Devout Jains take five main vows: "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "satya" (truth), "asteya" (not stealing), "brahmacharya" (sexual continence), and "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. "Parasparopagraho Jīvānām" (the function of souls is to help one another) is its motto and the "Ṇamōkāra mantra" is its most common and basic prayer. Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender and which texts can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons ("śrāvakas" and "śrāvikas").
Introduction
Jainism
Jainism | Introduction
Jains take five main vows: “ahiṃsā”, “satya”, “asteya”, “brahmacharya” and “aparigraha". "ahiṃsā", "anekāntavāda", "aparigraha" and "asceticism" ahiṃsā, anekāntavāda, aparigraha, asceticism, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
which of the following is not among the practices of jainism
user
Violence, attachment, sensual pleasures, lie and possessiveness are some of them.
assistant
and which are the practices?
user
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes "ahimsa" (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are "ahimsa", "anekantavada" (non-absolutism), "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: "ahimsa", "satya" (not lying), "asteya" (non stealing), "brahmacharya" (chastity), and "aparigraha". Monks follow them completely whereas "śrāvakas" (householders) observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Timeline of Jainism | Introduction
He argued that these practices were spiritually dangerous by grounding them as violations of "ahiṃsā," the principle of non-injury central to Jain religion and philosophy. According to Loṅkā, re-shaping the land to build temples leads to the destruction of small and microscopic organisms, and "pūjā" rituals entail "subtle forms of harm" through material offerings like flowers or incense. Loṅkā's lasting influence brought to light an aniconic impulse within a strict, doctrinal understanding of Jain teaching. The Śvetāmbara Sthānakavāsī and Terāpanthī sects accept this impulse, agreeing with Loṅkā that the most appropriate form of religious practice is mental worship ("bhāva-pūjā)," which is already performed by mendicants, because the reliance on images and temples is indicative of an attachment to objects that is "spiritually counterproductive." Mūrtipūjaka Jains respond to the criticisms of "mūrti-pūjā "in two ways: first, by revealing that it is, in fact, scripturally prevalent; and second, by saying that images are necessary for the spiritual practices of laypeople.
Murtipujaka | Agreements and disagreements
Devout Jains take five main vows: "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "satya" (truth), "asteya" (not stealing), "brahmacharya" (sexual continence), and "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. "Parasparopagraho Jīvānām" (the function of souls is to help one another) is its motto and the "Ṇamōkāra mantra" is its most common and basic prayer. Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender and which texts can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons ("śrāvakas" and "śrāvikas").
Jainism | Introduction
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching "siddha" and "moksha" ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like "Tattvartha Sūtra" and "Uttaradhyayana Sūtra" discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
Brahmacharya as a great vow of Jain mendicants means celibacy and avoiding any form of sexual activity with body, words or mind. A monk or nun should not enjoy sensual pleasures, which includes all the five senses, nor ask others to do the same, nor approve of another monk or nun engaging in sexual or sensual activity.
Ethics of Jainism | Brahmacharya
Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called "devapuja", and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.
Jainism | Rituals and worship
Aparigraha is one of the virtues in Jainism. It is also one of the five vows that both householders ("Śrāvaka") and ascetics must observe. This Jain vow is the principle of limiting one's possessions ("parimita-parigraha") and limiting one's desires ("iccha-parimana"). In Jainism, worldly wealth accumulation is considered as a potential source of rising greed, jealousy, selfishness and desires. Giving up emotional attachments, sensual pleasures and material possession is a means of liberation, in Jain philosophy. Eating enough to survive is considered more noble than eating for indulgence. Similarly, all consumption is more appropriate if it is essential to one's survival, and inappropriate if it is a form of hoarding, show off or for ego.
Aparigraha | Jainism
A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns. Out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest (the one sensed, such as vegetables, herbs, cereals, etc., which are endowed with only the sense of touch).
Jain vegetarianism | Introduction
According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory. The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.
Nonviolence | Jainism
are geared towards observance of . The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct, where they must eat, sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings. Jain ascetics sweep the ground before them to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life. They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves. Ascetics of the Śvētāmbara tradition wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa
The third main principle in Jainism is "aparigraha" which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, "aparigraha" applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form.
Jainism | Non-attachment ("aparigraha")
The principle of "ahimsa" (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as "Acaranga Sūtra" and "Tattvarthasūtra" state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.
Jainism | Non-violence ("ahimsa")
Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the "Dandasan" – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of physical violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence. Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages. Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy, Jain Ācāryas have produced, through ages, quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects. Paul Dundas quotes "Ācārya Jinabhadra" (7th century), who shows that the omnipresence of life-forms in the universe need not totally inhibit normal behaviour of the ascetics: Thus pure intention along with carefulness was considered necessary to practice as Jains admitted that even if intention may be pure, careless activities often resulted in violence unknowingly.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Mental states and intention
The practice of Vedic animal sacrifices was opposed by Jains. Hemachandra, a Jain monk, cites passages from Manusmriti, one of the law book of Hindus, to demonstrate how, in light of false scriptures, Hindus have resorted to violence. Akalanka, another Jain monk, sarcastically said that if killing can result in enlightenment, one should become a hunter or fisherman.
Jainism and Hinduism | Vedic sacrifices
No furs, plumes or silk are worn. Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals. Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable, since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night. The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed; even with this precaution, liquids are always strained before use. Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury, and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking, commerce and other mercantile trades.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Householders adherence to the vow
As per the tradition, Jain Sangh was divided into two major sects: The now defunct Yapaniya sect followed the Digambara practice of nudity and eating from the hands while standing up along with Śvetāmbara beliefs and texts. They notably also permitted their ascetics to be "half-clothed" ("ardhambara") in public areas only. The Yapaniya sect was absorbed into the Digambara community during the medieval period.
Jain philosophy | Earlier traditions
Ascetics do not have a home or possessions. They choose austerity, avoid services such as telephones and electricity. Monks engage in activities such as meditation, seeking knowledge and acquiring self-discipline. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata". "Digambara" monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day. The "Yati" of the "Śvētāmbara" sect and the "Bhattaraka" of the Digambara Terapanth do not wander; they usually live in temples and perform daily rituals. The monks rise before dawn, most around 5:00 a.m. but some as early as 2:00 a.m. In observance of "utsarg-samiti", defecation takes place in the open where feces does not harm living creatures; urination is into a shallow pan, which is emptied onto a dry patch of ground.
Jain monasticism | Rules of conduct
In Jainism: The Jaina tradition exists in tandem with Hinduism and shares many of its biocentric elements. Ahimsa (non-violence), the central teaching of Jainism, means more than not hurting other humans. It means intending not to cause physical, mental or spiritual harm to any part of nature. In the words of Mahavira: 'You are that which you wish to harm.' Compassion is a pillar of non-violence. Jainism encourages people to practice an attitude of compassion towards all life. The principle of interdependence is also very important in Jainism. This states that all of nature is bound together, and that "if one does not care for nature one does not care for oneself.".
Biocentrism (ethics) | Jainism
"Ahimsa" was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" ("Caujjama"), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of "Ahimsa". According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed. The Jain concept of "Ahimsa" is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.
Ahimsa | Jainism
Jain texts such as "Tattvartha Sutra" and "Uttaradhyayana Sutra" discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations. Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft repeated in later Jain texts. According to John Cort, outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. The Jain text of Kalpasutra describes Mahavira's asceticism in detail, whose life is a source of guidance on most of the ascetic practices in Jainism:
Asceticism | Jainism
For the layperson, the teaching has been of "ahimsa" with "pramada" – that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.
Ahimsa | Jainism
This practice of self study (reciting scriptures and thinking about the meaning) is included in the practice of equanimity (sāmāyika) which is the spiritual practice emphasized by 20th century Digambara sects. The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his "Pravacanasara" states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on "I, the pure self". Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge" is on the right road to meditating on the "soul, the pure self".
Jain meditation | Modern history
In India, Digambara monks reject any form of clothing and practice nudity. Digambara (lit. 'sky clad') is one of the two main sects of Jainism. However, the "Shwetambar" sect is "white-clad" and their holy statues wear a loin cloth.
Nudity in religion | Jainism
Jainism is against violence to all living beings, including cattle. According to the Jaina sutras, humans must avoid all killing and slaughter because all living beings are fond of life, they suffer, they feel pain, they like to live, and long to live. All beings should help each other live and prosper, according to Jainism, not kill and slaughter each other. In the Jain tradition, neither monks nor laypersons should cause others or allow others to work in a slaughterhouse. Jains have led a historic campaign to ban the slaughter of cows and all other animals, particularly during their annual festival of Paryushana (also called Daslakshana by Digambara).
Cow protection movement | Jainism
Svetambara ascetics have an Ogho or Rajoharan (a broom of woolen threads) to clean insects around their sitting place or while they are walking. Digambara ascetics have a Morpichhi and a Kamandal in their hands. This practice may vary among different sects of Jains but essential principle remains the same to limit needs.
Religious habit | Jainism
One of the most fundamental distinctions between Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jains is their respective views on women as mendicants, or nuns, that originated over their debates regarding nudity. The general consensus between the two sects is that the Jinas, and especially the last Tīrthaṅkara Mahāvīra, practiced naked asceticism. Digambara Jains claims that it is necessary for all mendicants to conduct their renunciation without clothing. For them, this represents the idealized practice of "aparigraha," in which a mendicant renounces all property and possessions, including clothing. Śvetāmbara Jains, however, claim that nudity as the exemplary mode of asceticism is impossible in this period of the cosmic age, and as such, it is "deemed inappropriate." For the Śvetāmbaras, the white robes commonly associated with them are interpreted as mere tools that enhance religious life.
Sexual differences in Jainism | Debates on women
A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks.
Altruism | Jainism
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to the Jain tradition. Though all life is considered sacred, human life is deemed the highest form of earthly existence. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only substantial religious tradition that requires both monks and laity to be vegetarian. It is suggested that certain strains of the Hindu tradition became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. The Jain tradition's stance on nonviolence, however, goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice veganism. Jains run animal shelters all over India.
Compassion | Jainism
According to Jeffery Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of "bhakti" or devotion just like their Hindu neighbors. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. "Abhisekha", festival prayers, community recitals and "Murti puja" (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice.
Bhakti | Jainism
Jains practise "pratikraman" (Sanskrit "introspection"), a process of repentance of wrongdoings during their daily life, and remind themselves to refrain from doing so again. Devout Jains often do Pratikraman at least twice a day.
Introspection | Jainism
Jainism has been engaged in debates with the other philosophical and religious traditions, in which its theories and its followers' practices have been questioned and challenged.
Criticism of Jainism | Introduction
Ahimsa (non-injury) is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow. According to the Jain text, "Tattvarthsutra": "The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury."
Ethics of Jainism | Ahiṃsā
In Jain monastic practice, the monks and nuns take ascetic vows, after renouncing all relations and possessions. The vows include a complete commitment to nonviolence ("Ahimsa"). They travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent attachment to any place. However, during the four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as "chaturmaas", they stay at a single place to avoid killing life forms that thrive during the rains. Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of the opposite sex.
Asceticism | Monastic practice
Jain vegetarianism is practiced by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy. It is one of the most rigorous forms of spiritually motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Jain cuisine is completely vegetarian and also excludes underground vegetables such as potato, garlic, onion etc, to prevent injuring small insects and microorganisms; and also to prevent the entire plant getting uprooted and killed. It is practised by Jain ascetics and lay Jains. Jain objections to the eating of meat, fish and eggs are based on the principle of non-violence (ahimsa, figuratively "non-injuring"). Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as act of violence ("himsa"), which creates harmful reaction karma.
Jain vegetarianism | Introduction
One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining Nirvana or Moksha (i.e., liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara.
Monk | Jainism
According to "Tattvarthsutra", "Infatuation is attachment to possessions". Jain texts mentions that "attachment to possessions ("parigraha") is of two kinds: attachment to internal possessions ("ābhyantara parigraha"), and attachment to external possessions ("bāhya parigraha"). The fourteen internal possessions are: External possessions are divided into two subclasses, the non-living, and the living. According to Jain texts, both internal and external possessions are proved to be "hiṃsā" (injury).
Ethics of Jainism | Aparigraha
Jainism is the religion of the followers of Mahavira. He is said to be the 24th Tirthankara, or the 24th in a line of teachers espousing Jain principles. Jains reject the Vedas and highlight the practice of austerity. Jain philosophy states that the jiva, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death through strict ethical behavior. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a "jina", or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering. Ahimsa, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith, philosophy and practice.
Eastern religions | Jainism
Pratikramana is performed in the night for the repentance of violence committed during the night, and in the evening for the violence during the day and additionally on certain days of the year. During this, the Jain expresses remorse for the harm caused, or wrongdoing, or the duties left undone.
Jain rituals | Pratikramana
Ahimsa-vrata practiced by the "Svetambras" refers to the renunciation of killing. Basically, there are five kinds of "tyāgas" included in the eleven pratimās viz. "sacitta-tyāga pratimā", the stage of renouncing uncooked food; "ārambha-tyāga pratimā", the stage of abandonment of all professional activity; "parigraha-tyāga pratimā", the stage of transferring publicly one’s property to a son or relative; "anumati-tyāga pratimā", the stage of leaving the household and refraining from counselling in household matters, and "uddista-tyāga pratimā", the stage of not eating food especially prepared for oneself i.e. the stage of seeking alms like a monk, commonly followed by " Svetambras ", " Digambaras " and "Avasyaka-Curni".
Tyāga | Jainism
Mahavira (599–527 BC), the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and subjectivism known as "Anekantavada". As a result of this acceptance of alternate religious practices, the phenomenon of proselytisation is largely absent in these religions but not unknown. Converts are welcome to the Jain faith.
Proselytism | Jainism
, an important tenet of all the religions originating in India, is now considered as an article of faith by the adherents of the Indian religions. Mahatma Gandhi was of the view: Bal Gangadhar Tilak has credited Jainism with the cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion. Some scholars have traced the origin of Ahimsa to Jains and their precursor, the sramanas. According to Thomas McEvilley, a noted Indologist, certain seals of Indus Valley civilisation depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals, providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism. This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Appreciation
According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, "samayika" connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".
Jainism | Meditation
The Jain morality and ethics are rooted in its metaphysics and its utility towards the soteriological objective of liberation. Jaina ethics evolved out of the rules for the ascetics which are encapsulated in the "mahavratas" or the five great vows. These ethics are governed not only through the instrumentality of physical actions, but also through verbal action and thoughts. Thus, ahimsa has to be observed through mind, speech, and body. The other rules of the ascetics and laity are derived from these five major vows. Jainism does not invoke fear of or reverence for God or conformity to the divine character as a reason for moral behaviour, and observance of the moral code is not necessary simply because it is God's will.
Jain philosophy | Ethics
Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara ("Jina") and human "gurus" have been venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers. Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature ("stavan") though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition. The "Avasyaka sutra" of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this "bhakti" as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to Paul Dundas, such textual references to devotional activity suggests that "bhakti" was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.
Bhakti | Jainism
Non-possession and non-attachment are a form of virtue, and these are recommended particularly in later stages of one's life. After ahiṃsā, Aparigraha is the second most important virtue in Jainism. Jainism views attachments to material or emotional possessions as what leads to passions, which in turn leads to violence. In addition, Jain texts mention that "attachment to possessions" ("parigraha") is of two kinds: attachment to internal possessions ("ābhyantara parigraha"), and attachment to external possessions ("bāhya parigraha"). For internal possessions, Jainism identifies four key passions of the mind ("kashaya"): anger, pride (ego), deceitfulness, and greed. In addition to the four passions of the mind, the remaining ten internal passions are: wrong belief, the three sex-passions (male sex-passion, female sex-passion, neuter sex-passion), and the six defects (laughter, like, dislike, sorrow, fear, disgust).
Aparigraha | Jainism
Jainism considers meditation ("dhyana") a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini, "Sāmāyika" is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of "siksavrata" (ritual restraint). The goal of "Sāmāyika" is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second "siksavrata". The "samayika" ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as "Puja" in a Jain temple and doing charity work.
Jainism | Meditation
The "Acharanga Sutra" () describes three forms of the practice. Early Svetambara text "Shravakaprajnapti" notes that the practice is not limited to ascetics. The Bhagavati Sūtra (2.1) also describes "Sallekhana" in great detail, as it was observed by Skanda Katyayana, an ascetic of Mahavira. The 4th century text "Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra," and the Svetambara text "Nava-pada-prakarana," also provide detailed descriptions. The "Nava-pada-prakarana" mentions seventeen methods of "voluntarily chosen death", of which it approves only three as consistent with the teachings of Jainism. The practice is also mentioned in the 2nd century CE Sangam era poem "Sirupanchamoolam". The "Panchashaka" makes only a cursory mention of the practice and it is not described in "Dharmabindu" – both texts by Haribhadra ().
Sallekhana | Textual
Jains observe the vow of Ahimsa and refrain from all violence. It is recommend that sinful activities should be eradicated. Some sinful activities are as under:
Jain terms and concepts | Sinful activities
As a matter of ritual, they personally greet their friends and relatives "micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ" seeking their forgiveness. No private quarrel or dispute may be carried beyond samvatsari, and letters and telephone calls are made to the outstation friends and relatives asking their forgiveness. "Pratikraman" also contains the following prayer: "Khāmemi savva-jīve savvë jive khamantu me / "
Forgiveness | Jainism
Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost) completely without possessions. Some Jains (Shvetambara monks and nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment) and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from their hands.
Monk | Austerities and other daily practices
There are five, five transgressions respectively for the vows and the supplementary vows.
Ethics of Jainism | Transgressions
This form of reverence is not a central tenet of the faith.
Cult image | Jainism
According to Jainism, a monk who is careless in his activities is guilty of violence irrespective of whether a living being remains alive or dies; on the other hand, the person who is ever vigilant and careful in observing the "samitis" experiences no karmic bondage simply because some violence may have taken place in connection with his activities. Carefulness came to be seen as a defence for the monks against violence in Jainism. "Tattvārthasūtra" defines "hiṃsā" or violence simply as "removal of life by careless activity of mind, body and speech." Thus action in Jainism came to be regarded as truly violent only when accompanied by carelessness.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Carefulness
This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali" bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Jain meditation | Post-canonical
Vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahiṃsā.
Jain philosophy | Ahiṃsā
This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of "aparigraha" which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the 5th-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
In fact to call another's path inferior is a sign of ignorance and intolerance. Both personal devotion and communal prayers are a part of Sikh's way of life.
Jainism and Sikhism | Other practices
The text expounds that "all these subdivisions (injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment) are "hiṃsā " as indulgence in these sullies the pure nature of the soul. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned separately only to make the disciple understand through illustrations." 2. "Satya" (Truth)- The underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore, it is said to cause "hiṃsā" (injury). According to Jain text "Sarvārthasiddhi", translates S.A. Jain, "that which causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable, whether it refers to actual facts or not is immaterial".
Ahimsa in Jainism | Vow of Ahimsā
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata".
Jainism | Food and fasting
Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the "Ahiṃsā" doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.
Jainism | Non-violence ("ahimsa")
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called "anuvratas" (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and "mahavratas" (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a "guru" (teacher, counsellor), "deva" (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three "guņa vratas" (merit vows) and four "śikşā vratas".
Jainism | Jain ethics and five vows
The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.
Jainism | Many-sided reality ("anekāntavāda")
The aim of ahimsa is to prevent the accumulation of such karma. Jains consider nonviolence to be the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahinsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples). Their scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, and especially to food, shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity. A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns. Jains do not practice animal sacrifice as they consider all sentient beings to be equal.
Vegetarianism and religion | Jainism
Additionally, Śvetāmbara Jains argued that women were not exempt from spiritual liberation, given that there is nothing within Jain scriptures that precludes such. The debates haunt the discussion of gender, and particularly women, in Jainism, as the mendicant tradition is seen as one of the most significant features of Jain religious practice. Yet, it is important to note that simply because the "liberal" Śvetāmbaras do not preclude spiritual liberation for women, women are still viewed in various ways - both positively and negatively - as shown by the Jain literary tradition.
Sexual differences in Jainism | Debates on women
It would be wrong, however, to conclude that only prohibits physical violence. An early Jain text says: "With the three means of punishment – thoughts, words, deeds – ye shall not injure living beings." In fact, violence can be committed by combination of the following four factors: 1. The instrumentality of our actions. We can commit violence through 2. The process of committing violence. This includes whether 3. The modality of our action, whether 4. The motivation for action. This includes which of the following negative emotions motivate the violence. In Jainism, "non-manifestation of passions like attachment is non-injury ("Ahimsa"), and manifestation of such passions is injury ("himsa")." This is termed as the essence of the Jaina Scriptures.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ways of committing violence
The observation of three or the controls of mind, speech and body and five "samiti" are designed to help the monks in observing the vow of Ahimsa faultlessly. A monk is required to cultivate the habit of carefulness ("samti"), in respect of the following five particulars:- The entire day of a Jain monk is spent in ensuring that he observes his vow of ahimsa through mind, body and speech faultlessly. This seemingly extreme behaviour of the monks comes from a sense that every action, no matter however subtle, has a karmic effect which can bind soul and inhibit liberation, especially those that result in "hiṃsā" (injury).
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa
There are Five Great vows prescribed to followers of Jainism; "Ahimsa" (non-violence), "Satya" (not lying), "Asteya" (not stealing), "Brahmacharya" (chastity), and "Aparigraha" (non-possession). A further seven supplementary vows are also prescribed, which include three "Gunavratas" (merit vows) and four "Shiksha vratas" (disciplinary vows). The three "Gunavratas" are: "Digvrata" (limited movements, limiting one's area of activity), "Bhogopabhogaparimana" (limiting use of consumable and non-consumable things), and "Anartha-dandaviramana" (abstain from purposeless sins). The "Shikshavratas" include: "Samayika" (vow to meditate and concentrate for limited periods), "Desavrata" (limiting movement and space of activity for limited periods), "Prosadhopavāsa" (fasting for limited periods), and "Atithi-samvibhag" (offering food to the ascetic).
Sallekhana | Vow
Jain philosophy arose from the shramana traditions. In its 2500 years post-Mahavira history, it remained fundamentally the same as preached by Mahavira, who preached essentially the same religion as the previous Tirthankara. Harry Oldmeadow notes that the Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components. The schisms into Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and liberation of women. Apart from these minor differences in practices, there are no major philosophical differences between the different sects of Jainism.
Jain philosophy | Schools and traditions
Sallekhana is the religious vow of gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids observed by terminally ill or old Jain disciples. It is widely called fasting unto death as there is a reduction in food intake. It is practiced with the approval of Jain monks and can last over 12 years or more. It was petitioned that Rajasthan High Court should declare the practice illegal. In response, the Jain community said that the practice was a religious activity which was protected under article 25 of the Indian constitution. In August 2015, Rajasthan High Court cited that the practice is not an essential tenet of Jainism and banned the practice, making it punishable under section 306 and 309 IPC (Abetment of Suicide).
Criticism of Jainism | Sallekhana
It is interpreted very strictly as prohibiting all forms of harm to other living beings. Due to this, Jainism requires a strict vegetarian lifestyle. "Ahimsa" also applies to speaking, as one's words can cause harm and suffering.
Eastern religions | Jainism
The debate on nudity would translate into a concern about the renunciant and soteriological potential of women. For Digambaras, women cannot become ascetics as they could not be naked, which was seen as "an essential component of the path to liberation." Women were also seen as essentially immoral - and therefore unsuited to become a mendicant - because their bodies "generate and destroy life-forms within their sexual organs... thus repeatedly infringing nonviolence." Women, then, were exempt from spiritual liberation because their bodies consistently broke the cardinal rule of "ahiṃsā." The Śvetāmbaras accepted the premise that naked nuns would be inappropriate; however, because they viewed clothing as auxiliary to religious pursuits, the issue of female mendicants was resolved as they would be clothed.
Sexual differences in Jainism | Debates on women
However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world ("Saṃsāra") is full of "hiṃsā" (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya, that are Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra which are the key requisites to attain liberation.
Indian philosophy | Jain philosophy
A Jain layman, on account of his household and occupational compulsions, is unable to adhere to the five major vows of ascetic. Hence he observes "aṇuvrata" or minor vows which although are similar to the major vows of the ascetics are observed with a lesser severity. It is difficult to avoid some violence by a lay person to single-sensed immobile beings in the process of occupation, cooking, self-defense etc. That is why he vows not to kill without a necessary purpose and determined intention, a moving sentient being, when it is innocent. Tying up, injuring, mutilating, burdening with heavy load and depriving from food and drinks any animal or human being, with one's mind polluted by anger and other passions are the five "" or transgressions of the vow of ahimsa.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Householders adherence to the vow
All "pratikramana mantras" in Jain monastic practice end with "micchami dukkadam", wherein the mendicant sets up a category of infractions and errors and then adds "may the evil of it be in vain".
Micchami Dukkadam | Practice
There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of Tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual is "sallekhana", a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.
Jainism | Rituals and worship
Upadesam - the formal induction into religious practices and adherences is called Upadesam. This is done to both boys and girls, at around the age of 15. After Upadesam, one is supposed to follow religious practices with vigor and seriousness. Marriage - outwardly, Jain marriages resemble Hindu marriages. However, the mantras chanted are Jain. There is no Brahmin priest; instead there is a Samaṇar called a "Koyil Vaadhiyar" or temple priest, who conducts the ceremonies. Pilgrimage - most Jains go on pilgrimage to tirthas and major Jain temples in North India - Sammed Shikharji, Pavapuri, Champapuri and Urjayanta Giri - as well as places in South India such as Shravanabelagola, Humcha or Hombuja Humbaj, Simmanagadde in Karnataka and Ponnur Malai in Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Jain | Other Ceremonies
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called "anuvratas" (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and "mahavratas" (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a "guru" (teacher, counsellor), "deva" (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three "guņa vratas" (merit vows) and four "śikşā vratas".
Ethics in religion | Jain ethics
"Brahmacharya" is one of the five major vows prescribed for the "śrāvakā" (layman) and ascetics in Jainism. For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words and thoughts is expected. For lay Jains who are married, the virtue of "brahmacharya" requires remaining sexually faithful to one's chosen partner (fidelity). For lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage. In the Jain monastic tradition, "brahmacharya" implies, among other things, the mandatory renunciation of sex and marriage. For a lay Jain, it represents a virtuous lifestyle devoid of constant sexual urges, that also includes simple living, meditation and other behaviors.
Sexual abstinence | Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion which is traditionally believed to be propagated by twenty-four spiritual teachers known as "tirthankara". Broadly, Jainism is divided into two major schools of thought, Digambara and Svetambara. These are further divided into different sub-sects and traditions. While there are differences in practices, the core philosophy and main principles of each sect is same.
Jain schools and branches | Introduction
Similarly, states John Cort, a mendicant's great vow of ahimsa requires that he or she must avoid gross and subtle forms of violence to all six kinds of living beings (earth beings, water beings, fire beings, wind beings, vegetable beings and mobile beings). In contrast, a Jain householder's minor vow requires no gross violence against higher life forms and an effort to protect animals from "slaughter, beating, injury and suffering". Apart from five fundamental vows seven supplementary vows are prescribed for a "śrāvaka". These include three "guņa vratas" (Merit vows) and four "śikşā vratas" (Disciplinary vows). The vow of "sallekhanâ" is observed by the votary at the end of his life.
Ethics of Jainism | Anuvratas (Minor vows)
The Tattvārthasūtra, which encapsulates major philosophical doctrines, is accepted by all traditions of Jainism. This coherence in philosophical doctrine and consistency across different schools has led scholars like Jaini to remark that in the course of history of Jainism no heretical movements like Mahayana, tantric or bhakti movement developed outside mainstream Jainism. Thus, there are traditions within Jainism, but basically the same philosophy that is at the core of Jainism.
Jain philosophy | Schools and traditions
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of "Ahimsā" is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions is considered "hiṃsā" (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is "ahimsā" (noninjury). The vow of "ahimsā" is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'. Other vows like truth (satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of "ahimsā". In the practice of "Ahimsa", the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken "anuvrata" (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows".
Ahimsa | Jainism
Vegetarianism in Jainism is based on the principle of nonviolence ("ahimsa", literally "non-injuring"). Vegetarianism is considered mandatory for everyone. Jains are either lacto-vegetarians or vegans. No use or consumption of products obtained from dead animals is allowed. Moreover, Jains try to avoid unnecessary injury to plants and "suksma jiva" (Sanskrit for 'subtle life forms'; minuscule organisms). The goal is to cause as little violence to living things as possible, hence they avoid eating roots, tubers such as potatoes, garlic and anything that involves uprooting (and thus eventually killing) a plant to obtain food. Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as violence ("hinsa"), which creates harmful karma.
Vegetarianism and religion | Jainism
The Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal, and the teachings of their first "Tirthankara Rishabhanatha" were their scriptures millions of years ago. The mythology states that the "tirthankaras" taught in divine preaching halls called "samavasarana", which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and laypersons. The discourse delivered is called "Śhrut Jnāna" (or heard knowledge) and comprises eleven "angas" and fourteen "purvas". The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the "Ganadharas" (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve "angas" (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. According to the Jain tradition, an "araha" (worthy one) speaks meaning that is then converted into "sūtra" ("sutta") by his disciples, and from such "sūtras" emerge the doctrine.
Jain literature | Canonical
Hinduism and Jainism have a rather similar view on the topic of asceticism, or, in simpler terms, abstinence. It is thought that their beliefs on the topic come from the early belief that some meditative and monastic practices cleanse the body of impurity. The Hindu theory of Karma gave Jainism a great deal of support to start promoting asceticism. Both of these traditions attribute human greed, hatred, and delusion to the presence of impure residues (samskaras or vasanas) that must be cleansed as the individual person moves towards "freedom" (death). Both of these religions believe that practicing asceticism is not only to the benefit of the individual but also to the benefit of the society as a whole.
Hinduism and other religions | Jainism
Jain yoga has been a central practice in Jainism. Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism), almsgiving (dana), right faith in the three jewels, the practice of austerities ("tapas") such as fasting, and yogic practices. Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self (atma) or soul (jiva) from the forces of karma, which keep all souls bound to the cycle of transmigration. Like Yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a multiplicity of individual souls which bound by their individual karma. Only through the reduction of karmic influxes and the exhaustion of one's collected karma can a soul become purified and released, at which point one becomes an omniscient being who has reaches "absolute knowledge" ("kevala jnana").
Yoga | Jain yoga
These are– authority of Bhattarakas, Use of flowers, cooked food or lamps, Abhisheka (panchamrita), consecretation of images without supervision by the representatives of Bhattarakas, Puja while seated, Puja at night, Using drums in the temple and Worship of minor gods like dikpalas, shasan devis (Padmavati etc.) and Kshetrapal. The Digambara Jains who have continued to follow these practices are termed Bispanthi.
Jain schools and branches | Monastic orders
Most of them are not recorded or noticed. Statistically, "Sallekhana" is undertaken both by men and women of all economic classes and among the educationally forward Jains. It is observed more often by women than men.
Sallekhana | Modern
Samayika is the practice of equanimity, translating to meditation. It is a ritual act undertaken early in the morning and perhaps also at noon and night. It lasts for forty-eight minutes (Two Ghadis) and usually involves not only quiet recollection but also usually the repetition of routine prayers. The ritual is chanting and also praying about the good things.
Jain rituals | Samayika
The creation of idols, their consecration, the inclusion of Jaina layperson in idols and temples of Jainism by the Jaina monks has been a historic practice. However, during the iconoclastic era of Islamic rule, between the 15th and 17th century, a Lonka sect of Jainism emerged that continued pursuing their traditional spirituality but without the Jaina arts, images and idols.
Idolatry | Jainism
Asceticism in one of its most intense forms can be found in one of the oldest religions, Jainism. Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even clothes, fasting, body mortification, penance and other austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed in Jainism to be essential for reaching "siddha" and "moksha" (liberation from rebirths, salvation). In Jainism, the ultimate goal of life is to achieve the liberation of soul from endless cycle of rebirths (moksha from samsara), which requires ethical living and asceticism. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara who practiced 12 years of asceticism before reaching enlightenment.
Asceticism | Jainism
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of "Ahimsā" is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions is considered "hiṃsā" (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is "ahimsā" (noninjury). The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'. Other vows like truth (Satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā. In the practice of Ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken "anuvrata" (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows".
Nonviolence | Jainism
"Digambara" monks follow 28 "vratas" (vows): five "mahāvratas" (Great Vows); five "samitis" (regulations); the five-fold control of the senses ("pañcendriya nirodha"); six "Şadāvaśyakas" (essential duties), and seven "niyamas" (restrictions).
Jain monasticism | Digambara monks
Celibacy is a must for all Jain monks and nuns. Chastity (Bhramacharya) is one of the five major vows of Jainism. The general Jain code of ethics requires that one do no harm to any living being in thought, action, or word. Adultery is clearly a violation of a moral agreement with one's spouse, and therefore forbidden, and fornication too is seen as a violation of the state of chastity.
Chastity | Jainism
Jain philosophy can be described in various ways, but the most acceptable tradition is to describe it in terms of the "tattvas" or fundamentals. Without knowing them one cannot progress towards liberation. According to major Jain text, Tattvarthsutra, these are: Each one of these fundamental principles are discussed and explained by Jain scholars in depth. There are two examples that can be used to explain the above principle intuitively. This simple scenario can be interpreted as follows:
Tattva | Jainism
The Śvētāmbara (white-clad) is one of the two main sects of Jainism. Śvētāmbara is a term describing its ascetics' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from the "Digambara" whose ascetic practitioners go naked. Śvētāmbaras, unlike Digambaras, do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity. Svetambara monks usually wear white maintaining that nudism is no longer practical. Śvētāmbaras also believe that women are able to obtain moksha. Śvētāmbaras maintain that the 19th Tirthankara, Mallinath, was a woman. Some Śvētāmbara monks and nuns cover their mouth with a white cloth or muhapatti to practise ahimsa even when they talk.
Jain schools and branches | Svetambara
The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as "Aryikas". Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that "Acharya" Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
The whole scheme of "gunasthana" in Jain philosophy is devised in a logical order according to the principle of decreasing sinfulness and increasing purity. At the first stage, all the five causes of bondage — Irrational beliefs ("mithyatva"), non-restraint ("avirati"), carelessness ("pramada"), passions ("kashaya") and activities of mind, speech and body ("yoga") — are in full operation. Irrational beliefs ("mithyatva") are partially suppressed in the second and third stages, and are fully eliminated in the fourth stage. In stages five and six, non-restraint ("avirati") is gradually eliminated in stages. From the seventh stage onwards, carelessness is removed and only passions and activity exercise their influence.
Gunasthana | The destruction of causes of bondage
The Jains also considered right knowledge as a prerequisite for practising . It is necessary to know what is living and what is non-living to practice faultlessly. A person who is confused between Living and non-living can never observe non-violence. "Daśavaikālika Sūtra" declared: It further declares: The knowledge is also considered necessary to destroy "Karmas". Samaṇ Suttaṁ declared:
Ahimsa in Jainism | Knowledge