adriencleme/openstax_split · Datasets at Hugging Face

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Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural sciences.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary
Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic science is to expand knowledge without any expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The primary goal of applied research, however, is to solve practical problems.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary
Two types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is the use of the scientific method, a step-based process that consists of making observations, defining a problem, posing hypotheses, testing these hypotheses, and drawing one or more conclusions. The testing uses proper controls. Scientists present their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals. A scientific research paper consists of several well-defined sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and, finally, a concluding discussion. Review papers summarize the research done in a particular field over a period of time.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary
Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. Living things are highly organized parts of a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The great diversity of life today evolved from less-diverse ancestral organisms over billions of years. A diagram called a phylogenetic tree can be used to show evolutionary relationships among organisms.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary
Biology is very broad and includes many branches and subdisciplines. Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary
abstract : opening section of a scientific paper that summarizes the research and conclusions	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
applied science : form of science that aims to solve real-world problems	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
atom : smallest and most fundamental unit of matter	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
basic science : science that seeks to expand knowledge and understanding regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
biochemistry : study of the chemistry of biological organisms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
biology : the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
biosphere : collection of all the ecosystems on Earth	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
botany : study of plants	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
cell : smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living things	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
community : set of populations inhabiting a particular area	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
conclusion : section of a scientific paper that summarizes the importance of the experimental findings	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
control : part of an experiment that does not change during the experiment	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
deductive reasoning : form of logical thinking that uses a general inclusive statement to forecast specific results	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
descriptive science : (also, discovery science) form of science that aims to observe, explore, and investigate	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
discussion : section of a scientific paper in which the author interprets experimental results, describes how variables may be related, and attempts to explain the phenomenon in question	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
ecosystem : all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that environment	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
eukaryote : organism with cells that have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
evolution : process of gradual change during which new species arise from older species and some species become extinct	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
falsifiable : able to be disproven by experimental results	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
homeostasis : ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
hypothesis : suggested explanation for an observation, which can be tested	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
hypothesis-based science : form of science that begins with a specific question and potential testable answers	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
inductive reasoning : form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
introduction : opening section of a scientific paper, which provides background information about what was known in the field prior to the research reported in the paper	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
life science : field of science, such as biology, that studies living things	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
macromolecule : large molecule, typically formed by the joining of smaller molecules	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
materials and methods : section of a scientific paper that includes a complete description of the substances, methods, and techniques used by the researchers to gather data	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
microbiology : study of the structure and function of microorganisms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
molecular biology : study of biological processes and their regulation at the molecular level, including interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
molecule : chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
natural science : field of science that is related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
neurobiology : study of the biology of the nervous system	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
organ : collection of related tissues grouped together performing a common function	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
organ system : level of organization that consists of functionally related interacting organs	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
organelle : small structures that exist within cells and carry out cellular functions	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
organism : individual living entity	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
paleontology : study of lifeâs history by means of fossils	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
peer-reviewed manuscript : scientific paper that is reviewed by a scientistâs colleagues who are experts in the field of study	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
phylogenetic tree : diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both; in essence, a hypothesis concerning evolutionary connections	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
physical science : field of science, such as geology, astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies nonliving matter	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
plagiarism : using other peopleâs work or ideas without proper citation, creating the false impression that those are the authorâs original ideas	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
population : all of the individuals of a species living within a specific area	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
prokaryote : single-celled organism that lacks organelles and does not have nuclei surrounded by a nuclear membrane	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
results : section of a scientific paper in which the author narrates the experimental findings and presents relevant figures, pictures, diagrams, graphs, and tables, without any further interpretation	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
review article : paper that summarizes and comments on findings that were published as primary literature	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
science : knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
scientific method : method of research with defined steps that include observation, formulation of a hypothesis, testing, and confirming or falsifying the hypothesis	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
serendipity : fortunate accident or a lucky surprise	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
theory : tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
tissue : group of similar cells carrying out related functions	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
variable : part of an experiment that the experimenter can vary or change	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
zoology : study of animals	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-key-terms
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of elements. All of the 92 elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways to create molecules, which in turn combine to form cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms. Atoms, which consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest units of an element that retain all of the properties of that element. Electrons can be transferred, shared, or cause charge disparities between atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds, as well as van der Waals interactions.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-chapter-summary
Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life. It is a polar molecule, allowing for the formation of hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds allow ions and other polar molecules to dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an excellent solvent. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause the water to have a high heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot of added heat to raise its temperature. As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water continually break and form anew. This allows for the overall temperature to remain stable, although energy is added to the system. Water also exhibits a high heat of vaporization, which is key to how organisms cool themselves by the evaporation of sweat. Waterâs cohesive forces allow for the property of surface tension, whereas its adhesive properties are seen as water rises inside capillary tubes. The pH value is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and is one of many chemical characteristics that is highly regulated in living organisms through homeostasis. Acids and bases can change pH values, but buffers tend to moderate the changes they cause. These properties of water are intimately connected to the biochemical and physical processes performed by living organisms, and life would be very different if these properties were altered, if it could exist at all.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-chapter-summary
The unique properties of carbon make it a central part of biological molecules. Carbon binds to oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen covalently to form the many molecules important for cellular function. Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and can form four bonds. Carbon and hydrogen can form hydrocarbon chains or rings. Functional groups are groups of atoms that confer specific properties to hydrocarbon (or substituted hydrocarbon) chains or rings that define their overall chemical characteristics and function.	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-chapter-summary
acid : molecule that donates hydrogen ions and increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
adhesion : attraction between water molecules and other molecules	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
aliphatic hydrocarbon : hydrocarbon consisting of a linear chain of carbon atoms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
anion : negative ion that is formed by an atom gaining one or more electrons	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
aromatic hydrocarbon : hydrocarbon consisting of closed rings of carbon atoms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
atom : the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
atomic mass : calculated mean of the mass number for an elementâs isotopes	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
atomic number : total number of protons in an atom	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
balanced chemical equation : statement of a chemical reaction with the number of each type of atom equalized for both the products and reactants	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
base : molecule that donates hydroxide ions or otherwise binds excess hydrogen ions and decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
buffer : substance that prevents a change in pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen or hydroxide ions	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
calorie : amount of heat required to change the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
capillary action : occurs because water molecules are attracted to charges on the inner surfaces of narrow tubular structures such as glass tubes, drawing the water molecules to the sides of the tubes	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
cation : positive ion that is formed by an atom losing one or more electrons	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
chemical bond : interaction between two or more of the same or different atoms that results in the formation of molecules	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
chemical reaction : process leading to the rearrangement of atoms in molecules	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
chemical reactivity : the ability to combine and to chemically bond with each other	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
cohesion : intermolecular forces between water molecules caused by the polar nature of water; responsible for surface tension	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
compound : substance composed of molecules consisting of atoms of at least two different elements	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
covalent bond : type of strong bond formed between two of the same or different elements; forms when electrons are shared between atoms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
dissociation : release of an ion from a molecule such that the original molecule now consists of an ion and the charged remains of the original, such as when water dissociates into H+and OH-	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electrolyte : ion necessary for nerve impulse conduction, muscle contractions and water balance	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electron : negatively charged subatomic particle that resides outside of the nucleus in the electron orbital; lacks functional mass and has a negative charge of â1 unit	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electron configuration : arrangement of electrons in an atomâs electron shell (for example, 1s22s22p6)	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electron orbital : how electrons are spatially distributed surrounding the nucleus; the area where an electron is most likely to be found	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electron transfer : movement of electrons from one element to another; important in creation of ionic bonds	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
electronegativity : ability of some elements to attract electrons (often of hydrogen atoms), acquiring partial negative charges in molecules and creating partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
element : one of 118 unique substances that cannot be broken down into smaller substances; each element has unique properties and a specified number of protons	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
enantiomers : molecules that share overall structure and bonding patterns, but differ in how the atoms are three dimensionally placed such that they are mirror images of each other	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
equilibrium : steady state of relative reactant and product concentration in reversible chemical reactions in a closed system	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
evaporation : separation of individual molecules from the surface of a body of water, leaves of a plant, or the skin of an organism	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
functional group : group of atoms that provides or imparts a specific function to a carbon skeleton	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
geometric isomer : isomer with similar bonding patterns differing in the placement of atoms alongside a double covalent bond	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
heat of vaporization of water : high amount of energy required for liquid water to turn into water vapor	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
hydrocarbon : molecule that consists only of carbon and hydrogen	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
hydrogen bond : weak bond between slightly positively charged hydrogen atoms to slightly negatively charged atoms in other molecules	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
hydrophilic : describes ions or polar molecules that interact well with other polar molecules such as water	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
hydrophobic : describes uncharged non-polar molecules that do not interact well with polar molecules such as water	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
inert gas : (also, noble gas) element with filled outer electron shell that is unreactive with other atoms	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms
ion : atom or chemical group that does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons	https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/2-key-terms

Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural sciences.

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary

Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic science is to expand knowledge without any expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The primary goal of applied research, however, is to solve practical problems.

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary

Two types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is the use of the scientific method, a step-based process that consists of making observations, defining a problem, posing hypotheses, testing these hypotheses, and drawing one or more conclusions. The testing uses proper controls. Scientists present their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals. A scientific research paper consists of several well-defined sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and, finally, a concluding discussion. Review papers summarize the research done in a particular field over a period of time.

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary

Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. Living things are highly organized parts of a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The great diversity of life today evolved from less-diverse ancestral organisms over billions of years. A diagram called a phylogenetic tree can be used to show evolutionary relationships among organisms.

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary

Biology is very broad and includes many branches and subdisciplines. Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others.

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-chapter-summary

abstract : opening section of a scientific paper that summarizes the research and conclusions