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Tuesday so far

I went to bed around 1:00 a.m., after reading part of a short story collection by L.A. Witt.  I read three out of the four stories.  I had already read the fourth when it was first published.  L.A. Witt is offering a lot of books free for a day on Amazon.  I guess that's when she publishes the Kindle edition.  I'd already read some of them in the first edition, but I get the free ones in case anyone wants to borrow them.

It took me a little while to get to sleep, but I wasn't distressed.  I woke at 7:30 a.m., but went back to bed and back to sleep pretty quickly.  I woke a little before 9:30 a.m.  I hadn't fixed the time on my alarm, so it would have gone off at noon.  I fixed that.

I got a bunch of free books.

I went to see if there were any strawberries at that flower stand I'd gotten the salvias from, but the proprietor said that strawberry season had been over for about a week and a half.  He had blueberries and vegetables, though.  I got blueberries.

I went to an upscale plant nursery.  They had herbs 20% off.  I got a little bay tree, sorrel, patchouli and a scented geranium that had kind of a lemony scent and variegated leaves.  I also got a cardinal flower that was ready to bloom.  I came home and planted everything but the cardinal flower, and watered the cardinal flower and the plants I planted.

Later: I signed up for an adult summer reading program at the local library.  It had various "challenges" to read specific kinds of books.  One was a book recommended by a SO, sibling, or BFF.  The only one of those I have is a sibling.  J. first recommended a cyberpunk/zombie apocalypse book.  I appealed to my virtual friends.  J.-PA recommended the "Lost and Found" romances.  The titles include the word "Embattled" and the male protagonists are veterans.  She got them all.  I got the first three free as e-books.  Die_traumerei recommended a couple of science fiction romances.

I told J. that I didn't want to read a zombie apocalypse book, and he came back with another couple of ideas.  One was a Star Wars tie-in book.  J. is big on Star Wars, and has read a lot of tie-in books.  The other was Mr. Hockey, a biography of Gordie Howe.  That's one I'd actually read.

Another challenge was for a book set in a place you'd like to visit.  "Great Britain" is easy enough, and I'm sure I can find plenty of m/m romances by the Macaronis and Josephine Myles and J.L. Merrow set in the U.K.  I also reserved a copy of a book about Highclere Castle and its inhabitants from the library.

For "a book that's being turned into a movie," I put a copy of The Danish Girl on hold.  I had heard of Lili Elbe, and got a non-fiction account as an e-book.  "Ask a librarian for a recommendation" was the easiest challenge, though.  I looked across the room at Mom and asked her.  She held up the book she was reading.  Guess I just need to wait until she's done.


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Field Listing :: Environment - current issues
This entry lists the most pressing and important environmental problems. The following terms and abbreviations are used throughout the entry:
Acidification - the lowering of soil and water pH due to acid precipitation and deposition usually through precipitation; this process disrupts ecosystem nutrient flows and may kill freshwater fish and plants dependent on more neutral or alkaline conditions (see acid rain).
Acid rain - characterized as containing harmful levels of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide; acid rain is damaging and potentially deadly to the earth's fragile ecosystems; acidity is measured using the pH scale where 7 is neutral, values greater than 7 are considered alkaline, and values below 5.6 are considered acid precipitation; note - a pH of 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) has been measured in rainfall in New England.
Aerosol - a collection of airborne particles dispersed in a gas, smoke, or fog.
Afforestation - converting a bare or agricultural space by planting trees and plants; reforestation involves replanting trees on areas that have been cut or destroyed by fire.
Asbestos - a naturally occurring soft fibrous mineral commonly used in fireproofing materials and considered to be highly carcinogenic in particulate form.
Biodiversity - also biological diversity; the relative number of species, diverse in form and function, at the genetic, organism, community, and ecosystem level; loss of biodiversity reduces an ecosystem's ability to recover from natural or man-induced disruption.
Bio-indicators - a plant or animal species whose presence, abundance, and health reveal the general condition of its habitat.
Biomass - the total weight or volume of living matter in a given area or volume.
Carbon cycle - the term used to describe the exchange of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and geological deposits.
Catchments - assemblages used to capture and retain rainwater and runoff; an important water management technique in areas with limited freshwater resources, such as Gibraltar.
DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) - a colorless, odorless insecticide that has toxic effects on most animals; the use of DDT was banned in the US in 1972.
Defoliants - chemicals which cause plants to lose their leaves artificially; often used in agricultural practices for weed control, and may have detrimental impacts on human and ecosystem health.
Deforestation - the destruction of vast areas of forest (e.g., unsustainable forestry practices, agricultural and range land clearing, and the over exploitation of wood products for use as fuel) without planting new growth.
Desertification - the spread of desert-like conditions in arid or semi-arid areas, due to overgrazing, loss of agriculturally productive soils, or climate change.
Dredging - the practice of deepening an existing waterway; also, a technique used for collecting bottom-dwelling marine organisms (e.g., shellfish) or harvesting coral, often causing significant destruction of reef and ocean-floor ecosystems.
Drift-net fishing - done with a net, miles in extent, that is generally anchored to a boat and left to float with the tide; often results in an over harvesting and waste of large populations of non-commercial marine species (by-catch) by its effect of "sweeping the ocean clean."
Ecosystems - ecological units comprised of complex communities of organisms and their specific environments.
Effluents - waste materials, such as smoke, sewage, or industrial waste which are released into the environment, subsequently polluting it.
Endangered species - a species that is threatened with extinction either by direct hunting or habitat destruction.
Freshwater - water with very low soluble mineral content; sources include lakes, streams, rivers, glaciers, and underground aquifers.
Greenhouse gas - a gas that "traps" infrared radiation in the lower atmosphere causing surface warming; water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere.
Groundwater - water sources found below the surface of the earth often in naturally occurring reservoirs in permeable rock strata; the source for wells and natural springs.
Highlands Water Project - a series of dams constructed jointly by Lesotho and South Africa to redirect Lesotho's abundant water supply into a rapidly growing area in South Africa; while it is the largest infrastructure project in southern Africa, it is also the most costly and controversial; objections to the project include claims that it forces people from their homes, submerges farmlands, and squanders economic resources.
Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) - represents the 145,000 Inuits of Russia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland in international environmental issues; a General Assembly convenes every three years to determine the focus of the ICC; the most current concerns are long-range transport of pollutants, sustainable development, and climate change.
Metallurgical plants - industries which specialize in the science, technology, and processing of metals; these plants produce highly concentrated and toxic wastes which can contribute to pollution of ground water and air when not properly disposed.
Noxious substances - injurious, very harmful to living beings.
Overgrazing - the grazing of animals on plant material faster than it can naturally regrow leading to the permanent loss of plant cover, a common effect of too many animals grazing limited range land.
Ozone shield - a layer of the atmosphere composed of ozone gas (O3) that resides approximately 25 miles above the Earth's surface and absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful to living organisms.
Poaching - the illegal killing of animals or fish, a great concern with respect to endangered or threatened species.
Pollution - the contamination of a healthy environment by man-made waste.
Potable water - water that is drinkable, safe to be consumed.
Salination - the process through which fresh (drinkable) water becomes salt (undrinkable) water; hence, desalination is the reverse process; also involves the accumulation of salts in topsoil caused by evaporation of excessive irrigation water, a process that can eventually render soil incapable of supporting crops.
Siltation - occurs when water channels and reservoirs become clotted with silt and mud, a side effect of deforestation and soil erosion.
Slash-and-burn agriculture - a rotating cultivation technique in which trees are cut down and burned in order to clear land for temporary agriculture; the land is used until its productivity declines at which point a new plot is selected and the process repeats; this practice is sustainable while population levels are low and time is permitted for regrowth of natural vegetation; conversely, where these conditions do not exist, the practice can have disastrous consequences for the environment.
Soil degradation - damage to the land's productive capacity because of poor agricultural practices such as the excessive use of pesticides or fertilizers, soil compaction from heavy equipment, or erosion of topsoil, eventually resulting in reduced ability to produce agricultural products.
Soil erosion - the removal of soil by the action of water or wind, compounded by poor agricultural practices, deforestation, overgrazing, and desertification.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation - a portion of the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun and naturally filtered in the upper atmosphere by the ozone layer; UV radiation can be harmful to living organisms and has been linked to increasing rates of skin cancer in humans.
Waterborne diseases - those in which bacteria survive in, and are transmitted through, water; always a serious threat in areas with an untreated water supply.
Environment - current issues
Albania deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents
Algeria soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water
American Samoa limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines
Andorra deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion; air pollution; wastewater treatment and solid waste disposal
Angola overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
Anguilla supplies of potable water sometimes cannot meet increasing demand largely because of poor distribution system
Antarctica in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light passing through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an Antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming
Antigua and Barbuda water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly
Armenia soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; the energy crisis of the 1990s led to deforestation when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan), a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies; restart of Metsamor nuclear power plant in spite of its location in a seismically active zone
Aruba NA
Ashmore and Cartier Islands illegal killing of protected wildlife by traditional Indonesian fisherman, as well as fishing by non-traditional Indonesian vessels, are ongoing problems
Atlantic Ocean endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; drift net fishing is hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea
Austria some forest degradation caused by air and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of agricultural chemicals; air pollution results from emissions by coal- and oil-fired power stations and industrial plants and from trucks transiting Austria between northern and southern Europe
Azerbaijan local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, soil, and water pollution; soil pollution results from oil spills, from the use of DDT pesticide, and from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton
Bahamas, The coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
Barbados pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
Benin inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
Bermuda sustainable development
Bhutan soil erosion; limited access to potable water
Bolivia the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
Botswana overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
Bouvet Island NA
British Indian Ocean Territory NA
British Virgin Islands limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchments)
Brunei seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
Burma deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
Burundi soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
Cameroon waterborne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
Cape Verde soil erosion; deforestation due to demand for wood used as fuel; water shortages; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; illegal beach sand extraction; overfishing
Cayman Islands no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchments
Central African Republic tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished the country's reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation
Christmas Island loss of rainforest; impact of phosphate mining
Clipperton Island NA
Cocos (Keeling) Islands fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs
Comoros soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation
Congo, Democratic Republic of the poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan - a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage
Congo, Republic of the air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage; tap water is not potable; deforestation
Cook Islands NA
Coral Sea Islands no permanent fresh water resources
Costa Rica deforestation and land use change, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching and agriculture; soil erosion; coastal marine pollution; fisheries protection; solid waste management; air pollution
Cuba air and water pollution; biodiversity loss; deforestation
Dhekelia netting and trapping of small migrant songbirds in the spring and autumn
Djibouti inadequate supplies of potable water; limited arable land; desertification; endangered species
Dominica NA
Dominican Republic water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation
Egypt agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources
El Salvador deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes
Equatorial Guinea tap water is not potable; deforestation
Eritrea deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
Estonia air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amount of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen steadily, the emissions of 2000 were 80% less than in 1980; the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies in 2000 was one-20th the level of 1980; in connection with the start-up of new water purification plants, the pollution load of wastewater decreased; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations
Ethiopia deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water shortages in some areas from water-intensive farming and poor management
European Union NA
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) overfishing by unlicensed vessels is a problem; reindeer were introduced to the islands in 2001 for commercial reasons; this is the only commercial reindeer herd in the world unaffected by the 1986 Chornobyl disaster
Faroe Islands NA
Fiji deforestation; soil erosion
French Polynesia NA
French Southern and Antarctic Lands introduction of foreign species on Iles Crozet has caused severe damage to the original ecosystem; overfishing of Patagonian toothfish around Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen
Gabon deforestation; poaching
Gambia, The deforestation; desertification; water-borne diseases prevalent
Georgia air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals
Gibraltar limited natural freshwater resources: large concrete or natural rock water catchments collect rainwater (no longer used for drinking water) and adequate desalination plant
Greece air pollution; water pollution
Grenada NA
Guatemala deforestation in the Peten rainforest; soil erosion; water pollution
Guernsey NA
Guinea deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region; poor mining practices have led to environmental damage
Guinea-Bissau deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing
Guyana water pollution from sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals; deforestation
Haiti extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
Heard Island and McDonald Islands NA
Holy See (Vatican City) NA
Honduras urban population expanding; deforestation results from logging and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes; further land degradation and soil erosion hastened by uncontrolled development and improper land use practices such as farming of marginal lands; mining activities polluting Lago de Yojoa (the country's largest source of fresh water), as well as several rivers and streams, with heavy metals
Hong Kong air and water pollution from rapid urbanization
Iceland water pollution from fertilizer runoff; inadequate wastewater treatment
Indian Ocean endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea
Indonesia deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires
Iraq government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Marsh Arabs, who inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; desertification
Ireland water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff
Isle of Man waste disposal (both household and industrial); transboundary air pollution
Israel limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; desertification; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
Jamaica heavy rates of deforestation; coastal waters polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and oil spills; damage to coral reefs; air pollution in Kingston results from vehicle emissions
Jan Mayen NA
Jersey NA
Jordan limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Kazakhstan radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with former defense industries and test ranges scattered throughout the country pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers that flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices
Kenya water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching
Kiribati heavy pollution in lagoon of south Tarawa atoll due to heavy migration mixed with traditional practices such as lagoon latrines and open-pit dumping; ground water at risk
Korea, North water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water; waterborne disease; deforestation; soil erosion and degradation
Korea, South air pollution in large cities; acid rain; water pollution from the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents; drift net fishing
Laos unexploded ordnance; deforestation; soil erosion; most of the population does not have access to potable water
Lebanon deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
Liberia tropical rain forest deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; pollution of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage
Libya desertification; limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
Liechtenstein NA
Lithuania contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products and chemicals at military bases
Luxembourg air and water pollution in urban areas, soil pollution of farmland
Macau NA
Macedonia air pollution from metallurgical plants
Malawi deforestation; land degradation; water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage, industrial wastes; siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish populations
Maldives depletion of freshwater aquifers threatens water supplies; global warming and sea level rise; coral reef bleaching
Mali deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching
Malta limited natural fresh water resources; increasing reliance on desalination
Marshall Islands inadequate supplies of potable water; pollution of Majuro lagoon from household waste and discharges from fishing vessels
Mauritania overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion aggravated by drought are contributing to desertification; limited natural fresh water resources away from the Senegal, which is the only perennial river; locust infestation
Mauritius water pollution, degradation of coral reefs
Mayotte NA
Mexico scarcity of hazardous waste disposal facilities; rural to urban migration; natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; deteriorating agricultural lands; serious air and water pollution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border; land subsidence in Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater depletion
Micronesia, Federated States of overfishing, climate change, pollution
Moldova heavy use of agricultural chemicals, including banned pesticides such as DDT, has contaminated soil and groundwater; extensive soil erosion from poor farming methods
Monaco NA
Montserrat land erosion occurs on slopes that have been cleared for cultivation
Mozambique a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters; elephant poaching for ivory is a problem
Namibia limited natural fresh water resources; desertification; wildlife poaching; land degradation has led to few conservation areas
Nauru limited natural fresh water resources, roof storage tanks collect rainwater but mostly dependent on a single, aging desalination plant; intensive phosphate mining during the past 90 years - mainly by a UK, Australia, and NZ consortium - has left the central 90% of Nauru a wasteland and threatens limited remaining land resources
Navassa Island NA
Netherlands Antilles NA
New Caledonia erosion caused by mining exploitation and forest fires
New Zealand deforestation; soil erosion; native flora and fauna hard-hit by invasive species
Nicaragua deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution
Niger overgrazing; soil erosion; deforestation; desertification; wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, and lion) threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction
Nigeria soil degradation; rapid deforestation; urban air and water pollution; desertification; oil pollution - water, air, and soil; has suffered serious damage from oil spills; loss of arable land; rapid urbanization
Norfolk Island NA
Northern Mariana Islands contamination of groundwater on Saipan may contribute to disease; clean-up of landfill; protection of endangered species conflicts with development
Norway water pollution; acid rain damaging forests and adversely affecting lakes, threatening fish stocks; air pollution from vehicle emissions
Oman rising soil salinity; beach pollution from oil spills; limited natural fresh water resources
Pacific Ocean endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea
Pakistan water pollution from raw sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh water resources; most of the population does not have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification
Palau inadequate facilities for disposal of solid waste; threats to the marine ecosystem from sand and coral dredging, illegal fishing practices, and overfishing
Panama water pollution from agricultural runoff threatens fishery resources; deforestation of tropical rain forest; land degradation and soil erosion threatens siltation of Panama Canal; air pollution in urban areas; mining threatens natural resources
Papua New Guinea rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought
Paracel Islands NA
Paraguay deforestation; water pollution; inadequate means for waste disposal pose health risks for many urban residents; loss of wetlands
Pitcairn Islands deforestation (only a small portion of the original forest remains because of burning and clearing for settlement)
Portugal soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas
Puerto Rico erosion; occasional drought causing water shortages
Qatar limited natural fresh water resources are increasing dependence on large-scale desalination facilities
Russia air pollution from heavy industry, emissions of coal-fired electric plants, and transportation in major cities; industrial, municipal, and agricultural pollution of inland waterways and seacoasts; deforestation; soil erosion; soil contamination from improper application of agricultural chemicals; scattered areas of sometimes intense radioactive contamination; groundwater contamination from toxic waste; urban solid waste management; abandoned stocks of obsolete pesticides
Rwanda deforestation results from uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel; overgrazing; soil exhaustion; soil erosion; widespread poaching
Saint Barthelemy with no natural rivers or streams, fresh water is in short supply, especially in summer, and provided by desalinization of sea water, collection of rain water, or imported via water tanker
Saint Helena NA
Saint Kitts and Nevis NA
Saint Lucia deforestation; soil erosion, particularly in the northern region
Saint Martin fresh water supply is dependent on desalinization of sea water
Saint Pierre and Miquelon recent test drilling for oil in waters around Saint Pierre and Miquelon may bring future development that would impact the environment
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines pollution of coastal waters and shorelines from discharges by pleasure yachts and other effluents; in some areas, pollution is severe enough to make swimming prohibitive
Samoa soil erosion, deforestation, invasive species, overfishing
San Marino NA
Sao Tome and Principe deforestation; soil erosion and exhaustion
Senegal wildlife populations threatened by poaching; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; overfishing
Seychelles water supply depends on catchments to collect rainwater
Sierra Leone rapid population growth pressuring the environment; overharvesting of timber, expansion of cattle grazing, and slash-and-burn agriculture have resulted in deforestation and soil exhaustion; civil war depleted natural resources; overfishing
Singapore industrial pollution; limited natural fresh water resources; limited land availability presents waste disposal problems; seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
Slovakia air pollution from metallurgical plants presents human health risks; acid rain damaging forests
Slovenia Sava River polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near Koper from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting acid rain
Solomon Islands deforestation; soil erosion; many of the surrounding coral reefs are dead or dying
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands NA
Southern Ocean increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole in recent years, reducing marine primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and damaging the DNA of some fish; illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in recent years, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, which is likely to affect the sustainability of the stock; large amount of incidental mortality of seabirds resulting from long-line fishing for toothfish
note: the now-protected fur seal population is making a strong comeback after severe overexploitation in the 18th and 19th centuries
Spratly Islands NA
Sri Lanka deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching and urbanization; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff; waste disposal; air pollution in Colombo
Sudan inadequate supplies of potable water; wildlife populations threatened by excessive hunting; soil erosion; desertification; periodic drought
Suriname deforestation as timber is cut for export; pollution of inland waterways by small-scale mining activities
Svalbard NA
Switzerland air pollution from vehicle emissions and open-air burning; acid rain; water pollution from increased use of agricultural fertilizers; loss of biodiversity
Tajikistan inadequate sanitation facilities; increasing levels of soil salinity; industrial pollution; excessive pesticides
Timor-Leste widespread use of slash and burn agriculture has led to deforestation and soil erosion
Tokelau limited natural resources and overcrowding are contributing to emigration to New Zealand
Tonga deforestation results as more and more land is being cleared for agriculture and settlement; some damage to coral reefs from starfish and indiscriminate coral and shell collectors; overhunting threatens native sea turtle populations
Trinidad and Tobago water pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw sewage; oil pollution of beaches; deforestation; soil erosion
Tunisia toxic and hazardous waste disposal is ineffective and poses health risks; water pollution from raw sewage; limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Turkmenistan contamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salination, water logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; desertification
Turks and Caicos Islands limited natural fresh water resources, private cisterns collect rainwater
Tuvalu since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, most water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities (the Japanese Government has built one desalination plant and plans to build one other); beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials; excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel; damage to coral reefs from the spread of the Crown of Thorns starfish; Tuvalu is concerned about global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on rising sea levels, which threaten the country's underground water table; in 2000, the government appealed to Australia and New Zealand to take in Tuvaluans if rising sea levels should make evacuation necessary
United Arab Emirates lack of natural freshwater resources compensated by desalination plants; desertification; beach pollution from oil spills
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands, and Johnston Atoll: no natural fresh water resources
Kingman Reef: none
Midway Islands and Palmyra Atoll: NA
Uruguay water pollution from meat packing/tannery industry; inadequate solid/hazardous waste disposal
Uzbekistan shrinkage of the Aral Sea is resulting in growing concentrations of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then blown from the increasingly exposed lake bed and contribute to desertification; water pollution from industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides is the cause of many human health disorders; increasing soil salination; soil contamination from buried nuclear processing and agricultural chemicals, including DDT
Vanuatu most of the population does not have access to a reliable supply of potable water; deforestation
Virgin Islands lack of natural freshwater resources
Wake Island NA
Wallis and Futuna deforestation (only small portions of the original forests remain) largely as a result of the continued use of wood as the main fuel source; as a consequence of cutting down the forests, the mountainous terrain of Futuna is particularly prone to erosion; there are no permanent settlements on Alofi because of the lack of natural fresh water resources
West Bank adequacy of fresh water supply; sewage treatment
Western Sahara sparse water and lack of arable land
Yemen limited natural fresh water resources; inadequate supplies of potable water; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Zimbabwe deforestation; soil erosion; land degradation; air and water pollution; the black rhinoceros herd - once the largest concentration of the species in the world - has been significantly reduced by poaching; poor mining practices have led to toxic waste and heavy metal pollution
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The online Factbook is updated bi-weekly. ISSN 1553-8133
For additional information on government leaders in selected foreign countries, go to World Leaders.


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What is the "Faith" in Faith-Based Social Services?

From the Congregations, Communities and Leadership Development Project
Directed by Ronald J. Sider and Heidi Rolland Unruh

How are religious beliefs and practices reflected in the structure and functions of social service programs? What are the range of ways that faith-based programs define and express their religious roots? Our study identified the various elements by which faith-based ministries convey a religious character or message. These fall into two basic categories, Environmental and Active.

Environmental elements are passive, institutional indicators of the religious nature or affiliation of the program. They create a religious environment or convey religious values without involving clients in personal interactions or activities having to do with religion. There are five types of environmental elements:

Affiliation pertains to the historic or current linkage of a program with a religious entity or identity. Examples: the program has a religious name; program receives funding or volunteer support from a church or denomination.

Objects with religious meaning may be found in the program space, whether non-verbal (sacred images or icons) or verbal. Examples: a cross or picture of Jesus is in the space where the program meets; religious tracts are set out on a table in the lobby.

Personnel (board members, staff, and volunteers) may share a set of religious beliefs, values, identity, language, experiences, and norms. Examples: board members and/or staff are selected (or self-selected) for religious beliefs; staff regularly meet for prayer.

The mission statement (or other descriptive documents) may draw on religious concepts in defining the organization's purpose. Examples: mission statement includes spiritual nurture as a goal of the program; brochure describes program as "Christ-centered".

Policies and norms include procedural guidelines and policies that reference religion, and norms or expectations for conduct based in religion. Examples: preference is given to clients from the sponsoring denomination; staff manual calls for serving clients with Christian love.

Active religious elements involve direct communication of a religious message to clients, or client participation in explicitly religious activities. Active elements have an intentional, relational dimension that is lacking in the environmental elements. They come in seven forms:

Invitations to a religious event or resource serve as a bridge to activities of a religious nature, which may take place outside the social service program. Examples: inviting patients at a health clinic to attend Sunday church services; placing Bible study flyers in food bags.

Prayer may take place for, with, or by clients. Examples: saying Grace before a soup kitchen meal; offering to pray with a GED student who feels anxious about passing a test.

Sacred texts may be quoted or referenced in conversations or materials, either with commentary or standing alone. Examples: citing references for Bible passages on work in materials for a job training seminar; quoting Scripture in a counseling session.

Worship services commonly include singing, liturgy, and religious ritual, with the purpose of directing praise and reverence toward God, or sharing expressions of faith in God. Examples: chapel services for prisoners in a recidivism prevention program; singing praise choruses with kids at day care.

Testimonies, which share about faith from personal experience, often highlight the role that one's faith has played in helping with needs similar to those of clients. Examples: giving your faith testimony at a drug rehab group; sharing how Bible-based budgeting helped you.

Religious teachings instruct listeners in religious doctrines, give ethical directives relevant to client behaviors or social values, tell sacred stories, or present a religious perspective on a client's area of need. Examples: leading a devotional at a nursing home; referring to religious values in a discussion group on civic issues.

Invitations to personal faith bring religious discussions to the personal level, presenting a case for responding to religious truth-claims and asking clients to make a commitment to conversion or spiritual renewal. Examples: inviting homeless shelter residents to dedicate their lives to Christ; handing out evangelistic tracts at a parenting seminar.

For more information and a full list of reports, please visit this project's index page.

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© 2000 - 2006 Hartford Seminary, Hartford Institute for Religion Research


Creamy salad dressing formulated to contain 10% oil or less. Major ingredients include sugar, vinegar, vegetable oil, egg and spices.

Nutrition Facts

Per 100 g or 100 ml

Calories 156
kilojoules 651
Protein 0.6
Fat, Total 10.5
Saturated 13.2
Carbohydrates 13.9
Sugars 9
Sodium 1038

* Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet or 8700 kilojoules diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.

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Dogs and cats use sugar (glucose) as their main source of energy in the body. The brain can only use glucose as its source of energy, whereas most other parts of the body can use alternate fuels under times of stress. Glucose levels are maintained within strict levels by the body through the use of hormones; including insulin and glucagons among others. When the blood sugar level falls below a certain level (usually 60 mg/dl) we call it hypoglycemia, and clinical symptoms develop which include:

  • Weakness
  • Lack of Coordination
  • Vomiting
  • Abnormal Vocalization
  • Stupor
  • Seizures

In order to understand hypoglycemia, it helps to have a basic understanding glucose metabolism in the body.

Sugar can be absorbed directly across mucous membranes anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, or it can be manufactured in the liver. The three main food groups are proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates include simple and complex sugars. Simple sugars can be absorbed directly into the blood stream across a mucus membrane. Complex carbohydrates are broken down to simple sugars in the intestines and absorbed into the bloodstream. The absorbed glucose can enter cells that need it if insulin is present to promote the passage of glucose into the cell. In times of glucose excess, the liver will transform glucose into glycogen, which is a storage molecule. If there is a chronic excess of calories taken in, the sugar will be converted to fat for storage. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose in times of need.

Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver where they can be used to create new proteins or be broken down into glucose. Fats are broken down into fatty acids and cholesterol molecules and absorbed into the blood stream. They are transported to the liver where they can be used to build different body components, stored as fat molecules or broken down into an alternative fuel called ketone bodies.

How does hypoglycemia occur?

If there is a lack of food, the body will do all it can to maintain blood sugar levels including breaking down glycogen and proteins to form glucose. Unfortunately, small animals and particularly young puppies and kittens do not have a lot of sugar stored in the form of glycogen and so they are subject to becoming hypoglycemic very easily. Sometimes, animals may secrete too much insulin (or if they are diabetic and are being given insulin injections they may overdose) which will drive all the sugar out of the blood into the cells of the body, leading to hypoglycemia.

How does our veterinary clinic prevent hypoglycemia?

Hypoglycemia is simple to prevent by feeding small pets at the right frequency. Young puppies that are nursing should be fed every 2-3 hours until 2 weeks of age and then every 3 to 4 hours.

Week 1Week 2Week 3Week 4
Calories per ounce of body weight per day3.754.5 calories/oz5.0 calories/oz5.5 Calories/oz

In general, milk substitutes contain around 1 calorie per ml.

Example: You plan to feed a 5-ounce puppy less than 1 week of age 4 times daily. The puppy requires 3.75 calories/ounce body weight x 5-ounce pup = 18.75 calories needed for one day. You are feeding 4 times a day. Therefore, 18.75/4 = 4.68 calories given at each feeding. Your milk substitute contains 1 calorie/ml. Therefore, you should feed 4.68 ml (about 5 ml) each feeding.

Solid foods should be introduced at 3 weeks of age. Pan-feed a thin gruel made by blending good-quality puppy food with puppy’s milk formula. Gradually thicken the gruel until no milk substitute is used at about 6 weeks of age. At this time, the pups should be offered good-quality puppy food 3 times daily.

Many teacup and toy breeds remain at risk for hypoglycemia even after they are weaned onto solid food. These pets should be fed 4 times daily until they are 6 months of age, then 3 times daily until one year. After that twice daily feeding should allow them to maintain adequate glucose levels.

How do our veterinarians treat hypoglycemia?

Pets that are suffering from hypoglycemia need to get sugar into the blood stream as quickly as possible. Unfortunately, by the time they are significantly hypoglycemic, they may not be hungry or able to eat on their own. You should keep a bottle of Corn syrup (kayro) in your pantry to have on hand if your pet appears to be hypoglycemic. If you place some corn syrup in the mouth and rub it on the gums, it will be absorbed directly through the mucous membrane of the oral cavity and start to raise the blood sugar. You can also use honey, or a strong solution of sugar. Try to get a few teaspoons of corn syrup into your pet within a few minutes. As soon as they start to respond, feed them with milk replacer (if puppies) or canned food.

If your pet is seizuring due to the low blood sugar, try to get the sugar in the mouth without getting bitten. If seizures have occurred, bring your pet directly to the veterinarian.

With knowledge of the symptoms of hypoglycemia and an appropriate feeding plan, this problem is largely avoidable in most pets of Alta Loma, Rancho Cucamonga, Upland, Ontario, Claremont, Fontana and the Inland Empire.


Read the blog post that PARCC doesn’t want you to see — and then share it on your blogs!

Here is the critique of the 4th grade PARCC exam  by an anonymous teacher, as it originally appeared on Celia Oyler’s blog before she was threatened by PARCC and deleted key sections.  After people tweeted links to the blog, PARCC absurdly complained to Twitter that these tweets infringed on their copyright.

Via Leonie Haimson:

As an act of collective disobedience to the reigning testocracy, I urge all other fellow bloggers to paste the below critique and copy it into their blogs as well.

As the teacher points out below, “we can use these three PARCC prompts to glimpse how the high stakes accountability system has deformed teaching and warped learning in many public schools across the United States. ”

No high-stakes test that is used to judge students, teachers and schools should be allowed to be kept secret to escape accountability for the test-makers — especially ones as flawed as these!

If you do repost this, please let me know by emailing me at thanks!

The PARCC Test: Exposed

The author of this blog posting is a public school teacher who will remain anonymous.

I will not reveal my district or my role due to the intense legal ramifications for exercising my Constitutional First Amendment rights in a public forum. I was compelled to sign a security form that stated I would not be “Revealing or discussing passages or test items with anyone, including students and school staff, through verbal exchange, email, social media, or any other form of communication” as this would be considered a “Security Breach.” In response to this demand, I can only ask—whom are we protecting?

There are layers of not-so-subtle issues that need to be aired as a result of national and state testing policies that are dominating children’s lives in America. As any well prepared educator knows, curriculum planning and teaching requires knowing how you will assess your students and planning backwards from that knowledge. If teachers are unable to examine and discuss the summative assessment for their students, how can they plan their instruction? Yet, that very question assumes that this test is something worth planning for. The fact is that schools that try to plan their curriculum exclusively to prepare students for this test are ignoring the body of educational research that tells us how children learn, and how to create developmentally appropriate activities to engage students in the act of learning. This article will attempt to provide evidence for these claims as a snapshot of what is happening as a result of current policies.

The PARCC test is developmentally inappropriate

In order to discuss the claim that the PARCC test is “developmentally inappropriate,” examine three of the most recent PARCC 4th grade items.

A book leveling system, designed by Fountas and Pinnell, was made “more rigorous” in order to match the Common Core State Standards. These newly updated benchmarks state that 4th Graders should be reading at a Level S by the end of the year in order to be considered reading “on grade level.” [Celia’s note: I do not endorse leveling books or readers, nor do I think it appropriate that all 9 year olds should be reading a Level S book to be thought of as making good progress.]

The PARCC, which is supposedly a test of the Common Core State Standards, appears to have taken liberties with regard to grade level texts. For example, on the Spring 2016 PARCC for 4th Graders, students were expected to read an excerpt from Shark Life: True Stories about Sharks and the Sea by Peter Benchley and Karen Wojtyla. According to Scholastic, this text is at an interest level for Grades 9-12, and at a 7th Grade reading level. The Lexile measure is 1020L, which is most often found in texts that are written for middle school, and according to Scholastic’s own conversion chart would be equivalent to a 6th grade benchmark around W, X, or Y (using the same Fountas and Pinnell scale).

Even by the reform movement’s own standards, according to MetaMetrics’ reference material on Text Complexity Grade Bands and Lexile Bands, the newly CCSS aligned “Stretch” lexile level of 1020 falls in the 6-8 grade range. This begs the question, what is the purpose of standardizing text complexity bands if testing companies do not have to adhere to them? Also, what is the purpose of a standardized test that surpasses agreed-upon lexile levels?

So, right out of the gate, 4th graders are being asked to read and respond to texts that are two grade levels above the recommended benchmark. After they struggle through difficult texts with advanced vocabulary and nuanced sentence structures, they then have to answer multiple choice questions that are, by design, intended to distract students with answers that appear to be correct except for some technicality.

Finally, students must synthesize two or three of these advanced texts and compose an original essay. The ELA portion of the PARCC takes three days, and each day includes a new essay prompt based on multiple texts. These are the prompts from the 2016 Spring PARCC exam for 4th Graders along with my analysis of why these prompts do not reflect the true intention of the Common Core State Standards.

ELA 4th Grade Prompt #1

Refer to the passage from “Emergency on the Mountain” and the poem “Mountains.” Then answer question 7.

  1. Think about how the structural elements in the passage from “Emergency on the Mountain” differ from the structural elements in the poem “Mountains.”

Write an essay that explains the differences in the structural elements between the passage and the poem. Be sure to include specific examples from both texts to support your response.

The above prompt probably attempts to assess the Common Core standard RL.4.5: “Explain major differences between poems, drama, and prose, and refer to the structural elements of poems (e.g., verse, rhythm, meter) and drama (e.g., casts of characters, settings, descriptions, dialogue, stage directions) when writing or speaking about a text.”

However, the Common Core State Standards for writing do not require students to write essays comparing the text structures of different genres. The Grade 4 CCSS for writing about reading demand that students write about characters, settings, and events in literature, or that they write about how authors support their points in informational texts. Nowhere in the standards are students asked to write comparative essays on the structures of writing. The reading standards ask students to “explain” structural elements, but not in writing. There is a huge developmental leap between explaining something and writing an analytical essay about it. [Celia’s note: The entire enterprise of analyzing text structures in elementary school – a 1940’s and 50’s college English approach called “New Criticism” — is ridiculous for 9 year olds anyway.]

The PARCC does not assess what it attempts to assess

ELA 4th Grade Prompt #2

Refer to the passages from “Great White Shark” and Face the Sharks. Then answer question 20.

 Using details and images in the passages from “Great White Sharks” and Face to Face with Sharks, write an essay that describes the characteristics of white sharks.

It would be a stretch to say that this question assesses CCSS W.4.9.B: “Explain how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text.”

In fact, this prompt assesses a student’s ability to research a topic across sources and write a research-based essay that synthesizes facts from both articles. Even CCSS W.4.7, “Conduct research projects that build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic,” does not demand that students compile information from different sources to create an essay. The closest the standards come to demanding this sort of work is in the reading standards; CCSS RI.4.9 says: “Integrate information from two texts on the same topic in order to write or speak about the subject knowledgeably.” Fine. One could argue that this PARCC prompt assesses CCSS RI.4.9.

However, the fact that the texts presented for students to “use” for the essay are at a middle school reading level automatically disqualifies this essay prompt from being able to assess what it attempts to assess. (It is like trying to assess children’s math computational skills by embedding them in a word problem with words that the child cannot read.)

ELA 4th Grade Prompt #3

  1. In “Sadako’s Secret,” the narrator reveals Sadako’s thoughts and feelings while telling the story. The narrator also includes dialogue and actions between Sadako and her family. Using these details, write a story about what happens next year when Sadako tries out for the junior high track team. Include not only Sadako’s actions and feelings but also her family’s reaction and feelings in your story.

Nowhere, and I mean nowhere in the Common Core State Standards is there a demand for students to read a narrative and then use the details from that text to write a new story based on a prompt. That is a new pseudo-genre called “Prose Constructed Response” by the PARCC creators, and it is 100% not aligned to the CCSS. Not to mention, why are 4th Graders being asked to write about trying out for the junior high track team? This demand defies their experiences and asks them to imagine a scenario that is well beyond their scope.

Clearly, these questions are poorly designed assessments of 4th graders CCSS learning. (We are setting aside the disagreements we have with those standards in the first place, and simply assessing the PARCC on its utility for measuring what it was intended to measure.)

Rather than debate the CCSS we instead want to expose the tragic reality of the countless public schools organizing their entire instruction around trying to raise students’ PARCC scores.

Without naming any names, I can tell you that schools are disregarding research-proven methods of literacy learning. The “wisdom” coming “down the pipeline” is that children need to be exposed to more complex texts because that is what PARCC demands of them. So children are being denied independent and guided reading time with texts of high interest and potential access and instead are handed texts that are much too hard (frustration level) all year long without ever being given the chance to grow as readers in their Zone of Proximal Development (pardon my reference to those pesky educational researchers like Vygotsky.)

So not only are students who are reading “on grade level” going to be frustrated by these so-called “complex texts,” but newcomers to the U.S. and English Language Learners and any student reading below the proficiency line will never learn the foundational skills they need, will never know the enjoyment of reading and writing from intrinsic motivation, and will, sadly, be denied the opportunity to become a critical reader and writer of media. Critical literacies are foundational for active participation in a democracy.

We can look carefully at one sample to examine the health of the entire system– such as testing a drop of water to assess the ocean. So too, we can use these three PARCC prompts to glimpse how the high stakes accountability system has deformed teaching and warped learning in many public schools across the United States.

In this sample, the system is pathetically failing a generation of children who deserve better, and when they are adults, they may not have the skills needed to engage as citizens and problem-solvers. So it is up to us, those of us who remember a better way and can imagine a way out, to make the case for stopping standardized tests like PARCC from corrupting the educational opportunities of so many of our children.


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Chemistry LibreTexts

3.3: Chirality and stereoisomers

  • Contributed by

We turn now to concept of chirality that formed the basis of the story about Louis Pasteur in the beginning of this chapter.  Recall that the term chiral, from the Greek work for 'hand',  refers to anything which cannot be superimposed on its own mirror image.  Your hands, of course, are chiral - you cannot superimpose your left hand on your right, and you cannot fit your left hand into a right-handed glove (which is also a chiral object). Another way of saying this is that your hands do not have a mirror plane of symmetry: you cannot find any plane which bisects your hand in such a way that one side of the plane is a mirror image of the other side. Chiral objects do not have a plane of symmetry.

Your face, on the other hand is achiral - lacking chirality - because, some small deviations notwithstanding, you could superimpose your face onto its mirror image.  If someone were to show you a mirror image photograph of your face, you could line the image up, point-for-point, with your actual face. Your face has a plane of symmetry, because the left side is the mirror image of the right side.

What Pasteur, Biot, and their contemporaries did not yet fully understand when Pasteur made his discovery of molecular chirality was the source of chirality at the molecular level.  It stood to reason that a chiral molecule is one that does not contain a plane of symmetry, and thus cannot be superimposed on its mirror image.  We now know that chiral molecules contain one or more chiral centers, which are almost always tetrahedral (sp3-hybridized) carbons with four different substituents. Consider the cartoon molecule A below: a tetrahedral carbon, with four different substituents denoted by balls of  four different colors (for the time being, don't worry about exactly what these substituents could be - we will see real examples very soon).

The mirror image of A, which we will call B, is drawn on the right side of the figure, and an imaginary mirror is in the middle.  Notice that every point on A lines up through the mirror with the same point on B: in other words, if A looked in the mirror, it would see B looking back.

Now, if we flip compound A over and try to superimpose it point for point on compound B, we find that we cannot do it: if we superimpose any two colored balls, then the other two are misaligned.

A is not superimposable on its mirror image (B), thus by definition A is a chiral molecule.  It follows that B also is not superimposable on its mirror image (A), and thus it is also a chiral molecule.  Also notice in the figure below (and convince yourself with models) that neither A nor B has an internal plane of symmetry.

A and B are stereoisomers: molecules with the same molecular formula and the same bonding arrangement, but a different arrangement of atoms in space.  There are two types of stereoisomers: enantiomers and diastereomers.  Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers which are mirror images of each other: thus, A and B are enantiomers.  It should be self-evident that a chiral molecule will always have one (and only one) enantiomer: enantiomers come in pairs. Enantiomers have identical physical properties (melting point, boiling point, density, and so on).  However, enantiomers do differ in how they interact with polarized light (we will learn more about this soon) and they may also interact in very different ways with other chiral molecules - proteins, for example. We will begin to explore this last idea in later in this chapter, and see many examples throughout the remainder of our study of biological organic chemistry.

Diastereomers are stereoisomers which are not mirror images of each other. For now, we will concentrate on understanding enantiomers, and come back to diastereomers later.

We defined a chiral center as a tetrahedral carbon with four different substituents.  If, instead,  a tetrahedral carbon has two identical substituents (two black atoms in the cartoon figure below), then of course it still has a mirror image (everything has a mirror image, unless we are talking about a vampire!) However, it is superimposable on its mirror image, and has a plane of symmetry.

This molecule is achiral (lacking chirality). Using the same reasoning, we can see that a trigonal planar (sp2-hybridized) carbon is also not a chiral center.

Notice that structure E can be superimposed on F, its mirror image - all you have to do is pick E up, flip it over, and it is the same as F.  This molecule has a plane of symmetry, and is achiral.

Let's apply our general discussion to real molecules.  For now, we will limit our discussion to molecules with a single chiral center.  It turns out that tartaric acid, the subject of our chapter introduction, has two chiral centers, so we will come back to it later.

Consider 2-butanol, drawn in two dimensions below.

Carbon #2 is a chiral center: it is sp3-hybridized and tetrahedral (even though it is not drawn that way above), and the four things attached to is are different: a hydrogen, a methyl (-CH3) group, an ethyl (-CH2CH3) group, and a hydroxyl (OH) group.  Let's draw the bonding at C2 in three dimensions, and call this structure A.  We will also draw the mirror image of A, and call this structure B.

When we try to superimpose A onto B, we find that we cannot do it.  A and B are both chiral molecules, and they are enantiomers of each other.

2-propanol, unlike 2-butanol, is not a chiral molecule.  Carbon #2 is bonded to two identical substituents (methyl groups), and so it is not a chiral center.

Notice that 2-propanol is superimposable on its own mirror image.

When we look at very simple molecules like 2-butanol, it is not difficult to draw out the mirror image and recognize that it is not superimposable.  However, with larger, more complex molecules, this can be a daunting challenge in terms of drawing and three-dimensional visualization.  The easy way to determine if a molecule is chiral is simply to look for the presence of one or more chiral centers: molecules with chiral centers will (almost always) be chiral.  We insert the 'almost always' caveat here because it is possible to come up with the exception to this rule - we will have more to say on this later, but don't worry about it for now.

Here's another trick to make your stereochemical life easier: if you want to draw the enantiomer of a chiral molecule, it is not necessary to go to the trouble of drawing the point-for-point mirror image, as we have done up to now for purposes of illustration.  Instead, keep the carbon skeleton the same, and simply reverse the solid and dashed wedge bonds on the chiral carbon: that accomplishes the same thing.  You should use models to convince yourself that this is true, and also to convince yourself that swapping any two substituents about the chiral carbon will result in the formation of the enantiomer.

Here are four more examples of chiral biomolecules, each one shown as a pair of enantiomers, with chiral centers marked by red dots.

Here are some examples of achiral biomolecules - convince yourself that none of them contain a chiral center:

When looking for chiral centers, it is important to recognize that the question of whether or not the dashed/solid wedge drawing convention is used is irrelevant.  Chiral molecules are sometimes drawn without using wedges (although obviously this means that stereochemical information is being omitted). Conversely, wedges may be used on carbons that are not chiral centers – look, for example, at the drawings of glycine and citrate in the figure above.

Can a chiral center be something other than a tetrahedral carbon with four different substituents?  The answer to this question is 'yes' - however, these alternative chiral centers are very rare in the context of biological organic chemistry, and outside the scope of our discussion here.

You may also have wondered about amines: shouldn't we consider a secondary or tertiary amine to be a chiral center, as they are tetrahedral and attached to four different substituents, if the lone-pair electrons are counted as a 'substituent'? Put another way, isn't an amine non-superimposable on its mirror image?

The answer: yes it is, in the static picture, but in reality, the nitrogen of an amine is rapidly and reversibly inverting, or turning inside out, at room temperature.

If you have trouble picturing this, take an old tennis ball and cut it in half.   Then, take one of the concave halves and flip it inside out, then back again: this is what the amine is doing. The end result is that the two 'enantiomers' if the amine are actually two rapidly interconverting forms of the same molecule, and thus the amine itself is not a chiral center.  This inversion process does not take place on a tetrahedral carbon, which of course has no lone-pair electrons.

Exercise 3.8: Locate all of the chiral centers (there may be more than one in a molecule). Remember, hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon usually are not drawn in the line structure convention - but they are still there!

Exercise 3.9:

a) Draw two enantiomers of i) mevalonate and ii) serine.

b) Are the two 2-butanol structures below enantiomers?

Exercise 3.10: Label the molecules below as chiral or achiral, and locate all chiral centers.

Solutions to exercises

Kahn Academy video tutorials


Tips for managing your stress - Fusion - WeRIndia

Tips for managing your stress

Managing your stress

Stress is common among many people. People face it in almost all phases of life. Having too much stress can destroy your mental health as well as physical health. It can even cause problems like high blood pressure. Here are some ways you can manage your stress.

Find the cause of stress

You cannot do much until you pinpoint the source of your stress. Analyze your thought process and find what is bothering you. When you feel extra stressful think about what caused the increase.

Have positive thoughts

If you want to manage your stress, you have to think positively. Remember that some situations are out of your control. However, you can handle every situation by managing your response to it.

Combine work and fun

Whatever work you are doing, try to find ways to make it more fun. This will remove the pressure you feel from work.

Manage your time

If you manage to divide your time efficiently, you can reduce time sensitive pressures and stress. Start working by doing your toughest job first and then focus on less important ones later.

Avoid alcohol and nicotine

These can only increase your stress level however stimulating they might be. Drink water and healthy fruit juices.

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Pinsider: Jesterfunhouse » Achievements

Pinside Achievements

Pinside Achievements are awards for completing various challenges or actions on Pinside. Each achievement earns a certain number points, accumulating into a Pinsiders Achievement Points Score.

So what achievements has Jesterfunhouse accomplished on Pinside so far?

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See datasheet for actual packaging/pinout drawings

Package | PIN:

PW | 20

I (-40 to 85)

ECO Plan:

Green (RoHS & no Sb/Br)

3-13V Dual HotSwap IC w/ Inter-dependent Channel Circuit Breaking & Pwr Good Report, Act-High Enable

TI Store Price:

1 - 9 $ 4.34
10 - 24 $ 3.91
25 - 99 $ 3.64
100 - 249 $ 3.19
250 - 499 $ 2.99
500 - 749 $ 2.54
750 - 999 $ 2.14
1000 - 9999 $ 1.80

Adjust your quantity during checkout

Texas Instruments TPS2311IPW

The TPS2310 and TPS2311 are dual-channel hot-swap controllers that use external N-channel MOSFETs as high-side switches in power applications. Features of these devices, such as overcurrent protection (OCP), inrush current control, output-power status reporting, and the ability to discriminate between load transients and faults, are critical requirements for hot-swap applications.

The TPS2310/11 devices incorporate undervoltage lockout (UVLO) and power-good (PG) reporting to ensure the device is off at start-up and confirm the status of the output voltage rails during operation. Each internal charge pump, capable of driving multiple MOSFETs, provides enough gate-drive voltage to fully enhance the N-channel MOSFETs. The charge pumps control both the rise times and fall times (dv/dt) of the MOSFETs, reducing power transients during power up/down. The circuit-breaker functionality combines the ability to sense overcurrent conditions with a timer function; this allows designs such as DSPs, that may have high peak currents during power-state transitions, to disregard transients for a programmable period.

DISCH1, DISCH2 – DISCH1 and DISCH2 should be connected to the sources of the external N-channel MOSFET transistors connected to GATE1 and GATE2, respectively. These pins discharge the loads when the MOSFET transistors are disabled. They also serve as reference-voltage connections for internal gate voltage-clamp circuitry.

ENABLE or ENABLE – ENABLE for TPS2310 is active-low. ENABLE for TPS2311 is active-high. When the controller is enabled, both GATE1 and GATE2 voltages will power up to turn on the external MOSFETs. When the ENABLE pin is pulled high for TPS2310 or the ENABLE pin is pulled low for TPS2311 for more than 50 µs, the gate of the MOSFET is discharged at a controlled rate by a current source, and a transistor is enabled to discharge the output bulk capacitance. In addition, the device turns on the internal regulator PREREG (see VREG) when enabled and shuts down PREREG when disabled so that total supply current is less than 5 µA.

FAULT  – FAULT is an open-drain overcurrent flag output. When an overcurrent condition in either channel is sustained long enough to charge TIMER to 0.5 V, both channels latch off and pull this pin low. In order to turn the device back on, either the enable pin has to be toggled or the input power has to be cycled.

GATE1, GATE2 – GATE1 and GATE2 connect to the gates of external N-channel MOSFET transistors. When the device is enabled, internal charge-pump circuitry pulls these pins up by sourcing approximately 15 µA to each. The turnon slew rates depend upon the capacitance present at the GATE1 and GATE2 terminals. If desired, the turnon slew rates can be further reduced by connecting capacitors between these pins and ground. These capacitors also reduce inrush current and protect the device from false overcurrent triggering during powerup. The charge-pump circuitry generates gate-to-source voltages of 9 V–12 V across the external MOSFET transistors.

IN1, IN2 –  IN1 and IN2 should be connected to the power sources driving the external N-channel MOSFET transistors connected to GATE1 and GATE2, respectively. The TPS2310/TPS2311 draws its operating current from IN1, and both channels remains disabled until the IN1 power supply has been established. The IN1 channel has been constructed to support 3-V, 5-V, or 12-V operation, while the IN2 channel has been constructed to support 3-V or 5-V operation

ISENSE1, ISENSE2, ISET1, ISET2 – ISENSE1 and ISENSE2, in combination with ISET1 and ISET2, implement overcurrent sensing for GATE1 and GATE2. ISET1 and ISET2 set the magnitude of the current that generates an overcurrent fault, through external resistors connected to ISET1 and ISET2. An internal current source draws 50 µA from ISET1 and ISET2. With a sense resistor from IN1 to ISENSE1 or from IN2 to ISENSE2, which is also connected to the drains of external MOSFETs, the voltage on the sense resistor reflects the load current. An overcurrent condition is assumed to exist if ISENSE1 is pulled below ISET1 or if ISENSE2 is pulled below ISET2. To ensure proper circuit breaker operation, VI(ISENSE1) and VI(ISET1) should never exceed VI(IN1). Similarly, VI(ISENSE2) and VI(ISET2) should never exceed VI(IN2).

PWRGD1, PWRGD2 – PWRGD1 and PWRGD2 signal the presence of undervoltage conditions on VSENSE1 and VSENSE2, respectively. These pins are open-drain outputs and are pulled low during an undervoltage condition. To minimize erroneous PWRGDx responses from transients on the voltage rail, the voltage sense circuit incorporates a 20-µs deglitch filter. When VSENSEx is lower than the reference voltage (about 1.23 V), PWRGDx is active low to indicate an undervoltage condition on the power-rail voltage. PWRGDx may not correctly report power conditions when the device is disabled, because there is no gate drive power for the PWRGD output transistor in the disable mode, or, in other words, PWRGD is floating. Therefore, PWRGD is pulled up to its pullup power supply rail in disable mode.

TIMER – A capacitor on TIMER sets the time during which the power switch can be in overcurrent before turning off. When the overcurrent protection circuits sense an excessive current, a current source is enabled which charges the capacitor on TIMER. Once the voltage on TIMER reaches approximately 0.5 V, the circuit-breaker latch is set and the power switch is latched off. Power must be recycled or the ENABLE pin must be toggled to restart the controller. In high-power or high-temperature applications, a minimum 50-pF capacitor is strongly recommended from TIMER to ground, to prevent any false triggering.

VREG – VREG is the output of an internal low-dropout voltage regulator, where IN1 is the input. The regulator is used to generate a regulated voltage source, less than 5.5 V, for the device. A 0.1-µF ceramic capacitor should be connected between VREG and ground to aid in noise rejection. In this configuration, upon disabling the device, the internal low-dropout regulator will also be disabled, which removes power from the internal circuitry and allows the device to be placed in low-quiescent-current mode. In applications where IN1 is less than 5.5 V, VREG and IN1 may be connected together. However, under these conditions, disabling the device does not place the device in low-quiescent-current mode, because the internal low-dropout voltage regulator is being bypassed, thereby keeping internal circuitry operational. If VREG and IN1 are connected together, a 0.1-µF ceramic capacitor between VREG and ground is not needed if IN1 already has a bypass capacitor of 1 µF to 10 µF.

VSENSE1, VSENSE2 – VSENSE1 and VSENSE2 can be used to detect undervoltage conditions on external circuitry. If VSENSE1 senses a voltage below approximately 1.23 V, PWRGD1 is pulled low. Similarly, a voltage less than 1.23 V on VSENSE2 causes PWRGD2 to be pulled low.

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RSAW Planning and the Historic Environment CPD North Wales
Talks and lectures

Wales Future Practice Programme 2017: Planning and the Historic Environment - North Wales

A CPD session in the form of an update on the impact of the Historic Environment (Wales) Act and the use of Heritage Impact Assessments. While aimed primarily at architects, the session is open to all disciplines and we particularly welcome planning colleagues to join us.

This half-day seminar will attempt to answer the question ‘What do we mean by historic context?’ in relation to the planning process.

It will cover the background legislation surrounding changes within historic context, and also discuss how the system for assessing heritage impact is different in Wales, with reference to the new Act. The seminar will also cover best practice in terms of minimising heritage impact with reference to several case studies.

To attend the seminar, download the booking form below.

Course programme:

2pm - Welcome and registration

2.15pm - Session 1: Background and scene-setting

What do we mean by the historic context in relation to the planning process and why does it matter?

A review of the background legislation, especially the Historic Environment (Wales) Act; and a breakdown of what the ’historic context’ can include and how do we describe it.

3pm - Refreshment Break

3.15pm - Session 2: Heritage Impact Assessments

What are Heritage Impact Assessments and how has the system changed in Wales in relation to the new Act?

When are HIAs required and how are they used to inform planning decisions? A review of guidance documents and best practice.

4.15pm - Q&A session and discussion

4.30pm - Close

Speaker: Edward Holland, Holland Heritage - Edward has over 25 years’ experience of heritage work in central and local government, and in major heritage conservation charities.

RIBA core curriculum key topics: Compliance and Context

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Petition Closed
Petitioning U.S. House of Representatives and 1 other

Recognize pharmacists as health care providers!!!

Please sign the White House petition first/also! to receive an official response:

Despite overwhelming evidence of the positive impact pharmacists can have on patient health, pharmacists are not recognized as healthcare providers under the Social Security Act and, therefore, cannot be paid by Medicare for therapy management and patient consultation services. The Social Security Act does recognize other healthcare professionals such as dieticians, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, nurse midwives, and clinical social workers.

By changing the compensation structure allowed under Medicare, we can ensure that patients have access to the medication expertise of pharmacists. Studies have shown that when a pharmacist is directly involved in patient care, patients have fewer adverse drug reactions, experience improved outcomes, and healthcare costs are reduced.

The perils of adverse effects from taking multiple medications affect all age groups. According to a recent survey, just over half of all Americans take at least 2 medications each day and nearly one-third take 4 or more medications each day. For the Medicare population, medication use is even higher — nearly half of Americans aged 65 and older take at least 4 medications each day.

This is a critical safety issue!!

This petition was delivered to:

    Sandra Leal started this petition with a single signature, and now has 22,954 supporters. Start a petition today to change something you care about.

    Today: Sandra is counting on you

    Sandra Leal needs your help with “U.S. House of Representatives: Recognize pharmacists as health care providers!!!”. Join Sandra and 22,953 supporters today.


The Gospel According to St John

Chapter 10

2 But he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the asheep.

3 To him the porter openeth; and the sheep hear his avoice: and he calleth his own sheep by name, and bleadeth them out.

4 And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him: for they aknow his bvoice.

7 Then said Jesus unto them again, Verily, verily, I say unto you, I am the adoor of the sheep.

8 All that ever came before me aare thieves and robbers: but the sheep did not hear them.

10 The thief cometh not, but for to asteal, and to kill, and to destroy: I am come that they might have blife, and that they might have it more cabundantly.

11 I am the good ashepherd: the good bshepherd giveth his life for the sheep.

12 But he that is an hireling, and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and aleaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep.

13 The ahireling fleeth, because he is an hireling, and careth not for the sheep.

14 I am the good ashepherd, and bknow my csheep, and am known of mine.

15 As the Father knoweth me, even so aknow I the Father: and I lay down my blife for the sheep.

16 And aother bsheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be cone fold, and one shepherd.

17 Therefore doth my Father alove me, because I blay down my life, that I might ctake it again.

18 No man ataketh it from me, but I lay it down of myself. I have bpower to lay it down, and I have cpower to take it again. This commandment have I dreceived of my Father.

23 And Jesus walked in the temple in Solomon’s aporch.

24 Then came the Jews round about him, and said unto him, How long dost thou make us to adoubt? If thou be the Christ, tell us plainly.

25 Jesus answered them, I told you, and ye abelieved not: the bworks that I do in my Father’s cname, they bear witness of me.

27 My asheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they bfollow me:

29 My Father, which agave them me, is greater than all; and no man is able to pluck them out of my Father’s hand.

30 I and my Father are aone.

31 Then the Jews took up astones again to stone him.

33 The Jews answered him, saying, For a good work we stone thee not; but for ablasphemy; and because that thou, being a man, makest thyself bGod.

34 Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are agods?

36 Say ye of him, whom the Father hath asanctified, and bsent into the world, Thou blasphemest; because I said, I am the cSon of God?

38 But if I do, though ye believe not me, abelieve the works: that ye may know, and believe, that the bFather is in me, and I in him.

39 Therefore they asought again to take him: but he escaped out of their hand,

42 And many believed on him there.


Cheryl Fernandez-Versini addresses online haters

Cheryl Fernandez-Versini has become the victim of online trolling over her romance with one Direction star Liam Payne but she has now addressed her haters on the Internet.

Cheryl Fernandez-Versini addresses online haters

Cheryl Fernandez-Versini has declared she is a "girls' girl" in an emotional message addressed to her online haters.

The former Girls Aloud singer has become the victim of abuse from trolls on social media since her new relationship with One Direction heartthrob Liam Payne - who is 10 years her junior - was revealed last month, but the pop star has now reached out to female fans who have attacked her for dating the hunk.

Alongside an image with large bold words that read "Girls compete with each other. Women empower one another" posted on Instagram, she pleaded: "It can be so hard at times being a girl, for sooo many reasons! But we don't have to make it harder for each other ... Why do we still feel the need to do that ?? I don't understand it. I have always been a Girls girl, and love other strong women. (sic)"

Despite the outpour of negativity from upset One Direction fans, Cheryl, 32, and Liam, 22, have been proudly flaunting their romance.

The new couple have posted a series of sweet pictures on their Instagram accounts of their various dates, including one on Wednesday (09.03.16) evening where they wore matching black outfits and gripped each other's hands after dinner in London at Salmontini le Resto - showing their love for one another is only growing stronger.

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zondag 3 juni 2012

Mongolia, Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape

Orkhon Valley clearly demonstrates how a strong and persistent nomadic culture led to the development of extensive trade networks and the creation of large administrative, commercial, military and religious centres. The empires undoubtedly influenced societies across Asia and into Europe and in turn absorbed influence from both east and west in a true interchange of human values. This culture is still a revered and indeed central part of Mongolian society and is highly respected as a 'noble' way to live in harmony with the landscape. The valley itself is an exceptional illustration of several significant stages in human history, reflecting its role as the centre of the Mongolian Empire, a special Mongolian variation of Turkish power, the Tuvkhun hermitage monastery as the setting for the development of a Mongolian form of Buddhism, and Khar Balgas as the capital of the Uighur Empire.
This cultural landscape is in central Mongolia, some 360 km south-west of Ulan Bator, the capital, along the Orkhon River, which flows north, draining into Lake Baikal across the border in Russia. Over 90% of Mongolia's huge land area is high-level pasture or desert wasteland, at an average altitude of around 1,500 m. Water is at a premium and the river valleys have therefore assumed great importance, becoming the focus for settlements of various kinds. In Mongolia, nomadic pastoralism, the grazing of horses, sheep, goats, cows and camels, is perceived as much more than the objective technical demands of pastoral life: it is revered and glorified as the heart of Mongolian culture. In turn Mongolian nomadic culture is part of a much wider distinctive nomadic pastoral culture, embracing many other people besides the Mongols and extending across central Asia. Over at least the past two millennia these nomadic cultures, through economic, political and cultural links, have made an immense impact on the sedentary cultures with which they interacted across Asia and into Europe. Nomadic pastoralists spent their lives moving their herds from one pasture to another, sometimes covering vast distances each year. They operated and moved across their territory within strictly regulated and controlled ways, linked to the specific designation and use of grazing grounds and to territorial rights and social units. Underpinning this movement were fixed points, which could be cities, providing centres of government, crafts, trade and commerce, or religious sites, such as temples and funerary areas. The density of such fixed points varied enormously across the vast Eurasian steppes.
Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape is one of the key areas in Mongolia where the links between nomadic pastoralism and the associated settlements can be see most clearly, where there is a high density of remains, and where above all these remains are of national and international importance. Orkhon Valley was at the centre of traffic across the Asian steppes and became the capital of first the Uighur Empire and then the Mongol Empire, which described itself as 'the greatest empire the world has ever known'.
The broad, shallow river valley provides water and shelter, key requisites for its role as a staging post on the ancient trade routes across the steppes, such as those now known as the Silk Road, and for its development as the centre of two of the vast Central Asian empires.
The main monuments are open to the public. They include the Turkish Memorials of Khosho Tsaidam; the ruins of Khar Balgas City and Kharkhorum City; Erdene Zuu Monastery; Tuvkhun Hermitage Monastery; Shankh Western Monastery; the Palace at Doit Hill; the ancient towns of Talyn Dorvoljin, Har Bondgor and Bayangol Am; many deer stones and ancient graves; the sacred mountains of Hangai Ovoo and Undor Sant; and the long tradition of nomadic pastoralism.

Historical Description

Modern Mongolia comprises only about half of the vast Inner Asian region known throughout history as Mongolia. It is also only a fraction of the great Chinggis Khan's Mongul Empire, which in the 13th and 14th centuries stretched from Korea to Hungary, covering nearly all of Asia except the Indian sub-continent and parts of southeast Asia. It was the largest contiguous land empire the world has known. Many people from societies conquered by the Mongols have written about them - much unfavourable. On the other hand Mongol sources emphasise the almost god-like military genius of Chinggis Khan whose success rested not just on military skill but also on increasingly sophisticated administrative systems. The empire's success - over nearly two centuries - also depended on the absorption and employment of Chinese, Iranian, Russians and others. Mongolia and its people have thus had a significant and lasting impact on the historical development of major nations such as China and Russia, and periodically influenced the entire Eurasian continent.
Until the mid 20th century most of the people who inhabited Mongolia were nomads. The Mongols were one of several distinct nomadic peoples living in Mongolia who over the past two millennia have engaged in constantly shifting alliances, with centralised states such as the Huns, Syanbi, Jujuan, Turkic and Uighur Empires emerging from time to time between the 3rd century BC and the 9th century AD. Over the centuries, some nomadic peoples moved west to establish the Hun Empire in Europe while others moved into Iran, India and China.
For two centuries, the establishment of Chinggis Khan's Empire, with its centralised control, interrupted this pattern and put in place sophisticated military and political systems, which exceeded in skill and efficiency most others of the time. Under Chinggis and his successors, the Moguls conquered most of Eurasia.
In the early 16th century with the waning of the empire, Mongolia once again became a land of warring factions. From the late 17th to the early 20th centuries, Mongolia was a major focus of Russian and Manchu-Chinese rivalry, leading eventually to the fragmentation of Mongolia, with Inner Mongolia (the south part of Mongolia) being absorbed by the Chinese and with increasing Russian interest in Outer Mongolia. Russia's predominance in Outer Mongolia was unquestioned by 1921 and in 1924 the Mongolian People's Republic was established - under the control of Moscow. Mongolia became an independent State in 1946.
Today more Mongolians - around 3.5 million - live in Inner Mongolia, China, than in the Mongolian People's Republic, which has a population of 2.7 million.

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