair or a flower) shows that certain parts of it are repeated by symmetry operations that go through a point of the object. This set of symmetry operations form what we called a symmetry point group. The advanced reader has also the opportunity to visit the nice work on point group symmetry elements offered through these links:

In crystals, the axes of symmetry (rotation axes) can only be two-fold (2), three-fold (3), four-fold (4) or six-fold (6), depending on the number of repetitions of the motif which can occur (order of rotation). Thus, an axis of order 3 (3-fold) produces 3 repetitions of the motif, one every 360 / 3 = 120 degrees of rotation. If the reader wonders why only symmetry axes of order 2, 3, 4 and can occur in crystals, and not 5-, 7-fold, etc., we recommend the explanations given in another section.

Improper rotations (rotations followed by reflection through a plane perpendicular to the rotational axis) are designated by the order of rotation, with a bar above the number.

The screw axes(or helicoidal axes, ie, symmetry axes involving rotation followed by a translation along the axis) are represented by the order of rotation, with an added subindex that quantifies the translation along the axis. Thus, a screw axis of type
62 means that in each of the 6 rotations an associated translation occurs of 2/6 of the axis of the elementary cell in that direction.

The mirror planes are represented by the letter m.

The glide planes (mirror planes involving reflexion and a translation parallel to the plane) are represented by the letters a, b, c, n or d, depending if the translation associated with the reflection is parallel to the reticular translations (a, b, c), parallel to the diagonal of a reticular plane (n), or parallel to a diagonal of the unit cell (d).

The letters and numbers that are used to represent the symmetry elements also have an equivalence with some graphic symbols. These symbols and the operations of the most common symmetry elements can be seen through this link.

But to keep talking about the symmetry in crystals, it is necessary to recall a fundamental concept related to the repetition by translation...

Periodic repetition, which is a characteristic of the internal structure of crystals, is represented by a set of translations in the three directions of space, so that crystals can be seen as the stacking of the same block in three dimensions. Each block, of a certain shape and size (but all of them being identical), is called a unit cell or elementary cell. Its size is determined by the length of its three edges (a, b, c) and the angles between them (alpha, beta, gamma: αβγ).

Stacking of unit cells forming an octahedral crystal

Parameters which characterize the shape and size of an elementary cell (or unit cell)

As mentioned above, all symmetry elements of a finite object, passing by a point, define the total symmetry of the object, which is known as the point group symmetry of the object.

There are many symmetry point groups, but in crystals they must be consistent with the crystalline periodicity (translational periodicity). On the other hand, for instance, the symmetry axes of order 5 (5-fold axes) are not possible in crystals and therefore only 32 point groups are allowed in the crystalline state of matter. These 32 point groups are also known in Crystallography as the 32 crystal classes.

point group . crystal translational periodicity  = 32 crystal classes
Graphic representation of the 32 crystal classes

The motif, represented by a single brick, can also be represented by a lattice point. It shows the point symmetry 2mm

Links below illustrate the 32 crystal classes using some crystal morphologies:
Triclinic 1 1
Monoclinic 2 m 2/m
Orthorhombic 222 mm2 mmm
Tetragonal 4 4 4/m 422 4mm 42m 4/mmm
Cubic 23 m3 432 43m m3m
Trigonal 3 3 32 3m 3m
Hexagonal 6 6 6/m 622 6mm 6m2 6/mmm
Links below show animated displays of the symmetry elements in each of the 32 crystal classes:
(taken from
Marc De Graef)
Triclinic 1 1
Monoclinic 2 m 2/m
Orthorhombic 222 mm2 mmm
Tetragonal 4 4 4/m 422 4mm 42m 4/mmm
Cubic 23 m3 432 43m m3m
Trigonal 3 3 32 3m 3m
Hexagonal 6 6 6/m 622 6mm 6m2 6/mmm
In addition, we recommend to use the Java applet offered by Nicolas Schoeni y Gervais Chapuis of the Ecole Polytechnique Fédéral de Lausanne (Switzerland) as an initiation to discover the point group symmetry of platonic and other polyhedra. In case of problems using this applet, please follow the indications shown in this link.

Of the 32 crystal classes, only 11 contain the operator center of symmetry, and these 11 centro-symmetric crystal classes are known as Laue groups.

crystal class . center of symmetry = 11 Laue groups
Graphic representation of the 11 Laue groups  (centro-symmetric crystal classes)

In addition, the repetition modes by translation in crystals must be compatible with the possible point groups (the 32 crystal classes), and this is why we find only 14 types of translational lattices which are compatible with the crystal classes. These types of lattices (translational repetiton modes) are known as the Bravais lattices (you can see them here). The translational symmetry of an ordered distribution of 3-dimensional objects can be described by many types of lattices, but there is always one of them more suited to the object, ie: the one that best describes the symmetry of the object. As the lattices themselves have their own distribution of symmetry elements, we must fit them to the symmetry elements of the structure.

crystal translational periodicity . 32 crystal classes  =  14 Bravais lattices
Graphic representation of the 14 Bravais lattices

A brick wall can be structured with many different types of lattices, with different origins, and defining reticular points representing the brick. But there is a lattice that is more appropriate to the symmetry of the brick and to the way the bricks build the wall.

The adequacy of a lattice to the structure is illustrated in the two-dimensional examples shown below. In all three cases two different lattices are shown, one oblique and primitive and one rectangular and centered. In the first two cases, the rectangular lattices are the most appropriate ones. However, the deformation of the structure in the third example leads to metric relationships that make that the most appropriate lattice, the oblique primitive, hexagonal in this case.

Adequacy of the lattice type to the structure. The blue lattice is the best one in each case.

Finally, combining the 32 crystal classes (crystallographic point groups) with the 14 Bravais lattices, we find up to 230 different ways to replicate a finite object (motif) in 3-dimensional space. These 230 ways to repeat patterns in space, which are compatible with the 32 crystal classes and with the 14 Bravais lattices, are called space groups, and represent the 230 different ways to fit the Bravais lattices to the symmetry of the objects. The interested reader should also consult the excellent work on the symmetry elements present in the space groups, offered by Margaret Kastner,
Timathy Medlock and Kristy Brown  through this link of the Bucknell University.

32 crystal classes + 14 Bravais lattices = 230 Space groups

A wall of bricks showing the most appropriate lattice which best represents both the brick and its symmetry. Note that in this case the point symmetry of the brick and the point symmetry of the reticular point are coincident. The space group, considering the thickness of the brick, is Cmm2.

The 32 crystal classes, the 14 Bravais lattices and the 230 space groups can be classified, according to their hosted minimum symmetry, into 7 crystal systems. The minimum symmetry produces some restrictions in the metric values (distances and angles) which describe the shape and size of the lattice.

32 classes, 14 lattices, 230 space groups / crystal symmetry = 7 crystal systems

All this is summarized in the following table:

Crystal classes
(Laue *)
Compatible crystal lattices
and their symmetry
Number of
space groups
Minimum symmetry Metric restrictions Crystal system
1        1 * P
2            1    or     1 none Triclinic
2      m      2/m * P       C      (I)
13 One      2    or    2
222     2mm    mmm * P     C (A,B)    I     F
59 Three    2    or    2
4     4     4/m *
422   4mm    42m   4/mmm *
P      I
68 One      4    or    4 a=b
3        3 *
32     3m     3m *
P           (R)
3m       6/mmm
25 One     3    or    3 a=b=c
(or Hexagonal)
6     6     6m *
622   6mm    6m2    6/mmm *
27 One      6    or    6 a=b
α=β=90   γ=120
23       m3 *
432      43m    m3m *
P     I     F
36 Four     3    or   3 a=b=c
Total:     32,   11 *
14  independent 230     7

The 230 crystallographic space groups are listed and described in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography, where they are classified according to point groups and crystal systems. A composition of part of the information contained in these tables is shown below, corresponding to the space group Cmm2, where C means that the structure is described in terms of a lattice centered on the faces separated by the c axis. The first m represents a mirror plane perpendicular to the a axis. The second m means another mirror plane (in this case perpendicular to the second main crystallographic direction), the b axis.  The number 2 refers to the two-fold axis parallel to the third crystallographic direction, the c axis.

Summary of the information shown in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography
for the space group Cmm2.

And this is another example for the space group P21/c, centrosymmetric and based on a primitive monoclinic lattice, as it appears in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography

Space group P21/c

Summary of the information shown in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography for the space group P21/c

As an example of the amount of information recorded in these tables, the reader can obtain some sample pages by clicking here.

The advanced reader can also consult:

Crystallographers never get bored! Try to enjoy the beauty, looking for the symmetry of the objects around you, and particularly in the objects shown below ...

Some examples of structures made with bricks

In any case, it doesn't end here! There are many more things to talk about. Go on...

To the next suggested chapter: Direct and reciprocal lattices
Go to the introduction


Type: Tyrannosaur
Size: 6 meters (20 ft) in body length

Protection status: Extinct

Nanotyrannus (meaning tiny tyrant") is a problematic genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur, and is possibly a juvenile specimen of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Nanotyrannus is the fourth smallest known tyrannosaurid (with only Dilong Paradoxus, Guanlong wucaii and Proceratosaurus being smaller)  and was one of the last tyrannosaurids to before the Cretaceous Teritary Extinction, the K-T event. It's also the very last dinosaur ever. The genus is represented only by a small skull (catalog number CMN 7541), and was discovered by Charles W. Gilmore in 1942 and described in 1946 as a specimen of Gorgosaurus. In 1988, the specimen was re-described by Robert T. Bakker, Phil Currie, and Michael Williams, the late curator of paleontology at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, where the original specimen was housed and is currently on display. Opinions continue to remain divided on the validity of N. lancensis. Nanotyrannus can be a possible juvenile of a tyrannosaur that is closely related to Tyrannosaurus Rex and the adult of this animal is yet to be identified, or it really is a juvenile Tyrannosaurus Rex. In either case, an adult Nanotyrannus has to be discovered or a juvenile Tyrannosaurus Rex of the same size as Nanotyrannus but morphologically distinct from it in order to fully resolve this debate. Many paleontologists consider the skull to belong to a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex. However, there are minor differences between the two species, including the higher number of teeth and the presence of fused bones in the holotype. These features have lead some paleontologists to recommend keeping the two genera separate until further research or discoveries clarify the situation.

A small but nearly complete skull discovered in Montana in 1942 by the Cleveland Museum of Natural History Curator Dr. David Dunkle measured 60 centimeters (2.0 ft) long and may be an exception. The skull was recovered from the upper Lance Formation (the species bear the name lancensis), which is now known as the Hell Creek Formation. This skull, and therefore type species was originally classified as a species of Gorgosaurus (G. lancensis) by Charles W. Gilmore in 1946. In the early 1970s, American paleontologist Dr. Dale Russell of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, made convincing arguments that the Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus were the same genus. Because the name Albertosaurus had been in use longer, it became, for a time, the name for all members of both genera. The holotype skull then was assigned the new name Albertosaurus lancensis. However, many paleontologists expressed doubt that the skull was actually Albertosaurus. In the late 1980s, paleontologist Dr. Robert Bakker of the University of Colorado, performed a detailed comparative study and then visited the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology in Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, to consult with Dr. Philip Currie, then Head of Dinosaur Research. Together with late Dr. Michael Williams, former Museum Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology from 1975 to 2003, Bakker and Currie published a paper in 1988 describing the new genus and proposing the name Nanotyrannus, which means "pygmy tyrant". The inclusion of the "tyrannus" portion of the name was meant, Williams said, to signal that this was a "downsized tyrannosaur closely related to Tyrannosaurus Rex."

Initial research indicated that the skull bones were fused, and that it therefore represented an adult specimen. In light of this, Bakker and colleagues assigned the skull to a new genus, which they named Nanotyrannus for its apparently small size. However, subsequent work has cast doubt on this, and some paleontologists no longer consider it a valid genus—since the fossil was a contemporary of Tyrannosaurus Rex, many paleontologists now believe it to be a juvenile T.rex, especially since the discovery in 2001 of a new Nanotyrannus specimen, nicknamed "Jane." The original Nanotyrannus specimen is estimated to have been around 17 feet (5.2 meters) long when it died.

In 2001, a more complete juvenile tyrannosaur ("Jane", catalogue number BMRP 2002.4.1), belonging to the same species as the original Nanotyrannus specimen, was uncovered. It was named after a generous donor to the museum. In 2005, a conference on tyrannosaurs focused on the issues of Nanotyrannus validity brought about by the discovery of the Jane specimen, was held at the Burpee Museum of Natural History. Several paleontologists, such as Phil Currie and Donald M. Henderson, saw the discovery of "Jane" as a confirmation that Nanotyrannus was a juvenile T. rex or closely related species.Peter Larson, on the other hand, continued to support a separate genus for Nanotyrannus. The actual scientific study of "Jane", set to be published by Bakker, Larson, and Currie, may help determine whether Nanotyrannus is a valid genus, whether it simply represents a juvenile T. rex, or whether it is a new species of a previously identified genus of tyrannosaur.

Some paleontologists have considered Nanotyrannus to be a synonym of Tyrannosaurus Rex, while others disagree and place it within its own genus.

Until further specimens are discovered, however, the genus of Nanotyrannus may remain debateable. However, the discovery of a large adult tyrannosaur which is not Tyrannosaurus Rex but instead shows derived features otherwise present only in Nanotyrannus or the discovery of a juvenile tyrannosaur of the same skull length may finally validate the genus.

Several features seem to separate it from the Tyrannosaurus Rex genus, including the fact that both Jane and the holotype were found in the same area, near Ekalaka, Montana. Both specimens of Nanotyrannus also have 16 teeth, which is two more teeth sockets present in its upper jaw than in Tyrannosaurus Rex. However, there is also considerable evidence for ontogenetic and individual variation in tooth count for tyrannosaurs. Nanotyrannus teeth are also described as being more primitive (basal) than that of other tyrannosaurs, in that the teeth were laterally compressed. This feature, however, is not known only to Nanotyrannus, and has also been observed in Alioramus teeth and in the "Jordan theropod", now known as Aublysodon.

The holotype and "Jane" also have a pneumatic foramen in a bone at the back of the jaw that is not present in Tyrannosaurus. The original specimen of N. lancensis had fused bones, indicating it was an adult, and several paleontologists have suggested that if it was a juvenile T. rex, fossilized remains would most likely be found elsewhere and be more common. A lacrymal horn is present in Nanotyrannus whereas it is absent in Tyrannosaurus. Furthermore, the shape of the lacrymal is "T" shaped in Nanotyrannus but an inverted "L" in Tyrannosaurus.[17]

In the 1998 paper, Bakker et al. described that Nanotyrannus had "strong adaptations for stereoscopic description", which included forward facing eyes, a sharply downward bending neck, and an enlarged temporal region that was four times the width of the muzzle.

Those that support Nanotyrannus as a juvenile Tyrannosaurus Rex mention that "Jane" was only about half grown when she died at around the age of 11. This dispute is not just a simple case of lumping or splitting genera. Nanotyrannus is either a juvenile or not. Some paleontologists hold that the Nanotyrannus holotype is definitely crushed and distorted, and is probably a juvenile Tyrannosaurus Rex. However, that leaves open the advanced state of fusion between the bones of the skull, and whether or not this is just an artifact resulting from the sutures being plastered over by the restorer. Bakker et al. did a CT scan of the Nanotyrannus skull which was able to distinguish between the fossil bone and plaster. The fusion is definitely not from the sutures being plastered over. Nanotyrannus apparently did not have the "eye bones" or "horns" over the eye sockets that Tyrannosaurus had. Furthermore, the eye sockets are located in a different place than on Tyrannosaurus Rex, suggesting Nanotyrannus had binocular vision. However, it should also be noted that horns, being mostly for social interactions of some sort, need not develop until near adulthood, and eye position can easily alter during growth, not contradicting a possible juvenile hypothesis for this genus. In 2004, Dr. Lawrence Witmer of the College of Osteopathic Medicine at Ohio University, performed a series of Computed Tomography (CT) scans on the holotype skull. The internal shape of the braincase suggests that the tyrannosaur represented by CMNH 7541 could not have grown up to be a Tyrannosaurus Rex. Unfortunately, the braincase for Jane was not recovered so it is impossible to directly compare the only potentially differentiating components of the two animal.

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Another paper posted to the arXiv... this one on a new and exciting research direction for me, looking at sequence changes within an individual's B cell repertoire as an evolutionary process, amenable to modern phylogenetic inference methods. Basically, in order to promote immunity that protects against a wide range of possible pathogens, the adaptive immune response creates antibodies that target specific antigens. Antibodies are encoded in the immunoglobulin genes of B cells. Rather than attempting to encode all possible antibodies within the human genome (which would be impossible), B cell immunoglobulin sequences are seeded by a process of random rearrangement of germline (inherited) sequences, termed VDJ recombination. After this initial rearrangement, B cells that successfully (if partially) bind to antigen are stimulated to reproduce, during which time additional mutations are induced through somatic hypermutation. Mutated B cells that bind better will outcompete poorer binders via Darwinian selection resulting in B cell affinity maturation towards circulating antigens. A schematic of this whole process can be seen here.

It's been exciting starting to look at B cell affinity maturation from an evolutionary perspective. Erick Matsen has really inspired this interest and it's been great helping him, Connor McCoy and Vladimir Minin develop this project. In this paper, we fit substitution models and analyzed selective pressures in a short-read deep-sequencing data set of B cell receptor genes from three healthy individuals (courtesy of Harlan Robins). We found strikingly similar patterns across individuals in terms of exactly which sites evolved and which nucleotides replacements occurred. In this case, we did a pairwise analysis comparing observed read to matched germline sequence. Future methodological development will focus on identifying B cells that descend from a common rearrangement event and reconstructing their phylogenies.


Cognitive Behavior Therapy techniques

Cognitive Behavior Therapy techniques have been developed to help people change unhelpful thought patterns, self-defeating behavior, and dysfunctional mood episodes. Among all of the different kinds of psychological treatments, cognitive behavior therapy has repeatedly demonstrated the highest rates of effectiveness, and the longest-lasting results. The following cognitive behavior therapy techniques are among the most common used during the course of treatment.

Cognitive Restructuring Techniques: Cognitive restructuring is a cognitive behavior therapy technique aimed at helping people identify thinking patterns responsible for negative moods and ineffective behavior. There are numerous techniques employed during cognitive restructuring. The most common technique is tracking dysfunctional thoughts on a thought record form, and devising healthier, more psychologically flexible patterns of thinking.

Graded Exposure Assignments: Exposure is a cognitive behavior therapy technique that helps people systematically approach what they fear. Generally, fear causes people to avoid situations. Unfortunately, avoiding what people fear is what maintains feelings of fear and anxiety. Through systematic exposure, people master feared situations one-by-one, and then tackle increasing difficult exposure assignments. Exposure is one of the most effective psychological treatments that exists, having a 90% effectiveness rate with some anxiety disorders.

Activity Scheduling: Activity scheduling is a cognitive behavior therapy technique designed to help people increase behaviors they should be doing more. By identifying and scheduling helpful behaviors, such as meditating, going for a walk, or working on a project, it increases the likelihood of their getting done. This technique is especially helpful for people who do not engage in many rewarding activities due to depression, or people who have difficulty completing tasks due to procrastination

Successive Approximation: This cognitive behavior therapy technique works for people who have difficulty completing a task, either due to lack of familiarity with the task, or because the task feels overwhelming for some reason. The technique works by helping people master an easier task that is similar to the more difficult task. It’s akin to practicing addition and subtraction before learning long division. Once you are practiced at addition and subtraction, long division isn’t as daunting.

Mindfulness Practice: Mindfulness is a cognitive behavior therapy technique borrowed from Buddhism. The goal of mindfulness is to teach people to disengage from ruminating or obsessing about negative things, and redirect their attention to what is actually happening in the present moment. Mindfulness is the subject of a lot of new research in psychology, and represents the cutting edge of psychotherapy practice.

Skills Training: A lot of people’s problems result from not having the appropriate skills to achieve their goals. Skills training is a cognitive behavior therapy technique implemented in remedying such skills deficits. Common areas for skills training include social skills training, communication training, and assertiveness training. Usually skills training takes place through direct instruction, modeling, and role-plays.

For more in-depth information about each of these cognitive behavior therapy techniques, visit the CBT Techniques blog


UFO seen in Turkey

Witnesses reported that the unidentified object was spotted in the sky from 8:00 to 11:00 and suddenly disappeared after move 40 kilometers to the North. They immediately informed the police about the flying object.

One of the witnesses said that the flying object was the size of a minibus. I have had the opportunity to see the object through binoculars, my brother. This object had a shape like a balloon. When I zoomed in, I saw flashes of light, – the eyewitness speaks on behalf of Mehmet.

Many people have told the police about the same flying object. However, the police did not prepare an incident report, although there are many locals who claimed to also have seen a UFO.


Global warming and its dangerous consequences

Last week it became known about the mass die-off of deer in the County, for the first time in 75 years there have recorded the outbreak. The diagnosis of anthrax was confirmed in 23 people. All in all, hospitals in Salekhard are now 90 patients with suspected disease. Died 12-year-old boy.

From the infected zone evacuated more than 160 herders. In the Yamal district has been quarantined. The regional authorities will allocate 90 million rubles for the construction of new tents.

Now, according to the Minister, is actively prevention. Already vaccinated more than 40 thousand animals. The threat of the spread of the disease there.

According to local authorities, the reason for the outbreak was unusually warm for the far North summer. Almost two months on the Yamal Peninsula held the heat to 35 degrees. Because of this began to melt the permafrost, where anthrax spores can remain active for hundreds of years.

Experts from around the world talking about the dangers of global warming, which year. Many countries have already felt the impact of this warming, but in Russia the consequences of global warming so far was not noticeable. And the emergence of anthrax – perhaps only the first bell.

Disappointing forecasts

United Nations (UN) has warned that the heat will decrease the productivity of the population in those regions of the world that are focused on agriculture.

In 43 States, particularly in the Asian region, the projected fall in GDP. So, in Indonesia and Thailand, GDP declined by 6%, India 3.2%, China up 0.8%.

However, wealthier States were less likely to risk loss of productivity because of the heat. According to UN experts, the greatest losses will incur that countries with low and middle income.

Climate change will impact mainly on human health: increase the cost of maintaining clean air, safe drinking water and sufficient food, reliable shelter.

According to the world health organization, between 2030 and 2050, climate change will cause more than 250 thousand deaths per year, despite the expected development of economic growth and progress in the field of health.

38 thousand elderly people die due to exposure to heat, diarrhoea — 48 thousand, malaria will carry 60 thousand and 95 thousand children will die from malnutrition.

The distribution pattern of precipitation will affect freshwater resources: the lack of water can affect the health of the population and increase the risk of diarrhea, which increases infant mortality. At the age of 5 are now dying about 760 thousand children a year.

Not to mention the fact that a severe drought in itself leads to hunger. The changing nature of rainfall, apparently, will reduce production of basic food products for poor regions.

By 2020 in some African countries is projected to fall to 50%, which aggravate the irregularity and insufficiency of supply. Now from lack of food die of 3.1 million people a year.

Climate change is likely to lead China to more frequent cases of schistosomiasis — a disease that is transmitted by shellfish.

Africa will prosper malaria, which kill nearly 600 thousand people a year under 5 years. The Aedes vectors of the dengue disease, because of the changing climatic conditions will begin to multiply anew, suggesting an increase in risk of dengue infection.

The UN report says that over the past 130 years, global temperatures uniformly increased about 0.85°C. But during the last 25 years has accelerated the pace of global warming, which was 0.18°C per decade. And weather events of extreme nature are occurring with greater frequency and more intense.

The increase in water level

According to American website Zillow on the real estate, the increase in water level can cause damage to the homeowners for up to $882 billion.

According to the study, whose results were published in Nature, the water level can rise more than 6 feet (1.83 meters) to the end of the century.

At such succession of events, according to a study in the state of Florida will remain abandoned home to about 1 million, or 13% of all dwellings.

And is equal to the value of $400 billion, not including losses associated with administrative and commercial buildings, and public infrastructure.

Such conclusions were made after Zillow analysts compare their own valuation of houses and forecasts of rising water levels the National oceanic and atmospheric.

Analysts have warned that the governments of different countries, not just USA, you should pay attention to this problem and to allocate funding for the construction of protection. However, even if such funding will be allocated, the damage from the rising water levels will be significant.

With milder scenarios, compiled by Zillow, if sea level rise is 2 feet (0.61 m), the losses of the United States of the value of homes will reach $74 billion, with this on Florida will have the largest loss – $17 billion.

The value of losses calculated from the number of homes that are at risk of flooding, and their cost.

In the worst scenario, new York would lose about 32,000 homes with a total value of $27 billion.

Water – a new cause of war

But there is a downside to global warming. If some regions of the Earth will suffer from excess water, others from lack of it.

And gradually, analysts say, the water will be one of those resources, the possession of which will be the real war.

As the temperature of the Earth increases, arid region will increasingly depend on groundwater, as they will become more arid. However, these resources are also being depleted — and that’s the problem.

Falls less rain, and therefore the groundwater is less than replenished.

Previous studies also indicate that the waters in different regions of the world are being depleted, and this in turn endangers agriculture.

On the other hand, scientists have discovered that the regions North of the Amazon, Africa, the area of the Missouri river in the USA and other tropical regions that become more humid.

Such conclusions were made on the basis of data obtained from NASA space satellites in the period from 2002 to 2014, notes USA Today.

During the same period, the researchers note, a separate area for the middle East, North Africa, India, China and South-Western United States became more arid.

California is a particularly striking example. Lately she struggles with a severe drought, which adversely affect agriculture and the overall economy of the state.

Such studies raise questions about how to eliminate water inequality between different regions of the world, whether water is a tradable resource, like oil and gold, in the future, how will the economy of the regions, where now there are changes related to water resources.

A decline in GDP of rich countries

The heat resistance of the rich countries, apparently due to the fact that some of them (e.g. Germany and France) are in the cooler zone of climatic optimum and therefore have a higher rate in warmer years.

At the same time, other countries (such as America and Australia) are located in more tropical regions, and their economies are suffering from increasing temperature.

If we consider a particular country, in America, for example, every hot day (within an average temperature of 24-27°C for more than 24 hours) reduces the average profit per person by 20%, according to working report of the National Bureau of economic research. Very hot days (over 30°C) reduce the profit per person by 28%.

In connection with the increase in the number of hot days either need more workers to complete the same project, or pay them extra money for overtime hours. In sectors where workers are exposed to the weather, employs 28% of the workforce of America.

Countries can, of course, to try to overcome the negative effect of warming, but artificial cooling is expensive. Singapore air conditioners consume 40% of the buildings electricity.

If nothing to do with global warming, the world will face with the growth of electricity consumption by 83% by 2100, only due to the increase in the use of air conditioners, fans and refrigerators, according to a study published in the journal PNAS.

Global warming can cause harm to the rich countries not only through the decrease in labor productivity. In addition to high temperature, climate change also leads to sea level rise and increasing extreme weather (such as hurricanes).

Due to the fact that many megacities are on the coast, they will have to build expensive protective constructions from flooding.

But even if rich countries will be able somehow to protect themselves from global warming, they will still feel it for yourself indirectly: trade vulnerable to weather regions will fall sharply, increased number of refugees.

Infrastructure of the Northern regions

It would seem that southern areas, it is clear – the drought and lack of water will undoubtedly have a negative impact on the economy of regions, and not the standard of living of the population. However, the Northern regions are also affected by climate warming that can be observed on the example of Alaska.

Over the past few years on the main highways of Alaska, a shift in the soil, and in some places it is so pronounced that appreciable unevenness on the pavement.

Along the road there are warning signs that advise drivers to slow down.

And the engineers are trying to find a solution to the problem, offering a very different, sometimes amazing options such as to place the plastic cooling pipes or insulation, the use of lighter pavement or add a layer of rocks about the size of a soccer ball.

However, all these options seem unlikely as from an economic point of view, and from the perspective of banal logic.

At the moment, the highway is the main artery that connects Alaska with civilization. This road here come the tourists, supplied products and foodstuffs, equipment for oil fields and ore.

The dark surface absorbs sunlight, and the side of the road retains water and snow.

Heat destroys the permafrost (soil, rocks, which were in a frozen state in the next two years).

However, this issue is relevant to North America only.

More than 600 scientists from different countries, including USA, Canada, Russia, China, Sweden and Argentina, in June gathered at a conference devoted to the issues of permafrost.

Today, engineers believe that the permafrost is not stable, even in the case of application of modern isolation.

Many roads that were already built, will cause greater losses, since there will be construction of new bridges and detours, if global warming were to exceed projections and will lead to a change of the standards of construction.

Experts believe that the melting of the ice caused by the warming climate has a negative impact not only on roads but also on the condition of runways at airports, buildings and pipelines, but also leads to changes in migratory flows of animals.

Global warming and disease

According to scientists, global warming will shift the habitats of different species, resulting in people, crops and domestic animals will come into contact with new pathogens. In the result, we can expect many outbreaks of disease, like the Ebola epidemic in Africa.

According to scientists, there will be many local outbreaks, which will lead to increased load on the medical services and the death of many people.

So, scientists say that over the past 30 years in the polar regions and the tropics, the contact of different ecosystems led to the invasion of parasites and other pathogenic organisms in the new habitat.

Scientists believe it is a serious problem, since many species, including man, does not have resistance to unknown pathogens. The result may be local outbreaks of new diseases with a high fatality rate.

There are scientists who believe that the outbreak of anthrax could also be the result of global warming.

Due to the high temperature destroyed the permafrost the surface is buried layer and bacilli, which remained from previous epidemics.


The FCE exam is made up of four exam papers, designed to test the key language skills. The four papers are: Reading and Use of English; Writing; Listening; and Speaking. Candidates have the choice of taking their exam on either a computer or on paper. The Speaking test is taken face-to-face with two examiners and two candidates, providing a realistic and reliable measure of ability.

In Parts 1–4, candidates read a range of texts and complete tasks that test their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. Part 1 has eight multiple-choice questions related to vocabulary in a text. Parts 2 and 3 involve completing gaps in a text (i.e. choosing / forming the correct word for each gap). Each question in Part 4 has a sentence and a ‘key’ word, which must be used to complete a second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first sentence.

In Parts 5–7, candidates read a range of texts and complete tasks that test their reading ability. Part 5 involves answering multiple-choice questions about a text, with candidates expected to be able to read a text for detail, opinion, tone, purpose, main idea, implication and attitude. Part 6 involves choosing paragraphs to fill the gaps in a text, with candidates expected to demonstrate understanding of the structure and development of a text. Part 7 involves matching statements to the correct part of a text or several short texts, with candidates expected to demonstrate reading for specific information, detail, opinion and attitude.

The Writing paper has two parts. Part 1 has one compulsory question and involves writing an essay. In Part 2, candidates are given three options and are asked to write one of the following using between 140 and 190 words: an article, email/letter, report, or review.
The Listening paper has four parts and includes a mixture of monologues and dialogues from a range of familiar sources, such as news programmes, radio broadcasts, speeches and public announcements. In Part 1, candidates listen to a series of unrelated recordings (approx. 30 seconds each) and answer one multiple-choice question for each recording. In Part 2, candidates listen to a monologue or a dialogue with two or more speakers (approx. 3 minutes) and complete sentences on the question paper using the information they heard in the recording. In Part 3, candidates listen to a series of statements and related monologues (approx. 30 seconds each) and choose which statement best matches what each speaker says. In Part 4, candidates listen to a recording with two or more speakers (approx. 3 minutes) and answer seven multiple-choice questions. Candidates are expected to demonstrate a wide range of listening skills needed for real-life purposes, such as understanding the gist of an extract, listening for specific information, and understanding a speaker’s opinion, attitude or feeling.

The Speaking test has four parts and is conducted face-to-face, with one or two other candidates and two examiners. Candidates are expected to be able to participate in discussions, express opinions, exchange ideas and reach decisions through negotiation.

Part 1 is a short conversation with the examiner. The examiner will ask the candidate some questions about their lives, focusing on areas such as work, leisure activities and future plans. Candidates are expected to respond to the examiner’s questions, give basic personal information about themselves and use general social and interactional language.

Part 3 (3 minutes) is a two-way conversation between the candidates. The candidates are given spoken instructions and visual stimuli, which are used in a decision-making task. There is no right or wrong answer to the task. The candidates are expected to express and justify opinions, evaluating and speculating, in order to work towards a negotiated decision.

Part 4 (4 minutes) is a discussion between the candidates and the examiner on topics related to the collaborative task in Part 3. The examiner directs the interaction by asking questions which encourage the candidates to broaden and discuss further the topics introduced in Part 3. The questions ask primarily for evaluation rather than for information and give candidates an opportunity to show they can discuss issues in more depth than in earlier parts of the test

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