Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four "tīrthaṅkaras"; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or "kayotsarga", along with "Arihant", Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika. Quadruple images are also popular. "Tirthankar" idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented. A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, "Gommateshvara", built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by "The Times of India".
Statues and sculptures
Jainism
Jainism | Statues and sculptures
They usually depict one of the twenty-four “tīrthaṅkaras”. “Parshvanatha”, “Rishabhanatha" and “Mahāvīra" are more popular. They are often seated in lotus position along with protector deities like Ambika. "Gommateshvara" Gommateshvara, Statue of Ahimsa, among others, often made of Ashtadhatu meaning Eight Metals. A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, "Gommateshvara", Statue of Ahiṃsā, "Arihant", etc.
which of the following is not among the practices of jainism
user
Violence, attachment, sensual pleasures, lie and possessiveness are some of them.
assistant
and which are the practices?
user
Jains take five main vows: “ahiṃsā”, “satya”, “asteya”, “brahmacharya” and “aparigraha".
assistant
when did jainism begin?
user
Historians date it to 8th or 7th century BCE.
assistant
who is the leader?
user
Rishabhanatha
assistant
what are the beliefs?
user
It is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism, auto executed through the middle ground between the principles of parallelism and interactionism.
assistant
do jains fast?
user
They fast particularly during festivals and it is  practiced according to one's ability.
assistant
what food do they eat?
user
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to them to follow vegetarian diet.
assistant
and what are they not allowed to eat?
user
Eggs, root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic are some of the food avoided.
assistant
which symbols are used by them?
user
"Swastika", "Om" and "Ashtamangala".
assistant
which symbols are used by them?
user
"Swastika", "Om" and "Ashtamangala".
assistant
do they have any pilgrimages?
user
Yes, they do. "Nagarparkar" located at Pakistan  is one of them.
assistant
do they practice meditation?
user
Yes, they do.
assistant
what rituals do they follow?
user
The basic ritual followed is "darsana" of "deva", seeing of gods and goddesses..
assistant
which are their different sects?
user
It is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara.
assistant
which statues do they have?
user
Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four "tīrthaṅkaras"; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or "kayotsarga", along with "Arihant", Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika. Quadruple images are also popular. "Tirthankar" idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented. A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, "Gommateshvara", built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by "The Times of India".
Jainism | Statues and sculptures
These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the "kayotsarga" meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). Examples include the Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of statues, and a number of single figures including the 12th-century Gommateshwara statue, and the modern Statue of Vasupujya and, largest of all at 108 feet (32.9 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa. In recent times, the use of murti images has become controversial within Jainism, and some smaller sects reject them entirely, while others are selective in terms of which figures they allow images of.
Jain temple | Architecture
The Jain idols are males depicted in both sitting and standing postures. The "tīrthaṅkaras" are represented either Padmasana (seated in yoga posture) or standing in the "Kayotsarga" posture. "Parshvanatha" statues are usually depicted with a snake crown on head, Bahubali statues are usually depicted covered with creepers. However, there are a few differences in Digambara and Svetambara depiction of idols. Digambara images are naked without any beautification whereas Svetambara ones are clothed and decorated with temporary ornaments.
Jain sculpture | Iconography
Tirthanakar images do not have distinctive facial features, clothing or (mostly) hair-styles, and are differentiated on the basis of the symbol or emblem ("Lanchhana") belonging to each tirthanakar except Parshvanatha. Statues of Parshvanath have a snake crown on the head. The first Tirthankara Rishabha can be identified by the locks of hair falling on his shoulders. Sometimes Suparshvanath is shown with a small snake-hood. The symbols are marked in the centre or in the corner of the pedestal of the statue. The sects of Jainism Digambara and Svetambara have different depictions of idols. Digambara images are naked without any ornamentation, whereas Svetambara ones may be clothed and in worship may be decorated with temporary ornaments.
Jain art | Iconography of tirthankaras
The tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015. Idols are often made in "Ashtadhatu" (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.
Jainism | Statues and sculptures
A Buddhist image can be in one of several mudras. However the Jain tirthankara images can only be in one of the two format. In Padmasana, the statues of a Jina and a Buddha can be similar. The Buddha statue has folds of the cloth on the upperbody, with cloth behind the left arm, where as the Jina statue is without clothes, unless it is a Shwetambara image which shows a fan-like dhoti folds.
Jain sculpture | Jain vs Buddhist iconography
Giant rock-cut statues of Jain Tirthankaras are carved in the Gopachal Hill, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Charans are footprints exclusive to Jain temples. The charan of Tirthankara Rishabhanatha are present at the Badrinath Temple. Akota Bronzes and Vasantgarh hoard of Gujarat; Hansi hoard of Haryana, Chausa hoard and Aluara bronzes from Bihar.
Jain sculpture | Examples
The Jivantasvami images represent Lord Mahavira (and in some cases other Tirthankaras) as a prince, with a crown and ornaments. The Jina is represented as standing in the kayotsarga pose.
Jain sculpture | Jivantasvami
A monolithic manastambha is a standard feature in the Jain temples of Mudabidri. They include a statue of Brahmadeva on the top as a guardian yaksha. The 58-feet tall monolithic Jain statue of Bahubali is located on Vindhyagiri Hill, Shravanabelagola built in 983 A.D. was the largest free standing monolithic statue until 2016, 108 feet monolithic idol Statue of Ahimsa(statue of first Jain tirthankar, Rishabhanatha) was erected at Mangi-tungi.
Jain art | Monolithic statues
Jain sculptures or Jain idols are the images depicting "Tirthankaras" (teaching gods). These images are worshiped by the followers of Jainism. The sculpture can depict any of the twenty-four "tirthankaras" with images depicting Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha, or Mahāvīra being more popular. Jain sculptures are an example of Jain art. There is a long history of construction of Jain sculptures. Early examples include Lohanipur Torsos which has been regarded to be from the Maurya period, and images from the Kushan period from Mathura.
Jain sculpture | Introduction
There are three notable freestanding sculptures in the temple. An image of Mahavira that is a little over 4 feet tall, made of black polished stone and seated on a "lion throne" ("simhaasana") is found outside the temple. Originally this idol was housed as original mulnayak of temple. Neminatha is the mulnayak of the temple placed in the inner sanctum of the temple with yaksha and yakshi on either side. There is a beautiful sculpture of seven hooded Parshva in Kayotsarga position with yakshi and yaksha on both sides. The sculpture of Padmavati sitting with left knee upright besides Parshva depicts Goddess with goad and noose in right and left upper arms respectively and the lower hands are in varadamudra with fruit.
Jain Temple, Lakkundi | Sculpture
The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated in 5th century CE. "Digamabara" statues of tirthankara belonging to Gupta period has half-closed eyes. In 17th-century CE, "adhyatma" movement in Agra led to rise of "terapanthi" and "bisapanthi" sub-sects based on the differences over acceptance of authority of "bhattarakas". King Jai Singh II (1688-1743) of Amer kingdom built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of Jaipur. "Terapanthis", led by scholars like Pandit Todarmal and Banarasidas, rejected the authority of "bhattarakas".
Digambara | History
Tirthanakar images do not have distinctive facial features, clothing or (mostly) hair-styles, and are differentiated on the basis of the symbol or emblem ("Lanchhana") belonging to each tirthanakar except Parshvanatha. Statues of Parshvanath have a snake crown on the head. The first Tirthankara Rishabha can be identified by the locks of hair falling on his shoulders. Sometimes Suparshvanath is shown with a small snake-hood. The symbols are marked in the centre or in the corner of the pedestal of the statue. The sects of Jainism Digambara and Svetambara have different depictions of idols. Digambara images are naked without any ornamentation, whereas Svetambara ones are clothed and decorated with temporary ornaments.
Tirthankara | Iconography of tirthanakars
A sandalwood sculpture of Mahāvīra was carved during his lifetime, according to tradition. Later the practice of making images of wood was abandoned, other materials being substituted. The Chausa hoard, Akota Bronzes, Vasantgarh hoard are excavated groups of bronze Jain figures.
Jain art | Jain art at Mathura under the Guptas
The other figures were caused to be made by the followers of Jain faith from a number of villages nearby. The sculptures were caused to be made in memory of the departed souls. There are approximately one hundred and fifty relief sculptures. Among the donors were the carpenters, potters, smiths, cultivators and other workers. A number of others were high ranking persons bearing the titles of Enadi, Etti and Kavidi. Provisions are also recorded for expounding Jain siddhanta a Gunasagara bhattara a great Jain ascetic lived here. The sculptures and the epigraphs are to be assigned to the reign of Pandya, Parantaka Nedunjadaiya (A.D.
Kalugumalai | Worship Places
The Gommateshwara statue is dedicated to the Jain figure Bahubali. It was built around 983 A.D. and is one of the largest free standing statues in the world. Decorated manuscripts are preserved in "jaina" libraries, containing diagrams from "jaina" cosmology. Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the "tirthankara". Hansi hoard is the bronze hoard dating back to 8th-9th century.
Jain art | Medieval period (8th-16th century)
The Digambar Jain temple at Anaijambad was established in 1973. It houses six statues of four tirthankaras. “The statues are housed within the simple looking temple and are fixed upon an elevated platform”. These were collected from different villages. The Kharkhari Sarak community of neighbouring Dhanbad took the initiative to build the temple. The statues in the picture below are as follows from left to right: 1. Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara) 2. Chandraprabha (8th Tirthankara) 3. Parshavanatha (23 rd Tirthankara) 4. Parshavanatha (23 rd Tirthankara) 5. Kunthunatha (17th Tirthankars) 6. Chandraprabha (8th Tirthankara)
Anaijambad | Culture
Three of the images are quite large; the smallest of them is more than tall, and the largest is more than long. However, the fourth image is just over and located inside an artificial cavern carved into the rock. A seated image is on the left side of the rock, and to the right is a cavern and another seated image. Further to the right are a standing image, and then a reclining image. Unlike other statues of the same period (such as the one found in the Lankathilaka image house), they are all well preserved, and therefore provide a good indication about less well-preserved examples.
Gal Vihara | Images
Jainism spread here and there all over Tamil Nadu during Sangam Age. One of the Tamil literature, called Paripadal (பரிபாடல்), probably belongs to 3rd century, mentions that there were propelling statues sculptured in stone for different deities in the temple of God Murugan in Thirupparankundram. One among them was Jain statue. Others are Kaaman-Rathi (the deities of Love), Deity Indra (the king of so-called Heavenly people according to Indian mythology), Agaligai (wife of Saint Gaudham), and Buddha. Kalugumalai Jain Beds near Madurai belongs to one century latter is to be compared with Thirpparankunram Jain sculpture. In addition a propelling stone statue of a Jain monk mentioned in Tamil literature is also present.
Jain sculpture | In Tamil Nadu
Sculpture seems to have been part of Jain tradition since the last centuries BCE, but probably was mostly in wood, which has not survived. The earliert known examples of Jain sculpture are stone architraves of the 1st century BCE, found in the Art of Mathura, particularly from the Jain mound of Kankali Tila. Perhaps the most famous single Jain work of art is the Gommateshvara statue, a monolithic, 18 m statue of Bahubali, built by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya around 983. It is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state. This statue was voted as the first of the Seven Wonders of India.
Jain art | Sculpture
Further, Jain artworks that have been found from the same period in north India show quite different forms and symbols. It may belong to Ajivikas or another ancient Indian naked ascetic tradition, but ruling out that it may indeed reflect Jainism arts in 2nd-century BCE is also not possible. Ancient naked terracotta statues discovered in the 1970s near Ayodhya are similar to the Lohanipur Torso, but terracotta arts are also missing in Jaina tradition and the Ayodhya terracotta statues too lack Jain iconography.
History of Jainism | Ajivika
In India, Digambara monks reject any form of clothing and practice nudity. Digambara (lit. 'sky clad') is one of the two main sects of Jainism. However, the "Shwetambar" sect is "white-clad" and their holy statues wear a loin cloth.
Nudity in religion | Jainism
Smaller bronze images were probably for shrines in homes. A number of medieval collections of these have been excavated, probably deposited when populations fled from wars. These include the Vasantgarh hoard (1956, 240 pieces), Akota Bronzes (1951, 68 pieces, to 12th century), Hansi hoard (1982, 58 pieces, to 9th century), and the Chausa hoard (18 pieces, to 6th century).
Jain art | Sculpture
The sanctum of the temple has a 4.3 m high statue of Shantinatha. There are several other old as well as new Jain statues in the temple. One of the sculpture appears to be a carving of Mahavira's parents, which is noted for its artistic execution.
Shantinatha temple, Khajuraho | Sculptures
The tall megalithic statue (carved out of a single rock) of Lord Rishabhadeva (the first "Tirthankara" and founder of Jainism) is situated at a height of , in the middle of the Satpura range. The idol stands on base of mountain just like the "Gommateshwara statue" of "Lord Bahubali" at "Shravanabelagola". In 2020, Mahamastakabhisheka of statue will be organised with an estimate of 1.5 million devotees reaching there.
Bawangaja | Statue
The illustrations are square-ish panels set in the text, with "wiry drawing" and "brilliant, even jewel-like colour". The figures are always seen in three-quarters view, with distinctive "long pointed noses and protruding eyes". There is a convention whereby the more distant side of the face protrudes, so that both eyes are seen. Rishabha, the first "tirthankara", is usually depicted in either the lotus position or "kayotsarga", the standing position. He is distinguished from other "tirthankara" by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents of his life, like his marriage and Indra's marking his forehead, are depicted.
Jain art | Paintings
The Digambar Jain temple at Anaijambad, located nearby, was established in 1973. It houses six statues of four tirthankaras. “The statues are housed within the simple looking temple and are fixed upon an elevated platform”. These were collected from different villages. The Kharkhari Sarak community of neighbouring Dhanbad took the initiative to build the temple.
Hutmura | Culture
Numerous statues related to Jainism and Hinduism have been found at Haraktor.
Para, Purulia | Culture
Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation bear similarity to "jaina" images, nude and in a meditative posture. The Lohanipur torso is the earliest known "jaina" image (presumed to be Jain because of the nudity and posture), and is now in the Patna Museum. It is also one of the earliest Indian monumental sculptures in stone of a human, if the dating to the 3rd century BCE is correct; it might be from about the 2nd century CE. Bronze images of the 23rd "tirthankara", Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna Museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE.
Jain art | Earliest depictions of Jain deities (3rd-2nd centuries BCE)
Cousens feels it may have been taken out and left there. The saint has an attendant on either side, holding a "chowri" (a type of brush) in one hand a fruit in another. An exceptionally well rendered image of the God Brahma stands in the inner hall, and that of the goddess Saraswati stands at the entrance to the vestibule. In each of her four hands she holds an attribute; a "ankusa" (elephant goad), a petaled flower, a book and a citron. In addition to these sculptures, the relief of a Jaina is carved on to the door lintel of the sanctum and outer hall, and an image of Gajalakshmi (Lakshmi with elephants on either side) exists over entrance to the vestibule.
Jain Temple, Lakkundi | Sculpture
A natural cavern formed by overhanging rock has a bas-relief sculptures of Jain Tirthankaras which were carved in later phase. The relief of Parshwanatha and Padmavati is standing figures canopied by multi-hooded cobra and with attendant figures of Yaksha. The figures seated in ardha-padmasana pose in each niches with three tiered parasol is that of other Tirthankaras (possibly of all 24 Tithankaras). there are three standing figures of Tirthankara in on of the left corner. The central niche has a figure of Mahavira with three tiered parasol, "chhatratrayi chaitya" with a tree above it and attendant figures. There is another female figure of Ambika in a niche next to it.
Chitharal Jain Monuments | Description
Lohanipur torso found in a central Division of Patna, ancient Pataliputra, dates back to 3rd century BCE. Some of the oldest Jain sculptures excaved at Kankali Tila are in the Government Museum, Mathura. Many Jain sculptures are kept in Government Museum, Chennai. The oldest Jain sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York is of the Siddha Bahubali.
Jain sculpture | In museums
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style, and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.
Gupta art | Sculpture
The images are often marked with Srivatsa on the chest and Tilaka on the forehead. Srivatsa is one of the ashtamangala (auspicious symbols). It can look somewhat like a fleur-de-lis, an endless knot, a flower or diamond-shaped symbol. The bodies of tirthanakar statues are exceptionally consistent throughout the over 2,000 years of the historical record. The bodies are rather slight, with very wide shoulders and a narrow waist. Even more than is usual in Indian sculpture, the depiction takes relatively little interest in the accurate depiction of the underlying musculature and bones, but is interested in the modelling of the outer surfaces as broad swelling forms.
Jain art | Iconography of tirthankaras
Later large-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja, with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.
Sculpture | India
Very often numbers of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries share a site with those of the other religions, as at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. The Ellora Caves are a late site, which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later Hindu excavations. There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains placed large figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the shrine. These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the "kayotsarga" meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention).
Architecture of India | Jain architecture
Examples include the Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of statues, and a number of single figures including the 12th-century Gommateshwara statue, and the modern Statue of Vasupujya and, largest of all at 108 feet (32.9 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa.
Architecture of India | Jain architecture
The exterior walls of the temple have three bands of sculptures featuring surasundaris (graceful women), flying vidyadhara couples, vyalas (mythical lion-like being), and a dancer with musicians. Despite the shrine's Jain affiliation, the external walls also feature carvings of the Hindu deities. The niches feature sculptures of the Jain Yakshinis: Ambika, Chakreshvari, and Padmavati. One sculpture found at the temple shows a sitting Adinatha with an ushnisha on his head. It features a dharmachakra with a small bull figure. The right side of the seat has the figure of a pot-bellied yaksha with a cup and a moneybag in his hands.
Adinatha temple, Khajuraho | Sculptures
Shravanabelagola has the world famous monolithic statue, Gommateshwara statue. Similar Monolithic statues of Lord Bahubali can be also seen in Venur, Dharmasthala, Karkala and Mysore. There are five monolithic statues of Bahubali in Karnataka measuring more than 20 feet in height. In all of the above-mentioned places, the holy festival of "Mahamastakabhisheka" is held once every 12 years when the statue of Bahubali is worshiped and bathed in holy water, milk, turmeric, and other natural herbs that have their own significant importance.
Jainism in Karnataka | Statues of Gommata
Remains of these Jain affiliations in the form of inscription and rock carvings are assigned to the 9th century AD. There are two figures carved in a big granite boulder which are in low relief. The figures are shown in standing posture with their hands hanging down to the knees and their cognisance are shown below the figures in low relief. Another figure carved at the top of the hill is identified as Adinath. The figure is carved in sitting posture in the rocky outcrop and two bulls are marked at the base, the mark of cognisance of the first Tirthankara.
Sri Surya Pahar | Jain Heritage
The carvings of Tirtankaras Bahubali, Parshvanatha, Adinath bagavan, Mahavira and Yakshi Dharma Devi belonging to the 7th century sculptured on a single rock here is a testimony to the workmanship of those days.
Mel Sithamur Jain Math | Overview
Another cluster of Jain monuments is the Yoginarayana group, near the Gauri temple. It consists of four temples, dedicated to the Mahavira and the Parshvanatha. Two face the north, one west, and another east, all likely from the 11th century. The pillars of the temples have intricate carvings. Their towers are same as the stepped squares found in Hindu pyramidal-style "shikaras" in Aihole. This collection has a polished basalt image of Parshvanatha, with a five-headed snake hood. He sits on a platform with lions carved in its niches. Another image from this Jain temples cluster is now at the ASI museum in Aihole.
Aihole | Yoginarayana group
The statues depict all 24 Tirthankaras. They are shown in both seated Padmasana posture as well as standing Kayotsarga posture, in the typical naked form of Jain iconography. The reliefs behind some of them narrate scenes from the Jain legends. The site is about from the South-East Group of Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and about northwest of the Teli ka Mandir within the Gwalior Fort.
Siddhachal Caves | Introduction
This shows that the temple is more than 1000 years old. In the second vedica chamber, there is an idol of the second Tirthankara, Ajitnath. This idol is 74×60 cm in dimension and made of marble. An inscription on the idol is found of Baisak Sukla 13, Sanwat 1209. In front of Bhagwan Ajitnathji idol there is also a marble door with two pillars. The two pillars are decorated with artistic jaina images. In art gallery there are 166 marble an idol of Rishabha made of brown dtone, and two idols of bhagwan Parshvanath with nine headed serpents. An image of Neminath is also found in art fallery.
Ladnu | Adinath Digambara Jain Temple
These statues are recovered during digging while the dam was built. There is another Jain statue lying at the bottom of the Pareshnath hill.
Mukutmanipur Dam | Introduction
Some Jain temples contain images of Bharata as a "Jain" monk, including one at Shravanabelagola. The Koodalmanikyam Temple in Kerala was originally a Jain temple dedicated to Bharata as the main deity. In May 2017, the tallest statue of lord Bharata with a height of 45 ft (35 ft body + 12 ft pedestal) weighing about 50 ton was erected in Mangalgiri (Shri kshetra bharat ka bharat), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India. Earlier it was planned to erect a 57 ft tall monolithic statue comprising 45 ft body and 12 ft pedestal weighing about 100 ton, however, it was broken in the process of erection and therefore, a shorter statue was created and successfully erected.
Bharata chakravartin | Temples
The temple has a "Ardhamandapa" ("half hall") and a Mahamandapa ("great hall") with a monolithic idol of Parshvanatha in Kayotsarga posture. Sculptures of yaksha Dharanendra and yakshi Padmavati are present in the "mahamantapa". This temple is the largest and considered the most architecturally significant in the basadi complex. Along with being rich in sculptures, the temple also features carvings of the life-scenes of tirthankaras on the ceiling panel of "mukhamandapa". There is a famous image of Padmavati with three hooded cobra over her head and with fruits in three hands and a weapon in fourth. The temple also features niches for idols of the 24 tirthankaras.
Jain temples, Halebidu | Architecture
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland". The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time, as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style, and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.
Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent | Gupta period
This temple is widely visited by Digambar sect of the Jain community. It has three huge idols of Lord Adinath and his two sons, Lord Bahubali and Lord Bharata. The statue of Rishabhanatha is 31 feet in height and the tallest off all the three; on either side are the statues of Bharata and Bahubali, each being 28 feet tall. There is a 51-foot "kirti stambh" (literally meaning "pillar of glory") also present here. Many "muni maharaj" (Jain saints) often stay here and preach to their followers before moving on.
Sanjay Gandhi National Park | Walking trails
The ears are extremely elongated, suggesting the heavy earrings the figures wore in their early lives before they took the path to enlightenment, when most were wealthy if not royal.
Jain art | Iconography of tirthankaras
Some of the important original sculptures of different periods in history replicated and displayed in the museum are of: Arjuna’s Penance (sculpture of the 7th century) at Mahabalipuram a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram; Ugra Narasimha at Hampi of the Vijayanagara era temples; Gomteshwara (Jain Tirthankara) of 983 AD by the Ganga dynasty; Jesus Christ on the Cross of sixteenth century from Goa; Gudimallam Shivalinga from the first century BC from Chittoor in Andhra Pradesh; "Ravana Shaking Kailash" from the 5th century Dashavatara caves from Ellora; Trimurti from the Elephanta Caves of the Chalukyan rock-cut architecture; Rudra Shiva seventh century AD from Tala, in Chhattisgarh; Gyaraspur Yakshi from Madhya Pradesh of the Mauryan period; Shalabhanjika from the Pratihara period of 9–10th century from Madhya Pradesh, which is a voluptuous image of a woman without hands sculpted from buff sandstone in the posture of "dvibhanga", known as "Indian Monalisa"; a Gandhara art form of fasting Buddha in a skeletal form from the Kushan period of 3rd Century AD (the original sculpture is in Lahore Museum in Pakistan); Preaching Buddha of thirteenth century from Sarnath of the Gandhara School of Art, Didarganj Yakshini from Bihar which unearthed in 1917 from the bank of Ganga River in 1917 and presently exhibited at Patna Museum, a drunken woman from Mathura.
Children's Museum, Siri Fort | Exhibits
The statues of Hindu gods and Buddhist deities in Majapahit art were also the continuations of its previous Singhasari art. The statues of East Javanese period tends to be a stiffer and frontal-formal pose, compared to the statues of Central Javanese art (c. 9th century) that are more Indianized style, relaxed in tribhanga pose. The stiffer pose of Majapahit gods statues is probably in accordance with the statue's function as the deified portrayal self of the dead Majapahit monarch. The carving, however, is richly decorated, especially with a fine floral carving of lotus plants carved on the stela behind the statue.
Majapahit | Art
A Jain temple, a "Derasar" or "Basadi", is a place of worship. Temples contain "tirthankara" images, some fixed, others moveable. These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall. One of the images is marked as the "moolnayak" (primary deity). A "manastambha" (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. Temple construction is considered a meritorious act. Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
Jainism | Temples
Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is an earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his. The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition. While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high-quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries.
History of Jainism | Ajivika
The fort temples are dominated by the Jain temples in the eastern part of the hill fort; the Jain images here are mostly of the "iconographic and the stylistic variety".The Jain complex was built during 8th to the 17th century and consist of 31 Jain temples housing around 2,000 sculptures which are largest such collection in world. The Jain temples have a large number of panels depicting scenes from Jain mythology, tirthankara images and votive tablets. The pillars are carved with a thousand Jain figures. There are 31 Jain temples of different sizes, age and character. All these are dated later than the Hindu temples.
Jain temples at Deogarh | History
Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism. The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture. The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves, though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.
Sculpture | India
The statue of the 12th Tirthankara Vasupujya Swami is placed at the center and the statues of the 15th Tirthankara Swami Dharmanatha and the 11th Thirthankara Swami Shreyansanatha have been placed at the right and left sides of the statue of Tirthankara Vasupujya Swami. At the top floor of the temple, the statue of the 23rd Thirthankara Parshvanatha Swami can be observed as well. This statue is unearthed in Kuttanad which is a great reminiscence of the growth of Jainism in ancient Kerala. Jain followers are really particular about using a rosary to pray called Japamala "Jain prayer beads" and these are made of special threads.
Jain temple, Alappuzha | Architectural Significance
Some scholars posit that the Indus Valley Civilisation symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may have a connection to Rishabhanatha. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.
Śramaṇa | Jainism
Pakbirra Jain temples are a collection of three temples. Relics here date back to the ninth and tenth centuries AD. Most impressive of sculptures present in this temple is the colossal 7.5 feet high statue Shitalnatha and 8 feet high statue of Padmaprabha carved of polished black stone. Statue of Padmaprabha is also worshipped as Bhairavnath by people of Hindus faith. The temple has many sculptures including sculptures of Tirthankar Rishabhnath, Parshvanatha, Mahavira along with Goddess Devi Ambika and Padmavati. This temple have the basic tri-ratha plan with simplified squad of moldings and several level of the wall niches and lower façade stones.
Pakbirra | Pakbirra Jain temples
During the Islamic iconoclastic depredations the temples were devastated; this was compounded by the growth of vegetation and neglect of maintenance. The Jain community is managing the temples since 1939 and have done some restoration work. The extravagance of the intricacies of the Jain sculptures are similar to that of nearby Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh and adjoining areas of Bihar. Jain sculptures lie scattered on both sides of the path from the gate, on the walls of the fort. A notable pillar seen here is called the Manastambha. The complete image of each of the 24 tirthankaras depicting the emblem of a bird, flower or animal are seen here.
Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh | Jain temple complex
Most common are standing or sitting statues of Ksitigarbha with a monk's staff in the right hand and Cintamani in the left hand. There are other types of statues, such as Amitabha, Guanyin, Avalokitesvara, Bhaisajyaguru and mixtures of these statues. The height differs from the size of a man to . Behind each statue is a boat-shaped Aureola on which is written "Tariki" ("Through the Buddha") and the sequence number of his statue such as the 100th, and the "petitioner is Hōgyū".
Hōgyū Jizō | Stone statues
The carved Kankali Tila architrave with centaurs worshipping a Jain Stupa, is Mathura art, of circa 100 BCE, showing Hellenistic influence. The early Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, are a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd-century BCE excavated by King Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty.
Jain art | Earliest depictions of Jain deities (3rd-2nd centuries BCE)
The Jain bronzes includes Adinatha, Māllīnātha, Chandraprabha, Mahavira, parents of Jina, Sarasvati and Buddha. The image of Neminatha seated in Padmasan posture above yakshi Ambika holding her son on left slap flanking with yaksha Gomedha as her consort sitting in lalitasana with 6 tirthankars in Kayotsarga posture engraved in the pedestal. The other well known idol is a large idol of Jain "shrutidevi" Sarasvati.
Hansi hoard | Major images
The Jain Basadi temples are dedicated to Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and other Jain Tirthankaras. The Buddhist monument is a temple and small monastery. Both Hindu and Jain monuments include monasteries, as well as social utilities such as stepwell water tanks with artistic carvings near major temples.
Aihole | Introduction
The cave has other reliefs, such as those of the Jinas. These are significant because they have "chattras" (umbrella-like cover) carved over them, an iconography that is found in Jain caves built centuries later in many parts of India. These are generally not found in Jain statues carved before the 4th-century. The cave also includes a somewhat damaged image of Ganesha on its floor, where is depicted carrying an axe while looking in his left direction.
Udayagiri Caves | Cave 20: Jainism
The fort temples are dominated by the Jain temples in the eastern part of the hill fort; the Jaina images here are mostly of the "iconographic and the stylistic variety".The Jain complex was built during 8th to the 17th century and consist of 31 Jain temples housing around 2,000 sculptures which is largest such collection in world. The Jain temples have a large number of panels depicting scenes from Jain mythology, tirthankara images and votive tablets. The pillars are carved with a thousand Jain figures. All temples are categorized into two distinct periods: the early medieval period and the medieval period.
Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh | Jain temple complex
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda. The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification greatly. Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare.
Gupta art | Sculpture
Gommatagiri is an acclaimed Jain centre. The 700-year-old statue of Bahubali (also known as "Gomateshwara") is erected atop a 50 meter tall hillock called 'Shravana Gudda'. The statue of Gomateshwara at Gommatagiri is an early Vijayanagara creation in granite. It has serene facial expressions and curly hairs. This Jain centre attracts many pilgrims during the annual "Maha masthakabhisekha" in September. The local Jains have a belief that the entire region was a bastion of Jainism at least since the 2nd Century BC. The 20 feet statue at Gommatagiri is very similar to Gommateshwara statue in Shravanabelagola (58 feet) except that it is dwarfed in size.
Gommatagiri | Overview
In the introduction to his English translation of the "Gommatsāra", J. L. Jaini writes:
Gommateshwara statue | Iconography
The most recently erected statue lies in Dharmasthala and is about 39 feet tall. Mahamastakabhisheka rituals are held once in 12 years at the site of these statues. Jain temples, called "basadi" and "derasar", are numerous in the region and were built by various Jain Bunt rulers. The most famous among them is the Saavira Kambada Basadi located in Moodabidri. Jain Bunts are strict vegetarians and do not consume anything after sunset or eat root vegetables.
Jain Bunt | Tradition
At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries. These caves are smaller than the Buddhist and Hindu caves but nonetheless feature highly detailed carvings. They, and the later-era Hindu caves, were built at a similar time and both share architectural and devotional ideas such as a pillared veranda, symmetric mandapa and "puja" (worship). However, unlike the Hindu temples, emphasis is placed on the depiction of the twenty-four Jinas (spiritual conquerors who have gained liberation from the endless cycle of rebirths). In addition to these Jinas, the works at the Jain temples include carvings of gods and goddesses, "yaksa" (male nature deity), "yaksi" (female nature deity) and human devotees prevalent in Jaina mythology of 1st millennium CE.
Ellora Caves | The Jain monuments: Caves 30–34
The presiding deity is known as Mallinathaswamy and Mallinathar. The sculpture is of 56 cm height, and was made in 1986. The sculpture which was kept in sanctum sanctorum earlier is now found in the arthamandapa, as the nose of sculpture was found broken. The Processional deity is found in the mahamandapa.
Mallinathaswamy Jain Temple, Mannargudi | Presiding deity
Chitharal Jain Monuments is the earliest Jain monument in the southernmost part of India dating back to first century BC. The Chausa hoard is the oldest of group of bronzes to be found in India. The bronzes have varied dates, from between the Shunga and the Gupta periods, from (possibly) the 2nd century BC, to the 6th Century AD.
Jain art | Early reliefs (1st century BCE)
The status of women in Jainism differs between the two main sects, Digambara and Svetambara. Jainism prohibits women from appearing naked; because of this, Digambaras, who consider renunciation of clothes essential to moksha, say that they cannot attain enlightenment in the same life. Svetambaras, who allow sadhus to wear clothes, believe that women can attain moksha. There are more Svetambara sadhvis than sadhus and women have always been influential in the Jain religion.
Women as theological figures | Jainism
Temple of the Sun Lord is seated in the rear. Broken statue of a hand, but the shoes Use chariot and seven horses are clear.Similarly, many of the sculptures are inlaid in the walls.The sculptures on the temple walls when the heart has been repaired. Have other artistic sculptures around the temple, including the marking of mainly dwarf Dshawataro of Lord Vishnu, Nrsih, are the idols of Krishna and Rama.Here's gorgeous and artistic depictions of the Ramayana Drishyo 10 to 15 get to see. Despite such a decoration in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is a statue. This temple is lonely and is craving for a lamp.
Janjgir | Sculpture and crafts
The monolithic statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola, located from Bangalore, was carved from a single block of granite. The statue was commissioned by the Ganga dynasty minister and commander Chavundaraya; it is tall and is situated above a hill in Shravanabelagola, in the Hassan district of Karnataka. It was built in and around 981 A.D. and is one of the largest free-standing statues in the world. The statue is visible from away. Shravanabelagola has remained a centre of pilgrimage ("tirtha") for the Jains. The statue is bathed at an interval of every 12 years and this event is celebrated as "Mahamastakabhisheka".
Bahubali | Shravanabelagola
It has no support up to the thighs and is tall with the face measuring . With the serene expression on the face of the image, its curled hair with graceful locks, its proportional anatomy, the monolith size, and the combination of its artistry and craftsmanship have led it to be called the mightiest achievement in sculptural art in medieval Karnataka. It is the largest monolithic statue in the world. Their free standing pillars called "Mahasthambha" or "Bhrahmasthambha" are also considered unique, examples of which are the Brahmadeva pillar and Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar. At the top of the pillar whose shaft (cylindrical or octagonal) is decorated with creepers and other floral motifs is the seated "Brahma" and the base of the pillar normally has engravings of important Jain personalities and inscriptions.
Western Ganga dynasty | Architecture
The "Digambara" Jains worship completely nude idols of "tirthankaras" (omniscient beings) and "siddha" (liberated souls). The "tirthankara" is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the "Kayotsarga" posture.
Digambara | Worship
The rock carved Jain statues in the Gwalior Fort were mostly consecrated by the Kashtha Sangh Bhattarakas. The Digambar Terapanth subsect was formed by Amra Bhaunsa Godika and his son Jodhraj Godika during 1664–1667 in opposition to the bhattakaras. The Bhattakara are the priestly class of Jainism who are responsible for maintaining libraries and other Jain institutions. The "Terapanth" sub-sect among the Digambara Jains emerged around the Jaipur (Sanganer, Amber and Jaipur region itself). Godika duo expressed opposition to the Bhattaraka Narendrakirti of Amber. Authors Daulatram Kasliwal and Pandit Todarmal) were associated with the Terapanth movement. They opposed worship of various minor gods and goddesses.
Jain schools and branches | Monastic orders
According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna. Jains consider their religion eternal. The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE. After the 12th-century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.
History of Jainism | Introduction
A manastambha (Sanskrit for 'column of honor') is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples or large Jain statues. In North India, they are topped by four Tirthankara images. According to the "Digambara" Jain texts like "Adi Purana" and "Tiloyapannati", a huge "manastambha" stands in front of the "samavasarana" (divine preaching hall) of the tirthankaras, which causes someone entering a "samavasarana" to shed their pride. A monolithic manastambha is a standard feature in the Jain temples of Moodabidri. They include a statue of Brahmadeva on the top as a guardian yaksha.
Manastambha | Introduction
Some sculptures during this period suggest that the concept of the avatars was starting to emerge, as images of ""Chatur-vyuha"" (the four emanations of Narayana) are appearing. The famous "Caturvyūha" statue in Mathura Museum is an attempt to show in one composition Vāsudeva together with the other members of the Vrishni clan of the Pancharatra system: Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha, with Samba missing, Vāsudeva being the central deity from whom the others emanate. The back of the relief is carved with the branches of a Kadamba tree, symbolically showing the relationship being the different deities. The depiction of Vishnu was stylistically derived from the type of the ornate Bodhisattvas, with rich jewelry and ornate headdress.
Saṃkarṣaṇa | Saṃkarṣaṇa in 2nd century CE sculpture
The Dashavatara temple had numerous plinth panels of about 2.5 feet by 2 feet each, with friezes related to secular life and themes of Hinduism. Some of these reliefs were found during excavations at the site, some recovered nearby and identified by their location, the material of construction and the style. Many are lost. The recovered reliefs are now housed in major museums. Some of the significant reliefs identified include: Another sculpture found in the Vishnu temple depicts the Krishna legend in which Devaki hands over her new born son Krishna to her husband Vasudeva. This sculpture is said to be one of the best depictions of Gupta period art, based on the sensuous and graceful modelling of the figurines, but different in that its clothes are shown draped in an exclusive fashion.
Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh | Reliefs and museums
At one time the entire statue may have been painted. The statue's musculature looks very detailed and slightly rounded and soft, a trait reminiscent of Indian works of art. Also, the deity appears to be standing on a rock. This stance on a rock is supposedly another common trait of the iconography of Acala that symbolizes the serenity that he imparts to his followers. Another statue is that of a miniature pagoda (see fig. 2). The pagoda is made out of stone supposedly from the famous Mount Hiei. Due to its special origin, it is only one of seven stone monuments like it.
Hōgon-ji | Significance of religion
There are 10 gold-finished sculptures close to the ceiling. Of the two figures on the left, one appears to be lying down and the other crawling, while the one on the far right seems to be reclining too. These sculptures portray the cycle of life, from birth, youth, adulthood, to old age and death. There are 10 white marble statues standing tall each. According to the name plaques, these are Gautama Buddha, Guru Nanak Dev Ji, Sai Baba and Mother Teresa. The Guru believes that these are messengers of God, and visitors of other faiths will be happy to see them here.
Arulmigu Sri Rajakaliamman Glass Temple | Sculptures
The principal ("Mulanayak") deity in the main temple is of 16th "tīrthaṅkara", Shri Shantinath in Padmasana posture. The altar also has idols of 17th and 18th "tīrthaṅkaras", Shri Kunthunath and Shri Aranath on each side. In recent year, the temple has observed increase in the number devotees. Some of the notable monuments and temples in the complex are:
Digamber Jain Bada Mandir Hastinapur | Architecture
Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as "Panch Kalyanaka", from the life of the "tirthankara". Rishabha, the first "tirthankara", is usually depicted in either the lotus position or "kayotsarga", the standing position. He is distinguished from other "tirthankara" by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.
Jainism | Art and architecture
Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja, with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.
Indian art | Sculpture
A snake's hood covers her head, and she sits on a lotus flower. Often a small image of the Lord Parshvanatha is placed in her crown. She may be depicted as four-armed, carrying noose and rosary (japa mala), elephant goad, lotus and a fruit. Yaksha-Yakshi pair sculptures of Padmavati Ambika and Dharanendra are one of the most favoured along with Gomukha-Chakreshwari and Sarvahanabhuti-Ambika.
Padmavati (Jainism) | Iconography
Jain Temples Chandaprabhu Digambar Jain Bavan Jinalya was built in 12th century and is dedicated to Chandraprabhu(eighth Tirthankara), measuring seventy feet long by forty-five broad and thirty high, built of sandstone covered with stucco. It has a tower of four stories, seventy- five feet high, and a rest-house within the entrance gate. There is a Digamber Jain Temple known as Digamber Bavan Jinalay or Bhulavni which is also known for its memorial pillar, Kirti Stambh that is 58 feet tall. This temple has 111 Marble idols and 40 metal idols from 12th, 16th and 19th century. Standing posture Idols of Bharat and Bahubali are one of the main attraction of this temple.
Bhiloda | Places of interest
These are carved ornately in black stone and highly polished. The three Tirthankaras are Ajitanatha, Neminath and Shreyanasanatha. The central figure is adorned with the symbol of a wheel holding two deers in the left hand, and a globe on the right hand. The base of this image has a "winged figure" carving. Carved images also embellish the exterior faces of the temple.
Arang Jain temples | Bhand Dewal temple
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of "tirthankara" or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. "Yakshas" and "yakshinis", attendant spirits who guard the "tirthankara", are usually shown with them. The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated approximately to the 3rd century BCE. Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE. "Ayagapata" is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries.
Jainism | Art and architecture
Certain figurines, and styles of figurines, have been identified as deities. Others hint at myths or legends. It has also been suggested that the figurines represent ancestors, distant or immediate. The question of portraiture may only be resolved when the function of these grave goods is itself resolved.
Jaina Island | Portraiture?
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit "Suttapahuda" of Kundakunda. Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the "tirthankaras". Their monasticism rules differ, as does their iconography. Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation. The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th "Tirthankara" Māllīnātha was female, which Digambara rejects.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.
Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent | Pala and Sena empires
There are portions of other cells, and a fragment of an inscription beside some modern steps leading up to five cells above. The two at the west end are converted into one by cutting away the partition, and on the walls are three defaced figures perhaps of Jain figures. This is dedicated to the goddess Ambika also the sasanadevi or patron goddess of the 23rd Tirthankara Neminatha. Here Brahmans worship the mutilated image of Jain as a Shiva goddess. In the outer wall of another of these cells there have been a standing (Kayotsarga) and a sitting figure of Tirthankara, but these are now almost obliterated.
Manmodi Caves | Jainism Cells
Each of the twenty-four "tirthankara" is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as "Tiloyapannati", "Kahavaali" and "Pravacanasaarodhara".
Jainism | Art and architecture
The Pala Empire ruled a large area in north and east India between the 8th and 12th centuries CE, mostly later inherited by the Sena Empire. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses.
Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent | Pala and Sena empires
Other artworks of significance include those of deities Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra, Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Cakresvari, Padmavati, Ksetrapala and Hanuman.
Ellora Caves | The Jain monuments: Caves 30–34
Several examples of in-the-round statuary have been found from the period of Sodasa, such as the torsos of "Vrishni heroes", discovered in Mora, about 7 kilometers west of Mathura. These statues are mentioned in the Mora Well Inscription nearby, made in the name of the Northern Satraps Sodasa circa 15 CE, in which they are called "Bhagavatam". The statue fragments are thought to represent some of the five Vrishni heroes, possibly ancient kings of Mathura later assimilated to Vishnu and his avatars, or, equally possible, the five Jain heroes led by Akrūra, which are well attested in Jain texts. In fact, the cult of the Vrishnis may have been cross-sectarian, much like the cult of the Yakshas.
Art of Mathura | In-the-round statuary