Second language development

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Second language development

  1. 1. Second Language Development • Premise 1-Active Learning. Knowledge is best acquired when learners actively participate in meaningful activities that are constructive in nature and appropriate to their level of development. • Premise 4-Strategies for second language development. Second Language development creates an added dimension to instructional decision making. Instruction must reflect specific strategies designed to meet the needs of second language learners. • Premise 5-Contexts for second language development. Second Language instruction must be organized to provide students the time, experiences, and opportunities they need to fully develop language proficiency. This requires a range of social and academic contexts in which both language and content are emphasized. • Premise 6-First and second language environments. Bilingual academic proficiency requires that clear, distinct, and meaning-enriched contexts for each language be created during instructional time. • Premise 7- Transitions and re-designations. Decisions regarding transition to formal second language reading and re-designations that exit students from programs cannot be made arbitrarily. Second language instruction is a key component of any bilingual education program, as well as a major part of a program for students who receive little or no support for the primary language in school. The determination of how second language instruction should be delivered will be based in great part on the level of primary language instruction that can be provided in your program. A major theme of this book is that meeting the needs of second Language learners is a school wide responsibility. Unfortunately, these needs are largely overlooked in most schools. Of those students eligible for services, approximately 33% actually receive them (Linguistic Minority Research Institute, 1994, p. 199). Where services are provided, second Language learners are often served solely by the English as a second language or bilingual program, and it is assumed that students' needs are their exclusive responsibility. Assuring that reinforcement and sheltered instruction occur for students in their classroom is often ignored. The usual pattern for second language instruction in elementary schools is that for 2 years or so second language learners are pulled out from the main instructional environment (usually for 30-45 minutes, on a daily or weekly basis), and then return to their classrooms for the rest of the day. There is minimal coordination of their curriculum across settings, and little or no communication among their various teachers. This lack of coordination among services is compounded for students with exceptionalities who receive special education services almost always in English, and without second language methods regardless of language background. Across grade levels, many "regular" or monolingual English track teachers do not see the need to modify their instruction for second language students. At middle and high school levels, departmentalization increases the tendency to view the needs of second language learners as someone else's problem. This attitude may be more understandable when there are just a few second language learners in a school. But regardless of number, if an equitable education is to be provided for all students, the question before the entire staff should be "How can we best organize ourselves and our resources to meet student needs?" This implies a careful analysis of the resources and expertise within the building based on a thorough understanding of the conditions that foster second language
  2. 2. development. The only way this can be accomplished is through a school wide decision-making strategy in which the needs of second language learners are everyone's concern. Decision Making: Ask Yourself Is time set aside every day for second language instruction? What strategies do we need to employ to assure that instruction is understandable to second language learners? How is instruction organized to allow students to gain both linguistic and academic competence in their second language? How do students begin reading in their second language? How can the students' knowledge of their first language be used to support the second? PERSPECTIVES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION A number of perspectives from current research in language acquisition undergird the proposals for how to create appropriate second language instructional environments as presented in this chapter. While there are many similarities between first and second language acquisition (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; McLaughlin, 1984), the significant differences between them impact program planning. Many factors contribute to successful second language development. Some of these factors are under the control or influence of teachers; others are not. How quickly students will become academically proficient in their second language is impacted by variables related to the context in which students must use the language, as well as by variables related to the psychology of the individual and how students feel about the language. These include the reasons for needing or wanting to acquire a second language, the intended length of residence in this country, and the possibilities for using one's second language in day-to-day life. Second language acquisition is also impacted by the nature of the program in which students find themselves, and how much access they have to conceptual development in the primary language. Language Acquisition Language is a natural function of human development (Brown, 1973; Slobin, 1979) and, except in very rare cases, people are continually surrounded by their native language and have constant opportunity to use it and to practice. There is a natural progression from simple to complex functions as most children move from primarily oral communication to becoming fully literate. Throughout the world most native speakers will, in all likelihood, use their primary language for the rest of their lives. Like primary language acquisition, second language acquisition follows a broad developmental continuum (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Selinker, 1972; Slobin, 1979) in which learners progress through overlapping and interacting stages of development (Ellis, 1986). But, in contrast to first language acquisition, second language acquisition can begin at any age. Except for very young children, second language learners have already acquired all the functions of language in the larger sense-a tool for human communication-through the first language. They have learned to communicate ideas, mark their identity in society, and fulfill psychological needs (Smith, 1972). As second language learners they may have an awareness of the differences among languages, an awareness that older learners, especially, can utilize to facilitate their second language growth.
  3. 3. Central to the developmental perspective of second language acquisition is the concept of interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). Inter-language is the expression of a second language learner's developmental process, and can be thought of as an individual's second language system at a given moment, reflecting changes in proficiency over time (McLaughlin, 1984). As second language development proceeds, the learner's expressed language is a continual approximation and reapproximation of the target language. By recognizing this developmental process, teachers can better understand and interpret students' performance, thus enabling them to analyze the nature of the errors students make. As indicated previously, it takes a long time-5 to 7 years or more to develop full academic proficiency in a second language (Collier, 1995; Cummins, 1986). Just how long it will take to become proficient will depend on a number of factors. These include age, native language literacy, aptitude for language learning, attitude, motivation, cognitive style, and adequacy of the instructional program. When services are provided in schools, the 2 years often funded for the support of second language development are simply not sufficient to allow students to fully develop their linguistic or academic potential. Because language skills develop overtime, programs must accommodate students' changing needs as they progress from predominately oral interaction to more sophisticated literate and academic behaviors. There is no single profile that can define the second language learner. Linguistically diverse students, K-12, arrive at school with a range of abilities in their first language, and at all stages and levels of development in their second. They may also arrive with exceptionalities or special needs that may or may not affect their second language development. In order to plan appropriate instruction, it is necessary to gather information about student experiences and about their level of schooling in both languages. For example, some students may arrive with extensive native language literacy, others none; some may enter with a sizable receptive vocabulary, but have little idea how to make use of what they know in face-to-face interactions. The first and second language instruction of older students who have had significant literacy and schooling experiences in their own language requires different planning, for instance, than that necessary for students with little or no literacy or schooling experiences. The former group needs to learn to apply their existing literacy skills to a new code. The latter must not only learn the new language, but learn how to read and write as well, a process that will be greatly facilitated if it can occur in the student's primary language. The needs of students with mixed dominance who have varying patterns of strengths in their two languages may be over-looked because they display oral proficiency in English, but they, too, will need second language instruction geared to their proficiency level. As discussed in Chapters 2 and 4, first language acquisition is linked to the development of thought and identity. While first language development is part and parcel of the formation of an individual's core being, a second language can threaten that very identity and sense of self. An individual's age, aspects of personality (such as intra- or extraversion, and other psychological factors including culture shock and motivation also can impact the rate of acquisition (Ellis, 1986; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Wong-Fillmore, 1982). To a great extent, the affective psychological factors that manifest themselves within the individual are linked to the learner's sense of security (Stevick, 1976). Second language speakers of English in schools face the dual task of acquiring a new linguistic system and learning academic content. Because of the overwhelming nature of the task, there is a tendency to feel inadequate at all stages of
  4. 4. development even under the best of circumstances. Any additional stresses or negative influences can slow down and hinder the acquisition process, while feelings of uncertainty can undermine the learner's determination to succeed. These psychological factors have been described as acting as a kind of affective filter (Krashen, 1982) allowing or blocking input depending on the learner's attitude, motivation, and experience. The confidence to be able to speak freely in a second language develops over a long period of time. It grows partly in relationship to the opportunities students have had to become comfortable with their second language and to take risks in a variety of settings and levels of interaction. Student attitudes are influenced by their circumstances and status in this country. Planning instruction for second language learners requires that teachers and schools consider these factors. Questions to be asked include: Are the students in our school war refugees, immigrants, the children of foreign graduate students, or a combination of all three? Do they have rural or urban backgrounds? How much schooling have they had? Are they here temporarily or permanently? Are they poor or affluent? Is their native language viewed as high or low status in this country? Additive or Subtractive Bilingualism. A key issue is whether second Language instruction is an attempt to replace a student's primary language with a second language or to add the second language to the individual's linguistic repertoire. In other words, are programs organized for additive or subtractive bilingualism (Cummins, 1989; Lambert & Tucker, 1972). For the variety of reasons discussed throughout this book, an additive rather than a subtractive perspective is critical to academic success. If students view the acquisition of their second language positively, there will probably be fewer affective or psychological barriers to learning. If students feel they are in a punitive setting, or view learning the second language as a threat to their sense of identity, they may actively resist second language instructional efforts. Teachers can't easily change the psychological, social, and political factors that affect second language acquisition, so it makes sense for them 10 concentrate on the factors that are under their control such as the classroom environment, instructional organization and strategies, opportunities for practice, and a school wide commitment to appropriate instruction for second language learners. Within their classrooms, and across the school, teachers can create the range of settings and contexts in which second language learners will need to function in and outside of school. In addition, they can always seek ways to make reticent learners feel comfortable about speaking out in the classroom, and actively affirm the worth and dignity of each and every student. ISSUES ACROSS PROGRAM CATEGORIES The category of program offered will affect the final organization of the second language program. Specifically, it impacts the extent to which students can rely on their primary language for continued conceptual development as they learn their second language, how much time is devoted to second language instruction, and the balance between time devoted to content and time devoted to structure. There are many elements of second language instruction, however, that are critical regardless of program category. These include planned daily instruction; attention to the second language environment; balancing program components; integrated curriculum and thematic units; oral language development; the use of learning strategies; and the teaching of other second languages. A more detailed discussion follows.
  5. 5. Planned Daily Instruction Becoming proficient in a second language is a tremendous undertaking. Given the complexity of the task, second language learners need planned daily instruction designed to promote second language acquisition. Regardless of program type, a specified time for second language instruction is needed so that the environment can be consciously organized to be understandable and accessible to second language learners and to involve them actively in using their second language. The amount of time for second language instruction can vary from a 30-minute period to several hours a day, depending on students' age and the level of primary language support available. It should not be assumed that providing for ESL development is automatically a pull-out activity. Even though targeted time may have to be provided outside of the general education classroom, strategies for grouping and regrouping students within the classroom itself also need careful attention. Even when the regular classroom is organized to maximize comprehension, a specified time for second language instruction is still necessary to allow second language learners the opportunity to talk and dis· cuss without having to compete for the floor with fluent native speakers who can usually outperform them linguistically. While second language learners do need to spend instructional time interacting with native speaking models, they also need time to fully participate at their own level of proficiency. They need opportunities to practice the structure of the language and the language of the content curriculum in a way that native speakers don't need. They also need to receive literacy instruction that is appropriate to their level of second language development. Without these opportunities, they will nearly always be overshadowed by their monolingual peers. Unfortunately, many second language learners do not receive daily second language instruction. In some instances no resources are allocated to provide for second language instruction, because too many educators still assume that by just being in all-English environment second Language learners will have adequate opportunity to master the language. In other cases, teachers resist providing second language time, believing that it somehow unfairly segregates second language learners from their English-speaking peers. Even in many bilingual programs there is no time of the day set aside specifically for second language development. Teachers may believe that a program that provides primary language instruction and in which students can hear both languages presents the conditions necessary to become proficient in English. These beliefs may result from the way teachers are prepared and the structural arrangement of their work. Bilingual and English as a second language teachers are separated not only from monolingual English instruction teachers, but from each other as well. Professional development is divided into different programs and departments, creating a false dichotomy between bilingual and second language programs, and implying not only that English as a second language instruction has no role in bilingual education, but that these two program areas are at odds with one another-a common myth that impacts program design. Although many teachers in bilingual programs overemphasize English (Escamilla, 1992; Legaretta-Marcaida, 1981; Milk et aI., 1992), others may consciously or unconsciously minimize their emphasis on English language development in an attempt to reject the dominance of English. In addition, teachers who have embraced the movement toward more process approaches to instruction may believe that a print-rich environment and a meaning-based curriculum are sufficient to guarantee success for all students, overlooking the specific needs of second language learners. Second language instruction may not be provided if teachers believe that methodologies or approaches that have proven themselves to be successful with monolingual English students from the mainstream will automatically
  6. 6. prove beneficial to second language learners, regardless of their previous literacy and educational experiences. The Second Language Environment Students need many opportunities to listen and verbalize in the second language. The teacher's role, then, is to organize the environment and mediate the instruction. If students are to make sense of their instruction, every aspect of classroom design, including the physical environment, the content covered, and strategies used for grouping and instructional delivery, must be considered. A successful second language teacher purposefully plans for different linguistic and cognitive settings with the aim of creating independent learners who can function in the dissembedded, cognitively demanding environment that characterizes high-level academic work. Teaching methods based on lecture and text do not tend to provide such an environment. As illustrated in the following example, there are many ways to craft instruction to maximize student access to its meaning. In this example, teachers A and B are both teaching a lesson about the three states of matter. They both teach science to middle-school classes composed of second language speakers of English. Making Instruction Comprehensible Teacher A arrives at class with lecture notes in hand. She writes on the board "Three States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas." After her 200minute oral presentation, students are directed to read a portion of their science book and to answer the questions at the end of the section. As students work, she circulates among them and answers questions individually when hands are raised. Teacher B also arrives at class with lecture notes. In addition, she carries a box full of equipment, including many bowls, a small hot plate, and a bag of ice cubes. Teacher B also writes "Three States 01 Matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas" on the board. But underneath each word she adds a drawing to represent each concept and illustrate the molecular structure. As Teacher B lectures she in turn melts ice, boils water, and, under the drawings on the board, writes ice, water, and steam. Students in class B are also assigned a portion of the text to read. But instead of answering the questions in the text, they are asked to work in pairs to write down comprehension questions for their peers to answer about the passage. As students begin to read the text, Teacher B sits down with a group of four beginning ESL students to review the main ideas, prepare the students to participate in the next day's lesson, and show them that they are to copy and label the drawings 01 the three molecular structures into their science journals. Strategies that assist in making instruction more understandable include simplifying but not artificially restricting language structures (shorter sentences, use of unambiguous terminology); contextualizing both oral and written texts with pictures, charts, diagrams, and realia; providing for repeated access to ideas and vocabulary; and creating interaction structures that allow for both comprehension and the need to act on and talk about content. Whereas Teacher A relies solely on lecture (words) and text to provide meaning, Teacher B has incorporated drawings, visuals, demonstrations, and collaborative interaction into the lesson. Meaning based lessons like Teacher B's that are designed to maximize comprehensibility can provide for a range of language learning needs. They allow beginning students to identify key vocabulary, while more advanced students may be able to respond orally or in writing to more complex concepts related to the content. While many of Teacher B's actions were intended to provide for the needs of second language learners, it is clear in a class composed of both second
  7. 7. language learners and monolingual English students that everyone in the class benefits from the increased comprehensibility of the lesson. Maintaining the Integrity of the Environment. Simply submerging second language learners in their new language is a poor practice (Krashen, 1985). At the same time, it is also true that learning to speak another language is not easy, and fluency is not accomplished without deliberate interaction in the target language. Therefore, during second language instruction, a monolingual environment should be maintained in order to create a context in which students must concentrate on understanding and communicating in that language (Premise 6). Just as students must exert effort to interact entirely in their second language, their teachers must exert effort to present materials in a manner that is understandable and accessible to students. In this way, both student and teacher are engaged in an interactive task of creating meaning in order to further language development. For teachers, this means sustaining a frame of mind that views each moment of instructional time as an opportunity to mediate learning by expanding vocabulary, providing concrete examples, and giving explanations (Tharp & Gallimore, 1990). Every strategy possible should be employed to assure that learners can understand and make use of the information in the lesson. Maintaining a monolingual environment during second language learning time does not diminish the value of the primary language, nor does it preclude its use in the overall instructional environment. It simply means that teachers must provide a time and a context where students have to rely solely on their second language to accomplish the goals of the lesson or activity. What is important is to develop a balance of language use distributed across the curriculum and over time. In this way students can use their primary language to maximize conceptual development while making the most of second language time to progress in their second language. This balance also assures that the primary language is not used as a token, through rapid translations, but has its own integrity as a vehicle for conceptual development (Premise 3). A stumbling-block to creating such environments in schools is the natural tendency for students to use their primary language in all-English situations as a way of acquiring meaning, asking questions, and confirming comprehension. This is to be expected since most of us revert to what we know when confronted by a difficult task. It is possible to encourage the exclusive use of English during second language time, however, by supporting and modeling the use of English and by commending students for attempts made to communicate. When teachers are consistent in sticking to the language of instruction, over time students do respond positively and will increasingly participate using the target language. Balancing Program Components Designing an appropriate instructional program for second language learners is a complicated process. As well as acquiring knowledge about science, social studies, math, and so forth, students need to gain the knowledge of form, structure, and style that is already possessed by native speakers. Second language curricula must include the full range of expression that students will be accountable for in school. In very basic terms, students must learn about something, be able to talk about it clearly (ask, answer, and discuss), and be able to read and write about it. Eventually, they must be able to do this within the conventions of standard English. Because of students' continual growth and change in second language proficiency, the curriculum must be sensitive to, and articulated across, developmental phases. Every level of increasing abstraction demands increasingly sophisticated language skills, and instruction in every area 01 the curriculum must reflect a commensurate change in the content and cognitive demand required by these changes
  8. 8. over time. The cognitive and linguistic demands on students are also constantly shifting across oral Language, reading, writing, and content development. Therefore, in order to extend students' language abilities, carefully orchestrated opportunities in each of these areas will have to be a regular part of daily instruction. Instruction across these areas will require particular attention to a range of linguistic elements. Because of their lack of familiarity with the language, for example, as part of their oral language, reading, and con· tent instruction, new English learners need specific attention to the formal aspects of language. This does not imply that grammatical structures must be the organizing framework for the curriculum, but rather that they should be accounted for in program planning. In trying to determine how to balance the technical aspects of language use with the academic needs of learners, it is useful to think of creating an overall curriculum with changing priorities. Imagine a camera lens that is focused on a group 01 people in the mountains. At one moment the lens zooms in on the people in the foreground with the mountains providing a beautiful backdrop. The lens then zooms out to focus on the mountain peaks but the people remain in the picture providing perspective and scale. This same idea applies to the second language curriculum. While both language proficiency and content meaning are always in the picture, the emphasis of particular lessons will shift. The Concept Development Strategy discussed in the next chapter is one way to begin to balance these shifting priorities. As with the development of all appropriate curriculum, decisions must be made about the topics to cover, how to provide for both language and content learning, and how to devise the settings that will develop the range of abilities that are necessary for success in school (Enright & McCloskey, 1988; Gibbons, 1993). Oral language development must account for both the structure of the language and the specific ways of talking about content. Reading and writing development necessitates building a foundation of vocabulary and knowledge about which to read and write, as well as learning the conventions of English literacy. Content les· sons will always have oral and written aspects that require knowledge of these conventions. Although the three areas-oral language, literacy, and content-overlap, if lessons are not designed with a clear idea about the primary focus of any particular instructional activity and how to balance lessons across all three, aspects are likely to be shortchanged. For example, if the primary concern is literacy skills, the content may be treated as incidental. If content and oral language are attempted together, content may predominate and opportunities to extend students' ability to articulate their ideas fall by the wayside. Integrated Curriculum and Thematic Units Second language learners have the greatest success in environments where they can meet new language and concepts repeatedly across the instructional day. The more students can hear and see familiar content, ideas, and vocabulary, the more quickly they will be able to comprehend, assimilate, and produce their new language. Therefore, their second language curriculum should not be created in isolation, but should be based on the content of the "regular" instructional program, that is, the core curriculum for the students' age or grade level. An integrated curriculum, centered around thematic units that encompass all the content areas, is ideal, since it allows students to meet concepts and vocabulary in a variety of settings and contexts (Enright & McCloskey, 1988). Learning about a smaller range of topics in depth rather than trying to cover too many topics superficially increases the chances that input will be understandable, that students will begin to build the kind of schema or internal framework needed for academic success, and that they will begin to incorporate their second language more fully into this schema. Too often, teachers get caught up in trying to get through all the chapters in a textbook or items in a course syllabus. This results in students' knowing very little about a lot of topics. In contrast, when students are allowed to
  9. 9. study a topic in depth, they can practice using language at many levels of abstraction and develop academic skills they can then transfer to new topics and ideas. This process can be facilitated by including a deliberate focus on cognitive learning strategies (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Herzog, 1995; Oxford, 1990), discussed further in a section below. Where second language and content-area instruction are the responsibility of different teachers, the creation of an integrated curriculum and the development of content-based instructional materials for language teaching require cooperation and collaboration. While it is not possible to completely revamp a school's curriculum overnight, it is possible for teachers to begin coordinating curriculum with simple and small collaborations regarding a single lesson or a portion of a unit. The kind of collegial collaboration needed to sustain this coordination of curriculum requires frequent, regularly scheduled opportunities for school wide planning. Focusing Instruction. A distinction between a content focus and a Language focus has been discussed by Snow, Met, and Genesee (1989). This distinction identifies language-sensitive content lessons as different from content-enriched language lessons. Language sensitive content lessons are at the core of what is known as "sheltered" teaching or Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) (Sobul, 1996). The goal of content focused instruction is to enable students to understand the basic concepts presented in the core areas of math, science, and social studies. In devising instruction it is necessary to find ways to make the content lessons comprehensible to second language learners as well as to provide them with opportunities to actively use the content language they are learning. Features that characterize such an approach include the identification of key concepts and vocabulary in a particular content area or lesson, hands-on interactive activities, visual support (pictures, posters, charts, maps, videos), models, advance organizers, and repetition of concepts across activities and lessons (Gordon & Tobias, 1993). The focus of such lessons is the content itself, and the second language is the medium through which the content is learned. There is minimum use of lecture, and text materials about the topic are provided at a range of reading levels to accommodate the varying language levels of the students. Grammatical accuracy and increasing communicative competence are not the driving forces behind lesson organization. These lessons are described in Chapter 6 as Concept Comprehension Lessons for Categories III and IV (in Categories I and 11, these are primary language lessons). A content-enriched (or content-based) language lesson is a language focused lesson that utilizes the main ideas and vocabulary of content instruction to sharpen the range of students' linguistic and sociolinguistic skills. These lessons are at the core of what is called content-based ESL, and reflect both spontaneous and scaffolded opportunities for students to develop language. Content-enriched language lessons may be either oral language or reading and writing lessons. Oral Language Development Because sharing the ideas they have learned, asking good questions, and seeking and sharing information are all skills students need to develop, oral language plays a critical role in students' overall academic progress. Within the area of oral language, opportunities for both spontaneous Language expression and scaffolded oral expression are important. Spontaneous language lessons use concepts from the content areas to help students gain facility in talking about the main ideas and the interrelations among major themes. Unlike scaffolded lessons, they rely on the language students already know and are able to use. The Integrated Group Lessons described in the next chapter provide an excellent setting for this type of language expression. At the
  10. 10. beginning these lessons are more focused on listening, gradually extending over time to encompass more sophisticated verbal expression. Scaffolded oral expression lessons, on the other hand, provide students the time to practice the uses of English-to say the words, to try out new vocabulary, and to work on expressing their ideas in a safe setting. An important aspect of oral language development lessons is instruction in the technical aspects of language use. Situated within the context of the larger content themes, such instruction focuses on vocabulary development, opportunities to hear and to use basic sentence structures and grammatical conventions, and opportunities to gain practice in using appropriate interaction styles. This kind of practice prepares students for the kind of formal oral language use described by Barnes (1990) as presentational talk, which is often the basis on which student work is evaluated. Communicative competence (being able to get your message across) is the driving force behind oral language development, and both types of lessons, spontaneous and scaffolded, are necessary as a regular part of a second language program. Unfortunately, once students have made the initial shift to second language literacy, oral language development is usually dropped. Yet, as ideas become more and more complex, learning to use the vocabulary of those ideas and to express them clearly becomes increasingly important. A strong foundation in oral language is also a key to successful reading and writing (something that though also true for native English speakers is all too often missing from the curriculum). Another useful idea for organizing and integrating language and content teaching is the notion that language teaching objectives can be specified according to whether they are directed toward contentobligatory or content-compatible language (Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989). Content obligatory language includes the vocabulary and language structures that are key to understanding and expressing ideas related to content. For example, in order to discuss numbers in a math class, students need to know the names of the numbers as well as expressions like "is smaller than," "is bigger than," "is equal to." Students studying the rain forest might need to learn the names of the various layers of the forest as well as details about the latitude and longitude of the tropics, information on plants, and the habitats of endangered species. Content-compatible language includes the vocabulary and structures that complement these ideas and can be utilized for additional practice in language lessons focused on form rather than content. In the numbers example, an extension would be not only to practice the names of the numbers through counting activities, calendar work, or games, but to include work on comparatives and superlatives (big, bigger, biggest) across a range of adjectives and to teach the distinction between those that use er/est and more/most. In the rain forest example, in addition to learning the specific vocabulary, students might get practice in prepositions (above, below, in between) as well as general map reading skills, asking for directions, working with numbers, learning names of zoo animals and classification and questioning strategies. Gibbons (1993) suggests that lessons be planned around a framework that requires teachers to identify the topics, activities, language functions, language structures, and vocabulary to be covered in the lesson. There are many good, in-depth examples both of how to create a con· tent-based second language curriculum and how to create and adapt appropriate materials descriptions (Crandall, 1987; Enright & McCloskey, 1988; Met, 1994; Richard-Amato, 1996). In addition, publishers have responded to the need for content-based materials and increasing numbers of content-oriented books, including entire social studies and science series, have been created specifically for second language learners. While these series carry with them the problems inherent in all broad-based textbooks, they do represent a
  11. 11. substantial addition to the resources avail· able to teachers for instructional planning. In addition, some new ESL series have incorporated both content themes and learning strategies (see Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Chamot, Cummins, O'Malley, Kessler, & Wong-Fillmore, 1996). As with all curriculum decisions, in choosing content· based ESL materials it is important to consider the topics covered, how students will be involved in the activities, and whether students will be engaged in activities that require or allow them to use higher-order thinking skills. Literacy in the Second Language No matter what category of services can be offered to students, at some point they will need to begin formal literacy instruction in their second language. Common to all program categories is the need for transition periods, the efficacy of situating literacy instruction within the overarching themes of content instruction, and achieving a balance between meaning and the technical aspects of reading and writing. When and how to approach this formal English reading must be part of a school's overall plan for second language learners. This decision should be based on a variety of factors, including students' level of oral proficiency in English, their level of literacy in the primary language, and their level of access to instruction in the primary language. Criteria for these decisions are discussed in detail in Chapter 6. A deliberate process for deciding when students are ready for all-English instruction must be put in place. This process should be based on how much students can understand and use English for themselves. Without strong oral fluency or an adequate vocabulary base, students will find it difficult to make sense of the text they encounter. The goal of literacy development is to help students become proficient readers and writers of English and able communicators of their ideas. This includes everything from reporting on a storybook read for pleasure to being able to use literacy skills to analyze the social forces that affect students' lives (Cummins, 1994; Freire, 1970, 1985; Shannon, 1990). Whether students are developing literacy in their primary language or not, initial reading should focus on meaning. The ideas students understand and can talk about in English are the most appropriate basis for instruction. Thematic units help to support beginning literacy instruction by increasing students' access to concepts and ideas across the school day. They also provide the impetus for the kind of group experiences that can form the basis for second language literacy development. A whole language approach, although well suited for literacy development in the native language, can present some formidable challenges to second language readers and writers. The emphasis on individual reading selections and self-selected topics, for example, often makes it difficult for students to discuss their stories, because there is a relatively small common fund of vocabulary and ideas on which to ground meaningful discussions. As an example, let's examine how the practice of "author's chair" poses special challenges for second language learners. Typically, during author's chair students read aloud drafts of work in progress to solicit feedback for revision. They can also use author's chair to share a finished product or a publishable piece with classmates. In order to participate successfully, students must learn the roles of both author and audience member. Authors must have written something that can be understood by classmates, know how to ask for help, and know how to record and make use of the feedback given to them. Audience members must be able to listen critically in order to provide positive feedback, as well as constructive criticism.
  12. 12. These roles are challenging for monolingual English speakers, and pose additional hurdles for second language learners. If students can't understand their peers' stories, they will not be able to provide appropriate feedback. Even if their understanding is sufficient, they may not have mastered enough English to give feedback or to express themselves in a way that is generally understandable to their peers. As a result, author's chair may unintentionally shut them off from participation instead 01 opening up avenues for self-expression. Finally, author's chair assumes a value on public display that mayor may not be culturally appropriate for all children. This is not to say that practices such as author's chair should be abandoned for second language learners. It simply means that teachers must recognize and attend to the additional support second language learners need in order to successfully participate. For example, oral language lessons could be developed for preparing second language learners for author's chair. Activities could include opportunities for role play in a safe setting, explicit instruction of needed vocabulary, and special attention to building common experiences for writing to increase comprehension. Another example of appropriate support is presented below. Help or Hindrance In a fifth-grade class composed of English, Spanish, and Vietnamese speakers, the current theme is "How we Interact with our World." As part of their work around this theme, students choose a topic to reo search on their own or in pairs and to share with the rest of the class. The teacher has brought dozens of books and resources to the class· room to assist students in their independent investigations. While this is not a bilingual classroom, the teacher found two books in Vietnam· ese and several resources in Spanish that students are free to use in their research. The final discussions, however, will be in English so that all the students can participate. Although the teacher in this class is trying to support students by providing them with primary language resources, this approach is problematic for several reasons. It assumes that, on their own, students have the necessary skills to comprehend and interpret the information in their primary language well enough to make use of it. Further, once students have gotten the information in the primary language, they are expected to be able to translate these ideas into English without help, a very sophisticated skill for which they have received neither instruction nor guidance. It is possible, with careful planning, however, to organize instruction to benefit from the availability of even limited resources in the primary language. For example, there could be regularly scheduled opportunities for students to discuss their ideas in the primary language with either school personnel or community members. Or such discussions might be organized in response to the availability of particular resources. It is important that such opportunities be carefully planned so that they do not turn into passive lectures by people unfamiliar with the context or goals of instruction. In any case, second language instruction would have to build on this knowledge. Students could then be guided in the transfer of these ideas by having focused opportunities to talk and write about the topic in English. Language Experience Approach. Modified Language Experience Approach (LEA) is a strategy that can be used effectively with linguistically diverse students of all ages. Its strength lies in its integration of oral language, reading, writing, and content themes. LEA can be used to make the transition into English reading in Category I and II programs after students have developed a strong foundation in primary language literacy. It can also be the main approach to beginning literacy instruction in Categories III and IV. Adapted for
  13. 13. second language learners, the essence of LEA is "What I can think about, I can talk about. What I can say, I can write (or someone can write for me). What I can write, I can read" (Gillet & Gentry, 1983; Van Allen & Allen, 1967). The major modification of the Language Experience Approach for second language learners focuses on the "What I can say." Although filled with ideas, many second language learners are not able to express their ideas fully in English. Therefore, oral language development that helps students become flexible and fluent in the expression of their ideas must playa much more prominent role in this process than is generally assumed for native speakers. The basic format of the modified Language Experience Approach consists of several predictable steps revolving around language-sensitive content lessons. First, teachers organize specific activities or experiences based on class themes and students' interests. Following this activity the teacher engages students in an oral discussion of what happened. Scaffolded lessons support students in both discussions and spontaneous language during the activities. Oral discussion and scaffolded lessons are followed by a shared writing process in which students dictate their thoughts to the teacher, producing a group-generated chart or story that reflects the steps, impressions, and reactions to the experience. The chart created during the group writing becomes the basis for individualized reading experiences. The features of this modified Approach are (1) core ideas, (2) group experience, (3) scaffolded oral expression activities, (4) LEA group writing, (5) using key phrases and key vocabulary, and (6) development of independent work. 1. Core ideas. The activities that form the basis for the LEA should emerge from the core ideas and key concepts of the themes that comprise the academic curriculum. This helps to create coherence for students as it provides for exposure across contexts to the language, vocabulary, and structures they need to know. In this way vocabulary and ideas are learned in meaningful contexts and not in isolation. 2. Group experience. The group nature of the LEA experience is fundamental for several reasons. While all of the students will draw on their unique background experiences in relating to the instruction, no stu· dent is left out of the discussion of their common instructional activity. This gives each student an opportunity to participate equally, which is not always the case when we ask students to use their own experiences to write or think about an instructional topic. The oral discussions (spontaneous language opportunities) that are central to the experiences ensure that second language learners have opportunities to become familiar with, talk about, and use the vocabulary and concepts that comprise the experiences. These discussions can also draw from, or be the basis for, students' scaffolded oral expression lessons. Finally, by providing a group of students with common experiences, teachers can help to create a greater sense of community and cohesion among the students. 3. Scaffolded oral expression activities (modification). A major modification of the Language Experience Approach is the use of a scaffolded language lesson (see also Chapter 6). In these lessons students have the opportunity to use various forms of language in ways that help them to become comfortable and fluent in spontaneous discussions. In scaffolded language lessons particular linguistic elements are targeted, and students are engaged in interactions in which they have opportunities to use and practice these forms. Targeted language is drawn from the content and themes of the overall lesson, contextualizing the new linguistic learnings. These lessons can be very helpful before as well as after the group experience, preparing students to recognize and be able to use the words and discourse patterns of the activity. 4. LEA group writing. The group writing process is a critical step in the LEA. Charts and stories are created in which students can see their own thoughts and ideas in print as well as how to put them
  14. 14. there. They allow students to see the vocabulary and key concepts of the unit in a context that is meaningful. The student-dictated charts are especially valuable because they reflect language and structures appropriate to students' language proficiency levels. The question always arises of whether teachers should write down students' "mistakes." It is important to remember that in a second language setting, the purpose of the M-LEA is not simply literacy development, but also to help students learn the forms and structures of the second language. This is not a dialectical issue, but a matter of providing students with accurate models and representations of the oral language they have been practicing. Providing effective oral language preparation and modeling before the writing phase is key to preparing students to orally compose text that closely approximates what will be written down. The scaffolded oral expression lessons can be particularly helpful in this regard. The charts also provide a model of written language that students can use in their own writing. This is especially important in view of the current trend toward encouraging students to be creative and invent their own spelling, a task that may be well suited to native speakers but is particularly difficult for students who do not have either familiarity with or mastery of the sound system and vocabulary in English. In addition, the group stories provide reading material for students that is familiar and predictable. In this way content materials can be incorporated into reading instruction at levels that are appropriate to students' stage of development. 5. Using key phrases and key vocabulary. Once the group writing stage has been completed, students move on to create their own written word files or word banks. Key phrases and vocabulary needed to talk about the content in a meaningful way should be built into both the chart stories and students' own files. These words and phrases reinforce the core ideas and provide predictable patterns for students to use and recognize. They then become the tools that students can use as background information and resources for independent reading and writing. 6. Development of independent work. The final component of an LEA cycle is the student's independent reading, writing, and extending experiences. This may include personal journals, choices for free reading, and opportunities to explore the topics in other areas of the curriculum. This cycle of organizing activities, talking about content, creating group stories, and engaging in independent work is one that is repeated throughout the instructional program. The predictable and recursive nature of the activities provides students multiple opportunities to use language in different ways. Transition Periods. Transition periods mark a shift in the formal academic expectations for second language learners, and they redefine the relationships in instruction of one language to the other. Although transitions are marked by decision-making points, they are substantially more than a dot on a continuum. Rather than indicating the end of the second language program, for example, the introduction of formal English reading should initiate a period in which specialized strategies, alternative materials, and extensive mediation practices are incorporated into the second language program. Four basic questions are critical to transition decisions: (1) When are students ready to begin a formal English reading program? (2) What are students bringing to the all-English reading process? (3) What do they need to become successful English readers? (4) When are students academically ready to successfully function in all-English instruction without support?
  15. 15. As the examples in Premise 7 demonstrate, second language students who have been exited from services are often left to their own devices to negotiate complex tasks and topics in English. By understanding and mediating the transition period, teachers can provide students the kinds of support they need to eventually succeed on their own. Because it is possible to predict many of the difficulties students will encounter and the errors they will make during these periods, it is possible to provide materials necessary to prepare students to deal successfully with more complex English tasks. For example, developing sufficient oral language to communicate their ideas clearly prior to "writing" a story about the implications of the Bill of Rights gives students a broader understanding, range of words, and ways to express their ideas. The transition period for students who receive formal primary language literacy (Categories I and II), must include help for students to understand the differences and similarities between their first and second languages. Even though students making this transition are literate and can transfer most of the knowledge and skills they have acquired in reading and writing to the literacy tasks of their second language, they will need specific help in mastering the vocabulary and particular conventions of English, as well as in connecting new ideas to an already developed internal schema. They will also need to learn rhetorical structures in English and cultural schemata that may be different from reading in their first language (Escamilla & Medina, 1993). When and how transition periods will occur will be considered in each program category. Learning Strategies Learning strategies that encompass the tactics and methods that can be used to acquire, remember, and utilize information and knowledge provide students with a framework for approaching all academic tasks and can facilitate both their linguistic and academic development. Research indicates that all successful learners generally make use of a variety of specific strategies or techniques to enhance their learning. Drawing these strategies to students' attention and teaching them how to consciously incorporate them into their own study process provide an additional tool for academic success (Oxford, 1990; Rigney, 1978; Rubin, 1975). Strategy use with second language learners provides them with a way to approach content in an organized and analytical fashion, and can be particularly useful for students in the intermediate and upper grades. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and implementing learning strategies in a content-based approach to language instruction. In CALLA three categories of strategies are distinguished: met cognitive strategies or global skills that involve higher-order thought processes in planning for, and ongoing monitoring of, learning; cognitive strategies that involve learners in the particular task at hand; and social/affective strategies that transcend a particular task and apply to the learning situation and how students act and interact with teachers and peers. Other kinds of strategies have also been identified that can help students overcome difficulties or blocks related specifically to literacy development. These include ways to approach reading, responding to text, writing, and spelling (Kucer, 1995). Two aspects of learning strategy instruction are important. The first is that teachers must consciously choose particular strategies to incorporate into their instruction, for example, providing advance organizers or consciously summarizing each day's lesson, or modeling note-taking skills on the board. The second is that students must also become aware of and familiar with the strategies, and consciously begin to make use of them as they approach academic and curricular tasks. This can happen only if teachers draw attention to the strategies presented and help students name and use them in everyday work.
  16. 16. Strategy instruction is particularly effective when used by all teachers in a program or building. Coordinating the use of strategies across classrooms increases the chances that students can make connections across content areas, helping to build student confidence that they have tools they can rely on to approach any learning task. Other Second Languages In most schools, the second language program is aimed at teaching English as the second language. However, a growing number of bilingual programs are seeking to develop Spanish (or French or Japanese, etc.) proficiency for native English speakers. Parents' decisions to enroll their children in these programs are strongly influenced by the sociopolitical context, by expectations about who bilingualism is for, and by the value and placed on different languages in the broader community. Depending on the context, parents may rush to place their children in Chinese or Hebrew classes, but hesitate to enroll them in a Spanish-English bilingual program. The ambivalence that many people have about the value of particular languages and the benefits of bilingualism, as well as the kinds of cross· cultural interactions in which they want their children to participate, play out in the nature and level of quality of second language programs. Maintaining the majority community's interest in having children participate in bilingual programs requires that the context in which first and second language students work be non-compensatory, and that these programs show results in terms of second language acquisition, as well as academic achievement. In most bilingual programs there is usually a great disparity in the second language expectations of students from the two language groups. For example, while native Spanish speakers must always become proficient in English (ESL) in order to achieve academic success, native English speakers are seldom expected to learn enough Spanish (SSL) any academic work. This difference in expectations has important ramifications in terms of overall program effectiveness, and the climate for learning in general. Occasional, catch-as-catch-can lessons, and the lack of academic content instruction and accountability for content mastery in Spanish for English speakers, for example, sends the message to all students that Spanish is not really a serious language for learning. In addition, in programs where the burden of learning a second language falls only on non-native English speakers, these students always tend to be in the position of knowing less than their English-speaking counterparts, who are then always seen as the experts. This affects students' attitudes, not only about learning a second language, but about the language itself and the status of those who speak that language. In contrast, when all students in a bilingual program are expected to learn academic content in both languages in order to achieve academic success, the nature of the program changes. For example, in a Category I program where biliteracy is the goal for students from each language group, the criteria and the organizational plan for, say, Spanish instruction parallels that of the English program, with Spanish as second language students being expected to develop language, literacy, and content expertise in Spanish. When everyone is expected to gain knowledge and accomplish school tasks in both languages, the status of the languages becomes more balanced and Spanish is validated as a language for learning important information. In such programs, everyone gets to experience the frustration and difficulty of learning to function in a second language, and everyone also experiences the positive feeling of being experts, able to help their peers struggling to acquire a second language. As will be discussed in the next chapter, it is far easier to plan instruction when the program also includes goals for the development of bilingualism for native English speakers. When the expectations for both groups are similar, there is increased flexibility in grouping students for different aspects of instruction, since each group will need a parallel set of experiences.
  17. 17. ISSUES UNIQUE TO EACH PROGRAM CATEGORY Thus far, the discussion of second language learning has not dealt directly with what is occurring in the primary language. But across the four program categories decisions about how programs will be configured must encompass the relationship of the two languages to one another. As developed more fully in Chapter 7, growth in each language can be represented along a continuum beginning with basic oral communication skills, moving toward the use of oral language for the expression of more abstract ideas, and later to reading and writing at increasing levels of sophistication. While the developmental paths for each language are similar, the level at which students are functioning in one language or the other is rarely equivalent. This difference between proficiency in the first and second languages occurs because students rarely enter school fully bilingual. Older second language learners, for example, may have advanced skills in literacy in their primary language but be limited in their ability to read and discuss English text. These students still need to acquire the vocabulary, syntactic structures, and sound system required to make sense of their English reading. While such students may be able to talk in abstract terms about a topic in their primary language, their emerging second language abilities will usually confine them to expressing only very concrete and basic levels of meaning in English. The relationship between languages within the curriculum affects the role each will play in instruction as well as expectations for its use. The balance of the two languages shifts depending on program category and on students' changing levels of development. The more limited the opportunities for primary language instruction, the greater the need to teach the concepts and content of the academic curriculum through the second language. In programs with little primary language support, second language development is a slower and more deliberate process in which students will need more help in order to express these concepts and ideas clearly (Collier, 1995). Students' access to the primary language for content instruction affects the focus of second language oral, content, and literacy instruction. Finally, the relationship of the two languages in instruction has implications for transition criteria as well as for the nature of the transition period. In the following discussion the balance of languages, the language learning contexts, and the transition elements unique to each program category will be discussed. Category 1: Full Primary Language Foundation Balance of Language Use and Contexts. When primary language instruction is available for non-English speakers, these students can depend on their background of experiences and strengths in the primary language to move new ideas forward and to fully develop their linguistic and cognitive repertoire. Daily planned opportunities to develop second language proficiency are also an integral part of the curriculum. In Category I, the initial goal of the second language program is to develop a strong oral base in English, while the foundation for literacy and concept development is advanced in the primary language. Second language instruction time should focus not on presenting the basic content, but rather on helping students develop the ability to think through the second language, develop the vocabulary and structures they need to talk about the ideas being elaborated in their primary language, and participate in spontaneous discussions of a topic. A strong oral language component provides students these opportunities to learn how to interact with ideas and concepts introduced across content areas. As students progress through the grades, they will also begin to interact informally with English literacy by listening to stories, interacting with ambient print, and perhaps picking up an English book
  18. 18. during free-reading time. Over time, the emphasis will shift from informal literacy experiences to a transition into formal English reading, as described below. Transition to English Literacy. In a Category I program, where students receive primary language content and literacy instruction, the transition period involves the shift from primary language-only literacy instruction to the addition of informal then formal second language reading and biliteracy. If students are in a short-term program, a second phase of transition will occur from primary language instruction to all-English instruction. The distinction between informal and formal reading is particularly significant in programs where primary language support is provided, because, as discussed in Chapter 4, concurrent formal literacy instruction at the beginning levels is detrimental to the development of a strong primary foundation (Escamilla & Medina, 1993). During second language instruction and in other parts of the day, students will have many informal opportunities to encounter print and text in English, and they will undoubtedly show an interest in trying to read it. This interest is important to the overall success of a second language program, but it does not indicate a readiness for formal English reading. The issue is not that children shouldn't have these informal experiences with English print, but rather that when they do, such experiences do not take over or displace their primary language literacy development before that literacy is fully in place. Unfortunately, the quality of the foundation established in the primary language is often ignored. As we have discussed, there is a tremendous pressure to move into English whether it is the most sound academic decision or not. By recognizing the distinction between informal and formal reading in a second language, teachers can plan more appropriate choices for students, choices that will allow them to enjoy their exploration of English books without undermining their literacy development in the primary language. For children who are beginning readers, it will typically take several years to reach the beginning of the transition period. During this time, students' oral second language development and informal reading experiences are the focus of English language development. Certainly children progress at different rates, but in general it might be reasonable to expect that students will be ready to begin formal English reading after approximately 312 to 4 years of literacy instruction in a strong sustained primary language program. For older students, this transition may occur more quickly, depending on primary language literacy level and English language proficiency. Category II: Primary Language Support – Literacy Only Balance of Languages and Contexts. In a Category II program, students develop initial literacy in their first language with a focus on content in their primary language. Content reading can provide the opportunity to meet and develop understanding of new concepts that will then be dealt with primarily in English. Because much of the content instruction is conducted in English, the second language program carries a greater responsibility for developing content-area vocabulary and concepts than in a Category I program. In a Category II program, formal literacy instruction will not be the initial focus of second language lessons. Instead, second language time should focus on oral language development, balanced between spontaneous (language-sensitive content lesson) and scaffolded (content-enriched language lesson) opportunities to use content vocabulary and ideas based on instructional themes. In this way students are provided maximum access to the main ideas and vocabulary of the curriculum in English. Informal reading activities also become a more important element in students' English instruction with opportunities for group "writing" being a strong supporting feature.
  19. 19. Transition to English Literacy. Although students in programs where only primary language literacy is offered will have had greater informal exposure to English text and vocabulary, the transition to English literacy should follow the same basic guidelines as in Category I. Gaps in students' understanding of content material will be likely, both because students must learn content mainly through their second language and because their base in their primary language is not as fully elaborated as that of students with a full primary language program. Because the primary Language is available only on a limited basis for the discussion and learning of abstract concepts, the transition period to all-English instruction should be longer than in Category I in order to guarantee that students will have sufficient opportunity to consolidate conceptual knowledge in their second language. Attention to the possible gaps in understanding, to the depth of understanding regardless of oral fluency, and to not rushing too quickly into formal English literacy is particularly important in this program category. Category III: Primary Language Content Reinforcement Balance of Languages and Contexts. A Category III program provides students with some, albeit limited, access to conceptual knowledge in their primary language. Initial literacy instruction will begin immediately in English. This means that just as students are beginning to gain meaning through their second language, they will also be expected to begin to put those ideas into print. Coordinating the curriculum across languages continues to be critical in order to ensure that during second language instruction students can work on the same concepts and content themes that they will be discussing during primary language time, thus using the primary language to full advantage. Students will need substantial experience with oral language and vocabulary development in English, as well as exposure to new concepts and many opportunities to act on information related to the main content themes. Concept comprehension as well as scaffolded oral expression lessons should be balanced in the second language program. The modified Language Experience Approach described above should playa central role in organizing the literacy component of second language instruction in Category III. The experiences that form the core of the LEA should be based on content themes. The success of these lessons will depend on the comprehensibility of instruction and on providing students with multiple opportunities to access meaning and interact with new learning. Reading aloud to students from a variety of texts and materials in order to expose them to the range of genres that they will eventually have to be able to read and write about on their own will be very important. In addition, a specific component that focuses on the sound-symbol correspondence and literacy conventions of English will have to be included. As discussed in Chapter 4, the need for support from family and community members is even more critical where there is little primary language support in school. An important role that second language teachers can play is to actively enlist and encourage this participation of parents and others in helping students explore and extend their knowledge of content themes in the primary language. Personnel responsible for primary language concept reinforcement instruction can assist teachers in providing parents with ideas and suggestions for the kinds of questions to ask and the types of discussions to encourage in the home language around particular topics. These questions and discussions will help to develop the underlying schema necessary to support knowledge about the content in the second language.
  20. 20. Transition to No Second Language Support. For students in a Category III program there is no transition to English reading since students begin literacy immediately in their second language. There is a transition period, however, that begins when students are ready to receive all of their content instruction in English without additional support. Because the demands of English also increase as oral proficiency and grade-level requirements increase (becoming continually more abstract and decontextualized), monitoring and mediating understanding of unfamiliar content and language will still be a support needed by students. Category IV: All-English Balance of Languages and Contexts. Students in Category IV programs have virtually no formal access in school to the funds of knowledge they have developed in their primary language. In order to enhance their access to the content of the academic curriculum, they need to spend a greater amount of time in lessons designed to support second language learning. Lessons that focus on language, others that support concept comprehension, and others that focus on initial literacy instruction all should be part of their total program. The strategies discussed through· out this chapter present the framework for instruction in a Category IV program. All settings in which second language learners are instructed should provide for comprehensible input, active participation, and the monitoring of understanding. This does not mean that students need to be moved to another room or to other teachers, but rather that appropriate instructional and grouping strategies are employed. When students encounter themes, topics, and vocabulary across the day, they have a greater chance to make meaning out of their instruction. As in Category III, thematic units and the modified Language Experience Approach to reading are important organizing structures for the integration of oral interactions, literacy instruction, and content. Where there are sufficient numbers of second language learners in a school or at a particular level, it may be feasible to organize sheltered content instruction for a specific subject or a portion of a unit. Care must be taken, however, to assure that students also have opportunities to interact with native English-speaking peers in meaningful activities on a regular basis. Again, as in Category III, the role of parents and community in Category IV programs takes on everincreasing importance. In order to help prepare families and others to assist in reinforcing the main concepts of the curriculum, it is useful to be able to anticipate upcoming content themes and to communicate this information to parents. Joining with parents as partners in the learning process requires advance planning. It is enhanced by including other community and district resources to translate information and open lines of communication in parents' home languages. It is also important to remember that even in a school with no formal primary language instruction, school wide efforts can be made to acknowledge and respect the existence of the multiple languages and cultures in the building, for example, through signs, announcements, and visual images. Transition to No Second Language Support. The transition period in Category IV is similar to that in Category III. Students will begin initial literacy instruction in English right away and the transition period will support them in becoming ready to receive all their content instruction in English without second language support. Students in Category IV programs have very little access in school to the funds of knowledge they have developed in their primary language. They must rely on their second language to carry all their academic development, which, if we think back to our Chinese example in Chapter 4, is a tremendous task. For these reasons, it may take several years for students to be ready to make the shift to formal instruction in all content areas in English without support. Steps can be taken on a school wide basis to ensure that
  21. 21. in the halls and in every classroom, teachers attend to students' need for comprehensibility, and provide multiple ways to access the meaning of instruction. Decision Making on Your Own 1. Questions that highlight major issues regarding second language development include: How does your program meet the varying needs of students from different backgrounds? What strategies do you employ to assure that instruction is understandable to second language learners? How have you organized instruction so that students gain both linguistic and academic competence in their second language? How do you help students begin reading in their second language? In order to answer these questions about your setting you will need to add the following information to your school profile: students' circumstances of being in the United States, language proficiency assessment data, number of students at each language-proficiency level, initial placement information, level of literacy development in the primary language, support services offered by the district, which teachers have training in working with second language learners, and available materials and resources. 2. Think about the Basic Premises and major elements presented in this chapter on second language. Generate a list of additional questions that will help you to decide how best to serve your students. 3. Compare your list of questions with those of a colleague and refine your list. Are there any major issues you haven't addressed? 4. Form a small group and brainstorm the optimal second language practices possible in your setting. Use the Basic Premises highlighted in this chapter to weigh your decisions. 5. List two or three changes that might have to be made. 6. What are the implications of your decisions for other areas, for example, assessment, the utilization of staff, and scheduling? 7. Add these data to your school profile.


The Concrete Network
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Maintaining Polished Concrete
Time: 04:27
Get advice for polished concrete maintenance in both residential and commercial environments—includes information on daily cleaning and more involved maintenance procedures.

Routine maintenance for polished floors consists of daily dust mopping to remove dirt and grime accumulation that can abrade the surface of polished concrete. Frequent wet mopping is also needed. Although only clean water can be used, you'll have greater success using a floor cleaner to suspend the dirt particles so they can be more easily removed.

Mr. Clean Maintenance Systems, Bloomington, Calif., which specializes in maintaining, sealing and restoring polished concrete floors, recommends using only neutral-ph cleaners on polished concrete, since a cleaner that is too acidic or too alkaline will deteriorate the concrete and dull the shine of the floor. The correct type of floor pad also needs to be used to prevent concrete surface damage. Mr. Clean recommends using very soft pads on polished floors to clean the surface without scratching or etching.

The exact maintenance regimen needed and the frequency of cleaning is largely dictated by amount of traffic the floors receives. High-traffic areas will require more frequent cleaning.

Checklist for maintaining polished floors:

Decorative Concrete Institute
Temple, GA

The first step in maintaining polished floors is to take a proactive approach and protect the floor with a penetrating sealer or topical guard.

  • When wet mopping, use a neutral floor cleaner formulated to suspend the dirt particles so they can be more easily removed. Using water only leaves much of the dirt on the floor, where it will eventually abrade and discolor the surface.
  • Try to clean spills and stains from the floor as quickly as possible so they don't absorb into the surface.

Mr. Clean Maintenance Systems ( based in Southern California also does business in Northern California, Nevada, Arizona and Illinois.


Creating lawn mower stripes

Lawn mowers that have a rear roller will produce the best striped effect.

Lawn stripes can hide imperfections in a lawn such as slight differences in colour across the lawn. This is because they visually break up the lawn surface with narrow bands of different appearance so gradual changes across a wide area are not so noticeable.

To achieve the striped effect on you lawn you must follow a systematic pattern of mowing. The lawn mower should only ever be pushed forward when creating lawn mower stripes. This is because it is the direction of the mower (and the roller) that makes the grass to sit up in different directions thus creating the striped effect. When mowing make sure that the current stripe, slightly overlaps the previous stripe so that you do not have thin strips of uncut grass left between the stripes. If you have a lawn mower with side wheels make sure the side wheels are over the preceding stripe.

Work out which direction your stripes are going to go.

  1. Cut along the edge of the lawn at right angles to the way that you want the stripes to be and then back across the lawn making sure to overlap the first stripe. These stripes are not your final lawn stripes, they are simply to ensure that the grass is cut right to the edge of the lawn.
  2. Turn the mower 90 °
  3. Create your first permanent stripe by going down the edge of the lawn in the direction that you want your stripes to go.
  4. Repeat step 1 (now at the other end of the lawn)
  5. You can now create the rest of the lawn stripes and 'fill in' the middle section of the lawn by repeatedly turning the mower 180 °. After this you should have mown the entire area of the lawn and have a neat pattern of lawn mower stripes.

The correct pattern is shown in the diagram below.

Mowing pattern to create lawn stripes


5828.4 #23 (DL Qual #35

Oct 10, 2012 9:28 PM  Disneyland Resort News Land
There's an ice rink being installed on DTD by ESPN Zone and Earl of Sandwich. Fun times coming this winter!!!

Tagged in: NEWS
Do I sense an ice skating meet up? - Vegan7LuvsStitch  1026.3 #189 9:33PM
YES - ScubaSteve028  835.5 #228 9:34PM
After a few hours at Trader Sams? Or is that too dangerous? - Slotherini  1079.8 #178 9:42PM
Yes yes yes!! - MarshaMouse  5036.1 #27 9:42PM
Sad because i cant skate till after i have surgery and heal. But will watch everyone fall on their bums. - chipanddalefan  733.4 #279 9:45PM
How about an ice skating meet up and THEN Trader Sams? ;) Woo hoo! I can't really skate but it'll be fun trying. - Vegan7LuvsStitch  1026.3 #189 9:48PM
That would be amazing! - dlmickeymouseCM  2405.6 #67 9:49PM
My first comment was "What me shenanigans will happen here?" - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 9:50PM
I wanna go!!! Ill be back the first week lens in dec!! Lol - CourtyAstroBlisters  808.0 #238 9:50PM
Vegan I like think how you think. - Bambi.  605.0 #355 10:21PM
Im with Sloth on this one! Trader sams then Ice skating! - PrinceTeaJack  944.8 #202 1:48PM
If only I knew how to ice skate! :( - Duchess_SMK  6535.3 #19 2:13PM
A drink before ice skating is much more fun than afterward 😂 - Spoonful_O_Sugar  632.9 #338 3:07PM
How about Trader Sams, then ice skating, then more Trader Sams? - NickDoubleyew  1094.1 #176 3:10PM
I can't wait to do a triple axle. - ScubaSteve028  835.5 #228 9:47PM
Triple Lindy please - Butterlina  1589.8 #114 9:49PM
I prefer triple sow cow, or however the heck you say it. - Slotherini  1079.8 #178 9:50PM
As long as you were proper figure skating attire 😂😂 - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 9:51PM
Oops- darn auto correct! As long as you wear proper figure skating attire. - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 9:51PM
will you and LaTruce be performing the "Iron Lotus"???? :D - MEHlanie_Mouse  1117.3 #171 9:52PM
Butter, that was awesome! And Sloth, it's a Salchow but don't ask me how I know... - NotSoDapperDan  323.9 #815 9:58PM
How do you know? - Slotherini  1079.8 #178 10:07PM
Bielman spin? - cesium55  531.8 #416 10:12PM
Thanks for posting! We were the first to break this story last night because of you. - Admin 1:49PM
Oh wow. That's great. - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 2:01PM
Last time I went ice skating I would have been awesome if the skates were on my butt where i spent most of my time on. - madsdad  1868.2 #98 11:23PM
😂😂😂 - ladylikesdisney  945.0 #201 11:23PM
😳😂😂😂 - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 1:34PM
Now where's the giant margarita that this giant ice cube goes in to, cause I know us southern Californians don't scoot on this frozen thingy. - Waites4DodgerEars_CM  1002.5 #196 12:26AM
FUN FACT! The lights and music are being done by a MOUSEWAITER. RedBar is doing all of the designing for the rink. - ScarLover  319.0 #842 2:11PM
O.O that is awesome!! - MEHlanie_Mouse  1117.3 #171 9:31PM
Yes! 👍 - cynDOLEwhip  1175.7 #159 9:32PM
oh my gosh how wonderful - kskating  690.7 #303 9:32PM
No way!!! - ScubaSteve028  835.5 #228 9:33PM
Way I have the pic to prove it 😉 - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 10:50PM
Ah so that's what it ended up being. How awesome!!! - RickChavez  3672.1 #43 9:34PM
"What is that?" "wood" lol - SleepyTortuga  288.4 #1030 9:44PM
o_o - RickChavez  3672.1 #43 10:41PM
That is so cool I've never been ice skating - Xsabyx  40.4 #5374 9:36PM
Its gonna be packed! - MomWithAJuiceBoxBuzz  1191.2 #156 9:36PM
That is waaaay awesome!!! I'm definitely going to make more than a couple trips this winter now!!! - PinTraderMater  124.7 #3203 9:37PM
How fun!! ❄❄ - DisneyFanZoe  1249.3 #144 9:38PM
Soo excited for this! I've never been ice skating before. Can't wait! - biancamouse  218.0 #1815 9:39PM
Sweet! Hope they will have hockey skates for rental because I skate better in them. - KermitFan13  658.1 #321 9:40PM
They have Sandwich of Earl at DTD in WDW and it is amazing and always busy. - MinnieNurse  331.5 #772 9:40PM
I'm in! Just name the date.... That works for me. With plenty of notice. And when gas goes down. On a weekend - phillip...  1368.2 #137 9:40PM
Ok your date is dodgersfan - Villescas8  607.0 #352 9:41PM
😂😭 - KermitFan13  658.1 #321 9:43PM
HA HA V8!!! - PrinceTeaJack  944.8 #202 1:50PM
Sweet! One more thing to do when I'm there the last week of November. - luv2laffhahahaha  111.0 #3483 9:40PM
Sweeeeeet!! Can't wait!! - sneakergirl  176.8 #2351 9:42PM
looks like I might need to pull out my ice skates and sharpen them - Dave  13820.4 #4 9:44PM
Super cool. - maxinerenton  422.7 #549 9:44PM
I was trying to figure out what that was last weekend. That's cool! - NikkiMickey  1686.3 #104 9:45PM
That's going to be fun - Hendizl  2872.9 #49 9:46PM
Now people will know I didn't grow up in CA. Fun times a coming. - MeridasHair  346.5 #716 9:52PM
Real ice or that slippery plastic stuff? - Plumiegirl  10332.6 #9 9:53PM
It was pretty cold standing next to it. It looks just like the one that Irvine Spectrum usually has that uses a Zambomi too. - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 10:51PM
Awesome! I have ice skates!!! - iamdugsmaster  878.7 #216 10:04PM
now I need to learn how to ice skate!! - Stitch_Legacy  5143.2 #26 10:06PM
I was wounder what they were building - Bambi.  605.0 #355 10:08PM
Oh my gosh I wish I could go! I took figure skating lessons growing up! Fun times! - LisaMouse7531  410.1 #566 10:13PM
Oh I love falling on ice. 😬 - Jillian  767.1 #259 10:15PM
I'd be happy to skate with my fellow MWers. - icedevil31  294.3 #990 10:16PM
I just wanna put on some hockey gear and Kronwall some people. If you don't watch hockey, then ignore my statement. - hd198789  189.4 #2185 10:18PM
I can't wait check someone into the glass. - vincentchase1  672.9 #315 10:23PM
YES!!! Looooooove ice skating! - iPoca.  916.9 #208 10:26PM
Will definitely be using this! - Mikesaxclar  714.3 #288 10:26PM
I love ice skating! I do it every year! It will be very morantic! - LaTruce  2364.4 #69 10:37PM
Lol - templeclan  54.8 #4726 10:52PM
This will be so fun! - Jewelz  557.9 #386 10:38PM
I was just thinking of doing ice skating this year!❤ This is gonna be awesome :) - CaliAdventure  225.3 #1712 10:53PM
I'm so happy about this. - greenmermaid  13.2 #9620 10:54PM
That is freaking AWESOME! - DisneyFunSize  34.9 #5737 10:58PM
😱😱😱😱 I would love to fall on my butt for everyone to see! 😃😃😍 - AndieHawkins  366.6 #648 10:59PM
*sarcasm* - AndieHawkins  366.6 #648 11:00PM
Please make sure you get a video. Thanks. - LittleAprilShowers  587.7 #363 11:05PM
Dont worry i will video since i cant skate. :-D - chipanddalefan  733.4 #279 11:09PM
I'd be doing the same Andie - lilo84  377.0 #628 11:09PM
Oh my 😅 - AndieHawkins  366.6 #648 11:21PM
So glad they are bringing this back. I used to take my kids when they had it set up at the DL hotel where the remote control boats were. - splashphotoCM  885.6 #213 11:11PM
Awesome!! 😃 - Sweet_Irish_Cream  4409.5 #35 11:15PM
Terrified of ice skating! 😫 - ladylikesdisney  945.0 #201 11:16PM
That surprised me for some reason. - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 2:27PM
Is it just 4 the winter? Will it be there next year also? - coll  31.4 #6067 11:20PM
Not sure. This is the first year it's been installed. I would imagine it's just for the winter since it's open air. - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 11:48PM
Kings fans vs Ducks fans, bring it.. - splashphotoCM  885.6 #213 11:23PM
Wow! I can't wait! - AshleyLynn22  791.2 #246 11:57PM
Awesome. Have they done this before? - supertracy  471.9 #479 12:09AM
Are they filming Mighty Ducks 4 here? - CM_Shadowgamer  2577.5 #60 12:09AM
I knew it would be an ice skating rink! - Jacqueline  580.0 #370 1:58PM
Thanks for this breaking news lady! Cool! - Duchess_SMK  6535.3 #19 2:15PM
I was wondering what that was going to be. How cool! - LBChica  2544.3 #62 2:35PM
Gonna check Vincentchase into the wall. - chris.  2511.4 #63 2:49PM
Panda vs. Troll loser gets stabbed with the winners Ice skates. - vincentchase1  672.9 #315 3:11PM
Then winner buys a round at Trader Sam's 😂 - LilSterner  5828.4 #23 4:05PM
I'm gonna break you like bane broke batman. - vincentchase1  672.9 #315 4:08PM
Guess if I'm going to break a bone, I might as well do it at Disneyland! - LaneSparrow316  847.0 #227 4:13PM
Ice skating awesome! - Goofyfloppy  8.0 #13341 4:15PM
Does anyone know when it opens? - greeneyedtiggergurl  5.9 #16824 1:13AM

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Big Thunder Ranch and Barbecue CLOSED permanently
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