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von George J Bruce und David J Eyres
677 Seiten7 Stunden
Ship Construction, Seventh Edition, offers guidance for ship design and shipbuilding from start to finish. It provides an overview of current shipyard techniques, safety in shipyard practice, materials and strengths, welding and cutting, and ship structure, along with computer-aided design and manufacture, international regulations for ship types, new materials, and fabrication technologies. Comprised of seven sections divided into 32 chapters, the book introduces the reader to shipbuilding, including the basic design of a ship, ship dimensions and category, and development of ship types. It then turns to a discussion of rules and regulations governing ship strength and structural integrity, testing of materials used in ship construction, and welding practices and weld testing. Developments in the layout of a shipyard are also considered, along with development of the initial structural and arrangement design into information usable by production; the processes involved in the preparation and machining of a plate or section; and how a ship structure is assembled. A number of websites containing further information, drawings, and photographs, as well as regulations that apply to ships and their construction, are listed at the end of most chapters. This text is an invaluable resource for students of marine sciences and technology, practicing marine engineers and naval architects, and professionals from other disciplines ranging from law to insurance, accounting, and logistics. Covers the complete ship construction process including the development of ship types, materials and strengths, welding and cutting and ship structure, with numerous clear line diagrams included for ease of understanding Includes the latest developments in technology and shipyard methods, including a new chapter on computer-aided design and manufacture Essential for students and professionals, particularly those working in shipyards, supervising ship construction, conversion and maintenance
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Herausgeber: Elsevier ScienceFreigabe: May 22, 2012ISBN: 9780080972404Formatierung: book
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Ship Construction - George J Bruce
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB
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Third edition 1988
Fourth edition 1994
Fifth edition 2001
Sixth edition 2007
Seventh Edition 2012
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Library of Congress Number: 2012936092
For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com
Printed and bound in the United States
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This text is designed as an introductory text for students of marine sciences and technology, including those following BTEC National and Higher National programs in preparation for careers at sea and in marine related industries. The subject matter is presented in sufficient depth to be of help to more advanced students on undergraduate programs in Marine Technology and Naval Architecture, as well as those preparing for the Extra Master examination. Students converting from other disciplines for higher degrees will also find the information useful. Other students following professional courses in shipbuilding will also find the book useful as background reading.
Many professionals from other disciplines, including law, insurance, accounting, and logistics joining the businesses will find the basic technical information on ship construction of value.
Considerable changes have occurred in ship design and shipbuilding practice with the introduction of new technology, and this book attempts to present current shipyard techniques without neglecting basic principles. Shipbuilding covers a wide field of crafts and, with new developments occurring regularly, it would be difficult to cover every aspect fully within the scope of a single textbook. For this reason further reading lists are given at the end of most chapters, these being selected from books, transactions, and periodicals that are likely to be found in the libraries of universities and other technical institutions.
In this edition the authors have also added a listing of some useful websites at the end of most chapters relating to the subject matter of the chapter. Those listed contain further information, drawings, and photographs that complement the text and/or add further knowledge to the subject. Some of the websites that are referenced also deal with regulations that apply to ships and their construction. The rapid development of available information makes it impossible to provide a completely up-to-date set of websites. Therefore, there is space for students to add further websites recommended by their tutors or that they may have found informative. However, it is important to consider the sources of information on any new sites to confirm their currency and validity.
The authors are grateful to the following firms and organizations who were kind enough to provide information and drawings from which material for the book was extracted:
Appledore Shipbuilders Ltd
Blohm and Voss, A.G.
British Oxygen Co. Ltd
E.I. Du Pont De Nemours & Co. Ltd
ESAB AB
Irish Shipping Ltd
MacGregor-Navire International A.B.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd
Ocean Steamship Co. Ltd
Shell Tankers (UK) Ltd
Shipping Research Services A/S
Hugh Smith (Glasgow) Ltd
Stone Manganese Marine Ltd
Wavemaster International
Lloyd's Register of Shipping also gave permission to refer to various requirements of their 'Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Ships'.
D.J.E. and G.J.B.
Part 1 Introduction to Shipbuilding
1. Basic design of the ship
Preparation of the design
Information provided by design
Purchase of a new vessel
Ship contracts
Some useful websites
2. Ship dimensions, form, size, or category
Container ships
IMO oil tanker categories
Panama canal limits
Suez canal limits
3. Development of ship types
Dry cargo ships
Part 2 Materials and Strength of Ships
4. Classification societies
Lloyd's register
Classification of ships operating in ice
Structural design programs
Periodical surveys
Hull planned maintenance scheme
Damage repairs
5. Steels
Manufacture of steels
Heat treatment of steels
Steel sections
Shipbuilding steels
High tensile steels
Corrosion-resistant steels
Steel sandwich panels
Steel castings
Steel forgings
6. Other shipbuilding materials
Production of aluminum
Aluminum alloy sandwich panels
Fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs)
7. Testing of materials
Classification society tests for hull materials
8. Stresses to which a ship is subject
Vertical shear and longitudinal bending in still water
Bending moments in a seaway
Longitudinal shear forces
Bending stresses
Transverse stresses
Local stresses
Brittle fracture
Fatigue failures
Monitoring ship stresses at sea
Part 3 Welding and Cutting
9. Welding and cutting processes used in shipbuilding
Gas welding
Electric arc welding
Other welding processes
Cutting processes
10. Welding practice and testing welds
Welding practice
Welding distortion
Welding sequences
Testing welds
Classification society weld tests
Part 4 Shipyard Practice
11. Shipyard layout
12. Design information for production
Ship drawing office
Loftwork following drawing office
Computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
13. Plate and section preparation and machining
Plate and section preparation
Plate and section part preparation
Frame bending
14. Assembly of ship structure
Unit assembly
Outfit modules
Unit erection
Joining ship sections afloat
15. Launching
End launches
Side launches
Building docks
Ship lifts
Marine railways
Part 5 Ship Structure
Basic structural arrangements
16. Bottom structure
Single-bottom structure
Double-bottom structure
Machinery seats
17. Shell plating and framing
Tank side brackets
Local strengthening of shell plating
Bilge keel
18. Bulkheads and pillars
Watertight doors
Deep tanks
Shaft tunnel
19. Decks, hatches, and superstructures
Bulwarks
Superstructures and deckhouses
20. Fore end structure
Bulbous bows
Chain locker
Hawse pipes
Bow steering arrangements
Bow thrust units
21. Aft end structure
Stern construction
Stern frame
Sterntube
Shaft bossing and 'A' brackets
Electric podded propulsors
22. Tanker construction
Materials for tanker construction
Construction in tank spaces
Hatchways
Testing tanks
Fore end structure
After end structure
Superstructures
Floating production, storage, and offloading vessels
23. Liquefied gas carriers
The IMO international gas carrier code
Liquefied petroleum gas ships
Liquefied natural gas ships
General arrangement of gas carriers
Lloyd's classification
Part 6 Outfit
24. Cargo lifting arrangements
Shipboard cranes
Masts and Sampson posts
Derrick rigs
25. Cargo access, handling, and restraint
Stern and bow doors
Side doors and loaders
Portable decks
Scissors lift
Cargo restraint
26. Pumping and piping arrangements
Bilge and ballast pumping and piping
General service pipes and pumping
Air and sounding pipes
Sea inlets
Cargo pumping and piping arrangements in tankers
27. Corrosion control and antifouling systems
Nature and forms of corrosion
Painting ships
28. Heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, refrigeration, and insulation
Refrigerated container ships
Part 7 International Regulations
29. International Maritime Organization
Organization of the IMO
Work of the IMO
Relationship with national authorities
Relationship with classification societies
30. Tonnage
International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships 1969
Tonnages
Compensated gross tonnage (CGT)
31. Load Line Rules
Freeboard computation
Conditions of assignment of freeboard
32. Structural fire protection
'A', 'B', and 'C' class divisions
Openings in fire protection divisions
Protection of special category spaces
Fire protection arrangements in high-speed craft
1 Basic design of the ship
2 Ship dimensions, form, size, or category
3 Development of ship types
Introduction to Shipbuilding
Basic design of the ship
The key requirement of a new ship is that it can trade profitably, so economics is of prime importance in designing a merchant ship. An owner requires a ship that will give the best possible returns for the owner's initial investment and running costs. The final design should be arrived at taking into account not only present economic considerations, but also those likely to develop within the life of the ship. This is especially the case for some trades, for example LNG, where the ship is expected to work the same route for its working life. Design for operation is the result. For other ships, including bulk carriers, the first cost of the ship is the major factor for the owner and the ship may be designed for ease of production. Resale value is also often a major consideration, leading to design for maintenance.
With the aid of computers it is possible to make a study of a large number of varying design parameters and to arrive at a ship design that is not only technically feasible but, more importantly, is the most economically efficient. Ideally the design will take into consideration first cost, operating cost, and future maintenance.
The initial design of a ship generally proceeds through three stages: concept; preliminary; and contract design. The process of initial design is often illustrated by the design spiral (Figure 1.1), which indicates that given the objectives of the design, the designer works towards the best solution adjusting and balancing the interrelated parameters as the designer goes.
Figure 1.1 Design spiral.
A concept design should, from the objectives, provide sufficient information for a basic techno-economic assessment of the alternatives to be made. Economic criteria that may be derived for commercial ship designs and used to measure their profitability are net present value, discounted cash flow, or required freight rate. Preliminary design refines and analyzes the agreed concept design, fills out the arrangements and structure, and aims to optimize service performance. At this stage the builder should have sufficient information to tender. Contract design details the final arrangements and systems agreed with the owner and satisfies the building contract conditions.
The design of the ship is not complete at this stage, rather for the major effort in resources it has only just started. Post-contract design requires confirmation that the ship will meet all operational requirements, including safety requirements from regulators. It also entails in particular design for production where the structure, outfit, and systems are planned in detail to achieve a cost- and time-effective building cycle. Production of the ship must also be given consideration in the earlier design stages, particularly where it places constraints on the design or can affect costs. The post-contract design will also ideally consider the future maintainability of the ship in the arrangement of equipment and services.
When the preliminary design has been selected the following information is available:
• Dimensions
• Displacement
• Stability
• Propulsive characteristics and hull form
• Preliminary general arrangement
• Principal structural details.
Each item of information may be considered in more detail, together with any restraints placed on these items by the ship's service or other factors outside the designer's control.
1. The dimensions of most ships are primarily influenced by the cargo-carrying capacity of the vessel. In the case of the passenger vessel, dimensions are influenced by the height and length of superstructure containing the accommodation. Length, where not specified as a maximum, should be a minimum consistent with the required speed and hull form. Increase of length produces higher longitudinal bending stresses requiring additional strengthening and a greater displacement for the same cargo weight. Breadth may be such as to provide adequate transverse stability. A minimum depth is controlled by the draft plus statutory freeboard, but an increase in depth will result in a reduction of the longitudinal bending stresses, providing an increase in strength, or allowing a reduction in scantlings (i.e. plate thickness/size of stiffening members etc.). Increased depth is therefore preferred to increased length. Draft is often limited by area of operation, but if it can be increased to give a greater depth this can be an advantage.
Many vessels are required to make passages through various canals and straits and pass under bridges within enclosed waters, and this will place a limitation on their dimensions. For example, locks in the Panama Canal and St Lawrence Seaway limit length, breadth, and draft. At the time of writing, the Malacca Straits main shipping channel is about 25 meters deep and the Suez Canal could accommodate ships with a beam of up to 75 meters and maximum draft of 16 metres. A maximum air draft on container ships of around 40 meters is very close to clear the heights of the Gerard Desmond Bridge, Long Beach, California and Bayonne Bridge, New York. Newer bridges over the Suez Canal at 65 meters and over the Bosporus at 62 meters provide greater clearance.
2. Displacement is made up of lightweight plus deadweight. The lightweight is the weight of vessel as built and ready for sea. Deadweight is the difference between the lightweight and loaded displacement, i.e. it is the weight of cargo plus weights of fuel, stores, water ballast, fresh water, crew and passengers, and baggage. When carrying high-density cargoes (e.g. ore) it is desirable to keep the lightweight as small as possible, consistent with adequate strength. Since only cargo weight of the total deadweight is earning capital, other items should be kept to a minimum as long as the vessel fulfills its commitments.
3. In determining the dimensions, statical stability is kept in mind in order to ensure that this is sufficient in all possible conditions of loading. Beam and depth are the main influences. Statutory freeboard and sheer are important together with the weight distribution in arranging the vessel's layout.
4. Adequate propulsive performance will ensure that the vessel attains the required speeds. The hull form is such that economically it offers a minimum resistance to motion so that a minimum power with economically lightest machinery is installed without losing the specified cargo capacity.
A service speed is the average speed at sea with normal service power and loading under average weather conditions. A trial speed is the average speed obtained using the maximum power over a measured course in calm weather with a clean hull and specified load condition. This speed may be a knot or so more than the service speed.
Unless a hull form similar to that of a known performance vessel is used, a computer-generated hull form and its predicted propulsive performance can be determined. The propulsive performance can be confirmed by subsequent tank testing of a model hull, which may suggest further beneficial modifications.
The owner may specify the type and make of main propulsion machinery installation with which their operating personnel are familiar.
5. The general arrangement is prepared in cooperation with the owner, allowing for standards of accommodation particular to that company, also specific cargo and stowage requirements. Efficient working of the vessel must be kept in mind throughout and compliance with the regulations of the various authorities involved on trade routes must also be taken into account. Some consultation with shipboard employees' representative organizations may also be necessary in the final accommodation arrangements.
6. Almost all vessels will be built to the requirements of a classification society such as Lloyd's Register. The standard of classification specified will determine the structural scantlings and these will be taken out by the shipbuilder. The determination of the minimum hull structural scantlings can be carried out by means of computer programs made available to the shipyard by the classification society. Owners may specify thicknesses and material requirements in excess of those required by the classification societies and special structural features peculiar to the trade or owner's fleet may be asked for.
In recent years the practice of owners commissioning 'one-off' designs for cargo ships from consultant naval architects, shipyards, or their own technical staff has increasingly given way to the selection of an appropriate 'stock design' to suit their particular needs. To determine which stock design, the shipowner must undertake a detailed project analysis involving consideration of the proposed market, route, port facilities, competition, political and labor factors, and cash flow projections. Also taken into account will be the choice of shipbuilder, where relevant factors such as the provision of government subsidies or grants or supplier credit can be important as well as the price, date of delivery, and the yard's reputation. Most stock designs offer some features that can be modified, such as outfit, cargo handling equipment, or alternate manufacture of main engine, for which the owner will have to pay extra.
Purchase of a passenger vessel will still follow earlier procedures for a 'one-off' design, but there are shipyards concentrating on this type of construction and the owner may be drawn to them for this reason. A nonstandard cargo ship of any form and a number of specialist ships will also require a 'one-off' design. Having decided on the basic ship requirements, based on the intended trade, after an appropriate project analysis the larger shipowners may employ their own technical staff to prepare the tender specification and submit this to shipbuilders who wish to tender for the building of the ship. The final building specification and design is prepared by the successful tendering shipbuilder in cooperation with the owner's technical staff. The latter may oversee construction of the vessel and approve the builder's drawings and calculations. Other shipowners may retain a firm of consultants or approach a firm who may assist with preliminary design studies and will prepare the tender specifications and in some cases call tenders on behalf of the owner. Often the consultants will also assist the owners in evaluating the tenders and oversee the construction on their behalf.
The successful tendering shipbuilder will prepare a building specification for approval by the owner or the owner's representative that will form an integral part of the contract between the two parties and thus have legal status. This technical specification will normally include the following information:
• Brief description and essential qualities and characteristics of the ship
• Principal dimensions
• Deadweight, cargo and tank capacities, etc.
• Speed and power requirements
• Stability requirements
• Quality and standard of workmanship
• Survey and certificates
• Accommodation details
• Trial conditions
• Equipment and fittings
• Machinery details, including the electrical installation, will normally be produced as a separate section of the specification.
Most shipbuilding contracts are based on one of a number of standard forms of contract that have been established to obtain some uniformity in the contract relationship between builders and purchasers. There are a number of 'standard' contract forms, all very similar in structure and content. Four of the most common standard forms of contract have been established by:
1. CESA—Community of European Shipyards Associations
2. MARAD Maritime Administration, USA
3. SAJ—Shipbuilders Association of Japan
4. Norwegian Shipbuilding Contract—Norwegian Shipbuilders Association and Norwegian Shipowners Association.
The CESA standard form of contract was developed by the predecessor organization, the Association of Western European Shipyards (AWES).The contract form can be downloaded from the CESA website. The sections of the contract are:
1. Subject of contract (vessel details, etc.)
2. Inspection and approval
4. Trials
5. Guarantee (speed, capacity, fuel consumption)
6. Delivery of vessel
8. Property (rights to specifications, plans, etc. and to vessel during construction and on delivery)
10. Default by the purchaser
11. Default by the contractor
12. Guarantee (after delivery)
13. Contract expenses
14. Patents
15. Interpretation, reference to expert and arbitration
16. Condition for the contract to become effective
17. Legal domicile (of purchaser and contractor)
18. Assignment (transfer of rights)
20. Addresses for correspondence.
Irrespective of the source of the owner's funds for purchasing the ship, payment to the shipbuilder is usually made as progress payments that are stipulated in the contract under item 7 above. A typical payment schedule may have been five equal payments spread over the contract period, but in recent years payment arrangements advantageous to the purchaser and intended to attract buyers to the shipyard have delayed a higher percentage of payment until delivery of the ship. The payment schedule may be as follows:
• 10% on signing contract
• 10% on arrival of materials on site
• 10% on keel laying
• 20% on launching
• 50% on delivery.
Because many cargo ships are of a standard design, and built in series, and modification can be very disruptive to the shipyard building program, item 3 in the standard form of contract where modifications are called for at a late date by the owner can have a dramatic effect on costs and delivery date given the detail now introduced at an early stage of the fabrication process. Many shipyards will refuse to accept modifications once a design is agreed and detailed work and purchasing commences. Item 3 also covers the costs and delays of compulsory modifications resulting from amendment of laws, rules, and regulations of the flag state and classification society.
Rawson, Tupper. Basic Ship Theory. ed 5, vol 2 Butterworth Heinemann 2001; Chapter 15: Ship design.
Watson DGM. Practical Ship Design. Elsevier 2002.
www.cesa.eu Community of European Shipyards Associations.
www.sajn.or.jp/e Shipbuilders Association of Japan; provides links to member shipyard sites.
Ship dimensions, form, size, or category
The hull form of a ship may be defined by a number of dimensions and terms that are often referred to during and after building the vessel. An explanation of the principal terms is given below:
After Perpendicular (AP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the point where the after side of the rudder post meets the summer load line. Where no rudder post is fitted it is taken as the center line of the rudder stock.
Forward Perpendicular (FP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the point where the fore-side of the stem meets the summer load line.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP): The length between the forward and aft perpendiculars measured along the summer load line.
Amidships: A point midway between the after and forward perpendiculars.
Length Overall (LOA): Length of vessel taken over all extremities.
Lloyd's Length: Used for obtaining scantlings if the vessel is classed with Lloyd's Register. It is the same as length between perpendiculars except that it must not be less than 96% and need not be more than 97% of the extreme length on the summer load line. If the ship has an unusual stem or stern arrangement the length is given special consideration.
Register Length: The length of ship measured from the fore-side of the head of the stem to the aft side of the head of the stern post or, in the case of a ship not having a stern post, to the fore-side of the rudder stock. If the ship does not have a stern post or a rudder stock, the after terminal is taken to the aftermost part of the transom or stern of the ship. This length is the official length in the register of ships maintained by the flag state and appears on official documents relating to ownership and other matters concerning the business of the ship. Another important length measurement is what might be referred to as the IMO Length. This length is found in various international conventions such as the Load Line, Tonnage, SOLAS and MARPOL conventions, and determines the application of requirements of those conventions to a ship. It is defined as 96% of the total length on a waterline at 85% of the least molded depth measured from the top of keel, or the length from the fore-side of stem to the axis of rudder stock on that waterline, if that is greater. In ships designed with a rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured is taken parallel to the design waterline.
Molded dimensions are often referred to; these are taken to the inside of plating on a metal ship.
Base Line: A horizontal line drawn at the top of the keel plate. All vertical molded dimensions are measured relative to this line.
Molded Beam: Measured at the midship section, this is the maximum molded breadth of the ship.
Molded Draft: Measured from the base line to the summer load line at the midship section.
Molded Depth: Measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deck beam at the ship's side amidships.
Extreme Beam: The maximum beam taken over all extremities.
Extreme Draft: Taken from the lowest point of keel to the summer load line. Draft marks represent extreme drafts.
Extreme Depth: Depth of vessel at ship's side from upper deck to lowest point of keel.
Half Breadth: Since a ship's hull is symmetrical about the longitudinal centre line, often only the half beam or half breadth at any section is given.
Freeboard: The vertical distance measured at the ship's side between the summer load line (or service draft) and the freeboard deck. The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea that has permanent means of closing all openings, and below which all openings in the ship's side have watertight closings.
Sheer: A rise in the height of the deck (curvature or in a straight line) in the longitudinal direction. Measured as the height of deck at side at any point above the height of deck at side amidships.
Camber (or Round of Beam): Curvature of decks in the transverse direction. Measured as the height of deck at center above the height of deck at side. Straight line camber is used on many large ships to simplify construction.
Rise of Floor (or Deadrise): The rise of the bottom shell plating line above the base line. This rise is measured at the line of molded beam. Large cargo ships often have no rise of floor.
Half Siding of Keel: The horizontal flat portion of the bottom shell measured to port or starboard of the ship's longitudinal center line. This is a useful dimension to know when dry-docking.
Tumblehome: The inward curvature of the side shell above the summer load line. This is unusual on modern ships.
Flare: The outward curvature of the side shell above the waterline. It promotes dryness and is therefore associated with the fore end of ship.
Stem Rake: Inclination of the stem line from the vertical.
Keel Rake: Inclination of the keel line from the horizontal. Trawlers and tugs often have keels raked aft to give greater depth aft where the propeller diameter is proportionately larger in this type of vessel. Small craft occasionally have forward rake of keel to bring propellers above the line of keel.
Tween Deck Height: Vertical distance between adjacent decks measured from the tops of deck beams at ship's side.
Parallel Middle Body: The length over which the midship section remains constant in area and shape.
Entrance: The immersed body of the vessel forward of the parallel middle body.
Run: The immersed body of the vessel aft of the parallel middle body.
Tonnage: This is often referred to when the size of the vessel is discussed, and the gross tonnage is quoted from Lloyd's Register. Tonnage is a measure of the enclosed internal volume of the vessel (originally computed as 100 cubic feet per ton). This is dealt with in detail in Chapter 30.
Deadweight: This is defined in Chapter 1. It should be noted that for tankers deadweight is often quoted in 'long tons' rather than 'metric tons (tonnes)'; however, MARPOL regulations for oil tankers are in metric tons.
The principal dimensions of the ship are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
TEU and FEU: Indicate the cargo-carrying capacity of container ships. TEU (twenty-foot equivalent unit) indicates the number of standard shipping containers that may be carried on some shipping routes; container ships may carry standard containers that are 40 feet in length. FEU is forty-foot equivalent unit.
An indication of the size by capacity of oil tankers, bulk carriers, and container ships is often given by the following
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