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why is snow soft
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Moisture in the atmosphere is water vapor. When the temperature is low enough, the molecules of water condense but also freeze simultaneously in ice crystal structures rather than forming together into a water droplet THEN freezing (which would obviously result in hail). These ice structures are much less dense than actual chunks of ice, and when they fall to the ground, they stick to each other rather than compress and merge (that is, until they're compacted forcibly together, or melt is warmer surface temperatures).
|
[
"BULLET::::- \"Snow hardness\" (\"R\" ) is the resistance to penetration of an object into snow. Most snow studies use a fist or fingers for softer snows (very soft through medium) and a pencil (hard) or knife (very hard) below the hardness boundary of ice.\n",
"Snow becomes suitable for packing when it approaches its melting point and becomes moist and compact. Making a snowman of powdered snow is difficult since it will not stick to itself, and if the temperature of packing snow drops, it will form an unusable denser form of powdered snow called crust. Thus, a good time to build a snowman may be the next warm afternoon directly following a snowfall with a sufficient amount of snow. Using more compact snow allows for the construction of a large snowball by simply rolling it until it grows to the desired size. If the snowball reaches the bottom of the grass it may pick up traces of grass, gravel or dirt.\n",
"Snow refers to forms of ice crystals that precipitate from the atmosphere (usually from clouds) and undergo changes on the Earth's surface. It pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide or sublimate away. Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals. Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts. Over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form. Otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater.\n",
"An illustration of how snow quality can be different follows. In an area which experiences fluctuation in temperatures around 0°C - freezing temperature of water, both rain and snowfall are possible. Wet snow or the wet ground can freeze into a slippery sheet of ice. In an area which consistently experiences temperatures below 0°C, snowfall leads to accumulation of snow on the ground. When fresh, this snow is fluffy and powder-like. This type of snow has a lot of air space. Over time, this snow will become more compact, and the lower layers of snow will become more dense than the top layer. Skiers can use this type of information to improve their skiing experience by choosing the appropriate skis, wax, or by choosing to stay home. Search and rescue teams, and backcountry users rely on our understanding of snow to navigate the dangers present in the outdoors.\n",
"Depending on the temperature profile in the atmosphere, snow can be either \"wet\" or \"dry\". Dry snow, being lighter, is transported by wind more easily and accumulates more efficiently. Wet snow is heavier due to the increased water content. Significant accumulations of heavy wet snow can cause roof damage. It also requires considerably more energy to move and this can create health problems while shoveling when combined with the harsh weather conditions. Numerous deaths as a result of heart attacks can be attributed to snow removal. Accretion of wet snow to elevated surfaces occurs when snow is \"sticky\" enough which can cause extensive tree and power line damage in a manner similar to ice accretion during ice storms. Power can be lost for days during a major winter storm, and this usually means the loss of heating inside buildings. Other than the obvious risk of hypothermia due to cold exposure, another deadly element associated with snowstorms is carbon monoxide poisoning which can happen anytime combustion products from generators or heating appliances are not properly vented. Finally, partially or fully melted snow on roadways can refreeze when temperatures fall, creating black ice.\n",
"Classification of snow on the ground comes from two sources: the science community and the community of those who encounter it in their daily lives. Snow on the ground exists both as a material with varying properties and as a variety of structures, shaped by wind, sun, temperature, and precipitation.\n",
"Accumulated snow is removed to make travel easier and safer, and to decrease the long-term effect of a heavy snowfall. This process utilizes shovels and snowplows, and is often assisted by sprinkling salt or other chloride-based chemicals, which reduce the melting temperature of snow. In some areas with abundant snowfall, such as Yamagata Prefecture, Japan, people harvest snow and store it surrounded by insulation in ice houses. This allows the snow to be used through the summer for refrigeration and air conditioning, which requires far less electricity than traditional cooling methods.\n"
] |
How much more or less brutal were the Germans in Russia than the Russians were in Germany at the end of world war II?
|
The German occupation was significantly more brutal, considering Germany suffered some million or so civilian casualties from all military actions (including those of the western allies,) compared to the 8-12 million inflicted in the Soviet Union.
The Russian occupation is, I feel, often played up due to the political concerns of the time. Yes, there are accounts of rapes by Russian soldiers, but there are also accounts of Soviet troops handing out food to orphans.
The thing is, the Russian plan wasn't to murder 2/3 of the German population. The Nazi plan for Russia was to do just that. The Soviet high command issued orders against rape and murder, although depending on commander this was sometimes not enforced (as in all the allied armies.) It may have been more of a problem for Soviet forces, but then, virtually every Russian soldier would have personally known somebody who had been killed by the Germans.
The difficulty in finding good sources on this issue is that it has become highly politicized. It's difficult to find a middle ground between "the Russians were barbecuing babies in the street" and "glorious Soviet soldiers were all angels and did nothing but help the German civilians." The truth is probably somewhere inbetween.
However, I do firmly believe that the "Stalin's army of rapists" line can be firmly dismissed as Cold War era propaganda. This is not to say that the Soviet occupation was not brutal and that rape did not happen, but the scale which is hinted at (but seldom given a hard number,) in English sources is probably exaggerated. Sadly, it would be difficult to exaggerate the horror of the holocaust in Russia.
|
[
"Russian people played a crucial role in the victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. According to the British historian Richard Overy, the Eastern Front included more combat than all the other European fronts combined—the Wehrmacht suffered 80% to 93% of all of its total World War II combat casualties on the Eastern Front. Russia's casualties in this war were the highest of all nations, and numbered more than 20 million dead (Russians composed 80% of the 26.6 million people lost by the USSR), which is about half of all World War II casualties and the vast majority of Allied casualties. \n",
"In 1915, things took a critical turn for the worse when Germany shifted its focus of attack to the Eastern front. The superior German army – better led, better trained, and better supplied – was quite effective against the ill-equipped Russian forces, driving the Russians out of Galicia, as well as Russian Poland during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive campaign. By the end of October 1916, Russia had lost between 1,600,000 and 1,800,000 soldiers, with an additional 2,000,000 prisoners of war and 1,000,000 missing, all making up a total of nearly 5,000,000 men.\n",
"The Japanese successfully sever the Trans-Siberian Railway, cutting off shipments to Vladivostok. Cold weather and mosquitoes take their toll on the Japanese soldiers, and skirmishes with Soviet partisans are commonplace. Despite the distance from the industrial areas of Russia, Soviet forces still maintain modest air and artillery superiority, though their accuracy is often doubtful, causing many casualties on both sides. Japanese attacks on Vladivostok proceed much like their attacks on Port Arthur in 1905, suffering tremendous casualties for very little ground gained.\n",
"The Soviets bore the brunt of World War II because the West did not open up a second ground front in Europe until the invasion of Italy and the Battle of Normandy. Approximately 26.6 million Soviets, among them 18 million civilians, were killed in the war. Civilians were rounded up and burned or shot in many cities conquered by the Nazis. The retreating Soviet army was ordered to pursue a 'scorched earth' policy whereby retreating Soviet troops were ordered to destroy civilian infrastructure and food supplies so that the Nazi German troops could not use them.\n",
"During and immediately following the assault, in many areas of the city, vengeful Soviet troops (often rear echelon units) engaged in mass rape, pillage and murder. Oleg Budnitskii, historian at the Higher School of Economics in Moscow, told a BBC Radio programme that Red Army soldiers were astounded when they reached Germany. \"For the first time in their lives, eight million Soviet people came abroad, the Soviet Union was a closed country. All they knew about foreign countries was there was unemployment, starvation and exploitation. And when they came to Europe they saw something very different from Stalinist Russia ... especially Germany. They were really furious, they could not understand why being so rich, Germans came to Russia\".\n",
"The attitude of Soviet soldiers was ambiguous. Many committed atrocities, most notably rape and murder, and did not always distinguish between Poles and Germans, mistreating them equally. Other Soviets, were taken aback by the brutal treatment of the German civilians and tried to protect them.\n",
"Tolstoy describes the various groups of over five million Russians who had fallen into German hands. These include prisoners of war, forced laborers (\"Ostarbeiter\"), collaborators, refugees, émigrés, and anti-communists. Conditions in Germany for Soviet prisoners were appalling and their mortality rate high, making it attractive for many to join laborers, Russian auxiliary troops, or the Russian Liberation Army (ROA). The situation for Russian soldiers was complicated by the stance of the Soviet government that rejected efforts by the International Red Cross to intervene and considered anyone who had surrendered to the enemy a traitor. The Moscow conference of 1944 and the Yalta agreement laid the groundwork for the participation of the British and American governments to support the repatriation program of the Soviet government. Tolstoy was especially critical of Anthony Eden's role in trying to appease the Soviets.\n"
] |
why do motorcycles redline at ~14 k rpm, but most everyday cars redline at ~7 k rpm
|
Small parts can move faster, and motorcycle engines usually have a short stroke. They are generally optimized for maximum horsepower, while car and truck engines place a greater importance on torque at low RPMs for moving heavy loads from a standstill. Modern sportbike engines are also significantly more advanced that automotive engines, due to looser regulations and a horsepower war that's been going on for decades.
Hardley-Davidsons only rev to 6,000, by the way, but their V-twin is based on an engine design that was obsolete in the 1940's. They ride like a truck on two wheels though...instant torque.
|
[
"Motorcycle engines can have even higher redlines because of their comparatively lower reciprocating mass. For example, the 1986–1996 Honda CBR250RR has a redline of about 19,000 rpm. (Though due to regulations in Japanese motorcycle manufacturing this was later lowered to 18,000). Higher yet is the redline of a modern Formula One car. Regulations in 2010 limit the maximum engine rotation to 18,000 rpm , but during the 2006 season, engine speeds reached over 20,000 rpm on the Cosworth engine\n",
"The engine had to be slightly de-tuned to meet European emissions laws, although its at 7,200 rpm and of torque at 4,250 rpm proved to be more than adequate; the car could accelerate to from a standstill in 3.9 seconds on its way to a top speed of .\n",
"The engine redlines at 9000 rpm and has a fuel cut-off at 9500 rpm, with 90% of its peak torque available from 3,700 rpm to 9,000 rpm. An LCD tachometer was fitted to the LF-A as an analog fixture allegedly was not responsive enough to the engine's ability to change speed. The Lexus LFA broke the world record in 2012, for the fastest production engine revving to its redline in 0.6 seconds.\n",
"The Inline-four engine was rated at 7,000 rpm and at 5,000 rpm for the 5-speed manual transmission, at 6,700 rpm with the fuel cut-off at 7,200 rpm and at 5,000 rpm for the automatic transmission. Engine redline was raised by 500 rpm to 7,200 rpm in manual model and fuel cut at 7,500 rpm. The suspension and gearbox have been fine-tuned; with the latter offering smoother shifts and an automatic transmission will be introduced in Europe for the first time.\n",
"This motorcycle's engine performance is not very inspiring at engine speeds under 7,000 rpm, due to the two-stroke engine power delivery of a relatively narrow power band. However, once the engine is revved over 8,000 rpm, the power delivery characteristics effectively doubles, as is expected of a two-stroke racing motorcycle.\n",
"However, with a manual transmission engine RPM can redline in \"neutral\", or by shifting to a higher gear too late, or by shifting to a lower gear too early. In the case of \"neutral\" or shifting up too late, a rev limiter can easily keep engine RPM below the redline.\n",
"This motorcycle has a six-speed transmission. Its maximum speed on level pavement with no headwind is 60 km/hour in 4th gear at 6000 rpm. Fuel usage at full speed is average, at around 40mpg +/- 30%. The engine redlines at 5500 rpm, and engine torque below 5000 rpm is quite feeble. A first gear with higher-than-average speed ratio, combined with weak low-speed torque, makes it a fairly difficult bike to start from standstill.\n"
] |
How long could a person survive eating only human flesh?
|
I realize this shouldn't be a top-level comment, but since no one's posted I will. I went to the wiki page for rabbit starvation syndrome, and it said it was from a lack of fat in your diet. Humans are pretty fatty, so it shouldn't be a problem.
|
[
"In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an \"obesity epidemic.\" Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.\n",
"Some initially had reservations, though after realizing that it was their only means of staying alive, they changed their minds a few days later. Javier Methol and his wife Liliana, the only surviving female passenger, were the last survivors to eat human flesh. She had strong religious convictions, and only reluctantly agreed to partake of the flesh after she was told to view it as \"a kind of Holy Communion\".\n",
"There is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40% death is almost inevitable.\n",
"On the second day a scalpel appears on one of the barrels of water. A note attached to the scalpel reads “the human body can only survive thirty days without eating“ and Jordan explains to the group that scalpels are designed for cutting into human tissue. The kidnapper’s identity is revealed and a flashback occurs to a boy with similar features. The boy and his mother are in a car accident and the boy realizes that his mother has died. The boy is trapped inside the car until discovered by authorities two weeks later. To the authorities’ surprise the boy survived the two weeks by eating the flesh of his deceaced mother. In the present, photos on the captor’s wall reveal that he has been stalking his victims for quite some time.\n",
"The group survived by collectively deciding to eat flesh from the bodies of their dead comrades. This decision was not taken lightly, as most of the dead were classmates, close friends, or relatives. Canessa used broken glass from the aircraft windshield as a cutting tool. He set the example by swallowing the first matchstick-sized strip of frozen flesh. Several others did the same later on. The next day more survivors ate the meat offered them, but a few refused or could not keep it down. \n",
"Murphy and Mallory do not exclude the possibility that the flesh removed from the bodies was consumed. Archeologically these activities remain invisible. But they point out that elsewhere, Herodotus names another tribe (Androphagi) as the only group to eat human flesh.\n",
"On 15 November, Arturo Nogueira died, and three days later, Rafael Echavarren died, both from gangrene due to their infected wounds. Numa Turcatti, who couldn't stomach the idea of eating human flesh, died on day 60 (11 December) weighing only . Those left knew they would inevitably die if they didn't find help. The survivors heard on the transistor radio that the Uruguayan Air Force had resumed searching for them.\n"
] |
why do people cook with alcohol, is it just for flavour, if so then can't you just use non-alcoholic substitutes?
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One thing to note about cooking it off properly is that alcohol (specifically ethanol, for context) has a much lower boiling point than water. Thus, the ethanol boils and evaporates off earlier and more completely than water. So if your food is cooked properly, it would be highly unlikely that any ethanol would remain.
|
[
"Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.\n",
"Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n",
"Wine, especially, is used as an ingredient for its acidic properties, for the bitterness of its tannins, and for its fruit components. Beer and liqueurs are also commonly used as alcoholic ingredients. For a flambé, in which warm alcohol is ignited, the higher alcohol content of a distilled spirit is required. \n",
"The presence of alcohol (particularly ethanol) in the wine contributes much more than just intoxication. It has an immense impact of the weight and mouthfeel of the wine as well as the balance of sweetness, tannins and acids. In wine tasting, the anaesthetic qualities of ethanol reduces the sensitivity of the palate to the harsh effects of acids and tannins, making the wine seem softer. It also plays a role during the ageing of wine in its complex interaction with esters and phenolic compounds that produce various aromas in wine that contribute to a wine's flavor profile. For this reason, some winemakers will value having a higher potential alcohol level and delay harvesting until the grapes have a sufficiently high concentration of sugars.\n",
"Neutral spirits are used in the production of blended whisky, cut brandy, some liqueurs, and some bitters. As a consumer product, it is almost always mixed with other beverages to create drinks like alcoholic punch or Jello shots or is sometimes added to cocktails in place of vodka or rum. It is also used to make homemade liqueurs, such as limoncello or cassis, and in cooking because its high concentration of alcohol acts as a solvent to extract flavors. Rectified spirits are also used for medicinal tinctures and as a household solvent. It is sometimes consumed undiluted; however because the alcohol is very high proof, over consumption can cause alcohol poisoning more quickly than more traditional distilled spirits.\n",
"Some soft drinks contain measurable amounts of alcohol. In some older preparations, this resulted from natural fermentation used to build the carbonation. In the United States, soft drinks (as well as other products such as non-alcoholic beer) are allowed by law to contain up to 0.5% alcohol by volume. Modern drinks introduce carbon dioxide for carbonation, but there is some speculation that alcohol might result from fermentation of sugars in a non-sterile environment. A small amount of alcohol is introduced in some soft drinks where alcohol is used in the preparation of the flavoring extracts such as vanilla extract.\n",
"Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. The other simple alcohols are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids.\n"
] |
what kind of video editing software to big movies such as harry potter use?
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Final Cut X is actually not Final Cut 10, just "X". It is a dumbed down, consumer version of the glorious Final Cut 7 which Apple abandoned years ago, which was used on many feature films.
The old standard, Avid, is still a big one. However, Adobe Premiere is taking its cut of the cake as it has improved considerably over the past few years and its excellent integration with After Effects and other Adobe software makes it a pick of choice.
Edit: _URL_0_
According to this interview Harry Potter movies are edited in Avid.
|
[
"Hollywood film studios had already used the technique in animated films, but it took time and efforts from professionals. The main difference is that today anyone can use a deep fake software and rig videos.\n",
"Movie Edit Pro (also known as Magix Video Deluxe in Europe) is a video editing software developed by Magix for semi-professional and DIY users for Windows PC. It is the best selling video software in Europe, and is most famous for its ease-of-learn and rendering stability The first version was published in 2001. According to the developer, it applied the principles of non-destructiveness and object orientation to a video editing program for the first time.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Nero Video\": is a software tool for creating and editing videos. It combines editing tools (including the addition of effects, music and themes) and video export as well as DVD and Blu-ray authoring. The product provides simple editing functions for novices (in Express mode) as well as advanced video editing (Advanced mode). It is available separately as a download.\n",
"The software applies the drag and drop and point and click paradigms to animation, allowing users to create virtual sets, import props and characters, direct the characters to perform actions, and use virtual cameras to record scenes which can be edited on a timeline. Unlike traditional animation software, the possibilities for a user are limited - scenes will always utilise (at most) characters, cars, rooms and other common objects. However, this allows for much more intuitive user interaction, where \"intelligent\" props respond in obvious ways without the user needing to define the desired response. For instance, a character can be commanded to walk across a room by simply selecting the destination - the user does not need to directly animate the character's legs, arms, etc.\n",
"It used a custom, but otherwise powerful software to manage digital video editing. It was called MovieShop (latest version is from and was really flexible, so much that many studios adopted it as their primary editing suite.\n",
"Nero Video (known as Nero Vision until 15 October 2011) is a video editing software from Nero AG that provides simple editing functions (in Express mode) as well as advanced video editing (Advanced mode), which includes multitrack timeline and key framing functions. Nero Video also provides a wide range of functions for including photos and music in video projects, as well as a broad selection of transition, video, audio and title effects. In addition, it includes templates for semi-automatic film creation and for picture-in-picture effects. Once editing is complete, users can export their finished film as a file or upload it to the web. They can also use Nero Video to burn the film onto DVDs and Blu-Rays and personalize the discs’ menu and chapters step by step. Video disc creation is a separate module and can be executed directly from the start screen. That enables users to complete their disc-only projects quickly and easily. This authoring module also includes simple cropping and arranging tools.\n",
"The software includes modules for video editing, color correction, audio mixing/effects (including Fairlight), and visual effects (including Fusion). It can either be used as an intermediary between other NLE software and Digital Cinema Package (DCP) creation software, or as a standalone end-to-end video editing application.\n"
] |
why do i sound on pitch when i'm singing but when i listen to a recording i'm horrible?
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As a Singer (opera, rock, pop, choral) I love answering this because It's a struggle I have had constantly. Nobody can be actually tone deaf or you wouldn't be able to ever hear a tune or inflection in peoples voices, But when you are singing along with a track or with an instrument you are also hearing the instrument or track you're singing with.
This is why you often see singers plugging one ear so they have a register of what they actually sound like listening with their inner ear as well as the perception of how their voice bounces around and mixes. If you cover your ears and sing you will have a more accurate Idea of what you sound like (I'm sorry for shattering the illusion).
To improve your singing you can probably take lessons that teach you how to match pitch without the aid of covering your ear as you learn what your own voice truly sounds like and have outside input as to when you are singing correctly.
Hope this helps!
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[
"A low pitch (also known as the pitch of the missing fundamental or virtual pitch) can sometimes be heard when there is no apparent source or component of that frequency. This perception is due to the brain interpreting repetition patterns that are present.\n",
"A special type of pitch often occurs in free nature when sound reaches the ear of an observer directly from the source, and also after reflecting off a sound-reflecting surface. This phenomenon is called \"repetition pitch\", because the addition of a true repetition of the original sound to itself is the basic prerequisite.\n",
"Humans retain a relatively strong auditory image for details in pitch, which can be improved with musical training. The development of cultivating an auditory image with absolute pitch, which is being able to determine a note upon hearing a sound, however, is dependent on childhood musical training and genetic factors. People are able to improve their discrimination of pitch; however, they cannot improve their detection. Auditory image pitch detection studies have shown that response time decreases when judging two high pitches as opposed to judging two low pitches.\n",
"The most common use of pitch correctors is to fix wrong intonation (tuning) of notes sung by vocalists in popular music sound recordings. The use of pitch correction speeds up the recording process, because singers do not need to keep singing a song or vocal line and re-recording it until the pitches are correct. The pitch correction software can correct any pitch errors in the singing without the need for overdubbing or re-recording.\n",
"Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent. Frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each person's \"subjective perception\" of a sound wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this does not necessarily mean that most people won't agree on which notes are higher and lower.\n",
"Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note or tone is \"higher\" or \"lower\" than another musical sound, note or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum. We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck.\n",
"In the physical sense of the term, the word \"pitch\" refers to the frequency of a sound. Another term that is frequently used by music neuroscientists is \"fine-grained pitch processing\" which refers to the ability of a person to distinguish minor changes or fluctuations in pitch. Processing pitch is an extremely integral part of music cognition. Recent developments in brain scanning techniques have shown neuroscientists that the posterior secondary cortex plays an extremely important part in the processing of pitch in the brain. In music, \"pitch relation\" is more important than pitch itself. A subset of five to seven pitches creates a scale. The scale tones are \"not equivalent and are organized around a central tone, called the tonic\" (Peretz 2005).\n"
] |
With all this fear mongering about Ebola, how about facts. How could a virus like Ebola become airborne, what mutation would be necessary?
|
It is difficult to say specifically for ebolavirus. To know precisely which mutation would be necessary to confer airborne transmission would require gain-of-function experiments such as those conducted on the H5N1 avian flu. ([source](_URL_1_)) This kind of study is basically forced lab evolution: site-directed mutagenesis is used on the virus followed by multiple passages of virus in hosts with desired traits selected, in this case airborne transmission. Such experiments are controversial and quite dangerous as we would be making a virus *more* transmissible. There was a [recent AMA](_URL_0_) in /r/science about this issue.
The H5N1 flu study showed that 4 different point mutations in the H5N1 genome were seen in all the successfully transformed mammal airborne flu viruses. These four mutations affected receptor binding (virus binds to upper airway epithelium), replication, and glycosylation (the attachment of sugar chains to surface protein that may change the virion's ability to get into water droplets). ([source](_URL_1_)) Whether these changes are applicable to ebolavirus is not known.
The thing is: there is little selective pressure for ebola to develop such mutations; ebola is spreading just fine in the populations of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, with basic replication numbers (average number of secondary cases an infected individual can cause) of 1.71, 1.83, and 2.02 respectively. ([source](_URL_2_)) Anything over 1 is enough to cause an epidemic. And ebola is primarily a blood/fluid-borne pathogen, so most favorable (for the virus) mutations that ebola would undergo would likely be within that existing transmission framework rather than toward developing a novel transmission route.
That is not to say that these fears airborne ebola are totally without basis. Viruses mutate very quickly even within one host. An epidemic with exponential growth like the one going on in W. Africa right now has the virus passaging through thousands of hosts, increasing the probability of novel mutations/adaptations being selected and further passaged. If the response/containment situation does not improve over there thousands of hosts will become tens of thousands very quickly. ([source](_URL_2_))
|
[
"Good disease tracing is important to prevent the outbreak from spreading. Previous Ebola outbreaks have occurred in remote areas making containment easier; the current outbreak struck in an area that lies at the centre of both a highly-mobile and densely populated region which has made tracking more difficult: \"This time, the virus is traveling effortlessly across borders by plane, car and foot, shifting from forests to cities and springing up in clusters far from any previously known infections. Border closures, flight bans and mass quarantines have been ineffective.\" Peter Piot, who co-discovered Ebola, said Ebola \"isn't striking in a 'linear fashion' this time. It's hopping around, especially in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone\".\n",
"In 2014, Will claimed that Ebola could be spread via sneezing, contrary to widely accepted evidence which says that Ebola can only be spread by direct contact with infected bodily fluids. The comments occurred in a context of Republican criticism of the Obama administration's handling of the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. PolitiFact rated Will's claim as \"False.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- To break an awkward silence, Chandler Bing says, \"So, the Ebola virus. That's gotta suck, huh?\" In 2014, when Ebola reached America, some sources incorrectly said Chandler had predicted the Ebola outbreak, even though the disease had been discovered in 1976.\n",
"In January 2015, the media stated researchers in Guinea had reported mutations in the virus samples that they were looking at. According to them, \"we've now seen several cases that don't have any symptoms at all, asymptomatic cases. These people may be the people who can spread the virus better, but we still don't know that yet. A virus can change itself to [become] less deadly, but more contagious and that's something we are afraid of.\" A 2015 study suggested that accelerating the rate of mutation of the Ebola virus could make the virus less capable of infecting humans. In this animal study, the virus became practically non-viable, consequently increasing survival.\n",
"According to a September 2018 \"Lancet\" survey, 25% of respondents in Beni and Butembo believed the Ebola outbreak to be a hoax. These beliefs correlated with decreased likelihood of seeking healthcare or agreeing to vaccination. Furthermore, according to the World Health Organization, resistance to vaccination in the Kaniyi health area was ongoing as of March 2019.\n",
"Although Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area such as Lassa fever, another hemorrhagic fever similar to Ebola. Thus, it was not until March 2014 that the outbreak was recognized as Ebola. The Ministry of Health of Guinea notified the World Health Organization (WHO), and on 23 March the WHO announced an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Guinea with a total of 49 cases as of that date. By late May, the outbreak had spread to Conakry, Guinea's capital, a city of about two million inhabitants.\n",
"Although Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area. Thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola.\n"
] |
regarding nasa's new "warp" discovery: how does a warp open?
|
I think you're confused. Nasa's newest piece of technology is the EMDrive. It doesn't create warp bubbles but years ago some guy in a garage said "hey, I can accelerate this thing without using propellant!" but was treated as some crazy dude in a garage. Not too long after China, I believe, verified and ran their own tests, and came to the same conclusion as garage dude. Eventually NASA took notice and lo and behold, it worked for them too but they do not know why. It is now undergoing more rigorous testing.
So in short the EM drive accelerates without using fuel, just electricity, which is huge for space travel.
There is a theoretical warp drive though but it requires negative mass and is still very theoretical.
|
[
"The episode \"Metamorphosis\", from \"The Original Series\", establishes a backstory for the invention of warp drive on Earth, in which Zefram Cochrane discovered the \"space warp\". Cochrane is repeatedly referred to afterwards, but the exact details of the first warp trials were not shown until the second \"\" movie, \"\". The movie depicts Cochrane as having first operated a warp drive on Earth in 2063. This successful first trial led directly to first contact with the Vulcans.\n",
"\"Voyager\"s crew discovers a rare, more stable form of dilithium that they postulate could power a warp drive beyond Warp 10. This would allow \"Voyager\" to reach the Alpha Quadrant near instantaneously. Although holodeck simulations prove disastrous, Lieutenant Paris (Robert Duncan McNeill) comes up with an idea after an off-the-cuff discussion with Neelix (Ethan Phillips). The next simulation is successful and a shuttlecraft, dubbed the \"Cochrane\", is prepared for a full test flight. (Robert Picardo) identifies a rare medical condition in Lieutenant Paris indicating a 2% chance that he will suffer lethal effects from the test-flight and recommends assigning Ensign Kim (Garrett Wang) as test-pilot. Paris convinces Captain Janeway (Kate Mulgrew) to allow him to fly the shuttle despite the small risk.\n",
"In 1994, Alcubierre proposed a method for changing the geometry of space by creating a wave that would cause the fabric of space ahead of a spacecraft to contract and the space behind it to expand. The ship would then ride this wave inside a region of flat space, known as a \"warp bubble\", and would not move within this bubble but instead be carried along as the region itself moves due to the actions of the drive. It was thought to use too much negative energy until Harold Sonny White said that the amount of energy required could be reduced if the warp bubble were changed into a warp ring.\n",
"Janeway and Ransom discuss how both their ships had been pulled into the Delta Quadrant, five years earlier, by . Ransom shares that they found a wormhole and made enhancements to their warp engines, explaining how this allowed the smaller (with a crew of 80) and slower (warp 8) \"Nova\"-class \"Equinox\" to travel the same 40,000 light years as \"Voyager\" on its return to Earth.\n",
"In-universe, the sentence was attributed in the \"\" pilot episode \"\" to warp drive inventor Dr. Zefram Cochrane in a recorded speech during the dedication of the facility devoted to designing the first engine capable of reaching Warp 5 (thus making interstellar exploration practical for humans) in the year 2119, some thirty-two years before the 2151 launch of the first vessel powered by such an engine, the \"Enterprise\" (NX-01):\n",
"In Houston, Texas, at the Johnson Space Center, Harold White is working to create a warp drive that could be used for propulsion. Although this project is not related to the project proposed by BTE Dan, it could still possibly be used in a future version of the \"Enterprise\". The project is based on Miguel Alcubierre's spacetime metric. The warp drive would allow the ship to travel faster than the speed of light by compressing space around it to create a moving bubble. As of yet however, there still remain many problems with the theory.\n",
"In 2012, NASA researcher Harold White hypothesized that by changing the shape of the warp drive, much less negative mass and energy could be used, though the energy required ranges from the mass of Voyager 1 to the mass of the observable universe, or many orders of magnitude greater than anything currently possible by modern technology. NASA engineers have begun preliminary research into such technology.\n"
] |
how is it that otherwise seemingly normal people can become so invested in a sports team that they're willing to make it a huge part of their identity, up to the point of rioting should their team lose?
|
I did research on this in college for psychology. Turns out the more invested in outside events, especially sports the lower the self esteem of the individual. Now having a healthy relationship with a sports team is ok and being happy or disappointed when your team wins and loses is ok, but the people that get truly upset and it ruins their day or week, those are the ones who have the lowest self esteem. They are not happy within themselves and invest part of their identity in the team. As in their teams success also reflects on who they are as individuals. Basically they don't have anything good per say going in their lives and their team is the only thing that makes them feel like they are a success. You will see this pattern in every ethnicity, age and economic range, although it tends to be more pronounced in lower income and blue collar workers.
|
[
"In such sports as basketball and football there is a stress on the importance of teamwork. This is so because the team is a smaller society that needs to function properly. This means that they need good communication and get necessary goals accomplished for the team. Because of this, the individual on the team is seen as less important than the group as everyone works toward the goal of making the group the best it can possibly be. Players do this \"in the form of obedience to authority, group loyalty, and the willingness to sacrifice for the good of the group.\"\n",
"Professional sports, as opposed to amateur sports, are sports in which athletes receive payment for their performance. Professional athleticism has come to the fore through a combination of developments. Mass media and increased leisure have brought larger audiences, so that sports organizations or teams can command large incomes. As a result, more sportspeople can afford to make athleticism their primary career, devoting the training time necessary to increase skills, physical condition, and experience to modern levels of achievement. This proficiency has also helped boost the popularity of sports.\n",
"Some believe that the universities are not to blame, and that students often pave their own path. In a survey consisting of previous student athletes, athletic performance and effort was attributed to helping the development of major life skills, especially in the work force. However, this can change from person to person, and social theorists even believe that roles and identities contribute heavily to where a person is headed in life. There are some athletes, whose personality caters to working incredibly hard on the field, rather than off the field, thus developing more of an athletic identity that can get in the way of a career path or education. The same goes with those who have passions in education or some other activity, making student athletes think very differently from one another.\n",
"Student-athletes are described as amateurs and that they are playing for the love of the sport and not money. Amateurism is said to have started in England where students played sports on the side for fun. After the realization that college sports were becoming involved seriously with gambling and fraud the idea that offering athletes a free education would get rid of that culture. \n",
"In the case of athletes, their services or talents are considered to be a business in their own right, and the sportsperson may therefore be recognised as multiple operating entities. This can be avoided by athletes if they only perform services through the Loan-Out corporation, not forming additional contracts with other external parties for their athletic services. \n",
"Sometimes the professional status of an activity is controversial; for example, there is debate as to whether professionals should be allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. The motivation for money (either in rewards, salaries or advertising revenue) is sometimes seen as a corrupting influence, tainting a sport.\n",
"As athletes move on from sports the separation from their athletic identity maybe easier for some than others. It could be the greater the commitment to the athletic role, the more difficult the disengagement, but there are too many factors to pin point the reasoning. It takes time an effort to reinvent oneself and figure out a future in society aside from sports.\n"
] |
why are there hd versions of tv channels? why not just replace the original channel with the hd version?
|
> Surely if something is in HD, it was recorded that way originally.
Correct.
> If its just a rip off thing
It's not a "rip-off" thing. It's a "people are willing to pay less for standard definition, and more for high definition" thing.
> wouldnt it be a good idea to make laws banning this practice?
No. Telling a company "you can't charge different amounts for different products" is generally an ill-conceived way of writing laws. It limits consumer options. The result would be "well, I guess the cheaper version is going away then, and we're only going to charge the higher price for HD channels".
|
[
"When the HD channel launched, the network had a different presentation than most HD channels, choosing to present content on the standard definition feed using a left cut of the HD image rather than taken from the center of the screen within the standard 4:3 safe area. As of February 2013, the standard definition channel is now merely downscaled at the provider from the HD feed rather than having a devoted channel for 4:3 TVs.\n",
"The broadcasts make use of a single multiplex currently allowing four channels, BBC One HD, BBC Two HD, ITV HD/STV HD/UTV HD and Channel 4 HD. A fifth slot is available, with Channel 5 withdrawing from the opportunity to broadcast on it on two separate occasions, it has however been temporarily used by both the BBC and Channel 4.\n",
"The channel carries the same schedule as Channel 4, broadcasting programmes in HD when available, acting as a simulcast. Therefore, SD programming is broadcast upscaled to HD. The first true HD programme to be shown was the 1996 Adam Sandler film Happy Gilmore. From launch until 2016 the presence of the 4HD logo on screen denoted true HD content.\n",
"The new DirecTV HD channels require an H20/HR20 or H21/HR21/HR22/HR23/H24/HR24 set top box (STB). In order to receive the new HD channels (channels added after September 2007), all HD receivers except the HR23 must have a B-Band converter installed. If the converter is not installed, viewers can only receive older HD channels (channels 70–99). The B-Band Converter (BBC) is also not required with the new Single Wire Multiswitch (SWM or SWiM) system, which preselects the satellite and transponder tuning and can feed up to 8 tuners via a single coaxial cable. The \"HR\" moniker designates the receiver as an HD digital video recorder (DVR) model.\n",
"The channel replaced Seven's existing high definition service 7 HD Digital, a part-time simulcast of its standard definition and analogue services. Due to an amendment of the \"Broadcasting Services Act 1992\" in 2006, the \"Broadcasting Legislation Amendment (Digital television) Act 2006\", television networks are now permitted to launch digital multichannels, provided that they are broadcast exclusively in high definition. The channel expanded its broadcast schedule on 10 December 2007 to include daytime programming which had previously been a full simulcast of the main channel. 7HD breakaway programming ceased transmission on Sunday 4 October 2009 in preparation for the launch of 7TWO a few weeks later on 1 November. 7HD then returned to being a full high definition simulcast of Seven, before finally being replaced by 7mate on 25 September 2010.\n",
"A few high-end receivers feature HDTV. In North America, these often include an ATSC over-the-air digital television tuner and MPEG-4 support. A few HDTV units allow for the addition of a UHF remote control. However, an 8PSK module can be installed in place of the UHF remote and allows the receiver to decode the format used on most Dish Network high definition programming.\n",
"All of the standard definition channels on Freesat are broadcast using DVB-S; ITV HD, NHK World HD and RT HD also use DVB-S. BBC One HD and BBC HD used DVB-S until 6 June 2011 when the satellite transponder carrying them was upgraded to DVB-S2. Channel 4 HD had launched using DVB-S2 but the transponder was downgraded to DVB-S on 28 March 2012. Standard definition channels are broadcast using MPEG-2, while high definition channels are broadcast using MPEG-4.\n"
] |
why is it called a 'cold' when you're body is actually hot?
|
Have you noticed that you *feel* cold when your running a fever? It's sometimes called "the chills".
Part of the sensation of temperature is the *difference* between the room's temperature and your body temperature. When your body is hot (without clear causes such as exertion), the room feels colder.
The term cold describes how the patient *feels*. They feel like the room's cold and they want a blanket even though they are running a fever.
|
[
"Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n",
"The human body normally cools itself by perspiration, or sweating. Heat is removed from the body by evaporation of that sweat. However, high relative humidity reduces the evaporation rate. This results in a lower rate of heat removal from the body, hence the sensation of being overheated. This effect is subjective, with different individuals perceiving heat differently for various reasons (such as differences in body shape, metabolic differences, differences in hydration, pregnancy, menopause, effects of drugs and/or drug withdrawal); its measurement has been based on subjective descriptions of how hot subjects feel for a given temperature and humidity. This results in a heat index that relates one combination of temperature and humidity to another.\n",
"One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n",
"According to the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown commentary, \"cold\" must mean \"more than negatively cold\", i.e. not warm: it must mean \"positively, icy cold: never warmed\", while \"hot\" literally means \"boiling\" or \"fervent\". They comment that \"the lukewarm state (verse 16), if it be the transitional stage to a warmer, is a desirable state (for a little religion, if real, is better than none); but most fatal when, as here, an abiding condition, for it is mistaken for a safe state.\"\n",
"The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n",
"Referring to conduction, Partington writes: \"If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a \"quantity of heat\" has passed from the hot body to the cold body.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Heat\" (热, ) is characterized by absence of aversion to cold, a red and painful throat, a dry tongue fur and a rapid and floating pulse, if it falls together with an exterior pattern. In all other cases, symptoms depend on whether heat is coupled with vacuity or repletion.\n"
] |
factorials
|
You're counting how many ways you can arrange things.
Say you have 4 cards. How many possible ways can you order those cards?
There are 4 possibilities for the first card, 3 for the second, 2 for the third, and one for the last (whichever one is left). 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 4!.
|
[
"In number theory, an aurifeuillean factorization, or aurifeuillian factorization, named after Léon-François-Antoine Aurifeuille, is a special type of algebraic factorization that comes from non-trivial factorizations of cyclotomic polynomials over the integers. Although cyclotomic polynomials themselves are irreducible over the integers, when restricted to particular integer values they may have an algebraic factorization, as in the examples below.\n",
"In combinatorics, the factorial number system, also called factoradic, is a mixed radix numeral system adapted to numbering permutations. It is also called factorial base, although factorials do not function as base, but as place value of digits. By converting a number less than \"n\"! to factorial representation, one obtains a sequence of \"n\" digits that can be converted to a permutation of \"n\" in a straightforward way, either using them as Lehmer code or as inversion table representation; in the\n",
"In statistics, fractional factorial designs are experimental designs consisting of a carefully chosen subset (fraction) of the experimental runs of a full factorial design . The subset is chosen so as to exploit the sparsity-of-effects principle to expose information about the most important features of the problem studied, while using a fraction of the effort of a full factorial design in terms of experimental runs and resources. In other words, it makes use of the fact that many experiments in full factorial design are often redundant, giving little or no new information about the system.\n",
"A factor base is a relatively small set of distinct prime numbers \"P\", sometimes together with -1. Say we want to factorize an integer \"n\". We generate, in some way, a large number of integer pairs (\"x\", \"y\") for which formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 can be completely factorized over the chosen factor base—that is, all their prime factors are in \"P\".\n",
"In number theory, integer factorization is the decomposition of a composite number into a product of smaller integers. If these integers are further restricted to prime numbers, the process is called prime factorization.\n",
"In mathematics, a factor system (sometimes called factor set) is a fundamental tool of Otto Schreier’s classical theory for group extension problem. It consists of a set of automorphisms and a binary function on a group satisfying certain condition (so-called \"cocycle condition\"). In fact, a factor system constitutes a realisation of the cocycles in the second cohomology group in group cohomology.\n",
"The factorial operation is encountered in many areas of mathematics, notably in combinatorics, algebra, and mathematical analysis. Its most basic use counts the possible distinct sequences – the permutations – of distinct objects: there are .\n"
] |
why are some noises "louder" than others?
|
You are probably experiencing the effect that things sound louder when there is a drastic change in volume level from before to during the sound. Bangs of doors tend to go from quiet to loud really fast, while shouting is consistent.
|
[
"Less addressed is how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Indeed, tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture. Schafer also notes that sound is an expression of power, and as such, material culture (e.g., fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes) tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a particular sound. Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research, Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of the soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments.\n",
"Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response. Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures don't \"speak\" loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.\n",
"In finance, noise obtained a formal definition in a 1986 paper by Fischer Black: \"Noise in the sense of a large number of small events is often a cause factor much more powerful than a small number of large events can be.\"\n",
"Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.\n",
"Noise is generally a by-product of increased urbanization and development. Noise can alter the acoustic environment of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Bird diversity has shown to decline because of chronic noise levels in cities and along roadways. Some species such as the urban great tits have changed the frequency of their calls to adapt. In terms of evolution, man-made noise is a much more recent phenomenon. Scientific research has shown that it has potential to change behavior, alter physiology and even restructure animal communities. \n",
"Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see above).\n",
"In more general usage, noise is any unwanted sound or signal. In this sense, even sounds that would be perceived as musically ordinary in another context become noise if they interfere with the reception of a message desired by the receiver. Prevention and reduction of unwanted sound, from tape hiss to squeaking bass drum pedals, is important in many musical pursuits, but noise is also used creatively in many ways, and in some way in nearly all genres.\n"
] |
why do batteries have a 'use by' date, and what could be the result of using it after that date?
|
Because there's a chemical reaction going on all the time inside the battery, it can burn itself out if not used for a certain length of time.
|
[
"BULLET::::- In the United States there are codes on batteries to help consumers buy a recently produced one. When batteries are stored, they can start losing their charge. A battery made in October 2015 will have a numeric code of 10-5 or an alphanumeric code of K-5. \"A\" is for January, \"B\" is for February, and so on (the letter \"I\" is skipped).\n",
"Batteries Included was founded by siblings Alan Krofchick, Robbie Krofchick and Marcie Swartz in 1978 as a calculator and personal computer retail store. The hand-held electronic devices they sold were always advertised as \"batteries not included,\" so they included the batteries for free and named themselves Batteries Included. The company began to develop its own computer software and hardware and became a multimillion-dollar multi-faceted company, charging its way into the international computer software and accessory market. Michael Reichmann joined the company in its early years and eventually became its president in the mid-1980s.\n",
"The company did not make batteries, but the use of the word battery in the name refers to a method of metal production and forming (which had largely been supplanted by metal rolling using steam power).\n",
"For children in the age range 10−13, batteries are used to illustrate the connection between chemistry and electricity as well as to deepen the circuit concept for electricity. The fact that different chemical elements such as copper and zinc are used can be placed in the larger context that the elements do not disappear or break down when they undergo chemical reactions.\n",
"Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger time was set to suit those batteries. If batteries of lower capacity were charged then they would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were charged they would be only partly charged. With the trend for battery technology to increase capacity year on year, an old timer charger would only partly charge the newer batteries.\n",
"As battery-backup systems became smaller and more efficient, some exit signs began to use a dual-power system. Under normal conditions, the exit sign was lit by mains power and the battery was in a charged state. In the event of a power outage, the battery would supply power to light the sign. Early battery-backup systems were big, heavy, and costly. Modern systems are lightweight, can be installed virtually anywhere, and are integrated into the fixture, rather than requiring a separate box. As batteries improved, so did the amount of time that a fixture could remain lit on batteries.\n",
"The life of the battery in an e-TAGs is approximately 5 years. Customers are advised when a device is about to expire and to contact the issuer should their e-TAG not beep as they pass a tolling gantry, to receive a replacement device.\n"
] |
why is jimi hendrix considered one of the greatest guitar players?
|
Jimi Hendrix is considered a great guitar player because he reinvented how the guitar was played. He invented a style that influenced just about every rock, blues and jazz guitarist that came after him. His technical skill wasn't the greatest, but his creativity and style has proven to be extremely influential--even nearly 50 years after he got his start! For example, he was known to use hammer-ons and pull-offs: a style that made Eddie Van Halen famous. He played loud and distorted, which was influential to the hard rock and heavy metal bands that came in the 70's. His wah-wah sound went on to influence guys like Steve Vai. He even had a session with Miles Davis, making him popular with fusion guitarists such as Al DiMeola. In short, he was highly original and influential.
|
[
"The American musician Jimi Hendrix (born November 27, 1942) was one of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s. His Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography says he \"was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\"\n",
"\"Rolling Stone\" ranks Hendrix as the greatest guitarist of all time. Kramer specifically cites his strong individuality, powerful message, and expansion of the sonic vocabulary of electric guitar, including its potentials for controlled feedback and distortion. In the words of master musician Les Paul, for whom the Gibson Les Paul is named, \"Man, he was all over that thing! He had that thing wide open.\"\n",
"The Experience's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states: \"Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\" Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as \"one of the most creative\" and \"influential musicians that has ever lived\". Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: \"In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers. His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s.\"\n",
"James Marshall \"Jimi\" Hendrix (born Johnny Allen Hendrix; November 27, 1942 – September 18, 1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. His mainstream career lasted only four years, but he is widely regarded as one of the most influential guitarists in history and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as \"the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music\".\n",
"Another version of the story has Hendrix being asked, \"Jimi, how does it feel to be the world's greatest guitar player?\" To which Hendrix supposedly replied, \"I don't know, you'll have to ask Phil Keaggy!\" This account is sometimes attributed to a magazine interview in either \"Rolling Stone\" or \"Guitar Player\". Occasionally the story has the setting for the question being a Hendrix appearance on \"The Dick Cavett Show\", which is also untrue, as the clip from the show in question (in 1969) contains no mention of any other guitar players.\n",
"Hendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career, but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster. He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964. He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings. In 1967, he described the instrument as \"the best all-around guitar for the stuff we're doing\"; he praised its \"bright treble and deep bass sounds\".\n",
"When rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix became popular in the 1960s, he created the persona of the guitar hero, the charismatic solo guitarist dazzling the audience. He created possibilities on guitar through the use of electronic effect units. Hendrix inspired many musicians to pick up electric guitar.\n"
] |
How are Tourniquets usually removed if they have been on for a while but so that the limb can still be saved?
|
In a operating room, slowly so as not to cause bursting of capalaries(sp?). Up to 6 hours from initial application of the tourniquet the limb can be mostly saved (depends on the damage done) this is from memory from military training.
|
[
"Emergency tourniquets are cuff-like devices designed to stop severe traumatic bleeding before or during transport to a care facility. They are wrapped around the limb, proximal to the site of trauma, and tightened until all blood vessels underneath are occluded. The design and construction of emergency tourniquets allows quick application by first aid responders or the injured persons themselves. Correct use of tourniquet devices have been shown to save lives under austere conditions with comparatively low risk of injury. In field trials, prompt application of emergency tourniquets before the patient goes into shock are associated with higher survival rates than any other scenario where tourniquets were used later or not at all.\n",
"A tourniquet is a device which applies pressure to a limb or extremity so as to limit – but not stop – the flow of blood. It may be used in emergencies, in surgery, or in post-operative rehabilitation.\n",
"A simple tourniquet can be made from a stick and a rope (or leather belt). The rope is made into a loop that fits over the damaged limb and the stick is inserted through the loop. The loop is tightened by twisting the stick. This may stem the flow of blood, but side-effects such as soft tissue damage and nerve damage may occur.\n",
"The device can be locked into unassociated positions for each limb to permit the user to stand in a comfortable way. The designers believe that the device is perfect for medical surgeons who need to stand for long hours during operations.\n",
"Improvised tourniquets, in addition to creating potential problems for the ongoing medical management of the patient, usually fail to achieve force enough to adequately compress the arteries of the limb. As a result, they not only fail to stop arterial bleeding, but may actually increase bleeding by impairing venous bloodflow.\n",
"At the beginning of the surgery a tourniquet will be applied to the limb. A tourniquet compresses and control the arterial and venous circulation for about 2 hours. The constriction band must be dissected very carefully to avoid damaging the underlying neurovasculature. When the constriction band is excised, there will be a direct closure. This allows the fatty tissue to naturally reposition itself under the skin.\n",
"Emergency field tourniquets have been used for many centuries, and have seen a resurgence in the recent combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as expanded use in civilian trauma and mass casualty settings. Expedient and widespread tourniquet use in the modern combat setting is frequently cited as a primary driver for increased survival following major battlefield trauma. These tourniquets are often 1-2\" in width, which concentrates the pressure to a narrow band of tissue. They can result in tissue necrosis if kept in place for long periods, and should only be applied after other methods to control bleeding (e.g., elevation or direct pressure to the wound) have failed, except in settings where time does not allow waiting. Generally, tissue distal to a field tourniquet that has been in place for greater than 6 hours is considered likely to be non-viable.\n"
] |
david camerons deal with the eu
|
Cameron told the EU he would stop promoting a "Brexit" if they made reforms in 4 certain areas. Yesterday Donald Tusk (president of the European Council) released a draft trying to find a compromise between Cameron and the EU. Here's what these 4 demands are, and the EU's response to them:
**1. Demand**: Citizens of the EU coming to work in the UK shouldn't be able to apply for important social advantages to accompany their wage for their first 4 years. Also, those workers should no longer be able to send child support to their overseas families.
**EU response**: London will be allowed to pull an "emergency brake" if it experiences an extraordinarily large influx of workers from other EU-countries. To do so, they'll have to alert the European Commission to their social security, labour market or social services being under pressure. With a majority vote, the other EU-members can then allow the UK to limit these services for up to 4 years. However, during those 4 years the emergency brake has to be gradually loosened, and the new system only applies to newcomers. Also, an EU-citizen working in London will still receive child support if their child is staying in their home country. In calculating the exact amount of child support, the standard of living in the country in question must be considered.
**2. Demand**: Cameron wanted black-on-white that the principle of an *ever-closer union* would not apply to the UK. He also demanded that national parliaments could draw a 'red card' for European legislation they feel is best decided nationally.
**Eu response**: According to Tusk, the 'ever-closer union' is about improving trust and understanding between the European peoples, not about political integration. Because of this, it can't be the basis for expanding EU legislation. The draft also states the UK doesn't need to strive for further political integration, which is legally binding. Also, if 55% of national parliaments protest against an EU law within 12 weeks, it will be put up for discussion by the national leaders.
**3. Demand**: Cameron wants the EU to recognize itself as multi-currency, and that centralisation for the Euro should never apply to non-euro countries. Also, taxpayers from non-euro countries should never financially support operations within the eurozone.
**EU response**: Laws concerning the monetary union will not be binding for non-euro countries, and they won't have to support operations within the eurozone. However, the EU will not be explicitly multi-currency. Also, non-euro countries can't form an obstacle for integration within the eurozone.
**4. Demand**: Cameron wants the EU to be more competitive, which would lead to more jobs and growth.
**Eu response**: Tusk says he'll be committed increasing competitiveness, and the burden on companies (especially gmo's) will be lessened, but no detailed policies have been mentioned.
And that's about the gist of it. Cameron mostly loses out on the first demand, which it what the papers comment on the most.
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[
"In early 2014, David Cameron outlined the changes he aimed to bring about in the EU and in the UK's relationship with it. These were: additional immigration controls, especially for citizens of new EU member states; tougher immigration rules for present EU citizens; new powers for national parliaments collectively to veto proposed EU laws; new free-trade agreements and a reduction in bureaucracy for businesses; a lessening of the influence of the European Court of Human Rights on British police and courts; more power for individual member states, and less for the central EU; and abandonment of the EU notion of \"ever closer union\". He intended to bring these about during a series of negotiations with other EU leaders and then, if re-elected, to announce a referendum.\n",
"In this role he advocated David Cameron's EU reform program and the UK's EU membership prior to the referendum on the UK's continuing membership of the EU. In May 2015 he advised Cameron not to rush into a referendum vote in order to ensure a better renegotiation of the UK's place in the Union. He later claimed that Cameron could have got a better deal from the other EU member states if he had dragged the negotiations for longer - as opposed to the advice of the UK ambassador to the EU, Sir Ivan Rogers.\n",
"David Cameron has proposed a referendum on the UK's EU continuing membership on 23 June 2016, following negotiations and a package of changes agreed by the EU. On 24 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.\n",
"In November that year, Cameron gave an update on the negotiations and further details of his aims. The key demands made of the EU were: on economic governance, to recognise officially that Eurozone laws would not necessarily apply to non-Eurozone EU members and the latter would not have to bail out troubled Eurozone economies; on competitiveness, to expand the single market and to set a target for the reduction of bureaucracy for businesses; on sovereignty, for the UK to be legally exempted from \"ever closer union\" and for national parliaments to be able collectively to veto proposed EU laws; and, on immigration, for EU citizens going to the UK for work to be unable to claim social housing or in-work benefits until they had worked there for four years, and for them to be unable to send child benefit payments overseas.\n",
"As promised in the election manifesto, Cameron set a date for a referendum on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union, and announced that he would be campaigning for Britain to remain within a \"reformed EU\". The terms of the UK's membership of the EU were re-negotiated, with agreement reached in February 2016.\n",
"On 1 July 2013, Cameron outlined his \"vision of the EU is that it should be a large trading and co-operating organisation that effectively stretches, as it were, from the Atlantic to the Urals. We have a wide vision of Europe and have always encouraged countries that want to join,\" as he welcomed the 28th member of the union (Croatia) to the fold while he spoke to Kazakh university students. The speech was characterised as a \"hugely provocative pro-EU\" one by some observers. Cameron \"hailed the power of the EU to transform divided societies,\" whereas President of Russia Vladimir Putin \"may regard Cameron's remarks as hostile. Putin believes that the EU should extend no further into the former USSR than the Baltic states.\"\n",
"After the deal had been approved, Cameron described it as giving the United Kingdom \"special status within the European Union\" and immediately declared that both he and the UK Government would campaign for a \"Remain\" vote in the referendum within a \"reformed European Union\". The following day, after a special meeting of the cabinet, Cameron announced that the in-out referendum would be held on 23 June 2016 under the provisions of the European Union Referendum Act 2015 which had already been agreed by the UK Parliament.\n"
] |
What Medieval War Strategy Book Should I Read?
|
I recommend the following five works as the rock on which to build your understanding of medieval warfare. They are not all easy to read, *Warfare in Medieval Europe 400-1453* is particularly dense, but they will all add to your understanding of the subject. In general, the newer works supersede the older works when it comes to facts, so when there is a contradiction, then the newer work is usually the correct one. I don't believe that this is always the case, but this usually comes down to differences of opinion, not fact. If you only read one of the books, then *Medieval Warfare* will provide the best overview, though I disagree entirely with Timothy Reuter's section of the book.
* *History of the Art of War, Volumes 1-3*, by Hans Delbrück, for insight into infantry and cavalry dynamics, how to use topography and logistics to examine the veracity of battle accounts and various useful miscellaneous pieces of information and primary source quotations.
* *The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages*, by J.F. Verbruggen for detail on the psychology of medieval warriors.
* *War in the Middle Ages*, by Philippe Contamine for some of the societal aspects of warfare.
* *Medieval Warfare*, edited by Maurice Keen for early medieval Scandinavian warfare, warfare in the High and Late Middle Ages, equipment, sieges, naval warfare, use of mercenaries and the effects of warfare on civilians.
* *Warfare in Medieval Europe 400-1453*, by Bernard and David Bachrach for how to use primary sources, logistics, finance and Carolingian and Ottonian warfare.
If you want a look at the mind of the medieval warrior, the primary sources are excellent for this. Jean de Joinville's *The Life of Saint Louis* and Geoffrey of Villehardouin's *On the Conquest of Constantinople* are two valuable looks into the mind of a medieval knight.
For a look at the kinds of questions and moral dilemmas medieval warriors had, then Christine de Pizan's *The Book of Deeds of Arms and Chivalry* has a large section devoted to both the questions and answers of this nature, as well as being an important source on early 15th century warfare.
**Edit:** I've just now been reading *Bloodied Banners: Martial Display on the Medieval Battlefield*, by Robert W Jones, and I think this would also suit your needs, as it delves quite deeply into the psychology surrounding arms and armour and their effect on opponents.
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[
"“The Offensive/Defensive in Medieval Strategy,” \"From Crecy to Mohacs: Warfare in the Late Middle Ages (1346-1526). Acta of the XXIInd Colloquium of the International Commission of Military History\" (Vienna, 1996) (Vienna: Heeresgeschichtliches Museum/Militärhistorisches Institut, 1997): 158-171.\n",
"“Early and High Medieval Warfare,” \"The West Point History of Warfare\", senior eds. Clifford J. Rogers and James T. Seidule, chapter eds. Clifford J. Rogers and John Stapleton, Jr. (New York: Rowan Technology Solutions, 2015).\n",
"The main campaign of \"Medieval: Total War\" involves the player choosing one of the fourteen playable factions and eventually leading them in conquest on the strategy map. Each of the factions controls a number of historical provinces, which on the map contain a castle and, if located by the sea, a port as well. In the campaign, the player controls construction, unit recruitment and the movement of armies, fleets and agents in each of these provinces, using these means to acquire and defend the provinces. Diplomacy and economics are two other aspects the player can use to advance their aims, as well as having access to more clandestine means such as espionage and assassination. Religion is very important in the game, with the player able to convert provinces to their own religions to cement the people's loyalty. Another campaign mode is available, called \"Glorious Achievements\", in which each faction has several historically-based goals to achieve, which score points; the faction with the most achievement points wins the game. The campaign mode is turn-based, with each turn representing one year, allowing the player to attend to all needs of the faction before allowing the artificial intelligence to carry out the other factions' moves and decisions.\n",
"During battles, players take control of a medieval army containing various units, such as knights and longbowmen, each of which has various advantages, disadvantages and overall effectiveness. Players must use medieval tactics in order to defeat their enemy, using historical formations to give units advantages in different situations. All units in the game gain experience points, known as \"valour\", which improves unit effectiveness in combat as it increases. Every battle map contains various terrain based upon that of the province on the campaign map, with separate maps for each of the borders between provinces – four hundred unique maps are available for the game. The climate, surroundings and building style for every map varies depending on the part of the world it is located in; for example, a map based in the Middle East will have a hot, sunny climate, sandy terrain and Islamic architecture. Sieges are an important aspect of the game introduced to the \"Total War\" series, occurring when the invading army elects to attack the defending army which has retreated inside the province's castle. Upon starting the engagement, the attacker has to fight their way through the castle's defences, winning the battle once the enemy units have been defeated. Each unit in the game has morale, which can increase if a battle is going well for their faction, or decrease in situations such as sustained heavy casualties. Morale can drop low enough to eventually force a unit to rout off the battlefield, with the player having the option to attempt to rally the men back into the battle through their general. Each side's army can capture routing enemy units and ransom them back to the owning faction, with important generals having greater ransom values.\n",
"In addition to the main campaign, \"Medieval: Total War\" also features a game mode where the player can undertake various historical campaigns and battles. Historical campaigns allow the player to control a series of famous battles from a war of the medieval period, such as the Hundred Years War and the Crusades, playing as historic commanders like Richard the Lionheart. Individual historic battles have the player controlling a historical figure in an isolated battle that occurred in the era, such as controlling William Wallace through the Battle of Stirling Bridge.\n",
"\"Medieval: Total War\" is based upon the building of an empire across medieval Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. It focuses on the warfare, religion and politics of the time to ultimately lead the player in conquest of the known world. As with the preceding \"Total War\" game, \"Shogun: Total War\", the game consists of two broad areas of gameplay: a turn-based campaign map that allows the user to move armies across provinces, control agents, diplomacy, religion, and other tasks needed to run their faction, and a real-time battlefield, where the player directs the land battles and sieges that occur.\n",
"BULLET::::- Nicolle, David (1999-journal) \"Medieval Warfare: The Unfriendly Interface.\" The Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 579–599. Published by: Society for Military History.\n"
] |
why is pneumonia diagnosed with an x-ray?
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On X-ray, things that are not dense (like air) are dark. The radiation passes right through air and none of it is "blocked" on the way to the film. When no X-rays get blocked, the film is black. Things that are white on X-ray are white because they "intercepted" all of the radiation. As an example, check out the first film in catdoctor's post. Metal (the pacemaker) is extremely dense, and as such it "blocks" the radiation from reaching the film. This leads to a negative space on the film in the shape of the dense object. An object's relative white/black-ness on X-ray tells you relatively how dense it is.
Pneumonia is a manifestation of infection in the lungs. Your body deals with infections by "cordoning off" the area via positive pressure (fluid) and antimicrobial cells (like white blood cells). This dense area of cells and fluid creates what is known as a consolidation. Because consolidations are dense and confined to one part of the lung, they show up "whiter" than normal lung tissue on X-ray.
Incidentally, consolidations are one of the things a doctor is checking for when they are doing that tapping thing (percussion) on your back and chest. Normal lungs are full of air (black on X-ray) so they have a reverberation to them like a drum. A consolidation caused by pneumonia would cause a dullness on percussion that you can hear and feel (and subsequently see on X-ray).
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[
"The discovery of x-rays made it possible to determine the anatomic type of pneumonia without direct examination of the lungs at autopsy and led to the development of a radiological classification. Early investigators distinguished between typical lobar pneumonia and atypical (e.g. Chlamydophila) or viral pneumonia using the location, distribution, and appearance of the opacities they saw on chest x-rays. Certain x-ray findings can be used to help predict the course of illness, although it is not possible to clearly determine the microbiologic cause of a pneumonia with x-rays alone.\n",
"Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. X-rays are classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer and the U.S. government. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.\n",
"Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a chest X-ray. In adults with normal vital signs and a normal lung examination the diagnosis is unlikely. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin.\n",
"Chest X-rays and X-ray computed tomography (CT) can reveal areas of opacity (seen as white), indicating consolidation. CAP does not always appear on x-rays, because the disease is in its initial stages or involves a part of the lung an x-ray does not see well. In some cases, chest CT can reveal pneumonia not seen on x-rays. However, congestive heart failure or other types of lung damage can mimic CAP on x-rays.\n",
"At that time, a chest x-ray is ordered to confirm pneumonia. If the chest appears clear and SARS is still suspected, a HRCT scan will be ordered, because it is visible earlier on this scan. In severe cases, it develops into respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and in 70-90% of the cases, they develop lymphopenia (low count of lymphocyte white blood cells).\n",
"Diagnosis is typically based on a person's signs and symptoms. The color of the sputum does not indicate if the infection is viral or bacterial. Determining the underlying organism is usually not required. Other causes of similar symptoms include asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis, and COPD. A chest X-ray may be useful to detect pneumonia.\n",
"Pneumonia is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and less commonly by other microorganisms, certain medications and conditions such as autoimmune diseases. Risk factors include other lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, COPD, and asthma, diabetes, heart failure, a history of smoking, a poor ability to cough such as following a stroke, or a weak immune system. Diagnosis is often based on the symptoms and physical examination. Chest X-ray, blood tests, and culture of the sputum may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired with community, hospital, or health care associated pneumonia.\n"
] |
Do people digest less when they have the runs?
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You lose a lot of nutrients when you have 'the runs' mainly because bacterial infections which cause the symptom of 'the runs' alter cellular pathways such as the cAMP pathway in gut epithelia, which in the short form, leads to efflux of water out of your cells and into the lumen (hole) of your gut.
This 'washing out' effect aids in the movement of bacteria out of the host and also moves nutrients along with it. Mainly though your body loses electrolytes and water. So drink plenty of isotonic drinks and water.
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[
"A person with healthy digestion will have lower risk of experiencing diarrhea, constipation, heartburn, bloating, flatulence, and indigestion. Additionally, a person with healthy digestion will have less need of digestive medications than a person who does not have healthy digestion.\n",
"Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. \n",
"Carbohydrates that a person eats are converted by the liver and muscles into glycogen for storage. Glycogen burns rapidly to provide quick energy. Runners can store about 8 MJ or 2,000 kcal worth of glycogen in their bodies, enough for about 30 km/18–20 miles of running. Many runners report that running becomes noticeably more difficult at that point. When glycogen runs low, the body must then obtain energy by burning stored fat, which does not burn as readily. When this happens, the runner will experience dramatic fatigue and is said to \"hit the wall\". The aim of training for the marathon, according to many coaches, is to maximize the limited glycogen available so that the fatigue of the \"wall\" is not as dramatic. This is accomplished in part by utilizing a higher percentage of energy from burned fat even during the early phase of the race, thus conserving glycogen.\n",
"Additionally, in the study children who ate fast food, compared to those who did not, tended to consume more total fat, carbohydrates, and sugar-sweetened beverages. Children who ate fast food also tended to eat less fiber, milk, fruits, and non-starchy vegetables. After reviewing these test results, the researchers concluded that consumption of fast food by children seems to have a negative effect on an individual's diet, in ways that could significantly increase the risk for obesity. Due to having reduced cognitive defenses against marketing, children may be more susceptible to fast food advertisements, and consequently have a higher risk of becoming obese. Fast food is only a minuscule factor that contributes to childhood obesity. A study conducted by researchers at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Gillings School of Global Public Health showed that poor diet and obesity as an overall factor are the leading causes of rising obesity rates in children. \"While reducing fast-food intake is important, the rest of a child's diet should not be overlooked,\" Jennifer Poti, co author and doctoral candidate in the university's Department of Nutrition.\n",
"According to the Massachusetts Medical Society Committee Jeff Nutrition, fast foods are commonly high in fat content, and studies have found associations between fast food intake and increased body mass index (BMI) and weight gain. In particular many fast foods are high in saturated fats which are widely held to be a risk factor in heart disease. In 2010, heart disease was the number 1 ranking cause of death. A 2006 study fed monkeys a diet consisting of a similar level of trans fats as what a person who ate fast food regularly would consume. Both diets contained the same overall number of calories. It was found that the monkeys who consumed higher levels of trans fat developed more abdominal fat than those fed a diet rich in unsaturated fats. They also developed signs of insulin resistance, an early indicator of diabetes. After six years on the diet, the trans fat fed monkeys had gained 7.2% of their body weight, compared to just 1.8% in the unsaturated fat group. The American Heart Association recommends consumption of about 16 grams of saturated fats a day.\n",
"However, modern humans have evolved to a world of more sedentary lifestyles and convenience foods. People are sitting more throughout their days, whether it be in their cars during rush hour or in their cubicles during their full-time jobs. Less physical activity in general means fewer calories burned throughout the day. Human diets have changed considerably over the 10,000 years since the advent of agriculture, with more processed foods in their diets that lack nutritional value and lead them to consume more sodium, sugar, and fat. These high calorie, nutrient-deficient foods cause people to consume more calories than they burn. Fast food combined with decreased physical activity means that the \"thrifty gene\" that once benefit human predecessors now works against them, causing their bodies to store more fat and leading to higher levels of obesity in the population.\n",
"The causes of runner's diarrhea remain under debate, although several theories include ischemia and mechanical trauma. The reduced incidence of diarrhea in cyclists would indicate the latter. Diet is often cited as a common cause of diarrhea in distance runners, particularly with meals including berries and dried fruit.\n"
] |
Bremsstrahlung and General Relativity: Does a charge resting on the surface of earth emit radiation?
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It depends on the frame of reference. A charge at rest on the Earth does not appear to radiate as seen by other at-rest observers on the Earth, but a freefalling observer would see a charge-at-rest radiate.
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[
"Equivalently, we can think about a charged particle at rest in a laboratory on the surface of the Earth. In order to be at rest, it must be supported by something which exerts an upward force on it to balance the Earth's downward gravitational field of 1 \"g\". This system is equivalent to being in outer space accelerated constantly upward at 1 \"g\", and we know that a charged particle accelerated upward at 1 \"g\" would radiate, why don't we see radiation from charged particles at rest in the laboratory? It would seem that we could distinguish between a gravitational field and acceleration, because an electric charge apparently only radiates when it is being accelerated through motion, but not through gravitation.\n",
"The radiation from a charged particle carries energy and momentum. In order to satisfy energy and momentum conservation, the charged particle must experience a recoil at the time of emission. The radiation must exert an additional force on the charged particle. This force is known as the Abraham–Lorentz force in the nonrelativistic limit and the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac force in the relativistic setting.\n",
"As a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical \"test charge\" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the charge experiences acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of its motion. See for example Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents). Moreover, net force must include gravity, electroweak, and any other forces aside from electromagnetic force.\n",
"BULLET::::- A rotating charge, such as the electron classically orbiting around the nucleus, would constantly lose energy in form of electromagnetic radiation (via various mechanisms: dipole radiation, Bremsstrahlung...). But such radiation is not observed.\n",
"The second term, which is connected with electromagnetic radiation by the moving charge, requires charge acceleration formula_20 and if this is zero, the value of this term is zero, and the charge does not radiate (emit electromagnetic radiation). This term requires additionally that a component of the charge acceleration be in a direction transverse to the line which connects the charge formula_3 and the observer of the field formula_22. The direction of the field associated with this radiative term is toward the fully time-retarded position of the charge (i.e. where the charge was when it was accelerated).\n",
"The paradox of a charge in a gravitational field is an apparent physical paradox in the context of general relativity. A charged particle at rest in a gravitational field, such as on the surface of the Earth, must be supported by a force to prevent it from falling. According to the equivalence principle, it should be indistinguishable from a particle in flat space being accelerated by a force. Maxwell's equations say that an accelerated charge should radiate electromagnetic waves, yet such radiation is not observed for stationary particles in gravitational fields.\n",
"The radiation from the supported charge viewed in the freefalling frame (or vice versa) is something of a curiosity: where does it go? Boulware (1980) finds that the radiation goes into a region of spacetime inaccessible to the co-accelerating, supported observer. In effect, a uniformly accelerated observer has an event horizon, and there are regions of spacetime inaccessible to this observer. C. De Almeida and A. Saa (2006) have a more accessible treatment of the event horizon of the accelerated observer.\n"
] |
what is smoke, exactly?
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Steam, unburnt gases, particles of ash.
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[
"Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires (including stoves, candles, internal combustion engines, oil lamps, and fireplaces), but may also be used for pest control (fumigation), communication (smoke signals), defensive and offensive capabilities in the military (smoke screen), cooking, or smoking (tobacco, cannabis, etc.). It is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual or magical purposes. It can be a flavoring agent and preservative for various foodstuffs.\n",
"The name \"Smoky\" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.\n",
"Magic smoke (also factory smoke, blue smoke, angry pixies, or the genie) is a humorous name for the caustic smoke produced by severe electrical over-stress of electronic circuits or components, causing overheating and accompanying release of smoke. The smoke typically smells of burning plastic and other chemicals. The color of the smoke depends on which component is overheating, but it is commonly white or grey. Minor overstress eventually results in component failure, but without pyrotechnic display or release of smoke.\n",
"Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery that produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the gunpowder or black powder they replaced. The term is unique to the United States and is generally not used in other English-speaking countries, which initially used proprietary names such as \"Ballistite\" and \"Cordite\" but gradually shifted to \"propellant\" as the generic term.\n",
"Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat, fish, and \"lapsang souchong\" tea are often smoked.\n",
"A smoke composition is a pyrotechnic composition designed primarily to generate smoke. Smoke compositions are used as obscurants or for generation of signaling smokes. Some are used as a payload of smoke bombs and smoke grenades.\n",
"Smoking is a practice in which a substance is burned and the resulting smoke breathed in to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which have been rolled into a small square of rice paper to create a small, round cylinder called a \"cigarette\". Smoking is primarily practiced as a route of administration for recreational drug use because the combustion of the dried plant leaves vaporizes and delivers active substances into the lungs where they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and reach bodily tissue. In the case of cigarette smoking these substances are contained in a mixture of aerosol particles and gasses and include the pharmacologically active alkaloid nicotine; the vaporization creates heated aerosol and gas into a form that allows inhalation and deep penetration into the lungs where absorption into the bloodstream of the active substances occurs. In some cultures, smoking is also carried out as a part of various rituals, where participants use it to help induce trance-like states that, they believe, can lead them to spiritual enlightenment.\n"
] |
Do light particles weigh anything?
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No, photons are massless.
However, massless particles can still have momentum and exert a force. In the case of the sun and the earth, this pressure is between 4.5 and 9 micro-Newtons per square meter (4.5 if photons are absorbed entirely, 9 if all photons are reflected, in reality the value will be somewhere in between). That is approximately equivalent to the gravitational force of 0.5 to 1 microgram of mass spread out over a square meter.
For the entire earth, this adds up to anywhere between about 5.5 * 10^8 (550 milion) and 1.1 * 10^9 Newton, which, according to Wolfram Alpha, is about one tenth to one fifth of the total force exerted by the water on the walls of the Hoover dam.
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[
"In a similar manner, even photons (light quanta), if trapped in a container space (as a photon gas or thermal radiation), would contribute a mass associated with their energy to the container. Such an extra mass, in theory, could be weighed in the same way as any other type of rest mass. This is true in special relativity theory, even though individually photons have no rest mass. The property that trapped energy \"in any form\" adds weighable mass to systems that have no net momentum is one of the characteristic and notable consequences of relativity. It has no counterpart in classical Newtonian physics, in which radiation, light, heat, and kinetic energy never exhibit weighable mass under any circumstances.\n",
"A so-called \"massless\" particle (such as a photon, or a theoretical graviton) moves at the speed of light in every frame of reference. In this case there is no transformation that will bring the particle to rest. The total energy of such particles becomes smaller and smaller in frames which move faster and faster in the same direction. As such, they have no rest mass, because they can never be measured in a frame where they are at rest. This property of having no rest mass is what causes these particles to be termed \"massless.\" However, even massless particles have a relativistic mass, which varies with their observed energy in various frames of reference,\n",
"The photon, the particle of light which mediates the electromagnetic force is believed to be massless. The so-called Proca action describes a theory of a massive photon. Classically, it is possible to have a photon which is extremely light but nonetheless has a tiny mass, like the neutrino. These photons would propagate at less than the speed of light defined by special relativity and have three directions of polarization. However, in quantum field theory, the photon mass is not consistent with gauge invariance or renormalizability and so is usually ignored. However, a quantum theory of the massive photon can be considered in the Wilsonian effective field theory approach to quantum field theory, where, depending on whether the photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism or is inserted in an ad hoc way in the Proca Lagrangian, the limits implied by various observations/experiments may be different. So, therefore, the speed of light is not constant.\n",
"According to quantum theory, light may be considered not only to be as an electro-magnetic wave but also as a \"stream\" of particles called photons which travel with \"c\", the vacuum speed of light. These particles should not be considered to be classical billiard balls, but as quantum mechanical particles described by a wavefunction spread over a finite region.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"another sort of matter. ... Its weight in any body probably bears a very small proportion to the weight of the matter in the body, but yet the force with which the electric fluid in any body attracts any particle of matter in that body, must be equal to the force with which the matter of the body repels that particle, otherwise the body would appear electrical, as will afterwards appear.\"\n",
"In special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, \"E\" = \"mc\". That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy and vice versa. If a particle has a frame of reference in which it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as \"massive\".\n",
"In 1996, the Stony Brook group trapped 3000 atoms in their MOT, which was enough for a video camera to capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce. Francium has not been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh.\n"
] |
why does time go from 11 am to 12 pm and vice versa?
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AM stands for ante meridiem and PM stands for post meridiem - before noon and after noon. Noon is the point at which the sun is highest in the sky. In the AM, the sun is rising. In the PM, it is setting.
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[
"At its most extreme, time zones can cause official noon, including daylight savings, to occur up to three hours early (the Sun is actually on the meridian at official clock time of 3 pm). This occurs in the far west of Alaska, China, and Spain. For more details and examples, see Skewing of time zones.\n",
"The 12-hour clock is a time convention popularized by the Romans in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods. The Romans divided the day into 12 equal hours, A.M. (\"ante-meridiem\", meaning before midday) and P.M. (\"post-meridiem\", meaning past midday). The Romans also started the practice used worldwide today of a new day beginning at midnight.\n",
"A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.\n",
"Midday refers the time of the middle of the day-light period when the sun is at its highest point. It is synonymous with the word noon, which by itself is etymologically derived from the number nine. It does not coincide with 12:00 p.m. Nor does it mean the middle of a 24-hour calendar day.\n",
"The word \"noon\" is derived from Latin \"nona hora\", the ninth hour of the day, and is related to the liturgical term none. The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a.m. (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p.m. (15:00) at the equinox. In English, the meaning of the word shifted to \"midday\" and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time (that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones). The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century.\n",
"Another feature of this ancient practice is that, unlike the standard modern 12-hour clock that assigns 12 o'clock pm for noon time, in the ancient Jewish tradition noon time was always the \"sixth hour\" of the day, whereas the \"first hour\" began with the break of dawn, by most exponents of Jewish law, and with sunrise by the Vilna Gaon and Rabbi Hai Gaon. 12:o'clock am (midnight) was also the \"sixth hour\" of the night, whereas the \"first hour\" of the night began when the first three stars appeared in the night sky.\n",
"Telling the time in Soga is different from the way it is told in English because hours of darkness correspond to PM to include early morning hours. You wake up at 6:00 am while a Musoga waking up at the same time refers to the same time as \"essawa erii ikumi na ibiri munkyo (the time is 12 in the morning).\" Essentially, the number representing the current time is simply skewed behind by six. Time is said using the word ‘essaawa’, e.g., essaawa ndala – 7 o’clock.\n"
] |
- how does the body fight infections not in the bloodstream such as respiratory infections?
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Cells like neutrophils can leave the bloodstream to fight infections like that. Mucosal sites can also fight infection with a special antibody called IgA.
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[
"Bacteria and fungi typically enter the lungs through the inhalation of water droplets, although they can reach the lung through the bloodstream if an infection is present and often live in the respiratory tract. In the alveoli, bacteria and fungi travel into the spaces between cells and adjacent alveoli through connecting pores. The immune system responds by releasing neutrophil granulocytes, white blood cells responsible for attacking microorganisms, into the lungs. The neutrophils engulf and kill the microorganisms, releasing cytokines which activate the entire immune system. This response causes fever, chills and fatigue, common symptoms of CAP. The neutrophils, bacteria and fluids leaked from surrounding blood vessels fill the alveoli, impairing oxygen transport. Bacteria may travel from the lung to the bloodstream, causing septic shock (very low blood pressure which damages the brain, kidney, and heart).\n",
"In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of bacteria. Those bacteria that are resistant to antimicrobial peptides are killed by a variety of reactive oxygen species produced by phagocytes. In a third line of defense and as a last resort, persistent bacterial infections which escape the innate immune system are eliminated by the adaptive immune system.\n",
"The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, serotonin and bradykinin, are excreted through the lungs. Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs. The lungs filter out small blood clots from veins and prevent them from entering arteries and causing strokes.\n",
"There are a variety of parasites which can affect the lungs. In general, these parasites enter the body through the skin or by being swallowed. Once inside the body, these parasites travel to the lungs, most often through the blood. There, a similar combination of cellular destruction and immune response causes disruption of oxygen transportation. Depending on the type of parasite, antihelmynthic drugs can be prescribed. \n",
"The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by respiratory epithelium or respiratory mucosa, with hair-like projections called cilia that beat rhythmically and carry mucus. This mucociliary clearance is an important defence system against air-borne infection. The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia. The lining of the lung also secretes immunoglobulin A which protects against respiratory infections; goblet cells secrete mucus which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as defensins, antiproteases, and antioxidants. A rare type of specialised cell called a pulmonary ionocyte that is suggested may regulate mucus viscosity has been described. In addition, the lining of the lung also contains macrophages, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as phagocytosis; and dendritic cells which present antigens to activate components of the adaptive immune system such as T-cells and B-cells.\n",
"Bacteria typically enter the lung with inhalation, though they can reach the lung through the bloodstream if other parts of the body are infected. Often, bacteria live in parts of the upper respiratory tract and are continuously being inhaled into the alveoli, the cavities deep in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Once inside the alveoli, bacteria travel into the spaces between the cells and also between adjacent alveoli through connecting pores. This invasion triggers the immune system to respond by sending white blood cells responsible for attacking microorganisms (neutrophils) to the lungs. The neutrophils engulf and kill the offending organisms but also release cytokines that result in a general activation of the immune system. This results in the fever, chills, and fatigue common in bacterial and fungal pneumonia. The neutrophils, bacteria, and fluid leaked from surrounding blood vessels fill the alveoli and result in impaired oxygen transportation.\n",
"Viruses may reach the lung by a number of different routes. Respiratory syncytial virus is typically contracted when people touch contaminated objects and then they touch their eyes or nose. Other viral infections occur when contaminated airborne droplets are inhaled through the mouth or nose. Once in the upper airway, the viruses may make their way in the lungs, where they invade the cells lining the airways, alveoli, or lung parenchyma. Some viruses such as measles and herpes simplex may reach the lungs via the blood. The invasion of the lungs may lead to varying degrees of cell death. When the immune system responds to the infection, even more lung damage may occur. Primarily white blood cells, mainly mononuclear cells, generate the inflammation. As well as damaging the lungs, many viruses simultaneously affect other organs and thus disrupt other body functions. Viruses also make the body more susceptible to bacterial infections; in this way, bacterial pneumonia can occur at the same time as viral pneumonia.\n"
] |
if muscle growth is them tearing and re-growing tissue, why can't we invent a machine or procedure that artificially replicates this tearing in order to build up muscle mass without actually working out?
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[We have.](_URL_0_) It's very painful to have your muscles electrically stimulated to build them up though so it's not wide-spread.
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[
"A convenient method to treat an enlarged muscle is through the use of botox injections. Botox is injected into the enlarged muscle, weakening it so it slowly becomes smaller through atrophy over several months. There is no down-time and improvement is gradual—individuals who interact with the patient may never know that a plastic surgical procedure was performed\n",
"If the processes involved in forming new tissue can be reverse-engineered into humans, it may be possible to heal injuries of the spinal cord or brain, repair damaged organs and reduce scarring and fibrosis after surgery. Despite the large conservation of the Hox genes through evolution, mammals and humans specifically cannot regenerate any of their limbs. This raises a question as to why humans which also possess an analog to these genes cannot regrow and regenerate limbs. Beside the lack of specific growth factor, studies have shown that something as small as base pair differences between amphibian and human Hox analogs play a crucial role in human inability to reproduce limbs. Undifferentiated stem cells and the ability to have polarity in tissues is vital to this process.\n",
"These types of artificial muscles are made possible by creating synthetic materials which are very similar to the ones which make up human tissues and cells. These artificial materials are so similar that the body does not reject the material and instead allows normal cell growth in the materials which eventually become absorbed into the body.\n",
"Many reconstructive surgery procedures require new tissues when the original tissues are removed because of illnesses. One way to generate this new tissue is to take one part of tissue from another part of the human body and transfer it to the new site. However, this method causes damage to other organs while generating new tissues. Therefore, fabricating artificial tissues is a preferred approach to solve this problem. The major limitation of this artificial tissue is the absence of the capillary system to transport nutrient and oxygen like the circulatory systems in living organisms. With the ability to fabricate complex 3D structures, the Projection Micro-stereolithography may provide one of the best solutions to this tissue. Like the microactuator, the mold of the artificial tissue is made by CAD. Then the CAD mold is transferred to 2D images and projected to the surface of the polymer resin through a lens. The capillary system is embedded in the tissue during the mold designing process in the CAD mold. The polymer used in fabricating the tissue is semi-permeable, which allows the nutrient and oxygen in the capillary system go into the tissue during the transportation process. The capillary system is shown to have growth promoting function in yeast cells, which illustrate the viability of this artificial tissue.\n",
"Bone is another tissue that can be expanded relatively easily, by using external devices which are slowly separated using mechanical contraptions, so that bone grows in response to elongation (bone distractor). Other techniques and external devices have been studied and have shown some success, such as in the fitbone surgery. This technique was pioneered in 1951 by the Russian physician Ilizarov, and is called the Ilizarov apparatus. It is capable of lengthening limbs in cases of pathological loss of bone, asymmetry of limbs, dwarfism, short stature, etc. In reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, bone expanders have been used to elongate the mandibula in cases of congenital disorders, trauma, tumors, etc. Other newer devices such as the orthofix and intramedullary skeletal kinetic distractor (ISKD) are also used for limb lengthening. It can add over 6 inches per bone, but is expensive, painful, and time-consuming (each procedure lasts around 8–12 months).\n",
"Surgery is a solution to muscle shortening but other complications may arise. Following muscle lengthening surgery, force production and ROM is usually reduced due to the shift in sarcomere locations between a muscle's maximal and minimal length. Shortening of the surgically lengthened muscle can re-occur.\n",
"The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of muscular dystrophies.\n"
] |
why don't all the mosquitos die out when it gets to cold? do some of them fly south or what?
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It depends on the species but they use one or more of three strategies to survive the winter:
*Hibernation as an Adult - Females will drop their metabolic rate and survive off stored fat, usually hiding in a hole or something.
*Hibernation as a Larvae - Larvae can also go into hibernation, but need to do so in water.
*Winter hardy eggs - Adult females can lay winter hardy eggs in moist soil and wait for temperatures to increase and hope water arrives where the eggs were laid.
ELI5: they hibernate
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[
"With an increase in air traffic volume, higher climate temperatures and humidity, the summers of temperate climates are potentially favourable for mosquitoes. Should temperatures rise in Europe and the United States as a result of global climate change, conditions may become more ideal for mosquito survival, potentially leading to a rise in isolated outbreaks of airport and imported malaria. Uninfected mosquitoes that arrive by flight may also live for long in enough as to feed on an infected person, which could also result in the transmission of malaria in non-endemic countries.\n",
"These flies are not known to transmit any disease of humans, pets or livestock, but a closely related fly transmits a virus that causes blue tongue disease of sheep. Even though they do not transmit any diseases their bites are sufficiently annoying to keep people indoors in some areas of California during much of May. They are small enough to crawl under loose clothing without being noticed. Standard mosquito repellents do not appear to be particularly effective on them.\n",
"Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they include malaria, elephantiasis, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, and dengue fever. Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought. Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates. As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before. As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world.\n",
"The absence of mosquitoes from Iceland and similar regions is probably because of quirks of their climate, which differs in some respects from mainland regions. At the start of the uninterrupted continental winter of Greenland and the northern regions of Eurasia and America, the pupa enters diapause under the ice that covers sufficiently deep water. The imago emerges only after the ice breaks in late spring. In Iceland however, the weather is less predictable. In mid-winter it frequently warms up suddenly, causing the ice to break, but then to freeze again after a few days. By that time the mosquitoes will have emerged from their pupae, but the new freeze sets in before they can complete their life cycle. Any anautogenous adult mosquito would need a host to supply a blood meal before it could lay viable eggs; it would need time to mate, mature the eggs and oviposit in suitable wetlands. These requirements would not be realistic in Iceland and in fact the absence of mosquitoes from such subpolar islands is in line with the islands' low biodiversity; Iceland has fewer than 1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Although \"Aedes aegypti\" mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, \"they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day.\"\n",
"In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.\n",
"Eggs of species of mosquitoes from the temperate zones are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many even tolerate subzero temperatures. In addition, adults of some species can survive the winter by taking shelter in suitable microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.\n"
] |
Why "666" for the beast? Without a base-10 positional representation system, this number wouldn't look particularly remarkable.
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I can't tell you much about the numerological implications of the number and the interpretation of Johannes, but I'm going to say something about Roman numbers that might be helpful:
Roman numerals don't use positional notation, but they still represent base-10 - there are symbols for the decimal powers: I, X, C, CD (= later M) and so on, combined with symbols for half of them: V, L, D. Fun fact: the symbols for the half of the decimal powers are simply the letters chopped in half: X > V; C > L; CD > D. DCLXVI (or ΧΞϚ in Greek numerals) when spoken or written out it is *sexcentos sexaginta sex*, *hexakosioi hexekonta hex* in Ancient Greek, (sixhundred sixty six), so it loses none of that remarkableness and in fact has much to do with the number 6. In fact, it allows additional interpretations when written that way, since numbers are written with the same symbols as names are - Johannes remarks that:
> ἀριθμὸς γὰρ ἀνθρώπου ἐστί, καὶ ὁ ἀριθμὸς αὐτοῦ ἑξακόσιοι ἑξήκοντα ἕξ
"for it is the number of a human, and his number is sixhundredsixtysix", one interpretation being that you can reconstruct it into the name of a human.
See also /u/talondearg's answer on Greek numbers and the numerological implications.
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[
"666 is generally believed to have been the original Number of the Beast in the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible. In 2005, however, a fragment of papyrus 115 was revealed, containing the earliest known version of that part of the Book of Revelation discussing the Number of the Beast. It gave the number as 616, suggesting that this may have been the original. One possible explanation for the two different numbers is that they reflect two different spellings of Emperor Nero/Neron's name, for which (according to this theory) this number is believed to be a code. However, other scholars state that the number cannot represent Nero.\n",
"The Number of the Beast is 666. The number is of prominent significance in the system of Thelema. It is the sum of the numbers inside the 6-by-6 magic square, which is associated with the sun by some Kabbalists, astrologists, and numerologists, who still use it today. According to Crowley, it is a solar number. The Stele of Revealing bore the catalogue number 666 at the time when Crowley discovered it, which was one of the events that led to the writing of the Book of the Law.\n",
"\"Papyrus 115\" and \"Ephraemi Rescriptus\" have led some scholars to regard 616 as the original number of the beast. According to Paul Louis, \"The number 666 has been substituted for 616 either by analogy with 888, the [Greek] number of Jesus (Gustav Adolf Deissmann), or because it is a triangular number, the sum of the first 36 numbers (1+2+3+4+5+6+...+36 = 666)\"\n",
"The number of the beast (, \"Arithmos tou Thēriou\") is a term in the Book of Revelation, of the New Testament, that is associated with the Beast of Revelation in chapter 13, line 18. In most manuscripts of the New Testament and in English translations of the Bible, the number of the beast is \"six hundred and sixty-six\" or (the number not being representable by the repetition of 6 or three times – Greek for 6 is , but is not six hundred sixty-six). Papyrus 115 (which is the oldest preserved manuscript of the \"Revelation\" ), as well as other ancient sources like \"Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus\", give the number of the beast as χιϛ or χιc (transliterable in Arabic numerals as 616) (), not 666; critical editions of the Greek text, such as the Novum Testamentum Graece, note 616 as a variant.\n",
"The number of the beast is described in Revelation 13:15–18. Several translations have been interpreted for the meaning of the phrase \"Here is Wisdom, Let him that hath understanding count the number of the beast\" where the peculiar Greek word (\"psephisato\") is used. Possible translations include \"to count\", \"to reckon\" and also \"to vote\" or \"to decide\".\n",
"Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the beast identified by the number 666 represents the world's unified governments in opposition to God. The beast is said to have \"a human number\" in that the represented governments are of a human origin rather than spirit entities. The number 666 is said to identify \"gross shortcoming and failure in the eyes of Jehovah\", in contrast to the number 7, which is seen as symbolizing perfection.\n",
"In the novel, the biblical number of the beast turns out to be not 666 but formula_1 or 10,314,424,798,490,535,546,171,949,056, the initial number of parallel universes accessible through the continua device. It is later theorized by the character Jacob that the number may be merely the instantly accessible universes from a given location, and that there is a larger structure that implies an infinite number of universes.\n"
] |
This question has been stewing for a bit. If a neutrinos pass through our body all of the time, then what happens when one actually collides with the atoms of our bodies?
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When a neutrino interacts with a part of our body, it scatters off a proton or neutron in the nucleus of an atom. It will sometimes scatter elastically, causing the nucleus of the atom to recoil and the atom to become ionized. It can also scatter inelastically, producing secondary particles, such as pions, which decay to photons and muons and so on, which themselves can ionize atoms in your body. Ionizing radiation is not good for your body in large doses, but in small doses there is no danger. This very second atoms in your body are being ionized from cosmic rays and various trace radioactive elements, to a degree much larger than due to neutrinos.
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[
"One problem with the neutrino conjecture and Fermi's theory was that the neutrino appeared to have such weak interactions with other matter that it would never be observed. In a 1934 paper, Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth without interactions with any matter.\n",
"Since neutrinos interact only very rarely with matter, the enormous flux of solar neutrinos racing through the Earth is sufficient to produce only 1 interaction for 10 target atoms, and each interaction produces only a few photons or one transmuted atom. The observation of neutrino interactions requires a large detector mass, along with a sensitive amplification system.\n",
"Neutrinos do not interact in particle detectors, and therefore escape undetected. Their presence can be inferred by the momentum imbalance of the visible particles in an event. In electron-positron colliders, both the neutrino momentum in all three dimensions and the neutrino energy can be reconstructed. Neutrino energy reconstruction requires accurate charged particle identification. In colliders using hadrons, only the momentum transverse to the beam direction can be determined.\n",
"On 18 June 2001, the first scientific results of SNO were published, bringing the first clear evidence that neutrinos oscillate (i.e. that they can transmute into one another), as they travel in the sun. This oscillation in turn implies that neutrinos have non-zero masses. The total flux of all neutrino flavours measured by SNO agrees well with the theoretical prediction. Further measurements carried out by SNO have since confirmed and improved the precision of the original result.\n",
"Neutrinos are omnipresent in nature such that every second, tens of billions of them \"pass through every square centimetre of our bodies without us ever noticing.\" Many were created during the big bang and others are generated by nuclear reactions inside stars, planets, and other interstellar processes. Some may also originate from events in the universe such as \"colliding black holes, gamma ray bursts from exploding stars, and/or violent events at the cores of distant galaxies,\" according to speculation by scientists. \n",
"Neutrinos traveling through matter, in general, undergo a process analogous to light traveling through a transparent material. This process is not directly observable because it does not produce ionizing radiation, but gives rise to the MSW effect. Only a small fraction of the neutrino's energy is transferred to the material.\n",
"If neutrinos have mass, they may oscillate into flavors that an experiment may not detect, leading to a further dimming, or \"disappearance,\" of the electron antineutrinos. KamLAND is located at an average flux-weighted distance of approximately 180 kilometers from the reactors, which makes it sensitive to the mixing of neutrinos associated with large mixing angle (LMA) solutions to the solar neutrino problem.\n"
] |
how do police evidence videos end up online?
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Sometimes leaked but you can usually get them through the freedom of information act unless it is pending investigation or prosecution.
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[
"Evidence.com is a cloud-based digital evidence management system that allows police departments to manage, review, and share digital evidence, particularly video evidence captured with Axon-branded cameras. It includes an automated redaction tool, audit trails for chain of custody purposes, and functionality to share evidence with prosecutors and others. A free version is offered specifically for prosecutors to receive and manage incoming digital evidence.\n",
"Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit, whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences. They also record footage of people involved in anti-social behaviour on the streets. The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law. Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork. Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have reoffended.\n",
"Police have the common law power to seize evidence as part of a criminal investigation. Where it is alleged, or there is a reasonable belief, that any liquid, animal, document or article has a connection to a crime or offence under review, they can be taken by police as a production.\n",
"Police and forensic scientists analyse CCTV video when investigating criminal activity. Police use software, such as Kinesense, which performs video motion analysis to search for key events in video and find suspects.\n",
"Police and forensic scientists analyse CCTV video when investigating criminal activity. Police use software, such as Kinesense, which performs video content analysis to search for key events in video and find suspects. Surveys have shown that up to 75% of cases involve CCTV. Police use video content analysis software to search long videos for important events.\n",
"If available, a video camera is the first step to documenting a crime scene. Videotape can provide a perspective on the crime scene layout which cannot be as easily perceived in photographs and sketches. It is a more natural viewing medium to which people can readily relate, especially in demonstrating the structure of the crime scene and how the evidence relates to the crime. The video camera should have a fully charged battery as well as date and time videotape display functions. The taping should begin with a general overview of the scene and surrounding area. The taping should continue throughout the crime scene using wide angle, close up, and even macro (extreme close up) shots to demonstrate the layout of the evidence and its relevance to the crime scene.\n",
"On November 12, district prosecutors told a D.C. Superior Court judge they needed more time to investigate and determine if there were additional victims. The court was informed that a web site was being created in order to reach other victims. On January 16, 2015, the prosecution requested another one-month delay to complete their review of all the video evidence obtained from computers seized by police in the hope to identify additional victims.\n"
] |
There are Churches older than the Byzantine and Roman Catholic: How does their interpretation of Doctrine and Religious practice differ and why? Did these Churches interact with the Roman and Byzantine Churches further into the Medieval, or did they lose contact?
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I hope no one minds an Eastern Orthodox deacon commenting?
The Churches you mention are known as the Oriental Orthodox churches, and are not, in fact, older than the Byzantine and Latin churches. In fact, they split off from the Latin and Byzantine Church during the [Council of Chalcedon](_URL_0_) over what today is considered simply a gross misunderstanding. As such, both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are working very hard to restore communion with the Orientals.
As far as the theological split goes,it was about the nature of Christ.
The Chalcedonian orthodox position on Christ, that both Eastern Orthodox and Latin Catholics hold, is that Christ has a human nature and a divine nature. That is to say, he is fully man, and also fully God.
Think of it this way: He's not some specially anointed human, a super-prophet if you will, that just happens to be good at following God's will. He's also not just God walking among mortals, being shielded from the human experiences of temptation or suffering, overpowering evil with his mere presence. No, he's fully man - experiencing all the hardships and sorrows and doubts of human life and death. But also fully God, divine and just and merciful and all that.
The Orientals insisted that Christ has ONE nature. But, then, which one? Was he man? Or was he God? If we was man, then it makes no sense to worship him. It invalidates everything from the Nicene creed onwards. But, if he was God, then he knows nothing of what humanity is like. How could He, then, have suffered? What meaning does His passion have, and also his resurrection? It also invalidates everything, from the Nicene creed onwards.
It turns out, after so long, that the Orientals have (ahem) clarified their position. Christ is fully man and fully God. It's just that they didn't think these two aspects of him were ever in conflict. That is to say, he was never divided in opinion, the God side wanting to do one thing, and the Man side wanting to do another. So, it's not *really* one nature, it's just that t*he two natures of mankind and divinity are blended into one perfectly* (miaphysite position).
The official position today is that the old problem was really just a mistranslation and misunderstanding. Who knows, that might be true - or it may be the greatest retcon in history. I don't know. But, it has allowed both sides of the conflict to make great strides towards unity, at least on the parish level. Many of our priests will now follow a *don't ask, don't tell* policy on receiving orientals into communion because of it, and so will theirs.
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[
"Even after the split of the Roman Empire the Church remained a relatively united institution (apart from Oriental Orthodoxy and some other groups which separated from the rest of the Church earlier). The Church came to be a central and defining institution of the Empire, especially in the East or Byzantine Empire, where Constantinople came to be seen as the center of the Christian world, owing in great part to its economic and political power.\n",
"Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact centralized style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin \"martyria\", constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the persecutions which only fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An important surviving example is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has retained its mosaic decorations. Dating from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as an oratory before it became a mausoleum.\n",
"By the thirteenth century, breaks had developed between Eastern or Greek Christianity and Western or Latin Christianity. In the following centuries, however, especially during the Crusades, some of the Eastern churches professed the authority of the pope in Rome and entered into or re-affirmed communion with the Catholic Church. Today called the Eastern Catholic churches, they retain a distinctive language, canon law and liturgy.\n",
"After Licinius and Constantine legalized the Christian religion in 313 in the so-called Edict of Milan, the churches quickly organized themselves into provinces patterned on the Roman civil administration, but they adopted the word \"diocese\" to describe the unit of episcopal jurisdiction equivalent to a provincial, not regional, unit as it was in the civil administration. Church dioceses were smaller than civil as there were so many more bishops than provinces. The regional ecclesiastical unit was the archdiocese. From the 5th to the 7th centuries, as the older secular administrative structure began to falter, the role of the bishops in the western lands of the Empire enabled those lands and their peoples to maintain a semblance of civilization within the successor States of Germanic rulers. The senatorial aristocracy continued in many places to serve as sources of local authority to complement that assumed by the Church, until they too disappeared in the course of the 6th century. The transfer of some authority from secular officials to ecclesiastical leaders was a natural consequence of the close integration of the Church and State, a doctrine known as Caesaropapism, by which emperors, kings, dukes were heads of both to varying degrees. Ecclesiastical administration and jurisdiction often coincided with the Roman civil administration until the latter disappeared.\n",
"Early Christian churches and some Byzantine churches, particularly in Italy, are based closely on the Roman basilica, and maintained the form of a central nave flanked by lower aisles on each side. The nave and aisles are separated by columns or piers, above which rises a wall pierced by clerestory windows.\n",
"In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire–continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD. Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD and the official state religion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. Transjordan prospered during the Byzantine era, and Christian churches were built everywhere. The Aqaba Church in Ayla was built during this era, it is considered to be the world's first purpose built Christian church. Umm ar-Rasas in southern Amman contains at least 16 Byzantine churches. Meanwhile, Petra's importance declined as sea trade routes emerged, and after a 363 earthquake destroyed many structures, until it became an abandoned place. The Sassanian Empire in the east became the Byzantines' rivals, and frequent confrontations sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan.\n",
"Some groups included on this list do not consider themselves denominations. For example, the Catholic Church considers itself the one true church and the Holy See as pre-denominational. The Eastern Orthodox Church also considers itself the original Church and pre-denominational. To express further the complexity involved, the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches were historically one and the same, as evidenced by the fact that they are the only two modern churches in existence to accept all of the first seven ecumenical councils, until differences arose, such as papal authority and dominance, the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the continuance of emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire, and the final and permanent split that occurred during the Crusades with the siege of Constantinople. This also illustrates that denominations can arise not only from religious or theological issues, but political and generational divisions as well.\n"
] |
why is facebook considered such a large company when it seems like the site itself is dying out?
|
It might just be regional, because I only know a couple of people who *don't* use Facebook. Facebook chat seems like the primary method of communication for a lot of people, or is at least tied with texting. I also see a lot of people and organizations using Facebook for planning events. I work in advertising and a lot of my clients also have Facebook pages for promoting their brands.
Granted, I don't have any hard numbers to back that up so my experience is equally anecdotal, but it doesn't seem like Facebook is in any trouble.
|
[
"Facebook is a social networking company that has acquired other companies, including WhatsApp. The WhatsApp acquisition closed at a steep $16 billion; more than $40 per user of the platform. Facebook also purchased the defunct company ConnectU in a court settlement and acquired intellectual property formerly held by rival Friendster. The majority of the companies acquired by Facebook are based in the United States, and in turn, a large percentage of these companies are based in or around the San Francisco Bay Area. Facebook has also made investments in LuckyCal and Wildfire Interactive.\n",
"The Facebook IPO brought inevitable comparisons with other technology company offerings. Some investors expressed keen interest in Facebook because they felt they had missed out on the massive gains Google saw in the wake of its IPO. LinkedIn stock, meanwhile, had doubled on its first day.\n",
"The IPO impacted both Facebook investors and the company itself. It was said to provide healthy rewards for venture capitalists who finally saw the fruits of their labor. In contrast, it was said to negatively affect individual investors such as Facebook employees, who saw once-valuable shares become less lucrative. More generally, the disappointing IPO was said to lower interest in the stock by investors. That would make it more difficult for the company to accumulate cash reserves for large future expenditures such as acquisitions. CBS News said \"the Facebook brand takes a pretty big hit for this,\" mostly because of the public interest that had surrounded the offering.\n",
"Facebook's importance and scale has led to criticisms in many domains. Notable issues include Internet privacy, excessive retention of user information, its facial recognition software, its addictive quality and its role in the workplace, including employer access to employee accounts.\n",
"A number of commentators argued retrospectively that Facebook had been heavily overvalued because of an illiquid private market on SecondMarket, where trades of stock were minimal and thus pricing unstable. Facebook's aggregate valuation went up from January 2011 to April 2012, before plummeting after the IPO in May - but this was in a largely illiquid market, with less than 120 trades each quarter during 2010 and 2011. \"Valuations in the private market are going to make it 'difficult to go public'\", according to Mary Meeker, an American venture capitalist and former Wall Street securities analyst.\n",
"In February 2011, Facebook announced plans to move its headquarters to the former Sun Microsystems campus in Menlo Park, California. In March 2011, it was reported that Facebook was removing about 20,000 profiles daily for violations such as spam, graphic content and underage use, as part of its efforts to boost cyber security. Statistics showed that Facebook reached one trillion page views in the month of June 2011, making it the most visited website tracked by DoubleClick. According to a Nielsen study, Facebook had in 2011 become the second-most accessed website in the U.S. behind Google.\n",
"The growth of Facebook was a boom in the social networking space. Facebook became a huge corporation that had 1400 employees in 2009; their estimated revenue was US$800 million in 2009. In 2010, it was reported that there were more than 200 social networking websites on the web.\n"
] |
. why can't we fill our coal mining pits with our rubbish? we are taking out one pollutant and replacing it with another.
|
You start storing waste underground and you need to be damn sure there's no groundwater movement that can leach waste into drinking water. That is not possible in the vast majority of mine systems as the geology which accompanies coal formation trends to be fractured and porous.
|
[
"Mining has contributed to many of the air pollutions being released into the air. When mining for these resources, inexperienced employees are creating many detrimental outcomes when mining in the wrong areas or hitting gas leaks. In specifics to coal mines, communities have no choice but to leave their land behind and move due to the expansion of these mines, and the water contamination from mining. These companies are very quick to attain any sort of product through mining that they do not realize the great damage left behind once they have extracted what they need. Acid mine drainage for instance, is just one of the issues that can continue on for decades, as a result of a minimal mining job. Many campaigns are doing their best to ensure that communities find alternative routes to renewable energy to preserve the environment and decrease climate change.\n",
"Procedures to reclaim abandoned mining sites have also been proposed. Using the coal pit as a landfill for other waste would help limit the areas impacted by mining activity. Using the area for forest and grassland development could help restore the ecosystems damaged by deforestation and contamination. Developing grassland areas and constructing ponds could help stimulate other forms of local economic ability like cattle raising and fishing. Given the extreme degradation caused by mining activities and the tremendous costs of reclaiming affected land and water areas, these measures face a number of challenges in their successful implementation.\n",
"A coal ash basin or landfill, as the name implies, is an excavated basin for the disposal of coal ash to prevent its release into the atmosphere. Although the use of basins decreases the amount of airborne pollutants, basins pose serious health risks for the surrounding environment. Chemicals contained within samples of coal that do not burn are magnified in concentration within the coal ash. In general, coal ash basins are not lined landfills, and therefore chemicals in the ash can leach into the groundwater, lakes, rivers, and other freshwater sources, accumulating in the biomass of the system. Because of biomagnification, the concentration of these chemicals in animals will increase up a food chain (similarly to mercury in tuna). This can be very dangerous to humans that consume plant or animal life that has been affected by the coal basin. Some substances that can be commonly found in coal ash are arsenic, selenium, cadmium, nickel, lead, and mercury. Many of these, especially heavy metals, can have negative effects on humans when ingested. There are some initiatives, such as the one made by Duke Energy in 2015 to excavate existing coal basins to reduce the environmental effects of coal-burning power facilities on the surrounding environment.\n",
"Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from the transportation of minerals, but there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of overburden. These type of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in the areas surrounding open-pit mines.\n",
"Coal pollution mitigation, often called clean coal, is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning (though not the mining or processing) of coal, which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation.\n",
"Coal pollution mitigation is a process whereby coal is chemically washed of minerals and impurities, sometimes gasified, burned and the resulting flue gases treated with steam, with the purpose of removing sulfur dioxide, and reburned so as to make the carbon dioxide in the flue gas economically recoverable, and storable underground (the latter of which is called \"carbon capture and storage\"). The coal industry uses the term \"clean coal\" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use, but has provided no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Whereas contaminants like sulfur or mercury can be removed from coal, carbon cannot be effectively removed while still leaving a usable fuel, and clean coal plants without carbon sequestration and storage do not significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. James Hansen in an open letter to then U.S. President Barack Obama advocated a \"moratorium and phase-out of coal plants that do not capture and store CO\". In his book \"Storms of My Grandchildren\", similarly, Hansen discusses his \"Declaration of Stewardship\" the first principle of which requires \"a moratorium on coal-fired power plants that do not capture and sequester carbon dioxide\".\n",
"On Solid Waste Disposal, the two most common method used to garbage disposal are dumping in an open pit (not burned) and burning. Composting is also adopted while others are being served by the municipal garbage collectors. Majority of the households is equipped with sanitary toilets.\n"
] |
what are einstein's two main postulates on special relativity, and what are the relativistic consequences of their effects?
|
Einstein's theory of relativity states that time and velocity are relative to an observers point of view, or reference frame. His special theory is called such because it deals only with inertia reference frames which are reference frames that have no acceleration or change in gravitational potential. His general theory takes into account acceleration and gravity.
Special relativity is fairly easy to understand as the highest level math you need is Pythagoras's theorem. General relativity is a lot more complex math and not ELI5 friendly.
Special relativity has two postulates, that the speed of light is constant and that the laws of physics don't change between reference frames. Both of these have been proven true. Using this, Einstein showed that moving observers actually have their time dilation and their length in the direction of motion contracted.
So lets talk about time dilation first. Imagine a clock that works by bouncing a photon between two mirrors. We the know the speed of light and we can measure the distance between the mirrors, this means the time it takes for the photon to bounce is easily calculated. Now what if we have that clock moving at a constant speed? Well the path we see the light take is not longer straight up and down, it's [slanted](_URL_2_). Since the light takes a longer path and the speed of the light is unchanged, this means that it takes a longer amount of time to bounce between the two mirrors. Viola, moving objects experience slower time. An important thing to note, because every observe is stationary in their own reference frame, every observer will see everything else as being dilated instead of themselves.
So if you're moving, you only experience slower time from someone else's point of view. However, you also see them as experiencing slower time, because to you they appear to be moving.
Now lets move on to length contraction. This one is a tricky one to explain. It relies on how length is measured correctly. Basically, in order to correctly measure the length of an object, you have to know the position of both its ends at the same time. This isn't too hard to do, but if an observer moving past you saw you do this they would think you messed up. Imagine you have a rod, and you have two friends at either end. You walk to a point equidistant to them and tell them to record their position at the moment they see you flash a light. Since you're equidistant, the light will reach them at the same time. However, to the moving observer the light won't reach your friends at the same time. They won't be synchronized and they'll see you as getting an incorrect measurement.
This leads to one of the last consequences of special relativity, the simultaneity of relativity. Because moving observers disagree on the timing and lengths of things, no two clocks can be synchronized in different reference frames.
[Minute Physics](_URL_1_) gives a **very** basic overview.
[Doc Physics](_URL_5_) gives a lengthy intro to SR.
[Sixty Symbols](_URL_0_) on length contraction.
General Relativity is a lot more complex. You need a very good understanding of Calculus, Differential Equations, and Multilinear Algebra to actually do the math behind it. But the gist of it is that a change in gravitational potential and acceleration are essentially the same thing and have the same effects. It also states that objects with mass curve space-time around them. This means that the force of gravity objects feel is actually them just following the curvature of space-time around them. This can lead to a whole bunch of wacky effects like gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshirting, and black holes.
[Gravity Visualized](_URL_4_)
[Sixty Symbols](_URL_3_) on Special and General Relativity.
|
[
"The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity, while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it. In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance.\n",
"Harvey R. Brown (2005) (who favors a dynamical view of relativistic effects similar to Lorentz, but \"\"without a hidden aether frame\"\") wrote about the road to special relativity from Michelson to Einstein in section 4:\n",
"Einstein's quantum theory (currently termed the \"old quantum theory\") is said to be \"relativistic\" because it does \"not\" violate either his general or special theory of relativity: speed of light is a limiting factor.\n",
"BULLET::::- In sum, then, Einstein could have borrowed the relativity principle, the definition of simultaneity, the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformations, and the radiation paradoxes from Poincaré. ... The wisest attitude might be to leave the coincidence of Poincaré's and Einstein's breakthroughs unexplained, ...\n",
"Einstein was displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925. Contrary to popular belief, his doubts were not due to a conviction that God \"is not playing at dice.\" Indeed, it was Einstein himself, in his 1917 paper that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, who first proposed the fundamental role of chance in explaining quantum processes. Rather, he objected to what quantum mechanics implies about the nature of reality. Einstein believed that a physical reality exists independent of our ability to observe it. In contrast, Bohr and his followers maintained that all we can know are the results of measurements and observations, and that it makes no sense to speculate about an ultimate reality that exists beyond our perceptions.\n",
"Some contemporary historians of science have revived the question as to whether Einstein was possibly influenced by the ideas of Poincaré, who first stated the relativity principle and applied it to electrodynamics, developing interpretations and modifications of Lorentz's electron theory that appear to have anticipated what is now called special relativity. Another discussion concerns a possible mutual influence between Einstein and David Hilbert as regards completing the field equations of general relativity (see Relativity priority dispute).\n",
"Critical responses to relativity were also expressed by proponents of neo-Kantianism (Paul Natorp, Bruno Bauch etc.), and phenomenology (Oskar Becker, Moritz Geiger etc.). While some of them only rejected the philosophical consequences, others rejected also the physical consequences of the theory. Einstein was criticized for violating Immanuel Kant's categoric scheme, \"i.e.\", it was claimed that space-time curvature caused by matter and energy is impossible, since matter and energy already require the concepts of space and time. Also the three-dimensionality of space, Euclidean geometry, and the existence of absolute simultaneity were claimed to be necessary for the understanding of the world; none of them can possibly be altered by empirical findings. By moving all those concepts into a metaphysical area, any form of criticism of Kantianism would be prevented. Other pseudo-Kantians like Ernst Cassirer or Hans Reichenbach (1920), tried to modify Kant's philosophy. Subsequently, Reichenbach rejected Kantianism at all and became a proponent of logical positivism.\n"
] |
why in the military do some people get the best medical care in the country at places like walter reed while other military personnel and veterans get awful horrible care at va hospitals?
|
A lot has to do with where and when your injured.
Active duty and in combat: If it's sever enough you'll go to Walter Reed, otherwise you'll be in a different military hospital, some excellent, some okay, and some barely passable (just like any large dispersed group).
No longer active duty but with service related injuries, you go to the VA.
Now imagine the differences in both numbers of patients and age/health of those patients. Military hospitals will generally see younger people with acute issues (broken leg, arm blown off, a cough, etc.) Where as VA hospitals will see older parents with chronic conditions. Plus there are millions more veterans then active duty service members. It's not a surprise the VA has issues since they are almost always underfunded and over worked.
|
[
"The Army Medical Service employs military physicians, nurses, combat medics and other groups, and is traditionally responsible for providing medical humanitarian relief in armed conflicts, including caring for sick or wounded soldiers on the battlefield and operating first aid stations and field hospitals near the frontline, as well as organising transports of patients. Other responsibilities include occupational health services, medical disaster relief and international humanitarian missions in non-combat situations.\n",
"All of these conditions, plus an increasing number of personnel with families, have led to the construction of full service military hospitals. These hospitals treat both members of the military and their families.\n",
"Hospitals in the Washington area became significant providers of medical services to wounded soldiers needing long-term care after being transported to the city from the front lines over the Long Bridge or by steamboat at the Wharf.\n",
"Phillip Longman, author of \"Best Care Anywhere: Why VA Care Would Work Better for Everyone,\" said after visiting VA hospitals nationwide that, as the result of veterans in New England, the Mid-Atlantic and the industrial midwest either dying or retiring to Sunbelt states, there is an imbalance of capacity, with empty beds in some VHA hospitals and waiting lists in others. Compounding this problem, more liberal eligibility standards allow veterans to get treatment for chronic conditions of aging like heart disease and Parkinson's.\n",
"The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is a federal Cabinet-level agency that provides near-comprehensive healthcare services to eligible military veterans at VA medical centers and outpatient clinics located throughout the country; several non-healthcare benefits including disability compensation, vocational rehabilitation, education assistance, home loans, and life insurance; and provides burial and memorial benefits to eligible veterans and family members at 135 national cemeteries.\n",
"The military and public safety professions vary widely among differing jurisdictions as to what is available in terms of therapy. Military members in western nations typically are covered to some extent by their respective military health services, or by governmental departments dedicated to providing services to veterans, such as Veterans Affairs Canada or the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Police, firefighters, paramedics, and other related professions will each have differing health care arrangements and benefits depending on the health services an insurance arrangements in their respective country, state, province, territory, or municipality.\n",
"Military Veterans receiving VA medical care are eligible for hearing aids based on medical need. The Veterans Administration pays the full cost of testing and hearing aids to qualified military Veterans. Major VA medical facilities provide complete diagnostic and audiology services.\n"
] |
Is a rain (snow?) of carbon dioxide possible in Antarctica?
|
It's cold enough, but there is very little CO2 in the atmosphere. You can't look at the sublimination point at 1 atm because the partial pressure of CO2 is much lower. The low partial pressure of carbon dioxide would cause it to subliminate in this environment--some molecules are freezing out, but at the same time others are sublimating and there is no accumulation.
|
[
"Around 98% of continental Antarctica is covered in ice up to thick. Antarctica's icy deserts have extremely low temperatures, high solar radiation, and extreme dryness. Any precipitation that does fall usually falls as snow, and is restricted to a band around from the coast. Some areas receive as little as 50mm of precipitation annually. The coldest temperature recorded on Earth was at Vostok Station on the Antarctic Plateau. Organisms that survive in Antarctica are often extremophiles.\n",
"BULLET::::- A study by researchers at the Physics Institute at the University of Bern and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) presenting data from Antarctic ice cores showing carbon dioxide concentrations higher than at any time during the past 650,000 years.\n",
"The icing of Antarctica began in the middle Eocene about 45.5 million years ago and escalated during the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago. CO levels were then about 760 ppm and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. The glaciation was favored by an interval when the Earth's orbit favored cool summers but oxygen isotope ratio cycle marker changes were too large to be explained by Antarctic ice-sheet growth alone indicating an ice age of some size. The opening of the Drake Passage may have played a role as well though models of the changes suggest declining CO levels to have been more important.\n",
"The whole north-western part of the island – Ulu Peninsula – represents one of the largest ice-free areas of Antarctica. Up to 80% of the island area is free of ice. Thanks to a rain shadow cast by the Antarctic Peninsula, the annual precipitation is low – about –and the occasional snowfall quickly melts and is absorbed into the ground. This is because the station is located on a marine terrace formed by compact fine sand (Regolith). In 2008, the minimum temperature was and the maximum temperature was (mean ); the minimum humidity was 71.2% and the maximum humidity was 88.1% (mean 81%).\n",
"The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. The lowest air temperature record on Antarctica was set on 21 July 1983, when was observed at Vostok Station. Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, with having been observed at the cloud-free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.\n",
"The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working in the continent.\n",
"The polar cell, terrain, and Katabatic winds in Antarctica can create very cold conditions at the surface, for instance the lowest temperature recorded on Earth: −89.2 °C at Vostok Station in Antarctica, measured 1983.\n"
] |
what is web api and what is it used to accomplish?
|
An API is a defined way for one person's code to interact with another person's code. "Web API" means an API that uses the standard systems of the world wide web to interact with each other. For example, you can see reddit's API documentation [here](_URL_0_). It's a list of web addresses you can go to and give certain information, and reddit will respond with the information you're asking about.
|
[
"Web APIs are the defined interfaces through which interactions happen between an enterprise and applications that use its assets, which also is a Service Level Agreement (SLA) to specify the functional provider and expose the service path or URL for its API users. An API approach is an architectural approach that revolves around providing a program interface to a set of services to different applications serving different types of consumers.\n",
"A Web API is an application programming interface for either a web server or a web browser. It is a web development concept, usually limited to a web application's client-side (including any web frameworks being used), and thus usually does not include web server or browser implementation details such as SAPIs or APIs unless publicly accessible by a remote web application.\n",
"Web APIs are used for exchanging information with a website either by receiving or by sending data. When a web API fetches data from a website, the application makes a carefully constructed HTTP request to the server the site is stored on. The server then sends data back in a format your application expects (if you requested data) or incorporates your changes to the website (if you sent data).\n",
"An API is a basic library consisting of interfaces, functions, classes, structures, enumerations, etc. for building a software application. It is used by development teams to interact with and extend the software. An API for a given programming language and system may consist of system-defined and user-defined constructs. As the number and complexity of these constructs increases, it becomes very tedious for developers to remember all of the functions and the parameters defined. Hence, the API writers play a key role in building software applications.\n",
"In computer programming, an application programming interface (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer.\n",
"BULLET::::- Application programming interface – (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer.\n",
"BULLET::::- Application programming interface – (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library.\n"
] |
What are ideal situations for the creation of stalactites or stalagmites?
|
Quite a lot has been published and I'll list some papers below which will be of interest to you but essentially, everything comes down to a chemical equilibrium between carbonate and calcium^i ions on one side, and calcium carbonate (limestone), water, and CO2 on the other (e.g. see [here](_URL_0_)). What this means is that to maximise the rate at which we're producing limestone, you want to maximise the concentration of the reactants (carbonate and calcium ions) in your water, and minimise the amount of carbon dioxide (by increasing the rate at which it degasses).
This last point is important - you do not want to be using an airtight container because this will allow CO2 to accumulate within the chamber. The rate at which CO2 outgasses from your water depends on the CO2 concentration in the air, which means if CO2 is allowed to build up within the chamber, you are throttling the rate at which CO2 can outgas and hence your speleothem (the technical term for a carbonate structure that grows in a cave) growth rate.
When you are preparing the water the speleothem will precipitate from however, you want the opposite to be true - rather than getting CO2 to outgas, you want to get as much CO2 in it as possible. We can use this information to understand why natural speleothems grow in caves (as opposed to random voids in rock^(ii)) in the first place. Respiring organisms in soil release lots of CO2, which dissolves in groundwater to form water high in CO2 (which reacts with the water in further equilibrium reactions to form carbonate and bicarbonate ions). This water is acidic, and is therefore able to dissolve calcium^i containing rocks, providing the source of calcium ions for carbonate precipitation. However, because the CO2 concentration within the soil is so high, rapid carbonate precipitation does not occur. It is only when this water finds its way into a cave, which is ventilated by air from outside so is able to maintain a comparatively low CO2 concentration, that CO2 is able to outgas from the groundwater. This triggers CO2 concentration.
In terms of how to maximise your artificial speleothem growth rate therefore, you want to get as much carbonate and calcium ions in your source water (for instance by dissolving calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide under high CO2 conditions). You then probably want to maintain a relatively high drip rate (to maximise the ion delivery to your 'cave') but maintain a low CO2 concentration within the 'cave' to encourage carbonate precipitation.
There are also a number of other factors that affect speleothem growth rate, for which I would suggest you have a read through some of the following papers:
Genty _et al.,_ 2001. _ Intra- and inter-annual growth rate of modern stalagmites_
Dreybrodt 1999. _Chemical kinetics, speleothem growth and climate_
Banner _et al.,_ 2007. _Seasonal Variations in Modern Speleothem Calcite Growth in Central Texas, U.S.A._
^i This works for certain other elements as well such as magnesium, but here I'll stick to calcium for simplicity.
^ii Although this also happens.
|
[
"The process is suitable for a variety of soil conditions including clay, silt, sand, and rock. Problematic soil conditions include large grain content in the form of coarse gravel, cobbles, and boulders. Other subsurface conditions which can impact the feasibility of Directional Boring/HDD include excessive rock strength and abrasivity, poor rock quality, and rock exhibiting karst features.\n",
"Most orthents are found in very steep, mountainous regions where erodible material is so rapidly removed by erosion that a permanent covering of deep soil cannot establish itself. Such conditions occur in almost all regions of the world where steep slopes are prevalent. In Australia and a few regions of Africa, orthents occur in flat terrain because the parent rock contains \"absolutely no weatherable minerals except short-lived additions from rainfall\", so that there is no breaking down of the minerals (chiefly iron oxides) in the rock.\n",
"A geofact (a portmanteau of \"geology\" and \"artifact\") is a natural stone formation that is difficult to distinguish from a man-made artifact. Geofacts could be fluvially reworked and be misinterpreted as an artifact, especially when compared to paleolithic artifacts.\n",
"Stone settings are a type of monument found in Exmoor, an area of heathland in south-western England. They consist of upright stones that are assembled together either in geometric patterns or seemingly random configurations. \n",
"The generally accepted theory for the origin of lithographic and sublithographic limestones is that they were formed in shallow stagnant hypersaline and anoxic lagoons. The combination of mild hypersalinity and low oxygen content is believed to have inhibited the formation of microbial mats and prevented the invasion of bottom dwelling organisms. Microbial mats and bottom dwelling organisms would have left fossils, and bottom dwelling organisms would have churned the accumulating sediment, producing a less homogeneous rock. Stagnancy was required to avoid churning or sculpting of the sediment by currents or wave action.\n",
"is a type of rock formation that rises from the floor of a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor from ceiling drippings. Stalagmites may be composed of lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, sinter and amberat (crystallized urine of pack rats).\n",
"The region of Campania in which both sites lie is very temperate and fertile, so many plants thrive even inside the archaeological site. Henri de Saint-Blanquat identifies thirty-one plants in Pompeii, which, after growing in patches of bare earth, grow outward and attack the surrounding buildings, as well as dislodging tiles and mosaics. In particular, ivy grows along the walls, making parts crumble, and the roots undermine the foundations of the buildings. In regions traversed by tourists, their feet trample the plants; in closed-off areas, particularly those closest to unexcavated parts of the cities, this severely damages the buildings.\n"
] |
Has the Earth expanded over the last 3 billion years and is it still?
|
The idea that the Earth was expanding (or contracting) as an explanation for common geologic features (e.g. mountain ranges, ocean basins, etc) was abandoned once plate tectonics was developed and provided a more consistent set of explanations that were better supported by data. In the modern, with a variety of tools like GPS, very long baseline interferometry and others, we can directly measure the shape of the Earth and [say with relative certainty that it is neither expanding or contracting](_URL_0_).
|
[
"The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.\n",
"This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.\n",
"Agricultural expansion describes the growth of agricultural land (arable land, pastures, etc.) in the 21st century as a direct consequence of human overpopulation with an estimated 10 to 11 billion humans by end of this century and the required food and energy security. It is foreseen that most nonagricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the world will be affected adversely (habitat loss, land degradation). The intensified food and biofuel production will particularly affect tropical regions.\n",
"The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart .\n",
"The opportunity for any system to expand in size seems almost a necessary condition for it to remain balanced, at least over the long haul. Far from being impossible or exceedingly improbable, systemic hegemony is likely under two conditions: \"when the boundaries of the international system remain stable and no new major powers emerge from outside the system.\" With the system becoming global, further expansion is precluded. The geopolitical condition of \"global closure\" will remain to the end of history. Since \"the contemporary international system is global, we can rule out the possibility that geographic expansion of the system will contribute to the emergence of a new balance of power, as it did so many times in the past.\" As Quincy Wright had put it, \"this process can no longer continue without interplanetary wars.\"\n",
"The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).\n",
"1# Given business as usual, i.e., no changes to historical growth trends, the limits to growth on earth would become evident by 2072, leading to \"sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity\".\n"
] |
Length of Wehrmacht Deployments in World War II?
|
Well, to quote Kipling: "There is no discharge in the war!"
You didn't go on deployment in the Wehrmacht, you were entitled to, under the best of circumstances, two weeks of leave twice a year (for the Field Army/ combat troops) or once a year (for the Replacement Army/reserves, garrison personnel and other non-combat elements) respectively. Other than that, you served until you were either dead or physically/mentally incapable of performing both, front line(KV) and garrison(GV) duties.
There were, however, a lot of caveats:
There was a certain amount of travel time calculated and added (two days from Russia to western Germany in 1941), but depending on the unpredictable nature of reasons for transportation delays, that time wasn't always enough. So depending on where you were from (leave was always to your home region where you had to "report in" once you arrived), where your unit was deployed, and how the transport situation was (overcrowded trains [transportation towards the front had priority over anything going in the other direction], no available ships, delays due to partisan activity and air raids), you might have considerably less time at home. you could also be recalled early, though that was a measure the regime tried to avoid at pretty much all costs, as it was seen as potentially damaging morale not only of the soldiers, but also on the "homefront".
extra vacation time of varying length was given for a host of reasons, among them:
* aditional recuperation time from injury/sickness/wounds
* getting promoted/ receiving an award/ exceptionally good conduct
* family emergency at home (mostly the really bad stuff - deaths, family bombed out, etc.)
* reassignment to a new unit/billet
all this, of course, operational situation permitting and at the discretion of you superiors - usually your company command.
as there was extra vacation time, there were also, of course, blanket cancellations of leave for all units for a fixed time (Urlaubssperre). Almost exclusively for operational reasons, this could result in entire army groups/corps' not getting any leave for well over a year. Oftentimes, this coincided with a general news blackout (Nachrichtensperre), which meant that on top of your leave and rest time being cancelled, there was also no mail to be sent or received.
That covers actual leave (Fronturlaub/Heimaturlaub). A different beast entirely was the time spent away from front line duty, either with the unit (refreshment/refitting/training/deployment to a different theater of operations etc.) or individually (assignment to a different unit, hospital and recuperation time, time-limited teaching assignments and so on).
Generally, leave was granted liberally and fairly (those who had been without leave the longest would be the next to go on leave), whenever the operational situation permitted it, chiefly for reasons of morale both at home and among the troops. If you didn't fall afoul of the system (revokation of leave was a popular form of non-judicial punishment), and were exceptionally unlucky with your unit/travel situation, you'd seldomly see less than three weeks of accumulated leave time per year, at least until the war started truly turning for Germany - around, say, 1942 or so. Please note that this last number is an educated guess - I've never come across a definitive number, it is my best estimate deduced from a knowledge of the various variables mentioned above and a lot of reading. In the end, it all very much depends on the unit and individual soldier in question. The 4th Panzer Division, just to provide an example, only saw 5 1/2 official rest days on the Eastern Front between June 1941 and March 1942, and the majority of their personnell hadn't been on leave since fall/winter of 1940. At times severe performance issues due to simple burn-out of even the most tried and tested troops were a common theme for combat commanders, especially on the Eastern Front.
Sources:
Lots of bits and pieces from all kinds of primary and secondary sources, but especially:
C. Hartmann: *Wehrmacht im Ostkrieg*
K. Richer: *Kavallerie der Wehrmacht*
M. van Creveld: *Kampfkraft*
|
[
"During the later stages of World War II, as the strength of the German \"Wehrmacht\" was increasingly depleted, march battalions became improvized combat units, with an average strength of 800–1,000 personnel in three to five companies, as well as a small headquarters company and a field kitchen. Their equipment often consisted only of small arms (e.g. rifles) and some machine guns. \n",
"For the next three months, the men of the 16th Infantry would experience some of the most grueling fighting of the war in the infamous Hürtgen Forest near Aachen, Stolberg, and Hamich, Germany. After sustaining very heavy casualties from enemy artillery fire and the cold dreary weather, the entire division was sent to a rest camp on 12 December 1944. The stay was short, because Hitler launched Operation Wacht am Rhein four days later and the Battle of the Bulge was on. The division was sent to bolster the northern shoulder of the bulge near Camp Elsenborn. The regiment was ordered to positions near Waywertz. For the next month, the men of the 16th Infantry held defensive positions there, conducted heavy patrolling toward the German positions near Faymonville, and engaged in a number of firefights with troops of the 1st SS Panzer and 3rd Fallshirmjaeger Divisions. All of this was conducted in heavy snows during one of the coldest European winters on record. On 15 January 1945, the Big Red One launched its part of the Allied counteroffensive to reduce the Bulge.\n",
"The Wehrmacht suffered nearly 750,000 casualties between June and November 1944, forcing the German leadership to recruit from the Kriegsmarine, Luftwaffe, and industry, while extending the call-up age to all males between 16 and 60 years of age. This extension allowed the Germans to increase their manpower in Western Europe from around 410,000 on 1 December to just over 1.3 million on 15 December. These new soldiers were poorly trained, and this was exacerbated by the fact that most did not know of the offensive until days before it was launched, meaning many were not even informed of their objectives. The volksgrenadier divisions ordered to protect the flanks of the three advancing armies were not even properly reinforced, because the Germans found it difficult to detach these units from areas of the front being pressured by the slow Allied advance.\n",
"Although reinforcements continued to arrive, LXXXI Corps' units suffered heavily; the 12th Infantry Division had lost half its combat strength between 16–23 September, and the 49th and 275th Infantry Divisions had had to be pulled off the line to recuperate. While German infantry divisions generally had a strength of 15,000–17,000 soldiers at the start of World War II, this had gradually been reduced to an official (table of organization) size of 12,500, and by November 1944, the average actual strength of a \"Heer\" division was 8,761 men. In an attempt to cope with the manpower shortages plaguing the \"Wehrmacht\", the Volksgrenadier divisions were created in 1944. Their average total strength was just over 10,000 men per division. Although about of these were experienced veterans, half were fresh conscripts and convalescents, while the remainder were transferees from the \"Luftwaffe\" and \"Kriegsmarine\". These divisions often received the newest small-arms, but were deficient in artillery and motorization, severely limiting their tactical usefulness. In the case of LXXXI Corps, the 183rd Volksgrenadier Division, though overstrength by 643 men, had only been activated in September, meaning that the division had not had time to train as a unit. The 246th Volksgrenadier Division was in a similar state, many of its personnel having received fewer than ten days of infantry training. All of these deficiencies of personnel were offset somewhat by the inherent strength of the well-planned, well-constructed fortifications surrounding Aachen.\n",
"The 3rd Infantry Division remained in the UK training for many years until it landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 – D-Day – and fought through the Battle of Normandy (Caen, Bourguébus Ridge, Mont Pinçon), the Netherlands (The Nederrijn) and later the invasion of Germany the (Rhineland and the Rhine), ending the war in Bremen. It was placed in suspended animation in July 1946.\n",
"By July 1943, the Wehrmacht numbered 6,815,000 troops. Of these, 3,900,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 180,000 in Finland, 315,000 in Norway, 110,000 in Denmark, 1,370,000 in western Europe, 330,000 in Italy, and 610,000 in the Balkans. According to a presentation by Alfred Jodl, the Wehrmacht was up to 7,849,000 personnel in April 1944. 3,878,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 311,000 in Norway/Denmark, 1,873,000 in western Europe, 961,000 in Italy, and 826,000 in the Balkans. About 15–20% of total German strength were foreign troops (from allied countries or conquered territories). The German high water mark was just before Battle of Kursk, in early July 1943: 3,403,000 German troops and 650,000 Finnish, Hungarian, Romanian and other countries troops.\n",
"It was envisioned that the duplicating process and recruiting the required numbers of men would take no more than six months. Some TA divisions had made little progress by the time the Second World War began; others were able to complete this work within a matter of weeks. The 66th Infantry Division finally became active on 27 September 1939, although its constituent units had already formed and had been administered by the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division. The division was headquartered in Manchester, and was again composed of the 197th, 198th, and 199th Infantry Brigades. Major-General Arthur William Purser was given command, and the division was assigned to Western Command. In November, the division was transferred to Northern Command. On 10 January, Major-General Alan Cunningham was given command of the division. By May, the division was based north of Manchester, spread out across parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire.\n"
] |
how come after a cia or military operation gets declassified the files say “redacted” for certain things?
|
Because there are still secret aspects of the file that cannot be revealed to the public. A file doesn't have to be 100% declassified to be "declassified", if that makes sense - it just means that it has to go through the process of being cleared for public release.
|
[
"Document Exploitation (DOCEX) is the set of procedures used by the United States Armed Forces to discover, categorize, and use documents seized in combat operations. In the course of performing its missions in the War on Terrorism, members of the United States Armed Forces discover vast amounts of documents in many formats and languages. When documents are suspected of containing information of potential intelligence value, rapid and accurate interpretation of the information identifies targets, bolsters success in subsequent operations, and enhances tactical and strategic all-source intelligence efforts. The sheer volume of documents acquired in the course of military operations can overwhelm a unit's capability to extract meaningful information in a timely manner.\n",
"Once an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information, and all holds/moratoriums have been released, the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method, which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means. Alternatively, it may be converted from one form to another (e.g. from paper to electronic), depending on the defined retention period per format. Information with historical value beyond its \"usable value\" may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation.\n",
"Various types of techniques are used to recover evidence, usually involving some form of keyword searching within the acquired image file, either to identify matches to relevant phrases or to filter out known file types. Certain files (such as graphic images) have a specific set of bytes which identify the start and end of a file. If identified, a deleted file can be reconstructed. Many forensic tools use hash signatures to identify notable files or to exclude known (benign) files; acquired data is hashed and compared to pre-compiled lists such as the \"Reference Data Set\" (RDS) from the National Software Reference Library\n",
"In the context of government documents, redaction (also called sanitization) generally refers more specifically to the process of removing sensitive or classified information from a document prior to its publication, during declassification.\n",
"Document retrieval is defined as the matching of some stated user query against a set of free-text records. These records could be any type of mainly unstructured text, such as newspaper articles, real estate records or paragraphs in a manual. User queries can range from multi-sentence full descriptions of an information need to a few words.\n",
"How long should a government office retain a closed file?. There are different kinds of disposals in government system. Certain files need not be retained at all whereas certain others need to retained. Depending on the importance of the matter, Government has evolved a system retaining them with proper classification. “N. Dis” indicates nil disposal which means that it need not be retained and the original can be returned. If it is marked as “ K. Dis” it means, it has to be kept for three years and later it can be destroyed. “L. Dis.” means it can be destroyed after 1 year . Once the letter is approved by competent authority it'll be fair copied in the fair copying section and immediately dispatched. There is a register in which all these entries are made then and there. The arrangements for storing these records also to be made in every Office. There will be a record clerk who is in charge of storing files and retrieving them.\n",
"According to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists, the release of the documents \"looks like an effort to discover a retrospective justification for the war in Iraq.\" The Pentagon cautioned that the government \"has made no determination regarding the authenticity of the documents, validity or factual accuracy of the information contained therein, or the quality of any translations, when available.\" The Los Angeles Times notes that \"the documents do not appear to offer any new evidence of illicit activity by Hussein, or hint at preparations for the insurgency that followed the invasion.\"\n"
] |
how come is it incredibly hard for me to get back in shape at age of 45?
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This is going to get removed but here it is:
Fiber is the key. Fiber and water. You have to poop a lot. That's it.
|
[
"\"When I was in the amateurs, I cut a lot of corners. I was having a good time partying, going out and just being young but doing so while half assing it boxing. I stopped boxing a couple a months after turning 23 because I had to make a decision to either continue having fun or to get serious about boxing and i was not mature enough to take the sport serious at that stage in my life. I realized that I could no longer do both. I took a break from boxing deciding that i was threw with the amateurs and would return to the sport to turn pro if and when i was ready to take it serious, i started doing some traveling, lived life with out restriction and just enjoyed myself for three years.\"\n",
"After the age of 30, people begin to develop pain in the weight-bearing joints of the spine, hips, and knees. The pain can be severe to the point that interferes with activities of daily living and may affect ability to work. Joint-replacement surgery (hip and shoulder) is often necessary at a relatively young age. In the longer term, the involvement of the spinal joints leads to reduced movement of the rib cage and can affect breathing. Bone mineral density may be affected, increasing the risk of bone fractures, and rupture of tendons and muscles may occur.\n",
"It was in my 40s, and if you suffer from bulimia, the older you get, the worse it gets. It takes longer to recover from a bout ... I had a career, I was winning awards, I was supporting nonprofits, I had a family. I had to make a choice: I live or I die.\n",
"Some men in their late 40s and early 50s develop depression, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, and other physical and emotional symptoms such as irritability, loss of muscle mass and reduced ability to exercise, weight gain, lack of energy, difficulty sleeping, or poor concentration; many of these symptoms may arise from a midlife crisis or as the results of a long-term unhealthy lifestyle (smoking, excess drinking, overeating, lack of exercise) and may be best addressed by lifestyle changes, therapy, or antidepressants.\n",
"\"When I first did it I didn't realise how long it would be, maybe three or four months, so it was really hard. It was the longest I'd been out injured and it was a struggle watching all the boys playing, it was a case of trying to make the best of a bad job.\n",
"BULLET::::- People over 35 years of age are at increasing risk for losing strength in the ciliary muscle, which leads to presbyopia. and most people experience presbyopia, a difficulty focusing on close objects, by age 45–50. The cause is lens hardening by decreasing levels of -crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures.\n",
"The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\n"
] |
god rays; why they give the impression the sun is only just above the clouds
|
_URL_0_
> Despite seeming to converge at a point, the rays are in fact near-parallel shafts of sunlight, and their apparent convergence is a perspective effect (similar, for example, to the way that parallel railway lines seem to converge at a point in the distance).
|
[
"Crepuscular rays (; more commonly known as sunbeams, sun rays, splintered light, or god rays), in meteorological optics, are rays of sunlight that appear to radiate from the point in the sky where the Sun is located. Shining through openings in clouds (particularly stratocumulus) or between other objects such as mountains, these columns of sunlit scattering particles are separated by darker shadowed volumes. Despite converging toward the light source, the rays are essentially parallel shafts of sunlit and shadowed particles. Their apparent convergence in the sky is a visual illusion from linear perspective. This illusion is the same as railway lines' or long hallways' appearing to converge at a distant vanishing point.\n",
"Crepuscular rays are near-parallel rays of sunlight moving through the Earth's atmosphere, but appear to diverge because of linear perspective. They often occur when objects such as mountain peaks or clouds partially shadow the sun's rays like a cloud cover. Various airborne compounds scatter the sunlight and make these rays visible, due to diffraction, reflection, and scattering.\n",
"reflection and refraction of sunlight by small ice crystals in the atmosphere, often in the form of cirrostratus clouds. Depending on which variety of \"false sunset\" is meant, the halo has to appear either above the Sun (which itself is hidden below the horizon) or below it (in which case the real Sun is obstructed from view, e.g. by clouds or other objects), making the upper and lower tangent arc, upper and lower sun pillars and the subsun the most likely candidates.\n",
"In the painting, the actual sun is the yellow ball in the upper-right corner surrounded by the second circle. The large circle taking up most of the sky is a parhelic circle, parallel to the horizon and located at the same altitude as the sun, as the painting renders it. This is actually a common halo, although a full circle as depicted is rare. Such parhelic circles are caused by horizontally oriented plate ice crystals reflecting sun rays. In order for a full circle to appear sun rays must be reflected both internally and externally.\n",
"A subsun or \"sub-sun\" is a glowing spot that can be seen within clouds or haze when observed from above. The subsun appears directly below the sun, and is caused by its light reflecting off of numerous tiny ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. As such the effect belongs to the family of halos. The region of ice crystals acts as a large mirror, creating a virtual image of the sun which appears below the horizon, analogous to the sun's reflection in a body of water. \n",
"Although the focused (light) ray cones are actually more or less parallel to each other, the rays from the aureole effect appear to be radiating from the shadow of the viewer’s head due to perspective effects. The viewer's line of sight is parallel and lies within the cones, so from the viewer's perspective the rays seem to be radiating from the antisolar point, within the viewer's shadow.\n",
"Bailey stated that the seven rays that reach us on Earth locally originate within the \"Solar Logos,\" i.e., the consciousness of the \"Divine Being\" of the Sun. According to Alice A. Bailey and Benjamin Creme, the seven rays are focused to the Solar Logos, through Sirius, the seven stars of the Big Dipper in the Great Bear, and the seven major stars of the Pleiades form the \"Galactic Logos,\" (the consciousness of the \"Divine Being\" of the Milky Way Galaxy), and have their ultimate origin within the mind of God.\n"
] |
why do public domain books cost money on app stores?
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If a work is public domain, anyone can take it and charge money for it. Night of the Living Dead is a good example. It's public domain work now, anyone can make a DVD of it and sell it in stores.
Most free public domain ebooks are actually scanned and distrusted by volunteers who feel the work should accessible for free for everyone. A larger company may see the same book and charge for it because of a variety of reasons. Maybe their edition has some editorials. Maybe it's got pictures and diagrams. Or maybe they just figure that if they charge for it, someone will buy it even if there's a free version.
The interesting thing about public domain work is that you can buy a copy and then distribute it yourself. Completely legal.
|
[
"In 2011, an Apple spokesperson announced that \"We are now requiring that if an app offers customers the ability to purchase books outside of the app, that the same option is also available to customers from within the app with in-app purchase.\" Due to the 30% revenue share that Apple receives from the in-app purchase mechanism, the financial viability of competing bookstore apps run by other book retailers is uncertain, even though in many countries, the iBooks Store still does not provide consumers access to any e-books except for free works, such as ones that are in the public domain. Apple's competitor Amazon.com updated its iOS Kindle app in July 2013 to bypass the 30% revenue share by requiring the user to purchase content using the Kindle Store's website instead of using the Kindle app; users can still get free e-books or samples while using the app.\n",
"Amazon operates a \"Kindle Owners' Lending Library\" that enables paid Amazon Prime users to borrow from a collection of over 600,000 ebooks without any due date, with books being delivered to Kindle and Kindle Fire devices, but not to the free Kindle reading apps for other platforms. The same book can be borrowed by a number of users at the same time, and users may keep a book for as long as they want. Alternatively, the books that are available in the public domain can be downloaded in different formats from many sites like archive.org.\n",
"Of these books, regularly available at this time (as for example on the Amazon web site) are Jackson's \"Collector's Companion\", \"Lubkemann's Whittling Book\", and Young's \"Owner's Manual\". Some of the others occasionally turn up on Amazon and auction sites like eBay.\n",
"Some of the major book retailers and multiple third-party developers offer free (and in some third-party cases, premium paid) e-reader software applications (apps) for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, Blackberry, iPad, iPhone, Windows Phone and Palm OS devices to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices. Examples are apps for the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, iBooks, Kobo eReader and Sony Reader.\n",
"The books are primarily sold on the publisher's website and advertised by word-of-mouth, although in some cases they can be bought in shops; in 2011 the company was negotiating with IKEA and ICA to have some books sold at their stores.\n",
"Such app stores are often used by developers to distribute apps that are not allowed in the Play Store, for example because they allow users more access to the system or to offer apps for niche users, such as only free and open-source software (F-Droid) or indie games (Itch.io). They might also serve to distribute \"hacked\" versions of paid apps for free.\n",
"In 2006, the company added an online book listing service known as “Books For Sale.” Booksellers enter their books in the Books For Sale database, which can be searched on the site or through major search engines, including Google Product Search. Similar used book listings are available through websites such as Amazon.com, AbeBooks, Biblio.com, and Alibris. However, differing from those sites, sales are not conducted on the Americana Exchange site. Buyers are sent directly to the listing bookseller via an email form. Listing booksellers pay a fee of $425 annually to list their books and gain access to other services such as the book database. Since the sales are completed by the bookseller rather than on the Rare Book Hub website, no commissions are charged.\n"
] |
How did life evolve to snakes? What was the natural selection?
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Snakes share a common ancestor with modern lizards, which was a legged lizard. Apparently some species actually benefitted from losing their legs, which is where natural selection comes in.
[Certain modern lizards](_URL_0_) provide good example of what the intermediates must've looked like. These species have already switched to "snake locomotion" while still retaining tiny vestigial legs
|
[
"Many modern snake groups originated during the Paleocene, alongside the adaptive radiation of mammals following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes. Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such as Nerodia, Lampropeltis, Pituophis, and Pantherophis).\n",
"Modern snakes greatly diversified during the Paleocene. This occurred alongside the adaptive radiation of mammals, following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The colubrids, one of the more common snake groups, became particularly diverse due to preying on rodents, an especially successful mammal group.\n",
"It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the Miocene epoch. During the mid-Tertiary, most snakes were large ambush predators belonging to the superfamily Henophidia, which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of the world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom. Other research on Toxicofera, a hypothetical clade thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to the order of tens of millions of years, during the Late Cretaceous.\n",
"Modern snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the mid-Cretaceous period, and the earliest known fossils date to around 112 Ma ago. However, the relationship between modern snake and more primitive snake ancestors, many of which retained hind limbs, is less clear. While many of these \"stem-snakes\" are known from Mesozoic fossils, some of them may be descendants of the earliest true snakes rather than more primitive lineages. Below is a cladogram modified from a study by Wilson \"et al.\" (2010), which found many stem-snakes of other studies to be true snakes instead.\n",
"Some cultures regarded snakes as immortal because they appeared to be reincarnated from themselves when they sloughed their skins. Snakes were often also associated with immortality because they were observed biting their tails to form a circle and when they coiled they formed spirals. Both circles and spirals were seen as symbols of eternity. The circle was particularly important to Dahomeyan myth where the snake-god Danh circled the world like a belt, corsetting it and preventing it from flying apart in splinters. In Egyptian myth, the state of existence before creation was symbolised as Amduat, a many-coiled serpent from which Ra the Sun and all of creation arose, returning each night and being reborn every morning. Also, the snake biting its tail (Ouroboros) symbolised the sea as the eternal ring which enclosed the world. In Egypt the snake has healing abilities. Hymns and offerings were made to it since it was believed that the Goddess could manifest through the snake. \n",
"There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous Period. An early fossil snake relative, \"Najash rionegrina\", was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial. One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor \"Lanthanotus\" of Borneo (though it also is semiaquatic). Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs. According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears. Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like \"Haasiophis\", \"Pachyrhachis\" and \"Eupodophis\", which are slightly older than \"Najash\".\n",
"There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous Period. An early fossil snake, \"Najash rionegrina\", was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial. One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor \"Lanthanotus\" of Borneo (though it also is semiaquatic). Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs. According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears. Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like \"Haasiophis\", \"Pachyrhachis\" and \"Eupodophis\", which are slightly older than \"Najash\".\n"
] |
what is motivation? i mean what is going on in the brain when somebody gets motivation or has motivation?
|
A popular model of motivation requires two things: an incentive (something of value), and the belief that you will get that thing. So, what is going on in your brain is an appraisal of value (I want that thing) and an assessment of your ability to do what is needed to get that thing.
Goal-setting plays a large role. You don't just "have motivation". You have to have motivation to do something. Motivation has a direction, it's not a state-of-being.
|
[
"Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of humans. Motivation is based on emotion—specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics, motivation is often seen to be based on incentives; these may be financial, moral, or coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic influences.\n",
"Motivation in psychology refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion. Motivation is having the desire and willingness to do something. A motivated person can be reaching for a long-term goal such as becoming a professional writer or a more short-term goal like learning how to spell a particular word. Personality invariably refers to more or less permanent characteristics of an individual's state of being (e.g., shy, extrovert, conscientious). As opposed to motivation, emotion refers to temporal states that do not immediately link to behavior (e.g., anger, grief, happiness).\n",
"Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.\n",
"Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviours, drive performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that an individual experiences. Most psychological theories hold that motivation exists purely within the individual, but socio-cultural theories express motivation as an outcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of social groups.\n",
"Motivation is the reason for people's actions, willingness and goals. Motivation is derived from the word \"motive\" which is defined as a need that requires satisfaction. These needs could be wants or desires that are acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, etc. or generally innate. Motivation is one's direction to behaviour, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behaviour, a set of force that acts behind the motives. An individual's motivation may be inspired by others or events (extrinsic motivation) or it may come from within the individual (intrinsic motivation). Motivation has been considered as one of the most important reasons that inspires a person to move forward in life. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. Mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement e.g. in the worlds of elite sport, medicine or music.\n",
"Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the process that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed.\n",
"Motivation can develop through an individuals involvement within their cultural group. Personal motivation often comes from activities a person believes to be central to the everyday occurrences in their community. An example of socio-cultural theory would be social settings where people work together to solve collective problems. Although individuals will have internalized goals, they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests and goals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to. Oftentimes, it is believed that all cultural groups are motivated in the same way. However, motivation can come from different child-rearing practices and cultural behaviors that greatly vary between cultural groups.\n"
] |
How would the daily life of the common man be different if Einstein hadn't made his discoveries?
|
A quantum mechanical understanding of materials was necessary to develop the transistor and the entire computer revolution that came from it.
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[
"Albert Einstein was also living at Princeton during this time. Gödel and Einstein developed a strong friendship, and were known to take long walks together to and from the Institute for Advanced Study. The nature of their conversations was a mystery to the other Institute members. Economist Oskar Morgenstern recounts that toward the end of his life Einstein confided that his \"own work no longer meant much, that he came to the Institute merely ... to have the privilege of walking home with Gödel\".\n",
"It is now known that Einstein was well aware of the scientific research of his time. The well known historian of science, Jürgen Renn, Director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science wrote on Einstein's contributions to the Annalen der Physik:\n",
"By this time, Katz had spent six years researching the life of theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, the last two years being a collaboration with Dr. Edward Ritvo. In their research, Katz and Ritvo discovered that Einstein's parents had been very worried about him when he was a baby. Born with an unusually large head similarly to many children with autism, Einstein's grandparents thought he was a dolt, in part because he was a late talker and did poorly in school. Einstein additionally \"was a loner, solitary, suffered from major tantrums, had no friends and didn't like being in crowds.\" In 1995, Katz and Ritvo published their 1995 book, \"In a World of His Own: A Storybook About Albert Einstein\". In \"In a World of His Own\", Katz and Ritvo review the life of Albert Einstein in view of the features of the autistic spectrum to conclude that Einstein did have autism.\n",
"Einstein was an admirer of the philosophy of David Hume; in 1944 he said \"If one reads Hume’s books, one is amazed that many and sometimes even highly esteemed philosophers after him have been able to write so much obscure stuff and even find grateful readers for it. Hume has permanently influenced the development of the best philosophers who came after him.\"\n",
"Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the \"Daily Herald\" on 24 July 1933.\n",
"In Rispens’ 2006 book, \"Einstein in Nederland: Een intellectuele biografie\" (Einstein in the Netherlands: An Intellectual Biography), he revealed that during the period of 1933-1945, Albert Einstein was upset by Nobel Prize winning chemist Peter Debye, whom Einstein believed to be serving the Third Reich more than he considered ethically correct.\n",
"He also became famous as the doctor and friend of many leading personalities in the scientific, social, and artistic worlds of his day. For example, he was a close friend and doctor to Albert Einstein for 25 years. His biography contains two chapters that provide one of the most intimate glimpses of Einstein ever published.\n"
] |
why do the cups of water i set out at night end up with bubbles and a "stale" taste in the morning?
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The bubbles have something to do with the oxygen being gassed out especially if the water is cold, since cold water holds more oxygen. And the taste is CO2 being dissolved in the water over the period of time which creates a chemical compound H₂CO₃ - carbonic acid. So the increase of the acid changed the taste of the water.
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[
"Pliny the Elder noted \"In Tongrie, country of Gaul, there is a famous source, whose water, while sparkling bubbles, a ferruginous taste that is, however, feel that when we finished drinking. This water purges the body, cures fevers and dispels calculous affections.\"(C lib.XXXI VIII).\n",
"Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n",
"Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard.\n",
"Just as soap bubbles, with air inside and air outside, have negative buoyancy and tend to sink towards the ground, so antibubbles, with water inside and air outside have positive buoyancy and tend to rise towards the water surface. But again, just as soap bubbles can be filled with a lighter gas to give them positive buoyancy, so antibubbles can be filled with a heavier liquid to give them negative buoyancy. Using a drinking straw to drop droplets of sugar solution onto soapy water will produce antibubbles that sink.\n",
"In fluid mechanics, the Cheerios effect is the phenomenon that occurs when floating objects that don't normally float attract one another. Wetting, an example of the \"Cheerios effect,\" is when breakfast cereal clumps together or clings to the sides of a bowl of milk. It is named after the common breakfast cereal Cheerios and is due to surface tension. The same effect governs the behavior of bubbles on the surface of soft drinks.\n",
"\"Bubbles\" is an action game where the player controls the protagonist, a soap bubble, from a top-down perspective. The object is to clean a kitchen sink by maneuvering over ants, crumbs, and grease spots to absorb them before they slide into the drain. As the bubble absorbs more objects, it grows in size, eventually acquiring first eyes and then a smiling mouth. At the same time, sponges and scrub brushes slowly move around the sink, cleaning it on their own in competition with the player. Touching either of these enemies costs a player one life unless the bubble is large enough to have a complete face. In this case, the enemy will be knocked away and the bubble will shrink. Sponges and brushes can be knocked into the drain for bonus points, eliminating them from play. Two other enemies in the sink are stationary razor blades and roaches that crawl out of the drain. Contact with a blade is always fatal, while the bubble can safely touch the roach only while carrying a broom, which will kill the roach with one hit. The broom can be acquired by running over a cleaning lady who appears in the sink from time to time.\n",
"Spherical bubbles in soapy water in a fcc or hcp arrangement, when the water in the gaps between the bubbles drains out, also approach the rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb or trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb. However, such fcc or hcp foams of very small liquid content are unstable, as they do not satisfy Plateau's laws. The Kelvin foam and the Weaire–Phelan foam are more stable, having smaller interfacial energy in the limit of a very small liquid content.\n"
] |
why can't we upgrade our smartphones like we do on personal computers?
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Smartphones are very small. They are built with components that have to fit very tightly together, otherwise there either won't be room inside the case, or the components might interfere with each other, or the heat dispersal won't be effective and the phone will overheat. The same problem applies to laptops too, which usually only let you replace a few components such as the RAM and peripherals.
The concept of a [modular smartphone](_URL_0_) is in development, but so far there have been very few practical implementations.
|
[
"By allowing users to bring their own operating system there are significant cost savings to be made by organisations who commonly have many on-site users and are obliged to provide them with computer hardware to allow them to perform specific tasks as there is no longer a need to install a hard drive in each computer. Upgrading and maintaining many PC computers has also become easier as companies only need to supply users with new pen drives containing the operating system boot images rather than having to re-image every PC with the latest build of the operating system thus eliminating upgrade costs.\n",
"Smartphones have greatly reduced the need for employees to use company computers/Internet access for personal matters, also making it harder for companies to restrict or track workers' Internet activity. \n",
"Since these phones run Android 4.0, they are still supported by cloud, communications and social networking services that push the latest versions of their apps, which have in some cases been designed with only the newest hardware in mind. Such applications hog system resources and cause the phones to run slowly. As a remedy, phone owners can replace those apps with less resource-hungry equivalents, or remove them entirely and use a web browser to access the services' sites.\n",
"The extensive variation of hardware in Android devices causes significant delays for software upgrades, with new versions of the operating system and security patches typically taking months before reaching consumers, or sometimes not at all. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media. Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to upgrade their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones, an attitude described as \"insulting\". \"The Guardian\" complained that the method of distribution for updates is complicated only because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way. In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an \"Android Update Alliance\", pledging to deliver timely updates for every device for 18 months after its release; however, there has not been another official word about that alliance since its announcement.\n",
"Developing apps for mobile devices requires considering the constraints and features of these devices. Mobile devices run on battery and have less powerful processors than personal computers and also have more features such as location detection and cameras. Developers also have to consider a wide array of screen sizes, hardware specifications and configurations because of intense competition in mobile software and changes within each of the platforms (although these issues can be overcome with mobile device detection).\n",
"A further risk of software upgrades is that they can brick the device being upgraded, such as if power fails while the upgrade is in the middle of being installed. This is an especially big concern for embedded devices, in which upgrades are typically all-or-nothing (the upgrade is a firmware or filesystem image, which isn't usable if it's only partially written), and which have limited ability to recover from a failed upgrade. Solutions to this generally involve keeping multiple copies of firmware, so that one can be upgraded while the other remains intact as a backup, but there are still holes which can cause this to fail. Tools such as Sysup and SWUpdate provide more complete solutions that implement upgrades in a safe atomic way, and reduce or eliminate the need to customize bootloaders and other components.\n",
"The majority of people around the world still do not have access to personal computing. Many of the current efforts to bridge the digital divide are failing and it is difficult for organizations to make a dent in this large demand. The idea of providing a “laptop per child” sounds feasible in theory, but there is merely not enough funding to do so. Other initiatives to provide students with mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, are struggling to provide a fulfilling educational experience, especially if students aspire to go into the professional world. The distribution of relatively expensive mobile devices can pose a danger to many students in low income communities throughout the world, as children become potential targets of crime.\n"
] |
Does a person's body still become rested if only laying down instead of completely asleep?
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The effects of sleep are primarily related to brain function, and that recuperation does not happen from just laying down all night. If you actually needed a physical break then that would help (but chances are you probably didn't).
|
[
"BULLET::::- Get enough rest. Rest allows body tissues and joints the time they need to repair. Sleeping is a great way to maintain health and helps both body and mind. Lack of sleep, stress levels and symptoms might get worsen. Immunity to other infections or diseases is reduced when sleep is not adequate. Rest contributes to the ability to handle the stressors and problems. Many people need at least 7 to 9 hours of sleep each day to feel well-rested.\n",
"J. A. Horne (1978) reviewed several experiments with humans and concluded that sleep deprivation has no effects on people’s physiological stress response or ability to perform physical exercise. It did, however, have an effect on cognitive functions. Some people reported distorted perceptions or hallucinations and lack of concentration on mental tasks. Thus, the major role of sleep does not appear to be rest for the body, but rest for the brain.\n",
"Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n",
"Prolonged bed rest has long been known to have deleterious physiological effects, such as muscle atrophy and other forms of deconditioning such as arterial constriction. Besides lack of physical exercise it was shown that another important factor is that the hydrostatic pressure (caused by gravity) acts anomalously, resulting in altered distribution of body fluids. In other words, when getting up, this can cause an orthostatic hypertension, potentially inducing a vasovagal response.\n",
"While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n",
"A phenomenon of REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements.\n",
"My father says, he says, this one is definitely my responsibility. He can't rest. ... I told him, I says, \"I ain't resting till it's f-ing done\"... How can I rest? How could I sleep at night? ... It's always eating at me, eating at me.\n"
] |
how does sequence and separation of files in the deletion process of the computer work?
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> How does the computer decide what to delete first?
Typically the delete command will assume that the sequence does not matter, so it just uses the most easily or quickly available one. Most likely, it will just call a routine to list the contents and delete them in that order, and that routine by default lists them simply in the order the filesystem returns them. Probably in the order in which they were added to the directory, but it really depends on the implementation details of the filesystem.
> what gives the computer the ability to delete one file but not touch everything else?
That's not an ability but a side-effect of the fact that it has to do something for each file, and can only do one (or a few) things at a time.
|
[
"When a partition is deleted, its entry is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, may be able to locate \"lost\" file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.\n",
"The final state of encoding is required to start decoding, hence it needs to be stored in the compressed file. This cost can be compensated by storing some information in the initial state of encoder. For example, instead of starting with \"10000\" state, start with \"1****\" state, where \"*\" are some additional stored bits, which can be retrieved at the end of the decoding. Alternatively, this state can be used as a checksum by starting encoding with a fixed state, and testing if the final state of decoding is the expected one.\n",
"Disk partitioning or disk slicing is the creation of one or more regions on secondary storage, so that each region can be managed separately. These regions are called partitions. It is typically the first step of preparing a newly installed disk, before any file system is created. The disk stores the information about the partitions' locations and sizes in an area known as the partition table that the operating system reads before any other part of the disk. Each partition then appears to the operating system as a distinct \"logical\" disk that uses part of the actual disk. System administrators use a program called a partition editor to create, resize, delete, and manipulate the partitions.. Partitioning allows the use of different filesystems to be installed for different kinds of files. Separating user data from system data can prevent the system partition from becoming full and rendering the system unusable. Partitioning can also make backing up easier. A disadvantage is that it can be difficult to properly size partitions resulting in having one partition with much free space and another nearly totally allocated.\n",
"BULLET::::- Editing: If one wishes to edit data in a compressed format (for instance, perform image editing on a JPEG image), one will generally decode it, edit it, then re-encode it. This re-encoding causes digital generation loss; thus if one wishes to edit a file repeatedly, one should only decode it \"once,\" and make all edits on that copy, rather than repeatedly re-encoding it. Similarly, if encoding to a lossy format is required, it should be deferred until the data is finalised, e.g. after mastering.\n",
"When a file is \"deleted\" using a FAT file system, the directory entry remains almost unchanged except for the first character of the file name, preserving most of the \"deleted\" file's name, along with its time stamp, file length and — most importantly — its physical location on the disk. The list of disk clusters occupied by the file will, however, be erased from the \"File Allocation Table\", marking those sectors available for use by other files created or modified thereafter. In case of FAT32, it is additionally erased field responsible for upper 16 bits of file start cluster value.\n",
"When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n",
"A partition refinement algorithm maintains a family of disjoint sets . At the start of the algorithm, this family contains a single set of all the elements in the data structure. At each step of the algorithm, a set is presented to the algorithm, and each set in the family that contains members of is split into two sets, the intersection and the difference .\n"
] |
what is really the difference between high end sunglasses (like ray-bans) and cheap sunglasses (like some from walmart)
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When you're 106 miles from Chicago, you have a full tank of gas, half a pack of cigarettes, and it's dark, cheap Wal-Mart sunglasses just won't do.
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[
"Sunglasses allow for better vision in bright daylight, and may protect one's eyes against damage from excessive levels of ultraviolet light. Typical sunglasses lenses are tinted for protection against bright light or polarized to remove glare; Photochromatic glasses are clear in dark or indoor conditions, but turn into sunglasses when in they come in contact with Ultraviolet light. Most over the counter sunglasses do not have corrective power in the lenses; however, special prescription sunglasses can be made.\n",
"While non-tinted glasses are very rarely worn without the practical purpose of correcting eyesight or protecting one's eyes, sunglasses have become popular for several further reasons, and are sometimes worn even indoors or at night.\n",
"Oversized sunglasses, because of their larger frames and lenses, are useful for individuals who are trying to minimize the apparent size or arch of their nose. Oversized sunglasses also offer more protection from sunburn due to the larger areas of skin they cover, although sunblock should still be used.\n",
"Some sports-optimized sunglasses have interchangeable lens options. Lenses can be easily removed and swapped for a different lens, usually of a different color. The purpose is to allow the wearer to easily change lenses when light conditions or activities change. The reasons are that the cost of a set of lenses is less than the cost of a separate pair of glasses, and carrying extra lenses is less bulky than carrying multiple pairs of glasses. It also allows easy replacement of a set of lenses if they are damaged. The most common type of sunglasses with interchangeable lenses has a single lens or shield that covers both eyes. Styles that use two lenses also exist, but are less common.\n",
"Sunglasses are often worn to reduce glare; polarized sunglasses are designed to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water, glossy printed matter or painted surfaces. An anti-reflective treatment on eyeglasses reduces the glare at night and glare from inside lights and computer screens that is caused by light bouncing off the lens. Some types of eyeglasses can reduce glare that occurs because of the imperfections on the surface of the eye.\n",
"The company has been criticised for the high price of its brand-name glasses, such as Ray-Ban, Oakley, and several others. A 2012 \"60 Minutes\" segment focused on whether the company's extensive holdings in the industry were used to keep prices high. Luxottica owns not only a large portfolio of brands (over a dozen) such as Ray-Ban and Oakley but also retailers such as Sunglass Hut and Oliver Peoples, the optical departments at Target and Sears, as well as key eye insurance groups including the second largest glasses insurance firm in the US. It has been accused of operating a complete monopoly on the optical industry and overcharging for its products—for example, temporarily dropping competitor Oakley from its frame design list, then, when the company stock crashed, purchasing the company, then increasing the prices of its Ray-Ban sunglasses. In addition, it has been argued that, by owning the vision insurance company EyeMed, it also controls part of the buyers' market as well.\n",
"Ray-Ban is an American brand of sunglasses and eyeglasses created in 1936 by the American company Bausch & Lomb. The brand is known for their Wayfarer and Aviator lines of sunglasses. In 1999, Bausch & Lomb sold the brand to the Italian eyewear conglomerate, Luxottica Group, for a reported US $640 million.\n"
] |
if left alone, will the debris in space around earth coalesce into a ring, if so how long 'til it happens?
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The manmade satelites that aren't in a graveyard orbit will eventually reenter the atmosphere and burn up. Eventually the ones in the graveyard orbit will too but that will be quite a while. There isn't enough matter currently orbiting the earth to form rings comparable to our solar neighbours, save for the moon. #notascientist
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[
"By December 2011, many pieces of debris were in a steady orbital decay towards Earth, and expected to burn up in the atmosphere within one or two years. By January 2014, 24% of the known debris had decayed. In 2016, \"Space News\" listed the collision as the second biggest fragmentation event in history, with Kosmos-2251 and Iridium 33 producing respectively 1,668 and 628 pieces of cataloged debris, of which 1,141 and 364 pieces of tracked debris remain in orbit as of January 2016.\n",
"List of large reentering space debris is a list of man made objects reentering Earth's atmosphere by mass (see space debris). They are typically destroyed by reentry heating, but some components can survive. Most of these objects are relatively small; larger objects have survived but usually break up into smaller pieces during reentry.\n",
"Although most debris burns up in the atmosphere, larger objects can reach the ground intact. According to NASA, an average of one cataloged piece of debris has fallen back to Earth each day for the past 50 years. Despite their size, there has been no significant property damage from the debris.\n",
"\"Space debris\" usually refers to the remains of spacecraft that have either fallen to Earth or are still orbiting Earth. Space debris may also consist of natural components such as chunks of rock and ice. The problem of space debris has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space debris and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km/h). A piece of space debris falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.\n",
"Space debris is classified by size and operational purpose, and divided into four main subsets: inactive payloads, operational debris, fragmentation debris and microparticulate matter. Inactive payloads refer to any launched space objects that have lost the capability to reconnect to its corresponding space operator; thus, preventing a return to Earth. In contrast, operational debris describes the matter associated with the propulsion of a larger entity into space, which may include upper rocket stages and ejected nose cones. Fragmentation debris refers to any object in space that has become dissociated from a larger entity by means of explosion, collision or deterioration. Microparticulate matter describes space matter that typically cannot be seen singly with the naked eye, including particles, gases, and spaceglow.\n",
"There are estimated to be over 128 million pieces of debris smaller than as of January 2019. There are approximately 900,000 pieces from one to ten cm. The current count of large debris (defined as 10 cm across or larger) is 34,000. The technical measurement cutoff is c. . Over 98 percent of the 1,900 tons of debris in low Earth orbit (as of 2002) was accounted for by about 1,500 objects, each over . Total mass is mostly constant despite addition of many smaller objects, since they reenter the atmosphere sooner. Using a 2008 figure of 8,500 known items, it is estimated at .\n",
"It is believed that some of the surviving debris from the HTV would have likely fallen in a rectangular area stretching across the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and South America, according to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.\n"
] |
if the earth’s crust is so thin relative to the thickness of the core and mantle, how come we don’t feel all that heat?
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"Relatively thin" is still 20-30 miles of rock on average for continental crust. That's a lot of padding between us and the heat.
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[
"The crust is a thin shell on the outside of the Earth, accounting for less than 1% of Earth's volume. It is the top component of lithosphere: a division of Earth's layers that includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move, allowing heat to escape from the interior of the Earth into space. \n",
"The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.\n",
"Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"The Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. Its mass of 4.01 × 10 kg is 67% the mass of the Earth. It has a thickness of making up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a viscous fluid. Partial melting of the mantle at mid-ocean ridges produces oceanic crust, and partial melting of the mantle at subduction zones produces continental crust.\n",
"The Earth's crust is the outer brittle layer of our planet, on average thick in continental areas. This moves up and down by ten centimeters during the time of 12 and 24 hours due to the attraction of Moon and Sun, and is accompanied by a local tilting of some parts in a billion of radians.\n",
"The structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.\n"
] |
Do we have any proofs that "Armenian Genocide" was intentional?
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In short, yes. [This section] (_URL_0_) of the FAQ may be helpful.
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[
"The first person convicted in a court of law for denying the Armenian genocide is Turkish politician Doğu Perinçek, found guilty of racial discrimination by a Swiss district court in Lausanne in March 2007. At the trial, Perinçek denied the charge thus: \"I have not denied genocide because there was no genocide.\". After the court's decision, he said, \"I defend my right to freedom of expression.\" Ferai Tinç, a foreign affairs columnist with Turkey's \"Hürriyet\" newspaper, commented, \"we find these type of [penal] articles against freedom of opinion dangerous because we are struggling in our country to achieve freedom of thought.\" Perinçek appealed the verdict. In December 2007, the Swiss Federal Court confirmed the sentence given to Perinçek. Perinçek then appealed to the European Court of Human Rights, and in 2013 the Court ruled that Perinçek's freedom of expression, as enshrined in Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, had been violated. The European Court of Human Rights's Grand Chamber ruled in favour of Perinçek on 15 October 2015. (see Perinçek v. Switzerland).\n",
"The Armenian genocide is a contemporary current issue, given the persistent aggressive denial of the crime by the Turkish government-not withstanding its own judgment in courts martial after the first World War, that its leading ministers had deliberately planned and carried out the annihilation of Armenians, with the participation of many regional administrators.\n",
"Armenian Genocide recognition is the formal acceptance that the systematic massacres and forced deportation of Armenians committed by the Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1923 constituted genocide. The consensus of historians and academic institutions on Holocaust and genocide studies recognize the Armenian Genocide. However, despite the recognition of the genocidal character of the massacre of Armenians in scholarship as well as in civil society, some governments have been reticent to officially acknowledge the killings as genocide because of political concerns about their relations with the Republic of Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Imperial authorities which perpetrated the genocide. The governments of Turkey and its close ally The Republic of Azerbaijan are the only ones that directly deny the historical factuality of the Armenian Genocide, and both are adamantly opposed to the recognition of the genocide by other nations, threatening economic and diplomatic consequences to recognizers.\n",
"In 1951, the United States Department of State did actually exemplify the Armenian case as one of the committed acts of genocide in recent past. This view is evident in the written statement by United States given to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) that year, observing that: \"The Genocide Convention resulted from the inhuman and barbarous practices which prevailed in certain countries prior to and during World War II, when entire religious, racial and national minority groups were threatened with and subjected to deliberate extermination. The practice of genocide has occurred throughout human history. The Roman persecution of the Christians, the Turkish massacres of Armenians, the extermination of millions of Jews and Poles by the Nazis are outstanding examples of the crime of genocide. This was the background when the General Assembly of the United Nations considered the problem of genocide.\" That USA later dramatically changed this position and has consistently refrained from officially use the term \"genocide\" about the WWI events can be ascribed to the rise of the Cold War era and Turkey's NATO membership along with the disappearance of Raphael Lemkin as a strong human rights advocate from the ranks of the US State Department.\n",
"Witnesses and testimony of the Armenian Genocide provide an important and valuable insight into the events during and after the Armenian Genocide. The Armenian Genocide was prepared and carried out by the Ottoman government in 1915 and the following years. As a result of the genocide, Armenians living in their ancestral homeland (at the time in the Ottoman Empire) were deported and systematically killed. The Republic of Turkey today denies the genocide, although the systematic massacres are recognized as genocide by most scholars.\n",
"Although many documents related to systematic massacres were destroyed during and after the genocide, Turkish historian Taner Akçam states that the \"Turkish sources we already possess provide sufficient information to prove that what befell the Armenians in 1915 was a Genocide.\" Historian Ara Sarafian similarly notes that \"the available Ottoman materials, especially when used alongside alternative sources (such as United States records or Armenian survivor accounts), support the Armenian Genocide thesis.\"\n",
"In 2005, the International Association of Genocide Scholars affirmed that scholarly evidence revealed the \"Young Turk government of the Ottoman Empire began a systematic genocide of its Armenian citizens – an unarmed Christian minority population. More than a million Armenians were exterminated through direct killing, starvation, torture, and forced death marches\". The IAGS also condemned Turkish attempts to deny the factual and moral reality of the Armenian Genocide. In 2007, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity produced a letter signed by 53 Nobel Laureates re-affirming the Genocide Scholars' conclusion that the 1915 killings of Armenians constituted genocide.\n"
] |
Why were the international soldiers who participated in the Spanish Civil War, to fight fascism, upon return home (to the US and Canada to be more precise) investigated by their nations and not allowed to serve in WWII?
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What books or what were you reading that said that? There were definitely soldiers who served the Abraham Lincoln Brigade who then served in WW2 for America.
Here's one example: _URL_0_
|
[
"A small number of Australian volunteers fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War, although they predominantly supported the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. The Australians were subsequently allocated to the battalions of other nationalities, such as the British Battalion and the Lincoln Battalion, rather than forming their own units. Most were radicals motivated by ideological reasons, while a number were Spanish-born migrants who returned to fight in their country of origin. At least 66 Australians volunteered, with only one—Nugent Bull, a conservative catholic who was later killed serving in the RAF during the Second World War—known to have fought for General Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces.\n",
"The way home was arduous. The Canadian government continued its policy of ignoring or prosecuting the veterans of Spain, in accordance with the Foreign Enlistment Act. Money had to be scratched together to get them home; some were arrested in France. It was not until January 1939 that the government agreed the combatants could return to Canada. Upon their return to Canada, many were investigated by the RCMP and denied employment. A good number of the Mac-Pap veterans fought in the Second World War, but a number were prohibited due to \"political unreliability\" being categorized as \"premature antifascists\".\n",
"World War II was a significant turning point for American views towards Filipinos. During the early period of the war, Filipinos were prohibited to join the army. However, in 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt allowed Filipinos to serve in the armed forces. Many Filipinos fought with Americans in Asia and Europe while some opted to be civilians involved in mobilization efforts during the war. Filipinos earned acceptance and admiration by the end of the war. The United States recognized and affirmed the Filipinos' right to citizenship with the amended Nationality Act of 1940. Through the amendment, non-citizens who joined the military were given opportunity to attain citizenship. About ten thousand Filipinos became American citizens through the amendment.\n",
"Fifty percent of officers and NCOs were professional soldiers given leave from the Spanish army, including many veterans of the Spanish Civil War. Many others were members of the Falange (the Spanish Fascist party). Others felt pressure to join because of past ties with the Republic or—like Luis García Berlanga, who later became a well-known cinema director—to save relatives in prison from execution. The division also included a number of Portuguese volunteers.\n",
"From 1936-1938, volunteers from New Zealand, set off for Spain to assist the Republican faction during the Spanish Civil War. Over thirty New Zealanders were to fight the war and at least five were killed fighting in Spain. The New Zealand government was officially neutral during the war, however, a group of nurses from the country were deployed to Spain to assist the International brigade.\n",
"Before the United States entered World War II Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil in the Spanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started following an attempted \"coup d'état\" committed by parts of the army, led by the Nationalist General Francisco Franco, against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved, the \"Nationalists\" as members of the Spanish Army and the \"Loyalists\" (Republicans) as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade.\n",
"Of those who survived or avoided arrest, many followed the call of the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). They joined the of the International Brigades to fight against the Nationalist rebels. During World War II former Red Front fighters fought in the Soviet Red Army against Nazi Germany.\n"
] |
does the expansion of the universe have any measurable effects on smaller scales?
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If by smaller scales you are talking about superclusters of galaxies then yes, there is a small measurable effect. However even the short distance between the Milky Way and Andromeda is too short for the expansion of the universe to be measurable. The gravity between the galaxies is much stronger and drowns out any expansion of space.
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[
"At a fundamental level, the expansion of the universe is a property of spatial measurement on the largest measurable scales of our universe. The distances between cosmologically relevant points increases as time passes leading to observable effects outlined below. This feature of the universe can be characterized by a single parameter that is called the scale factor which is a function of time and a single value for all of space at any instant (if the scale factor were a function of space, this would violate the cosmological principle). By convention, the scale factor is set to be unity at the present time and, because the universe is expanding, is smaller in the past and larger in the future. Extrapolating back in time with certain cosmological models will yield a moment when the scale factor was zero; our current understanding of cosmology sets this time at 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. If the universe continues to expand forever, the scale factor will approach infinity in the future. In principle, there is no reason that the expansion of the universe must be monotonic and there are models where at some time in the future the scale factor decreases with an attendant contraction of space rather than an expansion.\n",
"Maps of large-scale structure can be used to measure the expansion history of the Universe because sound waves in the early Universe, or baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO), have left slight overdensities in the distribution of matter on scales of about 500 million light-years. This characteristic BAO scale has been well-measured by experiments like \"Planck\" and can therefore be used as a 'standard ruler' to determine the size of the Universe as a function of time, thereby indicating the expansion rate.\n",
"In principle, the expansion of the universe could be measured by taking a standard ruler and measuring the distance between two cosmologically distant points, waiting a certain time, and then measuring the distance again, but in practice, standard rulers are not easy to find on cosmological scales and the timescales over which a measurable expansion would be visible are too great to be observable even by multiple generations of humans. The expansion of space is measured indirectly. The theory of relativity predicts phenomena associated with the expansion, notably the redshift-versus-distance relationship known as Hubble's Law; functional forms for cosmological distance measurements that differ from what would be expected if space were not expanding; and an observable change in the matter and energy density of the universe seen at different lookback times.\n",
"The theory of the expansion of the universe is a mark in the 21st Century's science of astrophysics. The vastness (13.4 Billion Light Years) of space is getting bigger; starting with The Big Bang through to today. Fazıl Say's music also seeks an enlargement of space, reflecting the mathematics of rhythm and harmony as an expansion. The increase in scale appears as 3/8+4/8+5/8+6/8+7/8. There is symbolism in the major tonality (nature), minor tonality (humans), and atonality (chaos) that is covered intensely throughout the first part of Universe.\n",
"The first measurement of the expansion of space came with Hubble's realization of the velocity vs. redshift relation. Most recently, by comparing the apparent brightness of distant standard candles to the redshift of their host galaxies, the expansion rate of the universe has been measured to be H = . This means that for every million parsecs of distance from the observer, the light received from that distance is cosmologically redshifted by about . On the other hand, by assuming a cosmological model, e.g. Lambda-CDM model, one can infer the Hubble constant from the size of the largest fluctuations seen in the Cosmic Microwave Background. A higher Hubble constant would imply a smaller characteristic size of CMB fluctuations, and vice versa. The Planck collaboration measure the expansion rate this way and determine H = . There is a disagreement between the two measurements, the distance ladder being model-independent and the CMB measurement depending on the fitted model, which hints at new physics beyond our standard cosmological models.\n",
"On the largest scale, the Universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies (see Hubble's law). Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction. These associations formed early in the Universe, as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together. Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters. This on-going merger process (as well as an influx of infalling gas) heats the inter-galactic gas within a cluster to very high temperatures, reaching 30–100 megakelvins. About 70–80% of the mass in a cluster is in the form of dark matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent of the matter in the form of galaxies.\n",
"There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the Universe which affect the expansion rate. Before 1998, it was expected that the expansion rate would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the Universe; and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the Universe called the deceleration parameter, which most cosmologists expected to be positive and related to the matter density of the Universe. In 1998, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be negative, approximately -0.55, which technically implies that the second derivative of the cosmic scale factor formula_2 has been positive in the last 5-6 billion years. This acceleration does not, however, imply that the Hubble parameter is currently increasing; see deceleration parameter for details.\n"
] |
why we hear about new cancer treatments, but patients still just get surgery, chemo, and radiation?
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Those new treatments are chemo...
Not all chemo is the same. We have much better drugs than we did 30 years ago. For example, in 1975, a patient diagnosed with breast cancer had a 75% chance of being alive after 5 years. Today, that's over 90%.
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[
"The treatment of cervical cancer varies worldwide, largely due to access to surgeons skilled in radical pelvic surgery, and the emergence of fertility-sparing therapy in developed nations. Because cervical cancers are radiosensitive, radiation may be used in all stages where surgical options do not exist. Surgical intervention may have better outcomes than radiological approaches. In addition, chemotherapy can be used to treat cervical cancer, and has been found to be more effective than radiation alone.\n",
"There is no known prevention or cure. Surgery may be done to remove tumors that are causing problems or have become cancerous. Radiation and chemotherapy may also be used if cancer occurs. A cochlear implant or auditory brainstem implant may help some who have hearing loss.\n",
"People who reported their cancer treatment was “very intensive” and those who had quit work or school after being diagnosed were more likely to report that cancer negatively affected their work and school after diagnosis, with more than 50% reporting problems with memory and attentiveness. Almost three-quarters of adolescents and young adults with cancer who had been studying or working returned to school or work within one to three years after a diagnosis. Reasons for educational disruption and lower educational attainment given by adolescents and young adults in qualitative interviews included missing school, not taking required tests, and feeling as if they had been “left behind.\"”\" \n",
"Radiation therapy is generally used for patients whose tumors are not completely removed by surgery, for patients who are not good candidates for surgery because of other health problems, and for patients who do not respond adequately to surgery and medication.\n",
"Patients undergoing chemotherapy are administered drugs designed to kill tumor cells. Although chemotherapy may improve overall survival in patients with the most malignant primary brain tumors, it does so in only about 20 percent of patients. Chemotherapy is often used in young children instead of radiation, as radiation may have negative effects on the developing brain. The decision to prescribe this treatment is based on a patient's overall health, type of tumor, and extent of the cancer. The toxicity and many side effects of the drugs, and the uncertain outcome of chemotherapy in brain tumors puts this treatment further down the line of treatment options with surgery and radiation therapy preferred.\n",
"If the person has a small, but inoperable tumor, they may undergo highly targeted, high intensity radiation therapy. New methods of giving radiation treatment allow doctors to be more accurate in treating lung cancers. This means less radiation affects nearby healthy tissues. New methods include Cyberknife and stereotactic body radiation therapy(SBRT). Certain people that are deemed to be higher risk may also receive adjuvant (ancillary) chemotherapy after initial surgery or radiation therapy. There are a number of possible chemotherapy agents which can be selected however most will involve the platinum-based chemotherapy drug called cisplatin.\n",
"A person's adjustment to cancer depends vitally on the support of their family and other informal carers, but pain can seriously disrupt such interpersonal relationships, so people with cancer and therapists should consider involving family and other informal carers in expert, quality-controlled psychosocial therapeutic interventions.\n"
] |
Did Native American tribes who supported the Confederacy suffer any specific repercussions for this alliance?
|
I touch on the fallout some in [this broader answer](_URL_0_) which may be of interest.
|
[
"The Native American tribes of the Indian Territory realized that the Confederacy could no longer fulfill its commitments to them. Therefore, the Camp Napoleon Council was called to draft an agreement to present a united front as they negotiated a return of their loyalty to the United States. Native American tribes further west, many of them also at war with the United States troops, were also invited to take part, and several of them did.\n",
"The Native American tribes of the Indian Territory realized that the Confederacy could no longer fulfill its commitments to them. Therefore, the Camp Napoleon Council was called to draft an agreement to present a united front as they negotiated a return of their loyalty to the United States. Native American tribes further west, many of them also at war with the United States troops, were also invited to take part, and several of them did. \n",
"The confederacy became the dominant force on the northern plains. It posed a major threat to Indian nations not associated with it, such as the Shoshone and Crow further south. Its members also attacked European-American settlements on the Plains. The eventual decline of the fur trade and overhunting of the bison herds by Canadian and American hunters, which destroyed the Confederacy nations' most important food source, led to the defeat and breaking up of the confederacy. It engaged in military action with Canada during the North-West Rebellion.\n",
"Several reasons explain why the Indians sided with the Confederacy: (1) They believed the United States was on the verge of collapse, (2) They were neglected by the United States, (3) William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, advocated the seizing of Indian lands, (4) Their main agent was an advocate for the South, and (5) Their laws supported slavery.\n",
"After the start of the American Civil War, support for the Confederacy was strong in the southern part of the New Mexico Territory. Some residents felt neglected by the United States government. They worried about the lack of sufficient troops to fight the Apache. These Native Americans were defending their territory against encroaching white settlement, fighting off ranchers and mining camps all over Traditional Arizona. This became open warfare following the February 3-9, 1861 Bascom Affair, that brought Cochise into the war. Arizona settlers were also disturbed by the closing of the Butterfield Overland Mail route and their stations in March 1861, which had connected the Arizona frontier colonies to the East and California.\n",
"Unlike other Native groups such as the Iroquois Confederacy, the Praying Indians were cohesive and steadfast in their support for the colonists. The Iroquois Confederacy had several factions, most of which supported the British during the Revolutionary War but some that decided to fight with the colonists. That inevitably led to clashes involving previously aligned groups, when Native tribes on the opposite sides of the conflict met on the field of battle. For example, the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777 saw Loyalist Seneca soldiers fighting against colonially aligned Oneidas.\n",
"Co-operation among the Native American tribes forming the Western Confederacy had gone back to the French colonial era. It was renewed during the American Revolutionary War. The confederacy formally came together in Autumn 1785 at Fort Detroit, proclaiming that the parties to the confederacy would deal jointly with the United States, forbidding individual tribes from dealing directly with the United States, and declaring the Ohio River as the boundary between their lands and those of American settlers. This determination was renewed in 1786 at the Wyandot (Huron) village of Upper Sandusky. \n"
] |
why can we tell if a bill (currency) is fake or not/
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Money is like a cake. You have slices of it, and it's delicious. But what's it made out of? Well, there's a tricky question. Eat the cake and find out? You can try. Hell, let's say you do it. You somehow know every single ingredient in the cake. More still, you somehow know the exact measurments.
But if you put that all in a bowl, would it make a cake? Well no, there is stirring and preheating and the perfect cook time. Then, getting beyond the basic cooking process, you have butt loads of frosting. And the cake decorator is that guy who can make like, castles out of frosting.
Happy baking
|
[
"However, these numbers are based on annual seizure rates on counterfeiting, and the actual stock of counterfeit money is uncertain because some counterfeit notes successfully circulate for a few transactions.\n",
"Promotional United States fake currency is faux \"currency\" that makes no assertion of being legal tender. This money is often created by individuals as a way to promote practical jokes, or social statements. It is legal to print so long as it makes no assertion, whether by appearance or statement, of authenticity. Promotional United States fake currency is not to be confused with counterfeit currency or conflated with legitimate currency that has been demonetized.\n",
"In the United States, counterfeiters in small operations develop the fake currency using tools which often include; printers, an iron, and green colored water. Upon collecting bills, the Federal Reserve checks all notes, destroying any whose appearance fails to fit that of a federal bill.\n",
"The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted into the machine, and conducts various tests to determine if the currency is counterfeit. Because the parameters are different for each coin or note, these currency acceptors must be correctly programmed for each item to be accepted.\n",
"If two coins are counterfeit, this procedure, in general, does not pick either of these, but rather some authentic coin. For instance, if both coins 1 and 2 are counterfeit, either coin 4 or 5 is wrongly picked.\n",
"The United States has never issued a million dollar bill. However, many businesses print million dollar bills for sale as novelties. Such bills do not assert that they are legal tender. The Secret Service has declared them legal to print or own and does not consider them counterfeit. The Libertarian Party makes an annual tradition of handing out informational fliers made to look like $1,000,000 bills on April 15 to draw attention to its anti-income tax platform. A notable example of a 7-figure bill is currency from \"The Mad Magazine Game\" which features a $1,329,063 bill that serves as an Old Maid in the game. Players compete in this game to lose all their money. The bill features a portrait of Alfred E. Neuman.\n",
"US counterfeiters bleach small denominations and print more valuable bills on the resulting blank paper to evade this test, although changes to the currency since 2004 have made this method easier to detect. This is one reason that many currencies use different sized notes for different denominations.\n"
] |
why are drug stores selling products that have a disclaimer saying "no approved therapeutic claim"?
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The simple answer: There's a demand for said products.
There's a demand for those products, even if there is no proof that the products actually work.
There are tons of people using treatments that science hasn't prooved to be working (e.g. homeopathy).
The other side of the simple answer: Legal obligations. If you sell a non-approved product, you are legally obliged to say so on the label.
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[
"The following are settlements reached with US authorities against pharmaceutical companies to resolve allegations of \"off-label\" promotion of drugs. Under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, it is illegal for pharmaceutical companies to promote their products for uses not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and corporations that market drugs for off-label indications may be subject to civil liability under the False Claims Act as well as criminal penalties.\n",
"To avoid inquiry and punitive action by the United States Federal Trade Commission, cosmeceuticals which do not intend to be regulated as drugs by the FDA are carefully labeled to avoid making statements which would indicate that the product has drug properties. Any such claims made regarding the product must be substantiated by scientific evidence as being truthful.\n",
"The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies a \"Product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the name and trademark brand of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits.\n",
"The group claims that doctors preferentially prescribe drugs that are marketed to them over better or cheaper options because they are beholden to drug companies from which they accept gifts. Some doctors argue that they are not influenced by drug company marketing and that it is thus not necessary to refuse gifts from pharmaceutical companies.\n",
"Though physicians may prescribe drugs for off-label usage known as off-label marketing, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibits drug manufacturers from marketing or promoting a drug for a use that the FDA has not approved. A manufacturer illegally “misbrands” a drug if the drug's labeling includes information about its unapproved uses. A drug is deemed misbranded unless its labeling bears adequate directions for use. The courts have agreed with the FDA that the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) requires information not only on how a product is to be used (e.g., dosage and administration), but also on all the intended uses of the product. In 2004, whistleblower David Franklin prevailed in a suit under the False Claims Act against Warner-Lambert, resulting in a $430 million settlement in the Franklin v. Parke-Davis case. It was the first off-label promotion case successfully brought under the False Claims Act in U.S. history. Oral statements and materials presented at industry-support scientific and educational activities may provide evidence of a product's intended use. If these statements or materials promote a use that is inconsistent with the product's approved labeling, the product is misbranded under the FDCA for failure to bear labeling with adequate directions for all intended uses.\n",
"While the FDA maintains that approved generic drugs are equivalent to their branded counterparts, bioequivalence problems have been reported by physicians and patients for many drugs. Certain classes of drugs are suspected to be particularly problematic because of their chemistry. Some of these include chiral drugs, poorly absorbed drugs, and cytotoxic drugs. In addition, complex delivery mechanisms can cause bioequivalence variances. Physicians are cautioned to avoid switching patients from branded to generic, or between different generic manufacturers, when prescribing anti-epileptic drugs, warfarin, and levothyroxine.\n",
"Mutual Pharmaceutical Co. v. Bartlett, 570 U.S. ___ (2013), is a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States holding that generic drug manufactures cannot be held liable under state law for not adequately labeling medication when federal law prohibits them from changing the label from the original brand name drug.\n"
] |
why having a diet high in salt is bad for your heart
|
Simple explanation given to me I'm on a heart medication and diuretic (increased peeing = water and sodium levels decreased in blood)
Sodium is a known to cause fluid retention aka the more sodium you take in the more water stays in the body and not filtered out.
so high salt = high amount of water in blood.
lets say that water changes to 1 gallon of blood will be 1 gallon + water content so lets say 1 gallon of water.
Well now your 1 Gallon volume circulatory system now has 2 gallons in it causing increased pressure on veins and making your heart work twice if not three times as hard to pump double the fluid content through your body.
|
[
"Advising people to eat a low salt diet, however, is of unclear effect in either hypertensive or normal tensive people. In 2012, the British Journal \"Heart\" published an article claiming that a low salt diet appears to increase the risk of death in those with congestive heart failure, but the article was retracted in 2013. The article was retracted by the journal when it was found the two of the studies cited contained duplicate data that could not be verified.\n",
"A 2014 Cochrane review found unclear benefit of recommending a low-salt diet in people with high or normal blood pressure. In those with heart failure, after one study was left out, the rest of the trials show a trend to benefit. Another review of dietary salt concluded that there is strong evidence that high dietary salt intake increases blood pressure and worsens hypertension, and that it increases the number of cardiovascular disease events; both as a result of the increased blood pressure \"and\", quite likely, through other mechanisms. Moderate evidence was found that high salt intake increases cardiovascular mortality; and some evidence was found for an increase in overall mortality, strokes, and left ventricular hypertrophy.\n",
"There is very little strong evidence for specific appetite in humans. However, it has been demonstrated that humans have the ability to taste calcium, and indirect evidence supports the idea that patients on kidney dialysis who develop hypocalcemia prefer cheese with greater amounts of calcium added. Exercise also increases the preference for salt. Some diseases, including Gitelman syndrome and the salt-wasting variant of Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, impair the kidney's ability to retain sodium in the body and cause a specific craving for sodium. Extreme sodium depletion in human volunteers has been demonstrated to increase the desire for high-salt foods.\n",
"Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases, health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke, total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension.\n",
"Despite the scientific uncertainty, most physicians and clinical scientists, the European Food Safety Authority and the US Centers for Disease Control recommend that consumers use less salt in their diets, mainly to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and associated cardiovascular diseases in adults and children. Of the nine medical guidelines surveyed by Trinquart and others in 2016, seven prescribed sodium reduction to lower cardiovascular disease incidence (issued by the US-based Institute of Medicine, American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, World Health Organization and Japanese Society of Hypertension), and two stated that there was insufficient evidence to issue a recommendation on sodium intake as it relates to cardiovascular disease (UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, and the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force). None of the surveyed guidelines were deemed to rule against the link between sodium intake and cardiovascular disease.\n",
"A Committee of the National Academies Institute of Medicine evaluated the evidence about dietary salt intake and health. Overall, the committee found evidence that higher salt intake was associate with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the Committee also found that the evidence did not support the claim that lowering sodium intake in the general population to less than 2,300 mg/day was associated with a lower risk of death nor with a higher risk of death.\n",
"More recent evidence is showing a much more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. According to a systematic review of multiple large studies, \"mortality caused by levels of salt the association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake\" The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain a healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams a day . \n"
] |
Is there any scientific evidence to prove that each individual perceives everything the same?
|
Actually, there is very good reason to believe that while there may be some differences in perception from person to person, and large differences when dichromacy or other forms of color blindness is considered, people do NOT see colors very differently from one another. That is, as long as neither one of us is colorblind, I do NOT see red where you see blue or purple where you see green.
How can this ever be proven? Lets drop the philosophy 101 crap about there being no way to "know" what's going on in somebody else's head. If you hand out samples of Phenylthiocarbamide to 30 people, and half of them say they taste nothing and half run to the sink to wash out their mouths, I can say say that I *do* know something about what it's like to be the person who just tasted the stuff. Yeah, they could be putting on a show, or I could be a brain in a jar, but that doesn't mean we don't have hard evidence that the people who tasted the chemical felt pretty much the same thing, on the inside, because everything about their behavior and their description of what they tasted matches. That's considered evidence, and for science, that's the best we can ever get.
Next, let's consider sound.
Is it possible that I could be walking around hearing high notes where you hear low notes? Could my sound spectrum be inversed from yours?
No. because there's a smooth transition from beats so low you can tell that it's made of vibrations in the air to a high sharp pitch. It would be impossible to invert it without losing that smooth transition.
Colors! As long as your wiring is standard, green acts as opponent to red, red and green combine to make yellow, which acts as opponent* to blue, black is opponent to white, which is hard to distinguish from yellow. There is a structure behind how colors are related to each other, it's based on how neurons are physically connected to each other, and switching any colors would screw up the map. When the map does get screwed up, you can tell scientifically- color blindness tests, for example.
(* opponent= stare at one color, look away and see the other)
So could I see blue where you see green? Sure, if it's just a change on the margin, and maybe if we did we'd draw the lines this chart a little differently: _URL_0_ . It's a change, but it's observable, not part of the higher mysteries.
We'd also draw different charts based on what language we speak. Or what system we were asked to use. In one of my favorite psych experiments, which I learned about in school but can't recall the name of, first one researcher showed that people from an area in Iran whose language described colors differently labeled colors in a completely different way, and therefore must be perceiving differently. Years later, the theory was destroyed when it was shown that anyone could label colors in this unusual way if they were told about the other naming system and asked to use it. oops.
But back to your proposition. Could we look at that same chart and see something completely different? Not without being able to to tell. What if your blue was my green and vice versa? We agree there's a big area called blue. It's opponent to the upper left area is called yellow. Now when these two colors are placed next to each other in a gradient, what do we see? With blue and yellow, we see gray, the color of rocks and halfway between black and white. With green and yellow, it's yellow-green, and we do not stop in gray along the way.
That's an observable, scientifically recordable difference that would occur if blue and green were switched. Therefore, we can know!
|
[
"Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n",
"This extends to all areas of the physical reality, where the outside world we perceive is merely a representation of what is impressed upon the senses. The objects we see are in truth wave-emitting (or reflecting) objects which the brain shows to the conscious self in various forms and colors. Whether the colors and forms experienced perfectly match between person to person, may never be known. That people can communicate accurately shows that the order and proportionality in which experience is interpreted is generally reliable. Thus one's reality is, at least, compatible to another person's in terms of structure and ratio.\n",
"Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.\n",
"The idea that our perceptions are based on sense data is supported by a number of arguments. The first is popularly known as the argument from illusion. From a subjective experience of perceiving something, it is theoretically impossible to distinguish perceiving something which exists independently of oneself from an hallucination or mirage. Thus, we do not have any direct access to the outside world that would allow us to reliably distinguish it from an illusion that caused identical experiences. Since (the argument claims) we must have direct access to some specific experiential entity in order to have the percepts that we do, and since this entity is not identical to the real object itself, there must be some sort of internal mental entity somehow correlated to the real world, about which we afterwards have perceptions, make judgments, etc. This entity is a sense-datum.\n",
"Despite the large amount of information available, many important aspects of perception remain mysterious. A great deal is known about low-level signal processing in sensory systems. However, how sensory systems, action systems, and language systems interact are poorly understood. At a deeper level, there are still basic conceptual issues that remain unresolved. Many scientists have found it difficult to reconcile the fact that information is distributed across multiple brain areas with the apparent unity of consciousness: this is one aspect of the so-called binding problem. There are also some scientists who have expressed grave reservations about the idea that the brain forms representations of the outside world at all: influential members of this group include psychologist J. J. Gibson and roboticist Rodney Brooks, who both argued in favor of \"intelligence without representation\".\n",
"Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.\n",
"Human experience consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes recognised as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact—that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of consciousness at all, but exist from the first as a synthesis of relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the \"self\" and the various elements of the \"object,\" though holding all together in the unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its most complex constituents, of the \"work of the mind.\" Locke and Hume held that the work of the mind was \"eo ipso\" [by that very act] unreal because it was \"made by\" humans and not \"given to\" humans. It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction, universally recognised, which such science draws between truth and falsehood, between the real and \"mere ideas.\" This (obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz., reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some \"principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined by none of them\"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know in part. To God the world is, to humans the world becomes. Human experience is God gradually made manifest.\n"
] |
When a computer screen is cracked at one spot, why does the entire screen no longer work?
|
Pixels turn completely white (transparent) when you switch them off. When your screen cracks a conductor that is wired in series is severed, thus pixels are powered off while background light keeps running. The black blotch is the result of messed up polarizing filter and/or pixels cracking and leaking (thus the name liquid crystal display).
|
[
"If an LCD is subjected to physical shock, this could cause one or more TAB connections to fail inside the display. This failure is often caused by horizontally flexing the chassis (e.g., while wall-mounting or transporting a display face up/down) or simple failure of the adhesive holding the TAB against the glass. TAB faults require replacement of the LCD module itself. If these connections were to fail, the effect would be that an entire row or column of pixels would fail to activate. This causes a horizontal or vertical black line to appear on the display while the rest of the display would appear normal. The horizontal failure runs from edge-to-edge; the vertical failure runs from top-to-bottom.\n",
"Some computer programs, such as \"StepMania\" and BBC's \"Bamzooki\", also crash to desktop if in full-screen, but displays the error in a separate window when the user has returned to the desktop. Crashes are usually caused by website failure or system failure.\n",
"In LCD screens, the LCD itself does not flicker, it preserves its opacity unchanged until updated for the next frame. However, in order to prevent accumulated damage LCD displays quickly alternate the voltage between positive and negative for each pixel, which is called 'polarity inversion'. Ideally, this wouldn't be noticeable because every pixel has the same brightness whether a positive or a negative voltage is applied. In practice, there is a small difference, which means that every pixel flickers at about 30 Hz. Screens that use opposite polarity per-line or per-pixel can reduce this effect compared to when the entire screen is at the same polarity, sometimes the type of screen is detectable by using patterns designed to maximize the effect.\n",
"This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.\n",
"The artifact occurs when the video feed to the device is not in sync with the display's refresh rate. This can be due to non-matching refresh rates—in which case the tear line moves as the phase difference changes (with speed proportional to difference of frame rates). It can also occur simply from lack of sync between two equal frame rates, in which case the tear line is at a fixed location that corresponds to the phase difference. During video motion, screen tearing creates a torn look as edges of objects (such as a wall or a tree) fail to line up.\n",
"Stuck pixels, unlike dead pixels, have been reported by LCD screen owners to disappear, and there are several popular methods purported to fix them, such as gently rubbing the screen (in an attempt to reset the pixel), cycling the color value of the stuck pixel rapidly (in other words, flashing bright colors on the screen), or simply tolerating the stuck pixel until it disappears (which can take anywhere from a day to years). While these methods can work on some stuck pixels others cannot be fixed by the above methods. Also, some stuck pixels will reappear after being fixed if the screen is left off for several hours.\n",
"One problem with the system is that the heating elements can sometimes stop working, leaving one side of the screen uncleared. If this is the result of burn out, total replacement of the screen is the only remedy as the wires are actually embedded in the glass, (as opposed to a rear defogger, which can usually be repaired with conductive paint). The problem is sometimes caused by the power cable coming loose from its mounting near the base of the screen. The loose cable then catches on the windscreen wiper mechanism and fatigues over time. The remedy is then to reattach the wire to the foil at the base of the screen, but this can be problematic since the system requires such high current (~30 amps). Some owners have been known to smash the screen and submit a fraudulent insurance claim for stone damage, as Quickclear screens are expensive replacement parts and many insurance policies offer a low excess (deductible) for windscreen damage. This type of screen is also known to cause serious problems with tollway recording tags unless the tag is placed in the correct area behind the rearview mirror.\n"
] |
How in God's Name was Prohibition Ratified in the United States?
|
It's easy to look back and wonder what they were thinking, I agree. Temperance advocates had various advantages. There does seem to have been enormous enthusiasm, a deep conviction among the Temperance forces that banning alcohol would save most families from destruction, enable men to lead productive, long lives, and save huge mounts of money ( at a time when most manufacturing jobs were pretty harsh and life pretty hard, it was also easier to point a finger at alcoholism being a cause of so much misery, instead of questioning if perhaps working hours were too long and wages too low). The movement itself was also tied to Christianity ( ergo, The Women's Christian Temperance Union) at a time when perhaps most Americans' social lives, friends, were tied to belonging to a church ( though some churches, like the Lutherans and Episcopalians, were not keen on the idea). But maybe one of the key political reasons was the strategy developed by Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League to campaign against any politician who did not toe the line and sign onto the Temperance movement. Once political leaders learned that a stellar record of public service didn't matter to the ASL, that they would try ( and often would succeed) in turning out of office any senator, congressman, governor, etc. who did not vote their way, they were immensely powerful. It was the first single-issue advocacy group: decades later Gun Rights and Anti-abortion groups would use the same technique.
There was also not a very unified, strong opposition.The brewers and distillers didn't really mount an effective counter-campaign, and people who simply liked to drink did not form into cohesive advocacy groups, either.
Okrent: Last Call
|
[
"The Twenty-first Amendment (Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which had mandated nationwide Prohibition on alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment was proposed by Congress on February 20, 1933, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a prior amendment, as well as being the only amendment to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions.\n",
"Following two unsuccessful attempts at national prohibition legislation (one in 1913 and the other in 1915), Congress approved a resolution on December 19, 1917, to prohibit the manufacture, sale, transportation, and importation of alcoholic beverages in the United States. The resolution was sent to the states for ratification and became the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. On January 8, 1918, Mississippi became the first state to ratify the amendment and on January 16, 1919, Nebraska became the 36th state to do so, securing its passage with the required three-fourths of the states. By the end of February 1919, only three states remained as hold-outs to ratification: New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, was enacted on October 18, 1919. Prohibition in the United States went into effect on January 17, 1920. Nationwide prohibition was repealed in 1933 with the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment on February 20 and its ratification on December 5.\n",
"In December 1917, Congress submitted a constitutional amendment on nationwide prohibition to the states for ratification. The new constitutional amendment prohibited \"the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes\". It was ratified and became law on January 16, 1919, assuring its passage into law. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, which provided enabling legislation to implement the Eighteenth Amendment. When the National Prohibition Act was passed on October 28, 1919, thirty-three of the forty-eight states were already dry. After a year's required delay, national prohibition began on January 16, 1920.\n",
"BULLET::::- January 16, 1919: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, declaring the production, transport, and sale of alcohol (though not the consumption or private possession) illegal, was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 36) to become part of the Constitution\n",
"The 21st Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment, was proposed on February 20, 1933. The choice to legalize alcohol was left up to the states, and many states quickly took this opportunity to allow alcohol. Prohibition was officially ended with the ratification of the Amendment on December 5, 1933.\n",
"In February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment and modified the Volstead Act to permit the sale of beer. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one-state, one-vote referendum rather than a popular vote contest. That December, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the necessary majority for repeal. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 all of them had abandoned it. Since then, liquor control in the United States has largely been determined at the local level.\n",
"Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only states in the union not to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, also known as prohibition. Prohibition became the law of the land on January 16, 1919.\n"
] |
How do wild animals get rid of fleas?
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Almost every wild animal will host a wide variety of parasites for its entire life. Some of these are relatively innocuous - for example [eyelash mites](_URL_3_) in humans. Some are much [less pleasant](_URL_2_).
Intestinal worms are very common - almost universal - in most species of wild mammals.
Fleas are the same. In your example of wolves, a pup is likely to catch them from other pack members soon after birth. They will live with these for their whole lives.
[Parasitology](_URL_1_) is absolutely fascinating and utterly gross. The deepest truth is that you can't understand any organism on its own - you have to look at the whole environment it lives in, and you will always find parasites. In fact, [there are more parasite species than host species.](_URL_0_)
What are you hosting today?
|
[
"Removing fleas from the pets is not a difficult task considering the advent of products which are designed not only to kill fleas, but also to offer protection from further infestations. Flea-control products are available in once-a-month topicals, dog collars, sprays, dips, powders, shampoos, and injectable and oral products. All these products contain an insecticide as an active ingredient which kills the fleas when coming into contact with them. Fleas absorb the insecticide which either paralyzes them or kills them.\n",
"Removing the fleas in indoor environments mainly consists of removing them mechanically. This can be done by a thorough vacuuming, especially in places where fleas are more likely to be found, such as below drapes, the place where the pet sleeps, and under furniture edges. Vacuuming can remove an estimated 50% of flea eggs. After vacuuming, using a specially designed product is recommended to kill the remaining fleas and to stop the development of eggs and larvae. The products available on the market may include carpet powders, sprays or foggers, which contain adult insecticides and insect growth regulators.\n",
"Flea adults, larvae, or eggs can be controlled with insecticides. Lufenuron is a veterinary preparation (known as Program) that attacks the larval flea's ability to produce chitin, necessary for the adult's hard exoskeleton, but it does not kill fleas. Flea medicines need to be used with care because many of them also affect mammals.\n",
"Preventing flea infestations must include eliminating the parasites from the yard or kennel areas, the two places where fleas are most likely to occur. Dog houses, patios or porches are some of the outdoor areas in which it is more likely to find fleas and those should be thoroughly cleaned. Fleas can also be carried by wild animals, such as opossums, chipmunks and raccoons. One is recommended to discourage these wild animals from their property and pets by never feeding them.\n",
"Every female flea on the pet is likely to have laid eggs in the environment in which the pet lives. Therefore, effective prevention and control of flea infestations implies having removed the fleas from both indoor and outdoor environments, from all pets, and keeping immature forms of fleas from developing.\n",
"A very important part of flea prevention is to persist with the same control measures for as long as possible. Though the cleaning process was successful, fleas in incipient stages likely still exist around the house or on the pet. The lifecycle of fleas can take up to six months, so maintaining the prevention measures for as long as half a year is recommended.\n",
"Contemporary commercial products for the topical treatment of flea infestations on pets contain pesticides such as imidacloprid, permethrin, and (S)-methoprene. All flea-control products are recommended to be used at least half-yearly because the lifecycle of flea and tick can last to up to 6 months, and by using one of the flea and tick control products for so long, the infestation is highly prevented and, in the end, stopped. Although all these products are effective in fighting against flea and tick infestations, they have different active ingredients and, because cats cannot metabolize some of the compounds of the product, care must be taken in their use.\n"
] |
Why didnt the civil war have armor? Wasn't close quarters fighting common?
|
> **Why didnt the civil war have armor?**
The American Civil War did see many experiments in body armor; Bashford Dean in [Helmets and Armor in Modern Warfare](_URL_1_) 58-59 notes:
> It is known that breastplates were worn more or less frequently during the American Civil War. In the museum in Richmond, there is preserved such a "suit" of armor, Fig. 15, which at the time of the siege was taken from a dead soldier in one of the trenches. He was shot in the side or back, for the breastplate, it appears, was not penetrated. This armor was of northern origin. Further inquiry shows that a factory for the making of such defenses was established at New Haven about 1862. The metal employed was a mild steel, .057 inch thick, and the "suit" weighed about seven and one half pounds. While no tests of this armor are available, we estimate from the thickness of its metal, assuming that it is a "mild" steel, that it would have stopped a 230-grain pistol ball traveling at the rate of 500 foot seconds.
What the American Civil War did not see was formal adoption and issuing of such armor to all troops; and with good reason. The South faced shortages of metal and material throughout the war, and couldn't afford it; the North probably could have afforded it, but it wasn't worth it. To quote [Sarah Weicksel](_URL_0_):
> In theory, the vests were appealing. As one soldier wrote: "To be 'iron clad' when the bullets should fly as thick as hail! What more could a soldier ask?" (Walker, History of the Eighteenth Regiment Conn. Volunteers, 21). In actuality, however, the vests proved to be failed objects on multiple levels, ranging from ease of use to their effectiveness. Although advertisers claimed that the vests were "simple" and "light," soldiers found them extremely cumbersome due to their inflexibility and weight. Colonel Charles F. Johnson of New Jersey explained to his wife: "the only objection that I have to them is that they are so confounded heavy for this season of the year" (quoted in Pelka, ed., The Civil War Letters of Colonel Charles F. Johnson, 112). Many soldiers' letters and memoirs recounted the abandonment of bullet proof vests along the march, where they littered the side of the road along with other unwanted gear. [...] The vests did provide some degree of protection, judging from the bullet-shaped dents in surviving vests. But they were ineffective in close combat, and, as Johnson rightly pointed out, wearing a vest could have resulted in an even more deadly wound if a man was shot at close range, whether from immediate impact, or an infection festering around the bits of cloth and metal that the bullet pushed into his body.
These are more or less the same issues Dean noted that soldiers and military armorers faced in WWI (and why, he also says, armor was generally abandoned in the first place): against firearms, any kind of body armor that was thick enough to be of any protective value was, generally, too heavy and cumbersome to be born for long, and probably too expensive to equip troops with.
> **Wasn't close quarters fighting common?**
Not really. While it is true that some fighting did undoubtedly come down to hand-to-hand and bayonet fencing, there were very few bayonet wounds during the Civil War, and fewer wounds from swords, the troops just rarely came in to that kind of contact. Robert L. O'Connell in [Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression](_URL_2_) wrote:
> Despite frequent expressions of confidence by commanders on both sides, the bayonet played a minuscule role in the killing during the Civil War. Not only were most bayonet charges turned aside by rifle fire, but even when they did succeed, the defending troops almost invariably ran away before these weapons could be employed.
|
[
"When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen R. Mallory was an early enthusiast for the advantages of armor. As he looked upon it, the Confederacy could not match the industrial North in numbers of ships at sea, so they would have to compete by building vessels that individually outclassed those of the Union. Armor would provide the edge. Mallory gathered about himself a group of men who could put his vision into practice, among them John M. Brooke, John L. Porter, and William P. Williamson.\n",
"Metal armor remained in limited use long after its general obsolescence. Soldiers in the American Civil War (1861–1865) bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected it for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n",
"During the American Civil War, more than 50 zouave units existed in the Union Army alone, with additional zouave forces raised by the Confederate States. However, units inspired by the Chicago Zouaves later found the zouave uniform impractical in combat conditions with the colorful chasseur trousers making easy targets of their wearers. During the American Civil War, zouave units soon switched to more conventional uniforms, though, in the post-war era zouave-style uniforms gradually reappeared among some militia.\n",
"Though the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n",
"During World War I, a number of British and American officers recognized that many casualties could be avoided if effective armor were available. Isolated efforts at developing armor were made, and soldiers could make individual purchases or efforts, but there was no armor issued to the troops. As it is today, issues of weight, cost, availability of materials and/or environmental stability complicated the issue of developing armor that would also be effective. For example, soft armor made of silk was tried on a small scale based on Japanese designs, but this material did not last well under harsh environmental conditions.\n",
"The Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces were the uniforms used by the Confederate Army and Navy during the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865. The uniform varied greatly due to a variety of reasons, such as location, limitations on the supply of cloth and other materials, and the cost of materials during the war.\n",
"The variety of weapons available to both armies during the Civil War is reflected in the battles of the Overland Campaign. To a limited extent, the Army of Northern Virginia's infantry had more uniformity in its small arms than the Army of the Potomac. In fact, some regiments of the famous Pennsylvania Reserves Brigade were still equipped with smoothbore muskets. In any case, both armies relied heavily on the Springfield and Enfield, which were the most common weapons used (although almost every other type of Civil War small arms could be found in the campaign).\n"
] |
Why did France grant Monaco independence in 1861?
|
A very similar question was just asked a few days ago, you may want to search for answers here:
_URL_0_
|
[
"Only in 1419 did Monaco gain control of its own sovereignty from French control after Lambert Grimaldi convinced the French king Charles VIII to grant it independence. King Louis XII recognized Monaco in 1512 with the signing of a document that also declared a perpetual alliance with the king of France. Following rule by Spain, in the early 1600s Monaco prospered again under Honoré II who strengthened ties with France, a relationship that lasted in this capacity for the next two hundred years. In the Treaty of 2 February (1861) Prince Charles III ceded Monegasque sovereignty over the towns of Menton and Roquebrune (now Roquebrune-Cap-Martin) in exchange for full independence from France. Following World War I, a treaty signed on 27 July 1919, as well as Article 436 of the Treaty of Versailles, put Monaco under limited French protection once again and affirmed the special relationship. This relationship continues to the present day with the French government taking responsibility for Monaco's defence, while the latter has only a small police force. A mutual legal agreement and a common regime was also set between the two countries; they also signed the Treaty of 1945 and the Agreement of 1963 on furthering their relationship.\n",
"Monaco made a special agreement with France in 1963 in which French customs laws apply in Monaco and its territorial waters. Monaco uses the euro but is not a member of the European Union. Monaco shares a border with France but also has about of coastline with the Mediterranean sea. Two important agreements that support Monaco's independence from France include the Franco-Monégasque Treaty of 1861 and the French Treaty of 1918 (see also Kingdom of Sardinia). The United States CIA Factbook records 1419 as the year of Monaco's independence.\n",
"Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297. From 1793 until 1814, Monaco was under French control; the Congress of Vienna designated Monaco as being a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1815 until 1860, when the Treaty of Turin ceded the surrounding counties of Nice and Savoy to France. Menton and Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, part of Monaco until the mid-19th century before seceding in hopes of being annexed by Sardinia, were ceded to France in exchange for 4,000,000 French francs with the Franco-Monegasque Treaty in 1861, which also formally guaranteed Monaco its independence. Until 2002, Monaco would have become part of France had the house of Grimaldi ever died out; in a treaty signed that year, the two nations agreed that Monaco would remain independent even in such a case. The current monarch is Albert II.\n",
"The Principality of Monaco is a sovereign and independent state, linked closely to France by the Treaty of July 1918, which was formally noted in Article 436 of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. The foreign policy of Monaco is one illustration of this accord: France has agreed to defend the independence and sovereignty of Monaco, while the Monegasque Government has agreed to exercise its sovereign rights in conformity with French interests, whilst at the same time maintaining complete independence. Since then, the relations between the sovereign states of France and Monaco have been further defined in the Treaty of 1945 and the Agreement of 1963.\n",
"The independence of the Principality of Montenegro from the Ottoman Empire was recognized at the congress of Berlin in 1878. However, the Montenegrin nation has been de facto independent since 1711 (officially accepted by the Tsardom of Russia by the order of Tsar Petr I Alexeyevich-Romanov. In the period 1795–1798, Montenegro once again claimed independence after the Battle of Krusi. In 1806, it was recognized as a power fighting against Napoleon, meaning that it had a fully mobilized and supplied army (by Russia, through Admiral Dmitry Senyavin at the Bay of Kotor ).\n",
"During this time there was unrest in the towns of Menton and Roquebrune, which declared independence, hoping for annexation by Sardinia and participation in the Italian Risorgimento. The unrest continued until the ruling prince gave up his claim to the two towns (some 95% of the country), and they were ceded to France in return for four million francs. This transfer and Monaco's sovereignty was recognised by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861.\n",
"The solution was an unequal treaty between France and Monaco which formalized and rendered permanent the latter's position as a client state: Not only did it require Monaco to conduct its foreign relations in consultation with or through France, but it obliged the dynasty to obtain French authorization for marital alliances or changes in succession, and declared that should the throne become vacant Monaco would become an official protectorate under French jurisdiction — while retaining nominal independence.\n"
] |
please explain the isis iraq situation.
|
Ohh man its complicated..
So ISIS is the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. They have been active mainly in Syria fighting against Bashir Al Asad, but have been pushed back there (out of Alepo and denser urban areas) by more moderate rebels (who the US ostensibly supports). Recently they cashed in on the Iraq side of their organization and captured several cities there in rapid succession meeting little or no resistance from Iraqi security forces (trained and supplied by the USA) which freaked everyone out. They got a ton of gold and cash from banks and military equipment left behind by the Iraqi security forces.
Now weird shit is happening. Iran is offering to send republican guards to Iraq to fight ISIS and the US is considering bombing ISIS in Iraq and Syria. The Kurdish autonomous region has sent soldiers in to hold off ISIS and capture a few cities... basically its the penultimate strange bedfellows type of situation where enemy factions are coming together to try and stop this army who showed up from nowhere and displayed shocking capability. Not a good spot for US regional interests whatever we do will be no bueno. Really points out weakness and division in the Iraqi gov. Basically no one saw it coming.
Side note ISIS was rejected by Al Queda for being "too extreme"
There are rumors of old Iraq army brass from the Saddam days working with them.
The danger is that Iraq will devolve into a full on ethnic civil war which combined with Syria's war could easily become the biggest genocide of this century.
This is what I have gathered feel free to fact check or ask me and Ill explain to the best of my ability.
|
[
"In early 2014, ISIL drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Anbar campaign, which was followed by the capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. The loss of control almost caused a collapse of the Iraqi government and prompted a renewal of US military action in Iraq. In Syria, ISIL has conducted ground attacks on both the Syrian Arab Army and rebel factions.\n",
"Amnesty International has held ISIL responsible for the ethnic cleansing of ethnic and religious minority groups in northern Iraq on a \"historic scale\", putting entire communities \"at risk of being wiped off the map of Iraq\". In a special report released on 2 September 2014, the organization described how ISIL had \"systematically targeted non-Arab and non-Sunni Muslim communities, killing or abducting hundreds, possibly thousands, of individuals and forcing more than 830,000 others to flee the areas it has captured since 10 June 2014\". Among these people were Assyrian Christians, Turkmen Shia, Shabak Shia, Kaka'i, Yazidis and Sabean Mandeans, who have lived together for centuries in Nineveh province, large parts of which have come under ISIL's control.\n",
"The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, calling itself Islamic State) is recognized by the United Nations as the perpetrator of a genocide of Yazidis in Iraq. The genocide led to the expulsion, flight and effective exile of the Yazidis from their ancestral lands in Northern Iraq whose women and girls were forced into sexual slavery by the Islamic State and whose men were killed by the thousands. The genocide led to the abduction of Yazidi women and massacres that killed five thousand Yazidi civilians during what has been called a \"forced conversion campaign\" being carried out in Northern Iraq by ISIL, starting in 2014. The genocide happened following the Kurdish Peshmerga withdrawal, which left the Yazidis defenseless.\n",
"In 2014, the insurgency escalated dramatically following the conquest of Mosul and major areas in northern Iraq by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a Salafi jihadist militant group and unrecognised proto-state that follows a fundamentalist, Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam. ISIL gained global prominence in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre, thereby merging the new conflict with the Syrian Civil War, into a new, far deadlier conflict.\n",
"Amnesty International has held ISIL responsible for the ethnic cleansing of ethnic and religious minority groups in northern Iraq (Christians and Yezidis) on a \"historic scale\", putting entire communities \"at risk of being wiped off the map of Iraq\". In a special report released on 2 September 2014, it described how ISIL had \"systematically targeted non-Sunni Muslim communities, killing or abducting hundreds, possibly thousands, of individuals and forcing more than tens of thousands of Shias, Sunnis, along with other minorities to flee the areas it has captured since 10 June 2014\". The most targeted Shia groups in Nineveh Governorate were Shia Turkmens and Shabak, who have lived together for centuries in Nineveh, large parts of which came under ISIL's control from mid-2014 to late 2017.\n",
"The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is a Syria-based terror group who have committed various attacks against civilians on the Eurasian continent. ISIL's Afghanistan branch is small, based in the country's east near the Pakistani border. In March 2016, Afghan president Ashraf Ghani claimed that the group was 'wiped out of Afghanistan', after the group failed to expand and pose a serious threat to the government.\n",
"On 21 October 2016, ISIL launched multiple attacks in Kirkuk to divert Iraqi military resources during the Battle of Mosul. Witnesses reported multiple explosions and gun battles in the city, most centered on a government compound. At least 11 workers, including several Iranians, were killed by a suicide bomber at a power plant in nearby Dibis. The attack was brought to an end by 24 October, with 74 militants being killed and others including the leader of the attackers being arrested.\n"
] |
How do people determine the tilt of a planet of direction is relative in space?
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We define the ecliptic as the plane that contains the Earths orbit around the sun. We define the tilt of a planet as the angle between the normal direction of the ecliptic and the axis of rotation of the planet.
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[
"Orbital inclination is the angle between a planet's orbital plane and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the normal to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the transit method are close to 90 degrees. Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The \"Kepler\" spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have retrograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.\n",
"There are two standard methods of specifying tilt. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the \"north pole\" of a planet as that which lies on Earth's north side of the invariable plane of the Solar System; under this system, Venus is tilted 3° and spins retrograde, opposite that of most of the other planets.\n",
"Pointing in a specific direction is necessary for Earth observation, orbital maneuvers, maximizing solar power, and some scientific instruments. Directional pointing accuracy can be achieved by sensing Earth and its horizon, the Sun, or specific stars. Sinclair Interplanetary's SS-411 sun sensor and ST-16 star tracker both have applications for CubeSats and have flight heritage. Pumpkin's Colony I Bus uses an aerodynamic wing for passive attitude stabilization. Determination of a CubeSat's location can be done through the use of on-board GPS, which is relatively expensive for a CubeSat, or by relaying radar tracking data to the craft from Earth-based tracking systems.\n",
"For planets and other rotating celestial bodies, the angle of the equatorial plane relative to the orbital plane — such as the tilt of the Earth's poles toward or away from the Sun — is sometimes also called inclination, but less ambiguous terms are axial tilt or obliquity.\n",
"The precession of Earth's axis is a very slow effect, but at the level of accuracy at which astronomers work, it does need to be taken into account on a daily basis. Note that although the precession and the tilt of Earth's axis (the obliquity of the ecliptic) are calculated from the same theory and thus, are related to each other, the two movements act independently of each other, moving in opposite directions.\n",
"The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit. This three-dimensional movement is known as \"precession of the ecliptic\" or \"planetary precession\". Earth's current inclination relative to the invariable plane (the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System, approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter) is 1.57°.\n",
"In addition to the rotational pole, a planet's orbit also has a defined direction in space. The direction of the angular momentum vector of that orbit can be defined as an orbital pole. Earth's orbital pole, i.e. the ecliptic pole, points in the direction of the constellation Draco.\n"
] |
[Book Request] I don't see any books for the Reconquista on the book recommendation list
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Point of clarification. What are you looking for when you say "a general history of *the Reconquista*?" Although the underlying crusade ideology is there for the Christians, and as time wore on Muslims definitely realized their al-Andalus (by then comprised of many little kingdoms) was losing ground to a bunch of Christians, overall it's hardly a unified campaign or even always primarily making progress. There are larger swathes of time where territory either isn't changing hands, or already conquered territory is being filled in (most of the Iberian interior was fairly empty), or Christian and Muslim statelets alike are batting away at each other, making and breaking alliances. "Reconquista" is kind of a convenient name, but the point is, it's not really separate from the political and social history of later medieval Iberia.
Is that what you're looking for? Or are you looking for more, military history-style accounts of battles, sieges, civil wars?
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[
"A book has been published (written in Spanish) under the auspices of the Ajuntament De Carlet, Valencia, with the title \"Amparito Roca, El Pasadoble Del Mestre Texidor\". It contains biographical material and commentary on the works of Texidor with a catalogue and discography. The text is by Angel Valero Garcia.\n",
"On the other side, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who had been a soldier in the expeditions and conquests, heavily criticized the book in his \"\"Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España\"\", in particular because Gómara had never set foot in the Americas, and for the book's praising of Hernán Cortés, without giving credit to others involved. Nevertheless, he referenced the timeline of the work while composing his own account.\n",
"Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada (English: \"Summary of the conquest of the New Kingdom of Granada\") is a document of uncertain authorship, possibly (partly) written by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada between 1548 and 1559. The book was not published until 1889 by anthropologist Marcos Jiménez de la Espada in his work \"Juan de Castellanos y su Historia del Nuevo Reino de Granada\".\n",
"The Rivan Codex is a collection of background material to the Belgariad and Malloreon fantasy saga by David and Leigh Eddings. It consists of two bodies of material used in writing the novels, one for each series, with three informal essays by David Eddings. \"Belgarath the Sorcerer\" and \"Polgara the Sorceress\" do not have dedicated sections, but are referred to in the Eddings' discussions, and drew on the material of the first ten books. In particular, one text presented in the background to the Belgariad forms the basis for the first chapter of \"Belgarath the Sorcerer\".\n",
"Written in the third person, the book describes the author's travels in the Alcarria region of Spain. It has been described as \"the most celebrated Spanish travelogue of all times\". It was translated into English by Frances M. López-Morillas and published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 1964. In 1986, the author published a follow-up book called \"Nuevo viaje a la Alcarria\".\n",
"The first volume comprises five books which principally treat of the creation of the world and the origin of the peoples who occupied New Spain (I, II), as well as the diverse nations constituting the Aztec Empire (III), followed by its conquest by the Spanish (IV) and its subsequent re-organisation (V). To the second volume were assigned nine books which deal with the religion (VI-X), government (XI), laws (XII), institutions (XIII) and social and military life of the indigenous peoples together with remarks on various geographical features and their cultural relevance (XIV). The subject of the seven books which constitute the third volume is the evangelisation of the Indians, with particular focus (especially in the last three books) upon the life, work and fate of Franciscan missionaries.\n",
"The Zamorano Eighty is a list of books intended to represent the most significant early volumes published on the history of California. It was compiled in 1945 by members of the Zamorano Club, a Los Angeles-based group of bibliophiles. Collecting first editions of every volume on the list has become the goal of a number of book collectors, though to date only four people have completed the task.\n"
] |
Why did CPUs stopped at around ~3-4GHz?
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See:
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[
"Both the 6400 and 6600 CPUs had a cycle time of 100 ns (10MHz). Due to the serial nature of the 6400 CPU, its exact speed was heavily dependent on instruction mix, but generally around 1 MIPS. Floating-point additions were fairly fast at 11 clock cycles, however floating-point multiplication was very slow at 57 clock cycles. Thus its floating point speed would depend heavily on the mix of operations and could be under 200 kFLOPS. The 6600 was, of course, much faster. With good compiler instruction scheduling, the machine could approach its theoretical peak of 10 MIPS. Floating-point additions took four clock cycles, and floating-point multiplies took 10 clocks (but there were two multiply functional units, so two operations could be processing at the same time.) The 6600 could therefore have a peak floating point speed of 2-3 MFLOPS.\n",
"While CPU frequencies of 180 to 400 MHz seem low today, when the O2 was released in 1996, these speeds were on par with or above the current offerings for the x86 family of computers (cf. Intel's Pentium and AMD's K5).\n",
"CPUs using CMOS were released from 1986 (e.g. 12 MHz Intel 80386). As CMOS transistor dimensions were shrunk the clock speeds also increased. Since about 2004 CMOS CPU clock speeds have leveled off at about 3.5 GHz.\n",
"As a comparison, the higher resolution state machine of a CPU like the Z80 allowed clock frequencies 3-5 times as high with the same speed memory chips, which was often the limiting factor. This is because the Z80 combines two full (but short) clock cycles into a \"relatively\" long memory access period compared to the clock, while the more asynchronous 6809 instead has \"relatively\" short memory access times: depending on version and speed grade, approximately 40-60% of a single clock cycle was typically available for memory access in a 6800, 6502 or 6809 (see data sheets).\n",
"In 1992, both Hewlett-Packard and Digital Equipment Corporation broke the difficult 100 MHz limit with RISC techniques in the PA-7100 and AXP 21064 DEC Alpha respectively. In 1995, Intel's P5 Pentium chip ran at 100 MHz (100 million cycles per second). On March 6, 2000, AMD reached the 1 GHz milestone a few months ahead of Intel. In 2002, an Intel Pentium 4 model was introduced as the first CPU with a clock rate of 3 GHz (three billion cycles per second corresponding to ~3.3×10seconds or 0.33 nanoseconds per cycle). Since then, the clock rate of production processors has increased much more slowly, with performance improvements coming from other design changes.\n",
"The processors ran at 20 MHz in the integer units and 40 MHz for the FPUs, with the intention being to increase this to 50 MHz by the time it shipped. At about 12 Mflops peak per CU, the machine as a whole would deliver up to 1.5 Gflops, although due to the memory latencies this was typically closer to 250 Mflops. While this was fast for a CMOS machine processor of the time, it was hardly competitive for a supercomputer. Nevertheless, the machine was air cooled, and would have been the fastest such machine on the market.\n",
"For those looking for pure performance, the Z8000 was the fastest CPU available in early 1979. However, this was true only for a period of a few months. The 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 came to market later the same year at 8 Mhz, and turns in a time of 0.49 seconds on the same test, over twice as fast as the Z8000. Although it used a larger 64-pin DIP layout, this was a small price to pay for what was by far the fastest processor of its era. It's 32-bit instructions and registers, combined with a 24-bit address bus with flat addressing, also made it much more attractive to designers, something Faggin admits to.\n"
] |
What festivals did the romans celebrate (pre-christianity)?
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The Romans celebrated plenty of festivals, and I'll highlight a couple of the more important ones for you.
* **Lupercalia:** This is possibly the most famous Roman festival, along with Saturnalia. It was celebrated during February (13-15) and it was a celebration of the health and fertility of the city of Rome. Probably the most famous ceremony of this festival is when two young men run around the Palatine clad in goatskin, holding strips of the skin of animals sacrificed earlier in the day. Crowds gathered to watch and women hoped to be whipped with these skins, believing it would make them fertile. An interesting anecdote occurred in 44BC, when the then-consul Mark Antony refused to participate in this Lupercalia tradition.
* **Saturnalia:** Along with Lupercalia, this is a very famous Roman festival. Unsurprisingly, this was a festival honoring the god Saturn and was originally celebrated on December 17th, the solstice, but over the centuries the festivities spread between the 17th and 23rd. Everyone loved this festival, especially servants because on this feast day, their masters would wait on them in a fun (ish) role reversal. Also, gambling was permitted during these festivities, but was back to restricted for the rest of the year.
edit; forgot a word!
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[
"A major source for Roman holidays is Ovid's \"Fasti\", a poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of Augustus. Because it ends with June, less is known about Roman festivals in the second half of the year, with the exception of the Saturnalia, a religious festival in honor of Saturn on December 17 that expanded with celebrations through December 23. Probably the best-known Roman festival, some of its customs, such as gift-giving and the prevalence of candles, are thought to have influenced popular celebrations of Christmas.\n",
"The Feriae Latinae or Latin Festival was an ancient Roman religious festival held in April on the Alban Mount. The date varied, and was determined and announced by the consuls each year when they took office. It was one of the most ancient festivals celebrated by the Roman state and is supposed to have predated the founding of Rome—in historical terms, to have dated to a pre-urban pastoral age. It continued to be held into the 3rd century AD, and perhaps later.\n",
"Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part of Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the Roman calendar. Feriae (\"holidays\" in the sense of \"holy days\"; singular also \"feriae\" or dies ferialis) were either public \"(publicae)\" or private \"(privatae)\". State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games \"(ludi)\", such as the Ludi Apollinares, were not technically \"feriae\", but the days on which they were celebrated were \"dies festi\", holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although \"feriae\" were paid for by the state, \"ludi\" were often funded by wealthy individuals. \"Feriae privatae\" were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome.\n",
"Roman Festivals (Italian: Feste Romane) is a symphonic poem written in 1928 by the Italian composer Ottorino Respighi. It is the third orchestral work in his \"Roman trilogy\", preceded by \"Fountains of Rome \"(1916) and \"Pines of Rome\" (1924). Each of the four movements depict a scene of celebration from ancient or modern Rome. It is the longest and most demanding of the trilogy, and thus it is less-often programmed than its companion pieces. Its premiere was performed by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra with conductor Arturo Toscanini in 1929.\n",
"Traditionally the first day of summer in Ireland, in Rome the earliest celebrations appeared in pre-Christian times with the festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, and the Walpurgisnacht celebrations of the Germanic countries.\n",
"In Ancient Rome, the festival of Poplifugia was celebrated on 5 July, and Ludi Apollinares was held on 13 July and for several days afterwards. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.\n",
"In the first half of the 6th century, some Gallo-Romans still observed a form of the holiday with food offerings to the dead and a ritual meal. By then, however, the practice had come under suspicion as a \"pagan\" ritual, and the Council of Tours in 567 explicitly censured those who \"defiled\" the feast day of St. Peter. The observances were condemned by Caesarius of Arles as an excuse for drunkenness, dancing, singing, and other demonic behaviors. The suppression of traditional commemorations of the dead were part of increasing efforts by the Church to control and monopolize religious behaviors in Merovingian Gaul.\n"
] |
why is if more harmful to the human body to be exposed to freezing water than it is to be exposed to air of a similar temperature?
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Heat generally transfers from molecule to molecule. More molecules means faster heat transfer. The amount of molecules in a given volume is called density. Generally speaking, the denser a substance is, the better it is at transferring energy. Water is much denser than air. So, heat energy from your body will flow faster into water than it will into air. That's why cold water is more dangerous than cold air at the same temperature. The water will "suck" the heat out of you much faster than the air
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[
"Heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in survivors, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those who are not rescued. A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can cause death in as little as 15 minutes. A notable example of this occurred during the sinking of the \"Titanic\", when most people who entered the water died in 15–30 minutes.\n",
"Water conducts heat around 25 times more efficiently than air. Hypothermia, a potentially fatal condition, occurs when the human body's core temperature falls below 35 °C. Insulating the body's warmth from water is the main purpose of diving suits and exposure suits when used in water temperatures below 25 °C.\n",
"Immersion in very cold water was once thought to be counterproductive by reducing blood flow to the skin and thereby preventing heat from escaping the body core. However, this hypothesis has been challenged in experimental studies, as well as by systematic reviews of the clinical data, indicating that cutaneous vasoconstriction and shivering thermogenesis do not play a dominant role in the decrease in core body temperature brought on by cold water immersion. This can be seen in the effect of submersion hypothermia, where the body temperature decrease is directly related to environmental temperature, and though bodily defenses slow the decrease in temperature for a time, they ultimately fail to maintain endothermic homeostasis. Dantrolene, a direct-acting paralytic which abolishes shuddering and is effective in many other forms of hyperthermia, including centrally-, peripherally- and cellularly-mediated thermogenesis, has no individual or additive effects to cooling in the context of heat stroke, showing a lack of endogenous thermogenic response to cold water immersion. Thus, aggressive ice-water immersion remains the gold standard for life-threatening heat stroke.\n",
"Dry ice sublimates at , at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.\n",
"Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in inadequately protected divers, although it is not often the direct clinical cause of death.\n",
"Atmospheric icing occurs in the atmosphere when water droplets freeze on objects they come in contact with. Icing conditions can be particularly dangerous to aircraft, as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces, which can increase the risk of a stall. For this reason, on-board ice protection systems have been developed, and aircraft are often deiced prior to take-off in icy environments.\n",
"Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n"
] |
How and when were tanks, semiautomatic weapons and planes started being deployed in warfare?
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The Second Industrial Revolution happened.
Generally considered to have started in 1870, the Second Industrial Revolution saw the development of a wide range of technologies, manufacturing techniques and chemicals that made many of the weapons and technologies of the First World War possible.
More efficient means of producing steel (and higher quality steel as well), the internal combustion engine, electrification, pneumatic tires, highly efficient steam engines for ships, increased mechanisation of manufacturing including the mechanical manufacturing of parts for manufacturing machines making them cheaper and standardising them, incandescent lightbulbs, increased production of petroleum, increased understandings of thermodynamics and metallurgy, ball bearings, fertilisers, bicycles, the telephone and much much more emerged from the is period.
You can probably see how these technologies contributed to the First World War, better steel coupled with better steam engines led to the expansion of ironclad ships and ultimately the first modern modern battleship HMS Dreadnought which kicked off a naval arms race. Developments in manufacturing coupled with increased understanding of metallurgy and new chemicals allowed bigger, more powerful guns to be created. Internal combustion led to powered flight and then the land ship more commonly known as the tank. The development of fertiliser cannot be underestimated as well. By being able to artificially replenish the nutrients in soil, crops could be reason in the same fields leading to an increase in food production which increases supply and in turn drives down prices. This allows nations to feed their people and keep their armies fed. It also allows them to have bigger armies and better manufacturing allows them to equip their armies with newer and bigger weapons.
This is an extremely vast topic and deserves a much more in depth answer then I have time to give but I'm sure a resident expert will be along shortly to provide a far better answer then this.
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[
"In post-Cold War conflict, the resurgence of expeditionary warfare has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called \"protected gun systems\", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low intensity operations such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These have the advantage of easier deployment, as only the largest air transports can carry a main battle tank, and their smaller size makes them more effective in urban combat.\n",
"While they first appeared during World War I, ground attack aircraft didn't provide a decisive contribution until the Germans introduced Blitzkrieg during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft functioned as mobile flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the same role, immobilizing German armored divisions during the Battle of Normandy and afterwards. \n",
"Few recognised during World War I that the means for returning mobility and shock action to combat was already present in a device destined to revolutionise warfare on the ground and in the air. This was the internal combustion engine, which had made possible the development of the tank and eventually would lead to the mechanised forces that were to assume the old roles of horse cavalry and to loosen the grip of the machine-gun on the battlefield. With increased firepower and protection, these mechanised forces would, only some 20 years later, become the armour of World War II. When self-propelled artillery, the armoured personnel carrier, the wheeled cargo vehicle, and supporting aviation — all with adequate communications — were combined to constitute the modern armoured division, commanders regained the capability of manoeuvre.\n",
"Two different forward air control systems had emerged during World War II. The U.S. Army and its Air Corps had developed one system in the North African Campaign; the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps developed a different system in the Pacific Theater. The U.S. Army fought a conventional land war in North Africa, using its tactical air power to strike beyond the range of its artillery. The U.S. Marine fought an amphibious war as light infantry supported by little artillery fire; consequently, they directed air strikes on targets within 1,000 yards of their own forces.\n",
"The Western Allies of World War II employed little rocket artillery. During later periods of the war, British and Canadian troops used the Land Mattress, a towed rocket launcher. The United States Army built and deployed a small number of turret-mounted T34 Calliope and T40 Whizbang rocket artillery tanks (converted from M4 Sherman medium tanks) in France and Italy. In 1945, the British Army also fitted some M4 Shermans with two 60 lb RP3 rockets, the same as used on ground attack aircraft and known as \"Tulip\".\n",
"As with most technologies, aircraft and their use underwent many improvements during World War I. As the initial war of movement on the Western Front settled into trench warfare, aerial reconnaissance over the front added to the difficulty of mounting surprise attacks against entrenched and concealed defenders.\n",
"During World War II, new technology was used to create aircraft, which were used in air raids. Aircraft during the war were used for transporting resources from different military bases and dropping bombs on enemy, neutral, and friendly targets alike. These activities damaged habitats.\n"
] |
what is modern art and what determines the price?
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Whatever the artist feels he is owed is weighed against public appraisal. It’s supply and demand, but on a very intimate scale, that determines the price. That is to say, the worth of the piece is the highest value a person wishes to pay. If the artist accepts, then that will be the price at which it is sold.
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[
"Components of a work of art, like raw stone, tubes of paint or unpainted canvas, in general have a value much lower than the finished products, such as a sculpture or a finished painting. Also, the amount of labour needed to produce an item does not explain the big price differences between works of art. It seems that the value is much more dependent on potential buyers', and experts' perception of it. This perception has three elements: First, social value, which is the social status the buyer has by owning it. The artist thus has an \"artistic capital\". Second, the artistic value, compared to contemporary works, or as importance to later generations. Third, the price history of the item, if a buyer uses this for his expectation of a future price at which he might sell the item again (given the oligopolistic market structure).\n",
"Prices are determined by a combination of what the artisan believes fair and demand in the foreign market. Artisans are paid up-front fifty percent of the agreed-upon price in order to help them pay for the raw materials used in their products. The other fifty percent is paid once the products are complete. The artisans are paid in full before their products are sold in North America, even if they never get sold. Ten Thousand Villages’ marketing director Doug Dirks estimated that market prices abroad are up to five times what is paid to the artisan. He said that his company is willing to take that risk because they feel that it is important to what they do. Most of the artisans in these countries cannot obtain business loans from their local banks.\n",
"In the 21st Century, and especially since 2010, it has become more common for artworks to sell for prices in excess of $100m. Of the most expensive paintings of all time, most of those that sold for more than $100m were auctioned during or after 2010. The factors that can drive the price of a piece this high include the reputation of the artist, the age of the piece, the state of the art market, the piece's provenance, and the length of time since the piece was last up for sale.\n",
"Price is commonly confused with the notion of cost of production, as in \"I paid a high cost for buying my new plasma television\"; but technically these are different concepts. Price is what a buyer pays to acquire products from a seller. Cost of production concerns the seller's expenses (e.g., manufacturing expense) in producing the product being exchanged with a buyer. For marketing organizations seeking to make a profit, the hope is that price will exceed cost of production so that the organization can see financial gain from the transaction.\n",
"One of many factors in the primary market's price of a living artist's work is a dealer's contract with an artist: many dealers, as stakeholders in their artists' success, agree to buy their own stable of artists' work at auction in order to prevent price drops, to maintain price stability, or to increase perceived value, or all three, thus dealers bidding on their own artists at auction have a direct impact on the selling price for those artists' works and as a result, the valuation of those works.\n",
"Art valuation, an art-specific subset of financial valuation, is the process of estimating either the market value of works of art. As such, it is more of a financial rather than an aesthetic concern, however, subjective views of cultural value play a part as well. Art valuation involves comparing data from multiple sources such as art auction houses, private and corporate collectors, curators, art dealer activities, gallerists (gallery owners), experienced consultants, and specialized market analysts to arrive at a value. Art valuation is accomplished not only for collection, investment, divestment, and financing purposes, but as part of estate valuations, for charitable contributions, for tax planning, insurance, and loan collateral purposes. This article deals with the valuation of works of fine art, especially contemporary art, at the top end of the international market, but similar principles apply to the valuation of less expensive art and antiques.\n",
"The previous record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction had been held by Picasso's \"Nude, Green Leaves and Bust\", which went for US$106.5 million at Christie's two years prior on 4 May 2010. As of 2018, the pastel remains the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction. \n"
] |
why is depression such a pervasive theme throughout reddit?
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Reddit is a fairly liberal place that likes to focus on fighting for marginalized causes. Depression and mental health are largely ignored in general society and affect a huge number of people, so naturally Reddit wants to talk about it. Also, since Reddit is an anonymous community, it is much easier to talk about our problems when we are anonymous than in person.
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[
"In this way, the depression can be traced back to a demand for perfection from which a person is deducing their own worthlessness, from which they are in turn deducing the horribleness of what happened.\n",
"Scholars Dhir et al. discuss the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one’s ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move. Over the years, researchers have found out that social media use is a cause of depression. As individuals increase their media exposure, it leads them vulnerable to depression and can even make it worse with FOMO and other media based anxieties.\n",
"Thus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism.\n",
"Many people believe it is the increased number of pressures and expectations, increased isolation, increased individualism, and increased inactivity that contribute to higher rates of depression in modern societies.\n",
"The term \"depression\" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.\n",
"Depression is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\n",
"Depression has been found to be associated with many forms of victimization, including sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic abuse. Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally. Depression can impact many other areas of a person's life as well, including interpersonal relationships and physical health. Depression in response to victimization may be lethal, as it can result in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Examples of this include a ten-fold increase found in suicide attempts among rape victims compared to the general population, and significant correlations between being victimized in school and suicidal ideation.\n"
] |
why are rabbits associated with sexual things like playboy?
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Rabbits have a reputation of breeding prolifically, which leads to their reputation of having sex very often.
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[
"Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. The species' role as a prey animal with few defenses evokes vulnerability and innocence, and in folklore and modern children's stories, rabbits often appear as sympathetic characters, able to connect easily with youth of all kinds (for example, the Velveteen Rabbit, or Thumper in Bambi).\n",
"Rabbits and hares are common motifs in the visual arts, with variable mythological and artistic meanings in different cultures. The rabbit as well as the hare have been associated with moon deities and may signify rebirth or resurrection. They may also be symbols of fertility or sensuality, and they appear in depictions of hunting and spring scenes in the Labours of the Months.\n",
"The jaunty rabbit was quickly made into a popular symbol of extroverted male culture, becoming a lucrative source of merchandizing revenue for Playboy. In the 1950s, it was adopted as the military aircraft insignia for the Navy's VX-4 fighter-evaluation squadron.\n",
"\"Rabbits\" was used as a stimulus in a psychological experiment on the effects of acetaminophen on existential crisis. The research, in a paper entitled \"The Common Pain of Surrealism and Death\" suggested that acetaminophen acted to suppress the effects of surrealism.\n",
"Rabbits have long been associated with bad luck on Portland. Use of the name is still taboo—the creatures are often referred to as \"underground mutton\", \"long-eared furry things\" or just \"bunnies\". The origin of this superstition is obscure (there is no record of it before the 1920s) but it is believed to derive from quarry workers. They would see rabbits emerging from their burrows immediately before a rock fall and blame them for increasing the risk of dangerous, sometimes deadly, landslides. If a rabbit was seen in a quarry, the workers would go home for the day, until the safety of the area had been assured.\n",
"The Rabbits' Wedding is a children's picture book created and illustrated by American author and illustrator Garth Williams, who came to the fore as a writer after his success as an illustrator with \"Stuart Little\". \"The Rabbits' Wedding\" was published on April 30, 1958, and depicted the love affair and wedding of two bunnies, one white and one black. The following year it became the center of a controversy in the state of Alabama when Edward Oswell Eddins, State Senator from Marengo County, claimed the book was \"propaganda for integration and intermarriage\". Alabama's State Library Agency director, Emily Wheelock Reed, faced censorship challenges over the book at the height of the Civil Rights Movement in the American South.\n",
"The rabbit as trickster is a part of American popular culture, as Br'er Rabbit (from African-American folktales and, later, Disney animation) and Bugs Bunny (the cartoon character from Warner Bros.), for example.\n"
] |
difference between memory and ssd
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Memory typically refers to RAM (random access memory) where as SSD (solid state drive) refers to storage.
Easiest way to know the difference is think of RAM as a work table and SSD or other storage device like a hard drive as storage cabinets.
If you want to work on a project, you can only use as many tools (aka apps) as you have room on your work bench. If you run out of room on your work bench but need something else, you'll have to put something away in the cabinets and search for the new thing you need, pull it out and put it on the work bench to use. The bigger your work bench, the more stuff you can use at one time. The bigger the cabinets, the more stuff you can have in total, whether using it or not.
Things like editing software take up a lot of room on the work bench. Games can too. Games also take up a lot of room in your storage cabinet. Things like pictures are tiny and take up little room on the work bench, but can add up in your storage cabinets if you have enough of them
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[
"While both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they serve very different markets and purposes. Each has a number of different attributes which are optimized and adjusted to best meet the needs of particular users. Some of these characteristics include power consumption, performance, size, and reliability.\n",
"Due to their generally prohibitive cost versus HDD's at the time, until 2009, SSDs were mainly used in those aspects of mission critical applications where the speed of the storage system needed to be as high as possible. Since flash memory has become a common component of SSDs, the falling prices and increased densities have made it more cost-effective for many other applications. Organizations that can benefit from faster access of system data include equity trading companies, telecommunication corporations, and streaming media and video editing firms. The list of applications which could benefit from faster storage is vast.\n",
"Memory virtualization is also different from storage based on flash memory such as solid-state drives (SSDs) - SSDs and other similar technologies replace hard-drives (networked or otherwise), while memory virtualization replaces or complements traditional RAM.\n",
"The key components of an SSD are the controller and the memory to store the data. The primary memory component in an SSD was traditionally DRAM volatile memory, but since 2009 it is more commonly NAND flash non-volatile memory.\n",
"SSDs based on volatile memory such as DRAM are characterized by very fast data access, generally less than 10 microseconds, and are used primarily to accelerate applications that would otherwise be held back by the latency of flash SSDs or traditional HDDs.\n",
"Some SSI systems allow processes on different nodes to communicate using inter-process communications mechanisms as if they were running on the same machine. On some SSI systems this can even include shared memory (can be emulated with Software Distributed shared memory).\n",
"In contrast, memory cards (such as Secure Digital (SD), CompactFlash (CF), and many others) were originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, GPS units, etc. Most memory cards are physically smaller than SSDs, and designed to be inserted and removed repeatedly. There are adapters which enable some memory cards to interface to a computer, allowing use as an SSD, but they are not intended to be the primary storage device in the computer. The typical CompactFlash card interface is three to four times slower than an SSD. As memory cards are not designed to tolerate the amount of reading and writing which occurs during typical computer use, their data may get damaged unless special procedures are taken to reduce the wear on the card to a minimum.\n"
] |
how does mass hysteria work and how can it manifest physical symptoms?
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It's pretty much a huge case of fomo with the placebo effect. You see a bunch of people doing something and your mind thinks that the might be something triggering it that effects you so you begin to physically manifest something like an uncontrollable urge to dance or some kind of sickness
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[
"In sociology and psychology, mass hysteria (also known as \"mass psychogenic illness\", \"collective hysteria\", \"group hysteria\", or \"collective obsessional behavior\") is a phenomenon that transmits collective illusions of threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population in society as a result of rumors and fear (memory acknowledgement).\n",
"Mass psychogenic illness involves the spread of illness symptoms through a population where there is no viral or bacterial agent responsible for contagion. MPI is distinct from other types of collective delusions in that MPI involves physical symptoms. According to Balaratnasingam and Janca, \"Mass hysteria is to date a poorly understood condition. Little certainty exists regarding its etiology\". Qualities of MPI outbreaks often include:\n",
"Mass psychogenic illness (MPI), also called mass sociogenic illness, mass psychogenic disorder, epidemic hysteria, or mass hysteria, is \"the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms affecting members of a cohesive group, originating from a nervous system disturbance involving excitation, loss, or alteration of function, whereby physical complaints that are exhibited unconsciously have no corresponding organic aetiology\".\n",
"Hysteria colloquially means ungovernable emotional excess. Generally, modern medical professionals have abandoned using the term \"hysteria\" to denote a diagnostic category, replacing it with more precisely defined categories, such as somatization disorder. In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association officially changed the diagnosis of \"hysterical neurosis, conversion type\" to \"conversion disorder\".\n",
"In \"Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Media\" (1997) Showalter argues that hysteria, a medical condition traditionally seen as feminine, has persisted for centuries and is now manifesting itself in cultural phenomena in the forms of socially and medically accepted maladies. Psychological and physical effects of unhappy lives become \"hysterical epidemics\" when popular media saturate the public with paranoid reports and findings, essentially legitimizing, as Showalter calls them, \"imaginary illnesses\" (\"Hystories\", cover). Showalter says \"Hysteria is part of everyday life. It not only survives in the 1990s, but it is more contagious than in the past. Newspapers, magazines, talk shows, self-help books, and of course the Internet ensure that ideas, once planted, manifest themselves internationally as symptoms\" (Plett). This view has caused Showalter to be criticized by patient's rights groups and medical practitioners, who argue that Showalter, with no formal medical training, is not qualified to make this determination.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Mass motor hysteria\" \"consists of abnormalities in motor behaviour. It occurs in any age group and prior tension is present. Initial cases can be identified and the spread is gradual. . . . [T]he outbreak may be prolonged.\"\n",
"Historically, hysteria was thought to manifest itself in women (female hysteria) with a variety of symptoms, including: anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, insomnia, irritability, nervousness, as well as sexually forward behaviour. These symptoms mimic symptoms of other more definable diseases and create a case for arguing against the validity of hysteria as an actual disease, and it is often implied that it is an umbrella term for an indefinable illness. One of the early definitive works on hysteria was Paul Briquet's study involving 400 hysterical patients from 1849 to 1859.\n"
] |
why does hard cheese which has been maturing for years have a sell-by date of only a few weeks?
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It's been cut.
As long as the outside of the cheese is entirely the outside of the cheese (the rind), the cheese will have a substantial shelf life. As soon as you cut it, opening up the more moist interior to oxidation, mold, and bacteria, it has a shelf life. That being said, some cheese (like parmigiano reggiano) will, in my experience, simply get rock hard when kept for too long, rather than spoiling in some way that makes them inedible.
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[
"Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into moulds under more pressure and aged for a longer time than the soft cheeses. Cheeses that are classified as semi-hard to hard include the familiar Cheddar, originating in the village of Cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged.\n",
"Clochette cheese is created mainly during the summertime, from March to sometime in fall. It is mold-ripened and matures for two weeks before heading off to be sold. It only lasts for 45 days, so it has to sell fast. The older it gets, the more wrinkly it gets, until finally it is too old and can no longer be eaten.\n",
"During the aging process metal rods are quickly inserted and removed, creating air channels that allow the mold spores to grow into hyphae and cause the cheese's characteristic veining. Gorgonzola is typically aged for three to four months. The length of the aging process determines the consistency of the cheese, which gets firmer as it ripens. There are two varieties of Gorgonzola, which differ mainly in their age: Gorgonzola Dolce (also called Sweet Gorgonzola) and Gorgonzola Piccante (also called Gorgonzola Naturale, Gorgonzola Montagna, or Mountain Gorgonzola).\n",
"The cheese is typically aged between 12 and 52 weeks in rectangular blocks of , coated with a bacterial culture. The culture is washed off at the end of the aging cycle, and the cheese is packaged for retail sales.\n",
"\"Cheddaring\" refers to an additional step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey, and then stacked and turned. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for 15 months or more. The cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. As with other hard cheese varieties produced worldwide, caves provide an ideal environment for maturing cheese; still, today, some Cheddar cheese is matured in the caves at Wookey Hole and Cheddar Gorge. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked.\n",
"The cheese is ready to be eaten after a maturation period of just twenty days. However, it is generally regarded as a hard cheese, frequently used for grating, and to achieve this characteristic hard texture, the cheese should be left alone for at least four months.\n",
"After the initial manufacturing process of the cheese is done, the cheese ripening process occurs. This process is especially important, since it defines the flavour and texture of the cheese, which differentiates the many varieties. Duration is dependent on the type of cheese and the desired quality, and typically ranges from \"three weeks to two or more years\".\n"
] |
why is video ram (like gddr5) so much faster than regular ram (like ddr3 or ddr4)?
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GDDR, similar to GPUs are very parallel in design.
So while you might have "dual channel" or "triple channel" memory slots on a system board, GDDR memory can be arranged into 8, 16, or 32 parallel channels on the graphics circuit board. This yields nearly linear performance gains in memory throughput since memory chips are accessed in parallel. For this to work efficiently, this requires that the graphics chip itself is also designed to be massively parallel (unlike CPUs) with hundreds (or thousands) of cores / shader processing units that are all loaded up between ticks and all fired simultaneously on the clock tick.
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[
"BULLET::::- Clock Speeds: This is the clock speed that the graphics core and video RAM run at; they do not need to be the same. The faster the clock speed, the more the graphics core and/or video RAM can accomplish in a second. All modern video cards use DDR SDRAM, which, for all performance issues, is twice as fast as its actual clock speed indicates. All clock speeds mentioned here for DDR RAM are their effective \"DDR speeds,\" and their actual clock speeds are half that.\n",
"This type of SDRAM is slower than the DDR variants, because only one word of data is transmitted per clock cycle (single data rate). But this type is also faster than its predecessors EDO-RAM and FPM-RAM which took typically two or three clocks to transfer one word of data.\n",
"DDR (Double Data Rate) memory is essential for any computer system. Adding more memory allows the CPU to address more data for it to quickly access instead of reading off a comparatively slow disk drive or solid-state storage device. DDR RAM also has much lower latency than its GDDR counterpart and much lower bandwidth as the CPU relies on being able to change small amounts of data quickly. The latest standard of DDR memory is DDR4L.\n",
"The performance of a RAM drive is in general orders of magnitude faster than other forms of storage media, such as an SSD, hard drive, tape drive, or optical drive. This performance gain is due to multiple factors, including access time, maximum throughput, and type of file system.\n",
"Because of this variability, graphics memory speeds are sometimes compared per pin. For direct comparison to the values for 64-bit modules shown above, video RAM is compared here in 64-lane lots, corresponding to two chips for those devices with 32-bit widths.\n",
"A problem for some game software developers was that the method by which MSX-1 computers addressed their video RAM could be quite slow compared to systems that gave direct access to the video memory. This, and the fact that the completely different features the MSX-1's video chip (using the MSX Video access method) had to compensate for the slower video access were not efficiently used while porting (mostly Spectrum) software, made the MSX-1 appear slower when running ported games.\n",
"The TMS9918A's method of accessing the video RAM is slower than direct access, as used in unified-memory computers, because accessing video memory involved first outputting the low- then the hi-byte of the (14-bit) video memory address to I/O port $99, then one or more bytes of 8-bit data to port $98. After each write, the memory pointer advances to the next address, so consecutive addresses can be written to with repeated OUT instructions to $98. Z80 had as fast OTIR/OTDR block instructions which could be used instead of LDIR/LDDR, still, allowed VRAM access rate was restricted unless during vertical blanking.\n"
] |
in david attenborough documentaries, how do they get the camera inside each respective insect/animals home?
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If you have the DVD/Blu-Ray sets, watch the behind-the-scenes extras.
These nature photographers spend months and months working to catch the perfect moment (really makes the viewer marvel and appreciate their contributions to public knowledge).
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[
"Several special filming techniques were devised to obtain some of the footage of rare and elusive animals. One cameraman spent hundreds of hours waiting for the fleeting moment when a rare frog, which incubates its young in its mouth, finally spat them out. Another built a replica of a mole rat burrow in a horizontally mounted wheel, so that as the mole rat ran along the tunnel, the wheel could be spun to keep the animal adjacent to the camera. To illustrate the motion of bats' wings in flight, a slow-motion sequence was filmed in a wind tunnel. The series was also the first to include footage of a live (although dying) coelacanth.\n",
"New camera technology was used to build on the cinematic techniques first employed in \"Planet Earth\", notably the pioneering use of stabilised helicopter-mounted cameras. The \"Life\" crew succeeded in using gyroscopic stabilisation to create steady shots from moving vehicles, even on rough terrain, allowing the cameras to track alongside reindeer and elephant herds for the first time. Miniature high-definition cameras were used extensively for the \"Insects\" programme. In the forests of Mexico, the crew erected a spider's web of cables in the canopy to give the sense of flying alongside millions of monarch butterflies. In Zambia, they filmed from a hot air balloon to avoid disturbing the huge flocks of straw-coloured fruit bats.\n",
"Cinematographers have been using innovative techniques seen in other wildlife series, such as Cineflex or Phantom cameras. But they also developed some special artisanal tools, as revealed by some behind the scenes clips on the US or French Home Video editions.\n",
"The zoöpraxiscope (initially named \"zoographiscope\" and \"zoogyroscope\") is an early device for displaying moving images and is considered an important predecessor of the movie projector. It was conceived by photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879 (and built for him by January 1880 to project his famous chronophotographic pictures in motion and thus prove that these were authentic). Muybridge used the projector in his public lectures from 1880 to 1895. The projector used 16\" glass disks onto which Muybridge had an unidentified artist paint the sequences as silhouettes. This technique eliminated the backgrounds and enabled the creation of fanciful combinations and additional imaginary elements. Only one disk used photographic images, of a horse skeleton posed in different positions. A later series of 12\" discs, made in 1892–1894, used outlines drawn by Erwin F. Faber that were printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by hand. These colored discs were probably never used in Muybridge's lectures. All images of the known 71 disks, including those of the photographic disk, were rendered in elongated form to compensate the distortion of the projection. The projector was related to other projecting phenakistiscopes and used some slotted metal shutter discs that were interchangeable for different picture disks or different effects on the screen. The machine was hand-cranked. \n",
"The show was primarily filmed using Sony DSR-570 cameras, although special equipment was needed for some unique footage. For scenes inside the animals' burrows, mini fibre-optic infra-red cameras were employed; wide-angle shots were filmed with a seven-metre crane and a remote-controlled camera platform. An off-camera wireless microphone was also used to record many meerkat vocalizations, only partially audible to cameras' on-board systems. Most filming was done by a single cameraman and a single sound engineer; researchers have required a minimal human presence to avoid stressing the animals. Eye-level shots were difficult to achieve at times, due to the meerkats' small size and the limited height of even the smallest tripods.\n",
"The camera dolly may be used as a shooting platform on any surface but is often raised onto a track, to create smooth movement on a horizontal axis known as a tracking shot. Additionally, most professional film studio dollies have a hydraulic jib arm that raises or lowers the camera on the vertical axis. When a dolly grip operates a dolly on perpendicular axes simultaneously, it's known as a compound move.\n",
"Many other animals took part in \"Come Outside\". Specially-shot footage included snails from London Zoo, frogs at Chester Zoo, geese at Folly Farm in Gloucestershire, rabbits at Tilgate Nature Centre in West Sussex, butterflies in the Butterfly Centre, Eastbourne, hedgehogs supplied by St. Tiggywinkles Animal Hospital and spiders from a private collection. In addition archive shots were provided by the BBC's Natural History Film Library in Bristol.\n"
] |
What is the price difference between geothermal energy and fossil fuel energy?
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It really *really* depends on where you're trying to get geothermal energy from. In Iceland, which has tons of volcanic activity and gets all its electricity from geothermal, electricity prices are about half the cost in other Nordic countries.
However, in almost every other part of the world, you'd have to drill 5-10 times deeper than in Iceland to reach rock hot enough to run a steam turbine. The extra cost, plus the difficulty in getting water in and steam out of such a deep hole, make geothermal energy impractical.
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
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[
"Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants.\n",
"Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants. As a source of renewable energy for both power and heating, geothermal has the potential to meet 3-5% of global demand by 2050. With economic incentives, it is estimated that by 2100 it will be possible to meet 10% of global demand.\n",
"Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil).\n",
"Exploration and construction of future geothermal plants present a high cost for poor countries. Drilling potential sites alone costs millions of dollars and can result in zero energy return if the consistency of the heat and steam is unreliable. Return on investments into geothermal power are not as quick as those into fossil fuels and may take years to pay off; however, low-maintenance cost and the renewable nature of geothermal energy mean more benefits in the long term.\n",
"Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content. The emission intensity of existing geothermal electric plants is on average 122 kg of per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of that of conventional fossil fuel plants.\n",
"The energy conversion efficiency of geothermal energies is low, at 10-15%, so that the released thermal energy is much larger than the obtained electrical energy. But thermal energy does not cost anything, so a low energy conversion efficiency does not hurt. \n",
"The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric stations is low, around 7–10%, because geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared with steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does factor into the viability of the station. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high-temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated. However the global average capacity factor was 74.5% in 2008, according to the IPCC.\n"
] |
Help identifying a Japanese battle flag from WWII
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I can't read all of it--the vertical text on the sides is quite difficult and I will leave it to somebody else. But the text on the top 国報身 献、is a wartime slogan that means something like 'serve the country, give up one's body' and the name of the soldier on the bottom horizontal text, I think, is Hisanaga Takeshi. It also gives the family name of the Lieutenant General of his unit (I'm assuming), which was Tominaga and would probably help in locating his family. It's also dated Showa 18 or 1943.
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[
"BULLET::::- Finding the red in the national insignia adopted in June 1943 for its military aircraft could cause confusion with Japanese markings during combat, the United States adopts a new marking consisting of a white star centered in a blue circle flanked by white rectangles, with the entire insignia outlined in blue . The new marking will remain in use until January 1947.\n",
"In addition, this war and its aftermath established red and white, the colors of the Taira and Minamoto standards, respectively, as Japan's national colors. Today, these colors can be seen on the flag of Japan, and also in banners and flags in sumo and other traditional activities.\n",
"It was historically used by the \"daimyō\" (大名) and Japan's military, particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The ensign, known in Japanese as the , was first adopted as the war flag on May 15, 1870, and was used until the end of World War II in 1945. It was re-adopted on June 30, 1954, and is now used by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) use a variation of the Rising Sun Flag with red, white and gold colors.\n",
"The \"Hinomaru\" was the \"de facto\" flag of Japan throughout World War II and the occupation period. During the occupation of Japan after World War II, permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAPJ) was needed to fly the \"Hinomaru\". Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the \"Hinomaru\" flag was restricted; some use the term \"banned;\" however, while the original restrictions were severe, they did not amount to an outright ban.\n",
"During the first year of the Pacific War beginning on 7 December 1941, Allied personnel often struggled to quickly, succinctly, and accurately identify Japanese aircraft encountered in combat. They found the Japanese designation system bewildering and awkward, as it allocated two names to each aircraft. One was the manufacturer's alphanumeric project code, and the other was the official military designation, which consisted of a description of the aircraft plus the year it entered service. For example, the military designation of the Mitsubishi A5M fighter was the \"Navy Type 96 Carrier Fighter\". Type 96 meant that the aircraft had entered service in Imperial year 2596, equivalent to Gregorian calendar year 1936. Other aircraft, however, which had entered service the same year carried the same type number; aircraft such as the Type 96 Carrier Bomber and the Type 96 Land Attack Bomber. Adding to the confusion, the US Army and US Navy each had their own different systems for identifying Japanese aircraft.\n",
"During World War II, \"invasion stripes\" were painted on Allied aircraft to assist identification in preparation for the invasion of Normandy. Similar markings had been used when the Hawker Typhoon was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to a German aircraft. Late in the war the \"protection squadron\" that covered the elite German jet fighter squadron as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters.\n",
"BULLET::::- June 28 – To increase the visibility of the national insignia on its military aircraft, the United States replaces the marking adopted in June 1942 with a new marking consisting of a white star centered in a blue circle flanked by white rectangles, with the entire insignia outlined in red . The new marking containing the red graphic elements will cause confusion with Japanese markings and will remain in use only until September 1943.\n"
] |
how come the military is "always recruiting" and are all countries like this?
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People are always leaving and moving up even when an army downsizes. Ergo there are always needs for replacements at the bottom.
Now you may not get to be a helicopter pilot. There is always need in the infantry
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[
"The most popular age group to recruit for the military is the youth population, because many youth are opting out of going to college because of the economic times and financial positions. \"The recruiting process involves national and local advertising to efficiently supply information on a widespread basis; informational visits by recruiters to schools and student groups; traveling military exhibits to provide information to schools and the public; direct mail advertising and telephone solicitation to identify interested youth; web sites to provide information on military services; and contacts and visits with recruiters to qualify leads and to assist youth in gaining needed information about the decision to enlist and the selection of a particular Service.\"\n",
"Some nations with armed forces do not conscript their personnel (e.g. most NATO and European Union states). Instead, they promote military careers to attract and select recruits; see military recruitment.\n",
"The American military has had recruiters since the time of the colonies in the 1700s. Today there are thousands of recruiting stations across the United States, serving the Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force. Recruiting offices normally consist of 2–8 recruiters between the ranks of E-5 and E-7. When a potential applicant walks into a recruiting station his or her height and weight are checked and their background investigated. A finger print scan is conducted and a practice ASVAB exam is given to them. Applicants can not officially swear their enlistment oath in the recruiting office. This is conducted at a Military Entrance Processing Station – MEPS.\n",
"The process of attracting children and young people to military employment begins in their early years. In Germany, Israel, Poland, the UK, the US, and elsewhere, the armed forces visit schools frequently, including primary schools, to encourage children to enlist once they become old enough to do so. For example, a poster used by the German armed forces in schools reads: \"After school you have the world at your feet, make it safer.\" [\"Nach der Schule liegt dir die Welt zu Füßen, mach sie sicherer.\"] In the US, recruiters have right of access to all schools and to the contact details of students, and are encouraged to embed themselves into the school community. A former head of recruitment for the British Army, Colonel (latterly Brigadier) David Allfrey, explained the British approach in 2007:\"Our new model is about raising awareness, and that takes a ten-year span. It starts with a seven-year-old boy seeing a parachutist at an air show and thinking, 'That looks great.' From then the army is trying to build interest by drip, drip, drip.\"\n",
"Members of the U.S. military participate in their own selection process for programs located at military hospitals, clinics, and bases. The military selection usually occurs in mid-December to allow students who did not match to participate in other national matching plans.\n",
"Recruiters use civic space to promote their military organisation. Among the methods used are recruitment stalls in public spaces, air shows; military amusement parks, such as Patriot Park in Russia; national days, such as the Belgian national day and military parade; and annual armed forces days.\n",
"It is an all-volunteer military, but conscription through the Selective Service System can be enacted at the president's request and Congress' approval. All males ages 18 through 25 who are living in the United States are required to register with the Selective Service for a potential future draft.\n"
] |
how do people doing gymnastics always land on their feet?
|
They spend years failing to land on their feet. Its an enormous amount of practice, and even then they aren't always perfect.
|
[
"Gymnasts are expected to land cleanly, with no hops or steps, and within a set landing zone on the landing mat. They must also demonstrate good technique and execution in the actual vault. Falling or stepping on landing incurs deduction, as will lack of height off the table, or distance from the table.\n",
"Foot gymnastics are games and exercises intended to strengthen the muscles of legs and feet, improve the motion sequences of walking and sports, support therapy of varicose veins and dorsal pain. Such activities are recommended to improve flat feet especially of children and the gait performance of older adults.\n",
"To start a routine, the gymnast jumped or was lifted until he could grasp the rings; then an assistant pulled or pushed him, starting his swing. At the end of each arc the gymnast would do \"pikes\", \"dislocates\" or \"front\" or \"back-uprises\" to build up height. A typical routine would show a number of \"flying\" \"dislocates\" or \"inlocates\" (a dislocate leading directly to a \"support\" above the rings or a handstand was called a \"flange\"). The performer might also do additional moves typical of the still rings while in flight, such as a \"flying cross\". After several passes the routine would end with a (usually) spectacular \"dismount\", normally off a front swing - with fellow gymnasts in place, prepared to help break a fall if the move failed. \n",
"In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a runway, jump onto a springboard (or perform a roundoff or handspring entry onto a springboard), land momentarily inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse or vaulting table (pre-flight segment), then propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing (post-flight segment). Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength. The post-flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos, somersaults, or twisting movements. A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is the most common vault in the higher levels in gymnastics. When performing a Yurchenko, gymnasts \"round off\" so their hands are on the runway while their feet land on the springboard. From the roundoff position, the gymnast travels backwards and executes a back handspring so that the hands land on the vaulting table. The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations. The post-flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet. In the lower levels of gymnastics, the gymnasts do not perform this move. These gymnasts will jump onto the springboard with both feet at the same time and either do a front handspring onto the vault or a roundoff onto the vault.\n",
"Gymnasts are permitted to tape their hands or use grips or hand guards on bars level 4 through elite. Their coaches are also permitted to apply chalk and/or water to the bars to ensure gymnasts don't slip off.\n",
"To perform a vault, the gymnast runs down a runway (the run), which is usually padded or carpeted. They hurdle onto a springboard and spring onto the vault with their hands (the preflight or first flight, and block). For vaults in the Yurchenko family, the gymnast will put their hands onto a mat that is placed before the springboard, round-off onto the board, and do a back handspring onto the vault. The off-flight may be as simple as leaping over the apparatus or as complicated as executing several twists and turns in the air. The gymnast then lands on the mat on the other side of the apparatus.\n",
"Unlike high bar and rings in MAG, gymnasts may not be lifted to the uneven bars to begin their routines. They may mount the apparatus with either a simple or a difficult skill, on either the high or low bar; running mounts and springboards are permitted.\n"
] |
i'm an adult. why do i always dream about school?
|
You can think of it as a very, very mild form of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
Basically, you dream of it because you went through it. If someone does go broke and lives on the streets or get very sick enough that it impacts their life, they will probably have nightmares about being back in that situation.
|
[
"You can learn a lot about a person from his dreams. What we dream is a reflection of who we are. It is the measure of our aspirations and goals, and of those values we hold dear and place above all else.\n",
"This group of teenagers will discover that they have more in common than they imagined, they are united by the same passion and can forget their problems through music; but their parents and even the school principal are opposed to somehow fulfilling their dreams.\n",
"It was discovered that children often feel that they are responsible for an event or events occurring or are capable of reversing an event simply by thinking about it and wishing for a change: namely, \"magical thinking\". Make-believe and fantasy are an integral part of life at this age and are often used to explain the inexplicable.\n",
"When children are very young, they have natural curiosity about the world, trying diligently to figure out what is real. As they become \"producers\" rather than \"thinkers,\" they fall away from exploration and start fishing for the right answers with little thought. They believe that they must always be right and so quickly forget mistakes and how the mistakes were made. They believe that the only good response from the teacher is a yes and that a no is a defeat.\n",
"Called the preoperational stage by Jean Piaget, this is the stage during which the child repeatedly asks \"Why?\", and is used to build relationships with the child. The child can't yet perform the abstract thinking operations. The child has to be able to see what is being talked about, because they do not understand the concepts of logic, betrayal, contemplation, etc. This means that they think literally: if a child is told that they have to go to bed because \"night is falling\", they will ask how can the night (literally) fall from the sky. They also see the human characteristics in every object, e.g. the table \"is bad\" if they accidentally hit it with their foot and it hurts. They also exhibit egocentrism; not to be confused with egoism; that being said, they do not comprehend that the other person has beliefs and the children at this age think that what they think, everybody thinks. There is also a matter of perceptive centration, which causes the children to primarily see what is visually most prominent on someone/something, e.g. if a man has long hair, the child will think he's a woman.\n",
"Around school age a child's awareness of personal memory transitions into a sense of one's own self. At this stage, a child begins to develop interests along with likes and dislikes. This transition enables the awareness of an individual's past, present, and future to grow as conscious experiences are remembered more often. As a preschooler, they begin to give much more specific details about things, instead of generalizing. For example, the infant will talk about the Los Angeles Lakers basketball team, and the New York Rangers hockey team, instead of the infant just stating that he likes sports. Furthermore, they will start to express certain preferences (e.g., Tod likes mac and cheese) and will start to identify certain possessions of theirs (e.g., Lara has a bird as a pet at home). At this age, the infant is in the stage Piaget names the \"pre operational\" stage of development. The infant is very inaccurate at judging themselves because they do not have much to go about. For example, an infant at this stage will not associate that they are strong with their ability to cross the jungle gym at their school, nor will they associate the fact that they can solve a math problem with their ability to count.\n",
"A girl narrates her day to day life and tells how her parents discriminate between son and daughter. She wants to read as her brother but she is tangled in daily chores. She thinks this is only her bad dream and one day she thinks she will wake up from this dream, maybe to find herself in some world where there will not be discrimination.\n"
] |
Would it be inaccurate to say that in general, the common people of modern first world countries eat better than medieval European royalty?
|
Actually, the quality of the cuisine was generally pretty good, if you're talking about how good it would have tasted. As (and it's embarrassing to admit) a Medieval food enthusiast, I can personally vouch for how tasty the food was. It was generally very similar to the modern foods of whatever country you're looking at. Pasties have been around, in one form or another, for a *very* long time. The major documents like the Forme of Cury were recorded because they were the king's, and so forth, so we know less about the smaller manors (much less about food that wasn't being consumed by VIPs), but they probably ate similar foods.
The flavoring ingredients, the spices and herbs, were imported from all over, and they would have been dried, so they'd keep a long time. Vinegar and oil keep well, too. And there was probably a bigger variety of spices back then! As (I think) a status symbol, courtly food often called for very exotic spices like cubebs, imported from (I think) Madagascar, and grains of paradise, from Ethiopia, which are very hard to find nowadays. Cinnamon and ginger, brought from the East, were especially popular.
As for variety in the diet, royalty actually did pretty well with that, too. There were large varieties of meats and fish available. Hunting was a regular occurrence and people ate, if anything, more varieties of meat than they do now. Because of religious days, fish was mandated many, many days of the year, and fish is pretty good for you. Apparently fish was called for so often that there are books with writing in the margins that say "I am so sick of fish," and some recipe books suggest that beavers, since they lived in the water, could be considered fish.
Vegetables were also pretty varied within the diet, although more things are available now. Again, the kings and queens would have had large gardens to supply whatever was in season. Medieval recipes don't include as many vegetables as modern ones, but they were there. Medieval palates seem to have loved sweetness, as a lot of dishes, sweet and savory, include fruit.
There was also cheese and other dairy. Cheese tends to keep pretty well. Different countries have different kinds of cheese, and hard cheeses keep better than the others. Again, since stuff was consumed in quantity, I would imagine spoilage wasn't an issue with stuff like milk and cream.
There were also plenty of starches - there was lots of bread. As a side note, whole grains were actually good for medieval teeth, as they have a scouring effect on the teeth.
Since we're talking about royalty, meat/fish spoilage wouldn't have been an issue, as the meat and fish would be consumed right away in large quantities. Plus, there was available game year-round. Certain vegetables would be kept in root cellars, etc, and they did find ways to keep things from spoiling (after all, it's not like rotten fruit or veg tastes very good).
In general, we know more about nutrition than people did back then, so we are more conscious of bringing variety into our diets, whereas Medieval royalty was more about flavor and flash (banquets could, for example, feature porpoise as a dish, no doubt served whole as a dramatic platter). Because the more expensive things like meat, cheese, etc taste better, the diet was probably not as balanced between meat and non-meat as it is now.
Still, the Medieval palate had some interesting tastes, and I find it pretty enjoyable to connect with history in such a sensory way. If you're interested, I can post some recipes, etc.
edit: clarity
|
[
"European consumption of meat remained exceptional by world standards, and during the period high levels generally moved down the social scale. But the poor continued to rely mainly on eggs, dairy products, and pulses for protein. Often they did better in the less populated regions, where wild game and fish could still easily be found. The richer nations, especially England, ate considerably more meat than the poorer ones. In some areas, especially Germany and the Mediterranean counties, the meat consumption of ordinary people actually declined, beginning in about 1550, and continuing throughout the period. Increasing population seem to lie behind this trend.\n",
"Laborers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three fourths of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive. By 1870 the West European diet was at about 16 kilos per person per year of meat, rising to 50 kilos by 1914, and 77 kilos in 2010. Milk, and cheese, was seldom in the diet-- even in the early 20th century, it was still uncommon in Mediterranean diets.\n",
"The patterns of consumption present in England at this time period were similar to what one might find in Europe, as well as in some of the Ottoman territories. This is unsurprising, however, since most of Europe and the Ottoman Empire were all connected through trade. Through these trade connections, people were able to buy many of the luxury goods that they desired. Very common amongst the nobility was the idea of Conspicuous consumption. This can be traced back, even into the Middle Ages. People, the nobility especially, had trade connections throughout Europe, and many of them would use these connections to buy the works of art, etc. that they desired. This does not extend only to the rich however: even Medieval peasants enjoyed imported luxury items; there is evidence to suggest that some English peasants drank imported French wine.\n",
"After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century, Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese and milk), and rice. While the Spanish initially tried to impose their own diet on the country, this was not possible.\n",
"English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War.\n",
"If not for the incorporation of American \"miracle foods\", Europe may have not pulled out of its 16th-century cycles of hunger and starvation. The dependence on Spain and Portugal for New World goods perpetuated their colonization throughout the world. This, in turn, led to Spain and Portugal becoming the two leading world powers in the 16th and 17th centuries.\n",
"For example, one interesting observation is \"the Reversal of Fortune\" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.\n"
] |
how can someone who lost all movement from below the neck breath without aid?
|
In some cases they absolutely cannot, and must use a machine such as an "iron lung" or respirator.
In other cases, although their voluntary nerves aren't working, the other nerves that run automatic systems are still in good shape.
|
[
"It is essential that rescue breathing be continued without pause until the paralysis subsides and the victim regains the ability to breathe on their own. This is a daunting physical prospect for a single individual, but use of a bag valve mask respirator reduces fatigue to sustainable levels until help can arrive.\n",
"The phrenic nerve arises from the neck (C3-C5) and innervates the diaphragm, which is much lower. Hence, patients suffering spinal cord injuries below the neck are still able to breathe effectively, despite any paralysis of the lower limbs.\n",
"To save a person's life, you need to have an open airway so it makes a clear passage where air can go through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down into the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning.\n",
"Additional signs and symptoms of cervical injuries include low heart rate, low blood pressure, problems regulating body temperature, and breathing dysfunction. If the injury is high enough in the neck to impair the muscles involved in breathing, the person may not be able to breathe without the help of an endotracheal tube and mechanical ventilator.\n",
"BULLET::::- People may die from positional asphyxia by simply getting themselves into a breathing-restricted position they cannot get out of, either through the person's own carelessness, as a consequence of another accident, or where infants are placed in a position where the mouth and nose is blocked, or where the chest may be unable to fully expand.\n",
"A conscious person will hold his or her breath (see Apnea) and will try to access air, often resulting in panic, including rapid body movement. This uses up more oxygen in the blood stream and reduces the time to unconsciousness. The person can voluntarily hold his or her breath for some time, but the breathing reflex will increase until the person tries to breathe, even when submerged.\n",
"Treatments of a person that is actively seizing follows a progression from initial response, through first line, second line, and third line treatments. The initial response involves ensuring the person is protected from potential harms (such as nearby objects) and managing their airway, breathing, and circulation. Airway management should include placing the person on their side, known as the recovery position, to prevent them from choking. If they are unable to breathe because something is blocking their airway, they may require treatments to open their airway.\n"
] |
why do adolescent girls seem to be more obsessed with boy pop stars (think justin bieber, boy bands, the beatles, etc.) than adolescent boys are obsessed with female pop stars?
|
Boy pop stars are marketed to girls.
Girl pop stars are marketed to girls.
|
[
"Girls gravitate towards \"music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities\". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products. Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them. A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand, and the Disney Princess franchise. Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.\n",
"Girls gravitate towards \"music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities\". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products. Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them. A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand, and the Disney Princess franchise. Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.\n",
"Studies have shown that most high school girls are more interested in a relationship compared to high school boys, who are mostly interested in sex. Young women tend to be honest about their sexual encounters and experiences, while young men tend to lie more often about theirs. Another study shows that once a person has sex for their first time, it becomes less of an issue or big deal to future relationships or hook ups. During this study, it was shown that girls in high school do not care as much as boys do on having sex in a relationship. But, on the contrary, girls will have sex with their partner in order to match them.\n",
"Some scholars feel that adolescents may turn to the media as a \"sexual super peer\" when seeking information about sexual norms and adult roles given the lack of information about sexuality readily available to them. For example, in one study of 13-and 14-year-olds, heavy exposure to sexually oriented television also increased acceptance of non-marital sex. Another study found that teens overestimate how many of their peers are sexually active, a problem contributed to by the media.\n",
"Some studies have also found that adolescents whose media diet was rich in sexual content were more than twice as likely as others to have had sex by the time they were 16. In a Kaiser Family Foundation study, 76 percent of teens said that one reason young people have sex is because TV shows and movies make it seem normal for teens. In addition to higher likelihoods that an adolescent exposed to sexual content in the media will engage in sexual behaviors, they are also have higher levels of intending to have sex in the future and more positive expectations of sex.\n",
"A fundamental drawback of much of the research so far is that the people studied have been asked to rate their own popularity in the eyes of others, which naturally brings those scores into question. Roland G. Fryer, Jr. has remarked, \"Asking teenagers whether they’re popular is like asking them if they’re having sex.\"\n",
"One study has shown that teenagers in 2012 were more likely to share different types of information than teenagers in 2006 were. However, they will take certain steps to protect certain information that they do not want being shared. They are more likely to \"follow\" others on social media than \"share\" and use different types of social media for different purposes. Focus group testing found that while teens may be annoyed by many aspects of Facebook, they continue to use it because participation is important in terms of socializing with friends and peers. Twitter and Instagram are seen to be gaining popularity in member of Generation Z, with 24% (and growing) of teens with access to the Internet having Twitter accounts. This is, in part, due to parents not typically using these social networking sites. Snapchat is also seen to have gained attraction in Generation Z because videos, pictures, and messages send much faster on it than in regular messaging. Speed and reliability are important factors in members of Generation Z choice of social networking platform. This need for quick communication is presented in popular Generation Z apps like Vine and the prevalent use of emojis.\n"
] |
Does Crossing-Over in Meiosis result in new genes?
|
It's not clear from your question whether you mean new alleles ("versions" of genes) or whole new genetic loci (sections of the chromosome), but the answer is yes in both cases!
[Crossing-over](_URL_0_) happens anywhere along the chromosome, both within and between genes. For this reason, after meiosis one gene can end up with its first section from one original chromosome and the rest from its [homologous chromosome](_URL_1_). If one allele has a mutation in the DNA code in the first half and the other has a mutation in the second half, meiosis can create a new pair of alleles: one with *both* mutations and the other with none.
In this way, brand new alleles can be created during crossing over by mixing up small DNA code changes that mutated independently in different ancestors. Cool!
You can also end up with entirely new genetic loci through [unequal crossing-over](_URL_3_). Normally homologous chromosomes line in the correct alignment, where each gene on one chromosome matches up with the same one on the other chromosome. But sometimes there are mistakes, especially if there are similar or repetitive DNA sequences on multiple locations on the chromosome. If this happens, you can get one chromosome to give up a chunk of DNA without getting the corresponding chunk back from its partner. This can cause [gene duplication](_URL_2_) in the recipient chromosome.
A cell inheriting the chromosome that lost one or more genes is likely to have problems, but ones that got the extra gene will probably be just fine. In fact, having an extra copy of the gene can be really valuable for evolution, as one copy can be mutated to have a new function without losing the original functionality in the duplicate.
|
[
"Crossing over (genetic recombination) and random segregation during meiosis can result in the production of new alleles or new combinations of alleles. Furthermore, random fertilization also contributes to variation.\n",
"If \"terminal fusion\" (restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.\n",
"Other chromosomes, autosomes and X chromosomes in women, share their genetic material (called crossing over leading to recombination) during meiosis (a special type of cell division that occurs for the purposes of sexual reproduction). Effectively this means that the genetic material from these chromosomes gets mixed up in every generation, and so any new mutations are passed down randomly from parents to offspring.\n",
"During meiosis in a translocation homozygote, chromosomes segregate normally according to Mendelian principles. Even though the genes have been rearranged during crossover, both haploid sets of chromosomes in the individual have the same rearrangement. As a result, all chromosomes will find a single partner with which to pair at meiosis, and there will be no deleterious consequences for the progeny.\n",
"Research into meiosis has been considerably simplified since every germ cell nucleus is at the same given position as it moves down the gonad, so is at the same stage in meiosis. In an early phase of meiosis, the oocytes become extremely resistant to radiation and this resistance depends on expression of genes \"rad51\" and \"atm\" that have key roles in recombinational repair. Gene \"mre-11\" also plays a crucial role in recombinational repair of DNA damage during meiosis. A study of the frequency of outcrossing in natural populations showed that selfing is the predominant mode of reproduction in \"C. elegans\", but that infrequent outcrossing events occur at a rate around 1%. Meioses that result in selfing are unlikely to contribute significantly to beneficial genetic variability, but these meioses may provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages that arise, especially under stressful conditions.\n",
"Pairing (synapsis) of the X and Y chromosomes and crossing over (recombination) between their pseudoautosomal regions appear to be necessary for the normal progression of male meiosis. Thus, those cells in which X-Y recombination does not occur will fail to complete meiosis. Structural and/or genetic dissimilarity (due to hybridization or mutation) between the pseudoautosomal regions of the X and Y chromosomes can disrupt pairing and recombination, and consequently cause male infertility.\n",
"After fertilization the zygote undergoes meiosis. Meiosis I occurs a few hours after fertilization. During meiosis I the zygote’s chromosomes duplicate and the zygote divides. During meiosis I, the centromeres are not duplicated. After meiosis I, meiosis II occurs, during which the centromeres, but not the chromosomes, are duplicated, and the cell divides again. The overall result of meiosis is 4 haploid cells. \n"
] |
How many mass extinctions were there, and how do we know?
|
Your number is correct and we know different ways.
I note that animals (and plants) go extinct all the time but in order to be a mass extinction event the extinctions have to be within a similar time frame (happen over the same span of time which isn't just instant but can cover thousands of years - such as the current one in which other plants and animals are becoming extinct because of the growing human population).
We know because of fossil records showing a massive number of some species then "poof" suddenly none..
As well we can study DNA to note bottlenecks of populations.
|
[
"The first of five great mass extinctions was the Ordovician-Silurian extinction. Its possible cause was the intense glaciation of Gondwana, which eventually led to a snowball earth. 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.\n",
"There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event is considered to be one likely cause of the \"Permian–Triassic extinction event\" about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing. There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson's Extinction. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species.\n",
"The Great Oxygenation Event, which occurred around 2.45 billion years ago, was probably the first major extinction event. Since the Cambrian explosion five further major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate. The most recent and arguably best-known, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately million years ago (Ma), was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time. In addition to the five major mass extinctions, there are numerous minor ones as well, and the ongoing mass extinction caused by human activity is sometimes called the sixth extinction. Mass extinctions seem to be a mainly Phanerozoic phenomenon, with extinction rates low before large complex organisms arose.\n",
"The first known mass extinction in earth's history was the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago. That event led to the loss of most of the planet's obligate anaerobes. Researchers have identified five major extinction events in earth's history since:\n",
"A number of other mass extinctions occurred earlier in Earth's geologic history, in which some or all of the megafauna of the time also died out. Famously, in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event the non-avian dinosaurs and most other giant reptilians were eliminated. However, the earlier mass extinctions were more global and not so selective for megafauna; i.e., many species of other types, including plants, marine invertebrates and plankton, went extinct as well. Thus, the earlier events must have been caused by more generalized types of disturbances to the biosphere.\n",
"In a landmark paper published in 1982, Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup identified five mass extinctions. They were originally identified as outliers to a general trend of decreasing extinction rates during the Phanerozoic, but as more stringent statistical tests have been applied to the accumulating data, it has been established that multicellular animal life has experienced five major and many minor mass extinctions. The \"Big Five\" cannot be so clearly defined, but rather appear to represent the largest (or some of the largest) of a relatively smooth continuum of extinction events.\n",
"An extinction event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the rate of speciation. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as \"major\", and the data chosen to measure past diversity.\n"
] |
why arent any saudi royals on the top billionaire lists? are they not filthy rich from oil?
|
Those guys are also not particularly transparent. Since Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, the country's budget and state investment funds are also the royal family's own wallet, whereas "conventional" billionaires own far more easily detectable corporate assets.
|
[
"Nasser Ibrahim Al-Rashid (born 1939) () is a Saudi businessman. He is reputedly an influential advisor to the Saudi royal family and a US dollar billionaire. However he is not included in the \"Forbes\" list of the world's richest people as his personal wealth, like that of many Saudi insiders, cannot be assessed with much accuracy from publicly available information.\n",
"The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to \"belong\" to the royal family and is named for them, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The extent of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.\n",
"The Saudi government and the royal family have often, and over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to \"belong\" to the royal family and is named after it, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.\n",
"This is a list of Saudi Arabians by net worth. It was compiled by \"Forbes\" magazine and released in the year 2008. This is a partial list of the richest people in Saudi Arabia. Other comprehensive lists are published by \"Arabian Business\".\n",
"Mohammed Hussein Ali Al-'Amoudi (, ) is a Saudi billionaire businessman. He was born in Ethiopia in 1946 to a Yemeni father and an Ethiopian mother. In 2016, his net worth was estimated by \"Forbes\" at approximately $10.9 billion and a relative fall in net value was linked to the global fall in oil and gold prices at the time of estimation. He was also listed as Ethiopia's richest man, the second richest Saudi Arabian citizen in the world and the second richest black person in the world. Al Amoudi made his fortune in construction and real estate before branching out to buy oil refineries in Sweden and Morocco. He is the largest individual foreign investor in Ethiopia and a major investor in Sweden.\n",
"Saudi Arabians viewed their oil wealth not as an accident of geology or history, but connected to religion—a blessing by God of them, to \"be solemnly acknowledged and lived up to\" with pious behavior.\n",
"Al Rabban was born and raised in Doha, and is currently one of the wealthiest men in Qatar. Though he is not directly related to anyone in the royal family, he married the daughter of a member of the royal family.\n"
] |
why does it matter that young people don't vote?
|
Broadly speaking, young people not voting shows there is a lack of engagement. This can mean they don't feel like anything will change, or can change.
This matters because for democracy to function properly (i.e. have checks and balances, a knowledgable electorate etc.) people actually have to give a damn. And what many young people don't realize is, they can make a difference.
Most places, 18 year olds can vote. These are people in university/college, or starting in the work force. Governments play a major role in their lives (i.e. setting tuition levels and stuff like that), so if they have a vested interest in the outcome of the elections.
|
[
"One reason cited for why children and the mentally disabled are not permitted to vote in elections is that they are too intellectually immature to understand voting issues. This view is echoed in concerns about the adult voting population, with observers citing concern for a decrease in 'civic virtue' and 'social capital,' reflecting a generalized panic over the political intelligence of the voting population. Although critics have cited 'youth culture' as contributing to the malaise of modern mass media's shallow treatment of political issues, interviews with youth themselves about their political views have revealed a widespread sense of frustration in their political powerlessness as well as a strongly cynical view of the actions of politicians. Several researchers have attempted to explain this sense of cynicism as a way of rationalizing the sense of alienation and legal exclusion of youth in political decision-making.\n",
"Berman and Johnson's (2000) argument affirms that \"age is an important factor in understanding voting blocs and differences\" on various issues. Young people are typically \"plagued\" by political apathy and thus do not have strong political opinions (The Economist, 2014). As strong political opinions may be considered one of the reasons behind voting (Munsey, 2008), political apathy among young people is arguably a predictor for low voter turnout. Pomante and Schraufnagel's (2014) research demonstrated that potential young voters are more willing to commit to vote when they see pictures of younger candidates running for elections/office or voting for other candidates, surmising that young Americans are \"voting at higher and similar rates to other Americans when there is a candidate under the age of 35 years running\". As such, since most candidates running for office are pervasively over the age of 35 years (Struyk, 2017), youth may not be actively voting in these elections because of a lack of representation or visibility in the political process. \"Only 30 per cent of millennials think it's 'essential' to live in a democracy, compared to 72 percent of those born before World War II\" (Gershman, 2018). Considering that one of the critical tenets of liberal democracy is voting, the idea that millennials are denouncing the value of democracy is arguably an indicator of the loss of faith in the importance of voting. Thus, it can be surmised that those of younger ages may not be inclined to vote during elections.\n",
"Young people complain that those in politics do not communicate with them. Political candidates and their campaigns know, through past election data, that youth are not a reliable voting group and choose to spend their campaign dollars on those who are more likely to turn out to vote. For this reason, candidates tend to focus on issues that pertain to their targeted voters to gain their support, further discouraging youth voters. The discouraged youth complete the cycle of neglect by not turning out to vote, proving to candidates that the youth are not a reliable voting group. \"Elected officials respond to the preferences of voters, not non-voters,\" therefore ignoring the youth of America who do not turn out to vote.\n",
"Some writers argue that, like marrying or making a will, voting is an exercise of the informed will and cannot legitimately be done by proxy. Others have argued that with the right to vote comes other obligations of citizenship, such as military service. Since children do not have those obligations, it is argued they should also not have such rights. Some people worry that the power of older votes will be diluted and the interests of children might be prioritised above those of the elderly.\n",
"A 2018 study found that \"young people who pledge to vote are more likely to turn out than those who are contacted using standard Get-Out-the-Vote materials. Overall, pledging to vote increased voter turnout by 3.7 points among all subjects and 5.6 points for people who had never voted before.\"\n",
"Early voting is important for voters who do not have flexible working hours and cannot take time off on a weekday to vote. The costs associated with voting include potential lost wages, transit fare and the cost of childcare.These factors inherently affect minorities and the poor more because of deep-rooted inequalities: for example, minority voters are likely to work salaried jobs and thus less likely to have paid time off to get to the voting polls, and they are also less likely to own a car. There are currently 23 states that do not have early voting available to all qualified voters. Of the those, 20 states require an excuse to mail an absentee ballot to voters. Since 2010, seven states have implemented additional restrictions on early voting.\n",
"Some residents reported being pressured to vote, or for whom to vote. There were also other issues, such as the use of pencils to mark votes, allowing single members of a family to vote for everyone else in the family, and that some people voted without needing to provide any identification documents.\n"
] |
I am a Roman equite from the age of Augustus examining Rome during the reign of Constantine. What has changed most noticeably? Is the new Rome even recognizable to me?
|
^I'm ^not ^sure ^what ^you ^mean ^by ^"examining ^Rome". ^If ^you ^mean ^something ^like ^walking ^through ^the ^city ^of ^Rome, ^this ^would ^be ^my ^answer:
& nbsp;
Rome has changed massively between the reign of Augustus (27 BCE - 14) and that of Constantine (306-337). Most major monuments are completely new to you. A short list of prominent examples:
& nbsp;
*First century*
* The Colosseum would stand where houses stood during your time, it was built by the Flavian emperors (69-96)
* Several new forums would have been added near the Forum Romanum and the already familiar forums of Caesar and Augustus
* The Arch of Titus, celebrating Rome's victory in the Jewish Revolt
*Second century*
* The Pantheon would not be the one you know, built by Agrippa, but a completely different (and more impressive) building built by Hadrian. Surprisingly the original inscription remains
* Trajan's Market
* The Column of Trajan depicting victories in Dacia, an area that didn't yet belong to the Roman Empire in your time
* The Column of Marcus Aurelius
* The Temple of Faustina and Antoninus Pius on the Forum Romanum
*Third century*
* The Aurelian Wall, a new city wall
* The enormous Baths of Diocletian
* The likewise enormous Baths of Caracalla
*Fourth century (up until the end of Constantine's reign)*
* The Old St. Peter's Basilica would be under construction, a church being built by emperor Constantine for a religion you've never heard of
* The Arch of Constantine, celebrating a victory in the civil war against Maxentius
* The Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius on the Forum Romanum
*Some other differences*
* The coins have largely different names from the ones you knew, they're also heavily debased compared to the Augustan age
* People from all over the empire are citizens now due to the Edict of Caracalla in 212
*Some similarities*
It may surprise you to learn that some things would be very much recognizable to you. For example:
* The number of people in Rome would be roughly the same, although Augustus' age was before the population reached a peak while Constantine reigns after it reached its peak.
* The Circus Maximus has been improved upon, but has kept most of its original design
* The Curia Julia, where the Senate debates on the Forum Romanum is pretty much the same building you know
* The Theatre of Pompey
* Emperors are still calling themselves "Caesar" and "Augustus", even though no-one of the Julio-Claudian family remains
* The city of Ostia is probably still Rome's dominant harbour, although it is in heavy competition with Portus (which is entirely unfamiliar to you)
|
[
"Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated \"Pax Romana\" or \"Pax Augusta\". The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to \"be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan\". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.\n",
"The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title. The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.\n",
"The statues in the forum provided excellent reasoning for Augustus to claim his restoration of the Republic. Not only were the great men of Rome's past being honored through their busts, but Augustus was also establishing his ancestry to these men, either by blood or by spirit. This provided Augustus with another connection between himself and the old Republic, an era of Roman history he continuously tried to invoke during his reign.\n",
"When Augustus became emperor in 27 BC, the most important change was when he made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia (which covered western Asia Minor) instead of Pergamum. Ephesus then entered an era of prosperity, becoming both the seat of the governor and a major centre of commerce. According to Strabo, it was second in importance and size only to Rome.\n",
"As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49-45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32-30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman Provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome's political atmosphere.\n",
"The major theme \"Augustus\" addresses is the ability of circumstances to change the personality and behavior of a person. The conditions that surrounded Augustus' rise to power plagued Ancient Rome with violence and contention, which led to Augustus working hard to implement a time of peace and cooperation in Rome, commonly referred to as the Pax Romana or the Pax Augusta. Other themes Williams writes on in his novel include coming of age and the difference between restraint and resignation.\n",
"He and Tiberius then returned to Rome, probably in the spring of 25 BC. His political career saw acceleration by Augustus, and he was thought to be Augustus' preferred successor by many contemporaries. He was married to his cousin Julia the Elder, who was Augustus' only daughter. The following year (24 BC) he was awarded extraordinary privileges by the Senate:\n"
] |
why does eating human flesh lead to "the shakes"?
|
Kuru is a real life disease caused by a prion transmitted through consumption of infectious brain matter.
It was first noted in Papua New Guinea in the 1950s and 60s and has largely remained only in that area due to endocannibalistic practices. They eat their dead.
Eating the flesh of a person who wasn't infected with the disease isn't harmful. At least no more harmful than eating most other meats.
|
[
"In modern humans, necrophagy (eating of dead/decaying flesh) occurs rarely in most societies. This is likely an adaptation to the risk of disease, due to humans having lower levels of protective acids in the digestive tract, compared to species that are dedicated scavengers. Many instances have occurred in history, especially in times of war, where necrophagy and cannibalism can emerge as a survival behavior.\n",
"In humans it can be voluntary or involuntary, the latter being due to a small number of disorders. Regurgitation of a person's meals following ingestion is known as rumination syndrome, an uncommon and often misdiagnosed motility disorder that affects eating. It may be a symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).\n",
"Meat hanging allows processes to continue in the meat that would normally cease in dead animals. For example, the muscles in the meat continue to use the oxygen that is in the proteins of the blood. This normal biological process creates a chemical by-product known as lactic acid. Since the blood is no longer being circulated through the body, the lactic acid starts to break down the muscle and connective tissues around it.\n",
"Some historians believe it was originally developed by Maroons, African slaves who escaped into the wilds of Jamaica when the British captured the island from Spain in 1655. Adapting to their new surroundings, the former slaves made use of the natural food sources available to them, creating the spicy sauce and slowly cooking the meat over a smoking wood fire. Other historians argue the case for the practice of jerking originating with the Amerindians in Jamaica from the Arawak and Taino tribes who intermingled with the Maroons.\n",
"According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery, Mètraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, \"The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth.\" This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out. Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures. Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the island. The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.\n",
"Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), commonly known as flesh-eating disease, is an infection that results in the death of parts of the body's soft tissue. It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly. Symptoms include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting. The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum.\n",
"Exocannibalism (from Greek \"exo-\", \"from outside\" and cannibalism, \"to eat humans\"), as opposed to endocannibalism, is the consumption of flesh outside one's close social group—for example, eating one's enemy. When done ritually, it has been associated with being a means of imbibing valued qualities of the victim or as an act of final violence against the deceased in the case of sociopathy, as well as a symbolic expression of the domination of an enemy in warfare. Such practices have been documented in cultures including the Aztecs from Mexico, the Carib and the Tupinambá from South America.\n"
] |
what actually are the trigometric fuctions?
|
EE student bored at a huge family Thanksgiving meal, I'll give this a shot.
The sine function takes an angle, traditionally labeled 'theta', as its input, and spits out the corresponding ratio between the opposite and hypotenuse sides of a triangle. Specifically, using [this image](_URL_2_) as a reference, you can say that sin(theta) = opp/hyp.
If you were to plot the sine function as theta varies from 0 to 360 degrees (as theta is just an angle), you would get the classic "sine wave" - this is simply a plot of how the ratio between the sides of a triangle varies as you change theta.
[This gif](_URL_4_) should help with the intuition a little bit, here's what's going on: if you watch as the circle (with radius 1) is traced out, really what you are seeing is a triangle with the ratio between sides varying as a function of the angle, the definition of the sine function. [Here](_URL_3_) is what you would see if you took a snapshot of the previous gif. As you let theta increase in the picture, if you reach 90 degrees (pointing straight up) you'll have hyp = 1 and opp = 1, so sin(90) = opp/hyp = 1, as expected. Similar reasoning will show that sine(180) = 0 (since opp = 0), and you can continue to move around the circle to find whatever sine value you are interested in. Understand - **asking for the sine of any number is just like asking "what is the ratio between the opposite and hypotenuse of a triangle with this angle?"**
Following so far? Here's where it gets interesting.
Sine, described above, gives you the ratios between the opposite side and the hypotenuse. If hyp = 1, then sin(theta) = opp/hyp = opp. In other words, it is just the vertical component of the diagonal vector. [Visually](_URL_0_), if we say that the hypotenuse of the triangle represents force (labeled F), taking the sine of the angle will give you the vertical component of the force vector (labeled Fy in the image). Now, since sine is defined as sine(theta) = opp/hyp, we can say: hyp*sine(theta) = opp. In other words, given a vector we can find the vertical component using sine.
But what if we wanted to find the horizontal component of the vector? Well, cosine is defined as cosine(theta) = adj/hyp. It shouldn't be hard to convince yourself, using a similar argument, that the cosine simply spits out the horizontal component of a vector.
EDIT: I messed this up, slight correction in the comments below. ~~Logically it follows that if you take the sine and cosine of the same angle and add them you will always get 1 - sine and cosine can be thought of as the "percentage" that the vertical and horizontal components respectively contribute to the vector of interest, 1 being 100%, which is why sin(90), a vertical line, is 1, while the cosine of the same angle is 0. This is why sin(45) = cos(45) = 1/2, both the vertical and horizontal components contribute equally to the vector pointing at a 45 degree angle.~~
As an aside, [if you plot the cosine and sine of an angle on the same graph](_URL_1_), you'll notice that the sine and cosine functions are related - specifically, cosine is just sine shifted over by 90 degrees, i.e. sin(theta + 90) = cos(theta). Interestingly, if you noted the "slope" at every point of the sine function and plotted it you would get the cosine function. This means, by definition, that the derivative of sine is cosine - I'll leave it at that to keep this in the context of ELI5, learn calculus for more detail.
Finally, we can get into an amazing theorem devised by my main man Fourier - essentially, using the fact that sin (and by extension, cos) are the most fundamental way of mathematically expressing periodic (repetitive) motion, Fourier proved that any periodic motion, no matter how complicated, can be expressed as the sum of simple sin and cosine functions (a Fourier series). This is the heart of modern signals processing used in engineering and technology.
|
[
"In the mathematical study of rotational symmetry, the zonal spherical harmonics are special spherical harmonics that are invariant under the rotation through a particular fixed axis. The zonal spherical functions are a broad extension of the notion of zonal spherical harmonics to allow for a more general symmetry group.\n",
"In the case of our square wave force, the first component is actually a constant force of 0.5 newton and is represented by a value at 0 Hz in the frequency spectrum. The next component is a 1 Hz sine wave with an amplitude of 0.64. This is shown by the line at 1 Hz. The remaining components are at odd frequencies and it takes an infinite amount of sine waves to generate the perfect square wave. Hence, the Fourier transform allows you to interpret the force as a sum of sinusoidal forces being applied instead of a more \"complex\" force (e.g. a square wave).\n",
"The rotational behavior of the spherical harmonics is perhaps their quintessential feature from the viewpoint of group theory. The formula_144's of degree formula_1 provide a basis set of functions for the irreducible representation of the group SO(3) of dimension formula_140. Many facts about spherical harmonics (such as the addition theorem) that are proved laboriously using the methods of analysis acquire simpler proofs and deeper significance using the methods of symmetry.\n",
"In special functions, a topic in mathematics, spin-weighted spherical harmonics are generalizations of the standard spherical harmonics and—like the usual spherical harmonics—are functions on the sphere. Unlike ordinary spherical harmonics, the spin-weighted harmonics are gauge fields rather than scalar fields: mathematically, they take values in a complex line bundle. The spin-weighted harmonics are organized by degree , just like ordinary spherical harmonics, but have an additional spin weight that reflects the additional symmetry. A special basis of harmonics can be derived from the Laplace spherical harmonics , and are typically denoted by , where and are the usual parameters familiar from the standard Laplace spherical harmonics. In this special basis, the spin-weighted spherical harmonics appear as actual functions, because the choice of a polar axis fixes the gauge ambiguity. The spin-weighted spherical harmonics can be obtained from the standard spherical harmonics by application of spin raising and lowering operators. In particular, the spin-weighted spherical harmonics of spin weight are simply the standard spherical harmonics:\n",
"Spherical harmonics are functions of the polar and azimuthal angles, \"ϕ\" and \"θ\" respectively, which can be conveniently collected into a unit vector n(\"θ\", \"ϕ\") pointing in the direction of those angles, in the Cartesian basis it is:\n",
"The spherical harmonics occur in physics and engineering as the solution to Laplace's equation, as well as the eigenfunctions of the z-component angular momentum operator, which are complex-valued functions of real-valued spherical polar angles:\n",
"Spherical harmonics were first investigated in connection with the Newtonian potential of Newton's law of universal gravitation in three dimensions. In 1782, Pierre-Simon de Laplace had, in his \"Mécanique Céleste\", determined that the gravitational potential at a point x associated with a set of point masses \"m\" located at points x was given by\n"
] |
Why doesn't the US-Canada border follow the St. Lawrence River all the way to the Atlantic?
|
A very brief answer can come from looking at patterns of European colonialism. The Mississippi river, the St. Lawrence, the Columbia, the Fraser, all these are rivers that when they reach the ocean they come out in the middle of a political unit rather than as a boundary. This is largely because while rivers can represent borders, they more commonly represent the center of a drainage system, whose inhabitants move back and forth, and colonial powers tend to compete for control of the mouth of these systems, and to develop settlement around them.
In the case of the St. Lawrence, this meant that France brought settlers to the river, who settled it on both sides up the river, forming a political unit, and while later an international border was created along a portion of the river, it was largely undeveloped land further upstream than these communities that was able to be divided in such a way. This portion of the boundary was determined in 1783 at the treaty of Paris.
|
[
"Development of the St. Lawrence River which serves as a border between Canada and the United States was in its early stages in 1871 when the Treaty of Washington was signed, which in part demarcated the St. Lawrence River as a boundary and offered Americans greater use of the Canadian side of the river for shipping. In 1895 the Deep Waterways Commission was established to explore expanded use of the river for navigation. International shipping on the river would have a positive impact on trade between the two countries. The early St. Lawrence Seaway was proposed but railway companies in the United States stopped its construction because they felt it would reduce their profits. The Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 further solidified cooperation between the U.S. and Canada on the river, allowing \"free and open\" navigation and establishing the International Joint Commission (IJC) to resolve disputes. In 1931, New York's Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Power Authority Act which allowed the development of the St. Lawrence River for power use. A primary site was just below the Long Sault Rapids. Despite the cooperation, the U.S. Federal Government was unable to open up the river for increased navigation and development due to political issues. Upset with this, Canada unilaterally passed two acts in 1951 which allowed projects on the St. Lawrence for power and navigation purposes. They pressured the U.S. to act and in 1952, President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved a hydroelectric dam on the river. The next year a proposal for a hydroelectric dam and navigation lock was submitted to the IJC for approval. In October 1952 the project was approved.\n",
"The 1795 Jay Treaty officially set the borders between British North America and the United States north to the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. On 1 February 1796, the capital of Upper Canada was moved from Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) to York (now Toronto), which was judged to be less vulnerable to attack by the US.\n",
"The United States shared a long border with British North America (present-day Canada) in 1814. During the war, the Americans launched several invasions into Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). One section of the border where this was easiest (because of communications and locally available supplies) was along the Niagara River. Fort Erie was the British post at the head of the river, near its source in Lake Erie.\n",
"After the American Revolution, the Treaty of Paris established the border between New York and British North America. The 45th Parallel became the border with Quebec or Lower Canada. The St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, the Niagara River and Lake Erie became the border with Upper Canada. Great Britain continued to occupy military installations along the American shores of the Great Lakes until 1794, including Fort Niagara at the mouth of the Niagara River and Fort Ontario at the mouth of the Oswego River.\n",
"The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports at Montreal (the province's largest city), Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City (the capital). Its access to the Atlantic Ocean and the interior of North America made it the base of early French exploration and settlement in the 17th and 18th centuries. Since 1959, the Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. Northeast of Quebec City, the river broadens into the world's largest estuary, the feeding site of numerous species of whales, fish, and seabirds. The river empties into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. This marine environment sustains fisheries and smaller ports in the Lower Saint Lawrence (\"Bas-Saint-Laurent\"), Lower North Shore (\"Côte-Nord\"), and Gaspé (\"Gaspésie\") regions of the province. The Saint Lawrence River with its estuary forms the basis of Quebec's development through the centuries. Other notable rivers include the Ashuapmushuan, Chaudière, Gatineau, Manicouagan, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rupert, Saguenay, Saint-François, and Saint-Maurice.\n",
"The Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers do not actually converge in Ontario. A small portion of Quebec, Vaudreuil-Soulanges, lies between the Ontario-Quebec border and the river junction. The region has a land border with Ontario, but it is necessary to cross water to reach any other part of Quebec.\n",
"Today, the international border is firmly established and peaceful; there is a greater sense of Canadian nationality, and fears of U.S. Manifest Destiny have all but disappeared. Canada and the U.S. have formalized their trading partnership with the North American Free Trade Agreement, leading to increased trade between the two nations. This trade now coursing up and down the valleys of the Red and Mississippi rivers more than fulfils Lord Selkirk's predictions made nearly two centuries ago; while he first sought access over U.S. territory for the succour of his nascent colony, now commerce in manufactures and commodities goes in both directions. The trade corridor once occupied by the long-gone Red River Trails continues to be employed for its historic purposes.\n"
] |
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