Modern packaging helps eliminate this by placing the dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax-coated cardboard. Dynamite is moderately sensitive to shock. Shock resistance tests are usually carried out with a drop-hammer: about 100 mg of explosive is placed on an anvil, upon which a weight of between is dropped from different heights until detonation is achieved. With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm.
Storage considerations
Dynamite
Dynamite | Storage considerations
Modern packaging places dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax-coated cardboard. Modern packaging helps eliminate nitroglycerin pooling the bottom of the box by placing the dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax-coated cardboard. Pool in the bottom of the box or storage area Yes
name the fields in which nobel prize is given
user
Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace.
assistant
why is this prize given?
user
To those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind
assistant
which organization gives away the prizes?
user
The Nobel Foundation.
assistant
when was this formed?
user
29 June 1900.
assistant
are nominations after death allowed?
user
No.
assistant
how are people nominated for this?
user
Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee.
assistant
by whom was the concept of these prizes first created?
user
Alfred Nobel.
assistant
who was he?
user
He was a Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and philanthropist.
assistant
where was he born?
user
Stockholm.
assistant
what did he invent?
user
He held 355 different patents, dynamite being the most famous.
assistant
what is this patented thing that you just mentioned?
user
It is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay) and stabilizers.
assistant
how can it be stored?
user
The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions. Over time, regardless of the sorbent used, sticks of dynamite will "weep" or "sweat" nitroglycerin, which can then pool in the bottom of the box or storage area. For that reason, explosive manuals recommend the repeated turning over of boxes of dynamite in storage. Crystals will form on the outside of the sticks, causing them to be even more sensitive to shock, friction, and temperature. Therefore, while the risk of an explosion without the use of a blasting cap is minimal for fresh dynamite, old dynamite is dangerous.
Dynamite | Storage considerations
Gelignite (), also known as blasting gelatin or simply jelly, is an explosive material consisting of collodion-cotton (a type of nitrocellulose or guncotton) dissolved in either nitroglycerine or nitroglycol and mixed with wood pulp and saltpetre (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate). It was invented in 1875, by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, who also invented dynamite. It is more stable than dynamite, but can still suffer from "sweating" or leaching out nitroglycerine. Its composition makes it easily moldable and safe to handle without protection, as long as it is not near anything capable of detonating it. One of the cheapest explosives, it burns slowly and cannot explode without a detonator, so it can be stored safely.
Gelignite | Introduction
Modern packaging helps eliminate this by placing the dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax-coated cardboard. Dynamite is moderately sensitive to shock. Shock resistance tests are usually carried out with a drop-hammer: about 100 mg of explosive is placed on an anvil, upon which a weight of between is dropped from different heights until detonation is achieved. With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm.
Dynamite | Storage considerations
Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about long and about in diameter, with a weight of about . A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by weight. Dynamite is usually rated by "weight strength" (the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%. For example, "40% dynamite" is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% "dope" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the stabilizer and any additives).
Dynamite | Form
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay) and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany and patented in 1867. It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more powerful alternative to black powder. Today, dynamite is mainly used in the mining, quarrying, construction, and demolition industries. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, and as a cost-effective alternative to cast boosters. Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges.
Dynamite | Introduction
"Military dynamite" is a dynamite substitute, formulated without nitroglycerin. It contains 75% RDX, 15% TNT, 5% SAE 10 motor oil, and 5% cornstarch, but is much safer to store and handle for long periods than Nobel's dynamite. Military dynamite substitutes much more stable chemicals for nitroglycerin.
Dynamite | "Military dynamite"
The main use of nitroglycerin, by tonnage, is in explosives such as dynamite and in propellants. Nitroglycerin is an oily liquid that may explode when subjected to heat, shock, or flame. Alfred Nobel developed the use of nitroglycerin as a blasting explosive by mixing nitroglycerin with inert absorbents, particularly ""Kieselguhr"", or diatomaceous earth. He named this explosive dynamite and patented it in 1867. It was supplied ready for use in the form of sticks, individually wrapped in greased waterproof paper. Dynamite and similar explosives were widely adopted for civil engineering tasks, such as in drilling highway and railroad tunnels, for mining, for clearing farmland of stumps, in quarrying, and in demolition work.
Nitroglycerin | Use as an explosive and a propellant
It was in France that Nobel first encountered nitroglycerin, which Pelouze cautioned against using as a commercial explosive because of its great sensitivity to shock. In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive. Nobel, along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder. Nobel came up with a solution of how to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion set off from a distance using a fuse.
Dynamite | History
Keep in a tightly closed container, stored in a cool, dry, ventilated area. Protect against physical damage and moisture. Isolate from any source of heat or ignition. Avoid storage on wood floors. Separate from incompatibles, combustibles, organic or other readily oxidizable materials.
Potassium nitrate (data page) | Handling and Storage
Nobel found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like "kieselguhr" (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to handle, and this mixture he patented in 1867 as "dynamite". Nobel demonstrated his explosive for the first time that year, at a quarry in Redhill, Surrey, England. In order to help reestablish his name and improve the image of his business from the earlier controversies associated with the dangerous explosives, Nobel had also considered naming the highly powerful substance "Nobel's Safety Powder", but settled with Dynamite instead, referring to the Greek word for "power" (). Nobel later combined nitroglycerin with various nitrocellulose compounds, similar to collodion, but settled on a more efficient recipe combining another nitrate explosive, and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite.
Alfred Nobel | Inventions
In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin. Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin. It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive). For example, high-explosive "65% Extra Dynamite" has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives).
Dynamite | "Extra" dynamite
Likewise, military engineers have used dynamite for construction and demolition work.
Nitroglycerin | Use as an explosive and a propellant
Each magazine had a size of about and could store 20 tons of explosives. The magazines were made of brick, with tile roofs. The roofs were not attached to the walls - they stayed there under their own weight. This was so that, in the event of an explosion, the roof would lift off, minimising damage to the building. The explosives were stacked on air-permeable shelves, so that air could circulate around the boxes at any time. The wooden boxes for explosives were made with brass nails or with only dovetail joints to minimize the possibility of sparking. Each magazine was surrounded on three sides by a large earth wall, with an open side facing away from human activity.
Truganina Explosives Reserve | Magazines
TNT's primary asset is its remarkable insensitivity and stability: it is waterproof and incapable of detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this conveniently also allows it to be melted at , poured into high explosive shells and allowed to re-solidify with no extra danger or change in the TNT's characteristics. As such, more than 90% of the TNT produced in America was always for the military market, with most filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs and the remainder being packaged in brown "bricks" (not red cylinders) for use as demolition charges by combat engineers.
Dynamite | TNT
On a smaller scale, magazine is also the name given to the ammunition storage and feeding device of a repeating firearm. Gunpowder must be stored in a dry place (stable room temperature) to keep it usable, as long as for 10 years. It is also recommended to avoid hot places, because friction or heat might ignite a spark and cause an explosion.
Ammunition | Storage
Diatomaceous earth is available commercially in several formats: In 1866, Alfred Nobel discovered that nitroglycerin could be made much more stable if absorbed in diatomite. This allows much safer transport and handling than nitroglycerin in its raw form. He patented this mixture as dynamite in 1867; the mixture is also called guhr dynamite. The Celle engineer Wilhelm Berkefeld recognized the ability of the diatomaceous earth to filter, and he developed tubular filters (known as filter candles) fired from diatomaceous earth. During the cholera epidemic in Hamburg in 1892, these Berkefeld filters were used successfully.
Diatomaceous earth | Commercial form
Even then, dynamite needed to be stored carefully or it could form crystals that detonated easily. Thus, the military still preferred guncotton. In 1863, the German chemical industry developed trinitrotoluene (TNT). This had the advantage that it was difficult to detonate, so it could withstand the shock of firing by artillery pieces. It was also advantageous for land mines for several reasons: it was not detonated by the shock of shells landing nearby; it was lightweight, unaffected by damp, and stable under a wide range of conditions; it could be melted to fill a container of any shape, and it was cheap to make.
Land mine | High explosives
In April 1866, the company shipped three unmarked crates of nitroglycerin to California for the Central Pacific Railroad, who wished to experiment with its blasting capability to speed the construction of a tunnel through the Sierra Nevada for the First Transcontinental Railroad. One of the crates exploded, destroying a Wells Fargo office in San Francisco and killing fifteen people, leading to a complete ban on the transport of liquid nitroglycerin in California. Liquid nitroglycerin was widely banned elsewhere as well, and this finally led to Alfred Nobel & Company's development of dynamite in 1867, made by mixing the nitroglycerin with the diatomaceous earth ("kieselguhr") found in the Krümmel hills.
Dynamit Nobel | Creation
On 31 May 1873 the powder mill held an auction of of glycerol, of sulfuric acid and of nitric acid. In the 1870s another were added for a dynamite factory. The official composition of the dynamite at this and other French powder works was 75% nitroglycerin, 20.8% randanite silica, 3.8% Vierzon silica and 0.4% magnesium carbonate. There were explosions in 1881 and 1882. Production of dynamite was stopped in 1885. In September 1887 the powder mill sold of dynamite to the Société générale de dynamite in Paris that was declared to be superior but was found to be inert. The dynamite was of very low quality, with the cartridges holding about 30% nitroglycerin.
Poudrerie nationale de Vonges | Operations
Antimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and an equal amount of the container. Antimatter in the form of charged particles can be contained by a combination of electric and magnetic fields, in a device called a Penning trap. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which atomic traps are used. In particular, such a trap may use the dipole moment (electric or magnetic) of the trapped particles. At high vacuum, the matter or antimatter particles can be trapped and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation using a magneto-optical trap or magnetic trap.
Antimatter | Preservation
Potassium nitrite is stored with other oxidizing agents but separated from flammables, combustibles, reducing agents, acids, cyanides, ammonium compounds, amides, and other nitrogenous salts in a cool, dry, well ventilated location.
Potassium nitrite | Storage requirements
From the mid-19th century, chemists produced the first high explosive compounds, as opposed to low explosives such as gunpowder. The first of these, nitroglycerine and from 1867, dynamite, proved to be too unstable to be fired from a gun without exploding in the barrel. In 1885, the French chemist Eugène Turpin, patented a form of picric acid, which proved stable enough to be used as a blasting charge in artillery shells. These shells had recently evolved from the traditional sphere of iron into a pointed cylinder, at that time known as a "torpedo-shell". The combination of these, combined with new delayed-action fuzes, meant that shells could bury themselves deep under the surface of a fort and then explode with unprecedented force.
Polygonal fort | The "torpedo-shell crisis"
Chubb Locks was an independent company until 2000 when it was sold to Assa Abloy. On November 2, 1886, inventor Henry Brown patented a "receptacle for storing and preserving papers". The container was fire retardant and accident resistant as it was made from forged metal. The box was able to be safely secured with a lock and key and also able to maintain organization by offering different slots to organize important papers.
Safe | History
Thus, if a stick of dynamite is blown up in a hermetically sealed chamber, the mass of the chamber and fragments, the heat, sound, and light would still be equal to the original mass of the chamber and dynamite. If sitting on a scale, the weight and mass would not change. This would in theory also happen even with a nuclear bomb, if it could be kept in an ideal box of infinite strength, which did not rupture or pass radiation. Thus, a 21.5 kiloton () nuclear bomb produces about one gram of heat and electromagnetic radiation, but the mass of this energy would not be detectable in an exploded bomb in an ideal box sitting on a scale; instead, the contents of the box would be heated to millions of degrees without changing total mass and weight.
Mass–energy equivalence | Application to nuclear physics
Kinetite was an explosive material patented in 1884 by T. Petry and O. Fallenstein, It consisted of nitro-benzol thickened or gelatinised by the addition of some collodion-cotton incorporated with finely ground potassium chlorate and precipitated antimony sulphide. It is an orange coloured, plastic mass, with the characteristic strong smell of nitro-benzol. It was manufactured by dissolving gun cotton in nitrobenzene. Developed as a safer alternative to dynamite, its manufacture and manipulation were claimed to be without danger as it required a very high temperature to ignite and, under ordinary circumstances be exploded by heat alone when unconfined. Instead, it detonated only under shock, and then only the part exposed to concussion.
Kinetite | Introduction
Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age.
Shelf life | Temperature control
This was an edible explosive, which could pass for regular flour, and even be used in cooking.
George Kistiakowsky | National Defense Research Committee
The instability of NI and NI · NH can be attributed to the large steric strain caused by the three large iodine atoms being held in proximity to each other around the relatively tiny nitrogen atom. This results in a very low activation energy for its decomposition, a reaction made even more favorable due to the great stability of N. Nitrogen triiodide has no practical commercial value due to its extreme shock sensitivity, making it impossible to store, transport, and utilize for controlled explosions. Whereas pure nitroglycerin is also greatly shock-sensitive (although not nearly as much so as nitrogen triiodide, which can be set off with the touch of a feather) and powerful, it was only due to phlegmatizers that its shock sensitivity was reduced and it became safer to handle and transport in the form of dynamite.
Nitrogen triiodide | Decomposition and explosiveness
Though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century in China by Song Chinese alchemists. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke. The first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867 and gelignite (the latter two being sophisticated stabilized preparations of nitroglycerin rather than chemical alternatives, both invented by Alfred Nobel).
Explosive | History
Nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by Alfred Nobel as an industrial explosive, but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it detonates instead of deflagrating smoothly, making it more liable to shatter a gun, rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward was the invention of guncotton, a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire.
Smokeless powder | Nitroglycerine and guncotton
Extrudable explosives are an extremely viscous liquid, similar in properties to silicone based caulking materials used in construction. It is used in similar ways - stored in a container, then extruded out a nozzle into thin cracks, holes, or along surfaces. Some extrudable explosives can then be hardened using a heat curing process. Others will remain a viscous fluid permanently. Common extrudable explosives include:
Use forms of explosives | Extrudable
Quantities of nitrate film in excess of 25 pounds are subject to storage and handling standards prescribed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Seriously deteriorated negatives of any type should be isolated from those in good condition.
Conservation and restoration of film | Storage control
Henry Brown, an American inventor, patented a "receptacle for storing and preserving papers" on November 2, 1886. This was a fire and accident safe container made of forged metal, which could be sealed with a lock. It was special in that it kept the papers separated.
Filing cabinet | Horizontal file
Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:
Explosive | Stability
The components contained in two separate containers would not be lethal to humans if individually released, so these bombs can be assembled, stored, and transported without appreciable danger. However, when the device is put into operation it releases large quantities of a lethal gas. For further information, see Ron Suskind's "The One Percent Doctrine", p. 192ff.
Mubtakkar | Introduction
Sodium hydroxide must be stored in airtight containers to preserve its normality as it will absorb water from the atmosphere.
Sodium hydroxide | Storage
Two air compressors were available to recharge the reservoir. The shells fired from the guns were steel or brass casings 7 feet (2 meters) long with the explosive contained in the conical forward part of the casing and spiral vanes on the after part to rotate the projectile. The explosive used in the shells themselves was actually a "desensitized blasting gelatin" composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. It was less sensitive to shock than regular dynamite, but still sensitive enough that compressed air, rather than powder, had to be utilized as the propellant. Shells containing 550 pounds (250 kg) of explosive had a maximum range of 1 mile (1.6 km), but range could be extended to 4000 yards (3.7 km) by reducing projectile weight to 200 pounds (100 kg).
USS Vesuvius (1888) | Dynamite guns
The Nobel explosives factory (later ICI, then Orica) in Deer Park was set-up in 1873 to produce explosives, especially gelignite and dynamite, for quarries, mines, as well as for road, rail, dam and tunnel construction with the intention to become independent of imports from Britain and South Africa. These explosives were initially stored in specially designed magazines (Jack's Magazine) on the banks of the Maribyrnong River, upstream of Footscray, before being shipped to other parts of Australia or to New Zealand, New Guinea and the Pacific. As the population of Footscray increased, a more remote location for explosives storage was sought.
Truganina Explosives Reserve | History
Since propene is volatile and flammable, precautions must be taken to avoid fire hazards in the handling of the gas. If propene is loaded to any equipment capable of causing ignition, such equipment should be shut down while loading, unloading, connecting or disconnecting. Propene is usually stored as liquid under pressure, although it is also possible to store it safely as gas at ambient temperature in approved containers.
Propene | Storage and handling
Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behavior in the presence of water. Gelatin dynamites containing nitroglycerine have a degree of water resistance. Explosives based on ammonium nitrate have little or no water resistance as ammonium nitrate is highly soluble in water and is hygroscopic.
Explosive | Hygroscopicity and water resistance
In order to achieve a near thermodynamic reversible process so that most of the energy is saved in the system and can be retrieved, and losses are kept negligible, a near reversible isothermal process or an isentropic process is desired.
Compressed-air energy storage | Storage thermodynamics
Various regulations also govern the storage of unmixed explosives. As oxidizers and combustibles, the unmixed components still have some shipping restrictions in the United States.
Tannerite | United States law
This business exported a liquid combination of nitroglycerin and gunpowder called "Blasting Oil", but this was extremely unstable and difficult to handle, as evidenced in numerous catastrophes. The buildings of the Krümmel factory were destroyed twice.
Nitroglycerin | History
Historic firearms should be stored away from pollutants such as wool or silk which contain sulfur and leather, each of which will corrode metal as it off-gases. Small firearms and long arms can be stored in acid-free boxes and should be supported or cushioned with polyethylene foam or acid free tissue. Long arms can also be stored in boxes and supported like small firearms. If, however; the longarms cannot be stored in boxes, they should be stored vertically with barrels down and padded with polyethlene foam. The firearms should be stored with the locks upright.
Conservation and restoration of historic firearms | Storage
Freezing causes any moisture in the plaster to expand but makes the celluloid contract, a combination which can cause the celluloid to split lengthwise very abruptly. The Blue Amberol plastic is nitrocellulose and therefore flammable. Being an organic plastic, celluloid is subject to chemical decomposition, but acute deterioration, as seen in some nitrate film, has so far rarely if ever been observed in Blue Amberols or other (e.g., Lambert, Albany Indestructible, and US Everlasting) celluloid cylinders.
Blue Amberol Records | Archival storage of cylinders
Medium flash point liquids such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and crude oil are stored in these tanks. One of the best types found in mining areas is the open roof type tank, usually to store ore slurries. These are the easiest storage tanks to build. Other classifications which can be made for storage tanks are based upon their location in a refinery:
Storage tank | For refineries
Handloading is legal in Canada. The Explosives Act places limits on the amount of powder (either smokeless or black) that may be stored in a building, on the manner in which it is stored, and on how much powder may be available for use at any time. The Act is the responsibility of Natural Resources Canada. If the quantity of powder stored for personal use exceeds 75 kg, then a Propellant Magazine Licence (Type P) is required. There is no limit on the number of primers that may be stored for non-commercial use.
Handloading | Canada
Franklin designed a "dissectible" Leyden jar "(right)", which was widely used in demonstrations. The jar is constructed out of a glass cup nested between two fairly snugly fitting metal cups. When the jar is charged with a high voltage and carefully dismantled, it is discovered that all the parts may be freely handled without discharging the jar. If the pieces are re-assembled, a large spark may still be obtained from it. This demonstration appears to suggest that capacitors store their charge inside their dielectric. This theory was taught throughout the 1800s. However, this phenomenon is a special effect caused by the high voltage on the Leyden jar.
Leyden jar | Storage of the charge
In the summer of 1863, Nobel performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin, using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury fulminate. In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, using sulfuric acid, nitric acid and glycerin. On 3 September 1864, while experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at Heleneborg. After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget AB in Vinterviken to continue work in a more isolated area and the following year moved to Germany, where he founded another company, Dynamit Nobel.
Dynamite | History
Gas more recently was stored in large underground reservoirs such as salt caverns. In modern times, however, line-packing is the preferred method. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s it was thought that gas holders could be replaced with high-pressure bullets (a cylindrical pressure vessel with hemispherical ends). However, regulations brought in meant that all new bullets must be built several miles out of towns and cities, and the security of storing large amounts of high-pressure natural gas above ground made them unpopular with local people and councils. Bullets are gradually being decommissioned. It is also possible to store natural gas in liquid form, and this is widely practised throughout the world.
Gas holder | Other storage systems
Later on, in 1891, James Dewar and Frederick Augustus Abel also managed to transform gelatinized guncotton into a safe mixture, called cordite because it could be extruded into long thin cords before being dried.
Christian Friedrich Schönbein | Explosives
The Library of Congress recommends that tapes with water repellent plastic containers be stored vertically on edge, not flat, and that reel-to-reel boxes need not be separated, but should be stored vertically with bookends, so as not to fall. Also, it is always important to remember that these collections will be very heavy and should be shelved on strong, non-acidic shelving.
Preservation of magnetic audiotape | Storage
PLX was invented during World War II by the Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey. It was originally designed to clear minefields by being spread via plane over the targeted area or poured from a safe distance and detonated by troops on the ground. This explosive can also be gelled through the addition of nitrocellulose, ETN, or any number of soluble nitrate esters or gelling agents. This allows for powdered metals, such as aluminum or magnesium, to be suspended in the mixture. The metal powders act as fuel, increasing heat and energy output but lowering the brisance and VoD. The result is a more sustained blast wave and a "push and heave" effect, desirable for thermobaric purposes.
PLX | Uses and discovery
Numerous safety guidelines are available for storing and handling ammonium nitrate. Health and safety data are shown on the safety data sheets available from suppliers and from various governments. Pure ammonium nitrate does not burn, but as a strong oxidizer, it supports and accelerates the combustion of organic (and some inorganic) material. It should not be stored near combustible substances. While ammonium nitrate is stable at ambient temperature and pressure under many conditions, it may detonate from a strong initiation charge. It should not be stored near high explosives or blasting agents.
Ammonium nitrate | Safety, handling, and storage
Nitroglycerin was the first practical explosive produced that was stronger than black powder. It was first synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847, working under Théophile-Jules Pelouze at the University of Turin. Sobrero initially called his discovery "pyroglycerine" and warned vigorously against its use as an explosive. Nitroglycerin was later adopted as a commercially useful explosive by Alfred Nobel, who experimented with safer ways to handle the dangerous compound after his younger brother, Emil Oskar Nobel, and several factory workers were killed in an explosion at the Nobels' armaments factory in 1864 in Heleneborg, Sweden. One year later, Nobel founded Alfred Nobel and Company in Germany and built an isolated factory in the Krümmel hills of Geesthacht near Hamburg.
Nitroglycerin | History
Munitions storage bunkers are designed to securely store explosive ordnance, and contain any internal explosions. The most common configuration for high explosives storage is the igloo shaped bunker. They are often built into a hillside in order to provide additional containment mass. A specialized version of the munitions bunker called a Gravel Gertie is designed to contain radioactive debris from an explosive accident while assembling or disassembling nuclear warheads. They are installed at all facilities in the United States and United Kingdom which do warhead assembly and disassembly, the largest being the Pantex plant in Amarillo, Texas, which has 12 Gravel Gerties.
Bunker | Munitions storage
In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be "conserved" over time. This law, first proposed and tested by Émilie du Châtelet, means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite.
Conservation of energy | Introduction
Nitroglycerin can be added to nitrocellulose to form "double-base propellants". Nitrocellulose desensitizes nitroglycerin to prevent detonation in propellant-sized grains, (see dynamite), and the nitroglycerin gelatinises the nitrocellulose and increases the energy. Double-base powders burn faster than single-base powders of the same shape, though not as cleanly, and burn rate increases with nitroglycerin content. In artillery, Ballistite or Cordite has been used in the form of rods, tubes, slotted-tube, perforated-cylinder or multi-tubular; the geometry being chosen to provide the required burning characteristics. (Round balls or rods, for example, are "degressive-burning" because their production of gas decreases with their surface area as the balls or rods burn smaller; thin flakes are "neutral-burning," since they burn on their flat surfaces until the flake is completely consumed.
Internal ballistics | Double-base propellants
The remains of old storage magazines are prominent in the landscape around the old Nobel's Explosives site in Ayrshire, many protected by large earth banks which acted as blast walls; these are not all gunpowder magazines, as the site has long been associated with other explosives, particularly dynamite and ballistite.
Gunpowder magazine | Ayrshire
Technically known as putties, but more commonly Plastic explosives, these mixtures are a thick, flexible, moldable solid material that can be shaped and will retain that shape after forming, much like clay. Putties normally contain mostly RDX explosive, but may include some PETN (Semtex, for example). Some common putties are:
Use forms of explosives | Putties, aka Plastic explosives
This is a simple, cheap method that involves digging a hole in the ground for storing the potatoes. Pit storage differs from in-ground as tubers are collected and kept together and considerations are made to control the storage environment. Construction of the pit can vary according to what materials are available but commonly used are; grass, soil, wood, lime, sawdust and ash. Grass is typically used to line the bottom and sides of the pit in order to insulate against temperature change and absorb moisture. Before usage, grass should be flamed in order to destroy any pests that may be hiding within.
Sweet potato storage | Pit storage
Adiabatic storage continues to keep the heat produced by compression and returns it to the air as it is expanded to generate power. This is a subject of ongoing study, with no utility scale plants as of 2015, but a German project ADELE is planning to bring a demonstration plant (360 MWh storage capacity) into service in 2016. The theoretical efficiency of adiabatic storage approaches 100% with perfect insulation, but in practice round trip efficiency is expected to be 70%. Heat can be stored in a solid such as concrete or stone, or more likely in a fluid such as hot oil (up to 300 °C) or molten salt solutions (600 °C).
Compressed-air energy storage | Adiabatic
Film - Film reels are typically stored in their metal or plastic canisters, laid flat, and stacked on top of each other. Film must be stored in a climate-controlled room due to its susceptibility to heat and humidity. Film may also have additional special storage considerations, which may involve low temperature freezes to retard further damage. How stable the film is depends largely on the type of stock, but film, if well taken care of, is generally able to last for long periods of time. Film has been made on a variety of materials, including nitrate-based stock (see: Nitrocellulose) and acetate-based stocks, and polyester-backed film, each have their own considerations.
Conservation and restoration of time-based media art | Storage and maintenance of physical objects
Some bags are designed to collapse for storage. A bag not designed to store collapsed may lose elasticity when stored compressed for long periods, reducing its effectiveness. The collapsible design has longitudinal scoring so that the bag collapses on the scoring "pivot point," opposite to the direction of normal bag compression.
Bag valve mask | Device storage features
Any amount of either 1.3g or 1.4g may be held for up to 24 hours. If storing for longer periods, a license is required if storing more than 5 kg NEC (Net Explosive Content).
Fireworks law in the United Kingdom | Storage
It was therefore decided not to use it. Instead, it was hoisted up a steel tower from the explosion, where it could be used for a subsequent test. In the end, Jumbo survived the explosion, although its tower did not. The development team also considered other methods of recovering active material in the event of a dud explosion. One idea was to cover it with a cone of sand. Another was to suspend the bomb in a tank of water. As with Jumbo, it was decided not to proceed with these means of containment either. The CM-10 (Chemistry and Metallurgy) group at Los Alamos also studied how the active material could be chemically recovered after a contained or failed explosion.
Trinity (nuclear test) | Jumbo
A different approach consists of burying a large bag buried under several meters of sand instead of water.
Compressed-air energy storage | Constant-pressure storage
During the experimental stage, a very severe explosion occurred in 1866 within the Krümmel factory which was nearly destroyed. He was successful in mixing nitroglycerine with Kieselgur which made it less sensitive to shocks. In October 1867, Nobel filed a patent for this new explosive in Sweden, the United States of America and in the United Kingdom (the patent was not filed in Germany before 1877). The new explosive was marketed under the name of security powder. In 1874, in order to ensure a better supply of the main buyers, the mines of the region of Ruhr, the company took over the Schlebusch factory in Manfort (since 1930 a district of Leverkusen; Nobel was involved in its construction since 1872 and supervised the production on a temporary basis.
Dynamit Nobel | From 1865 to 1918
Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy. The above compositions may describe most of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other substances. For example, dynamite is a mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminium powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects.
Explosive | Pure compounds
Energy can be stored in water pumped to a higher elevation using pumped storage methods or by moving solid matter to higher locations (gravity batteries). Other commercial mechanical methods include compressing air and flywheels that convert electric energy into internal energy or kinetic energy and then back again when electrical demand peaks.
Energy storage | Mechanical
At the 1936 meeting of the American Chemical Society, professor Edward Bartow of the University of Iowa presented a commercially viable means of extracting large amounts of inositol from the phytic acid naturally present in waste corn. As a possible use for the chemical, he suggested 'inositol nitrate' as a more stable alternative to nitroglycerin. Today, inositol nitrate is used to gelatinize nitrocellulose, thus can be found in many modern explosives and solid rocket propellants.
Inositol | Use in explosives manufacture
In its pure form, nitroglycerin is a contact explosive, with physical shock causing it to explode, and it degrades over time to even more unstable forms. This makes nitroglycerin highly dangerous to transport or use. In its undiluted form, it is one of the world's most powerful explosives, comparable to the more recently developed RDX and PETN. Early in its history, liquid nitroglycerin was found to be "desensitized" by cooling it to about . At this temperature, nitroglycerin freezes, contracting upon solidification. Thawing it out can be extremely sensitizing, especially if impurities are present or the warming is too rapid.
Nitroglycerin | Instability and desensitization
Acetylene is explosive when stored under pressure. Claude showed that acetylene dissolved well in acetone, equivalent to storing it under 25 atmospheres of pressure, reduced the risk in handling the gas.
Georges Claude | Early life and career
Nitroglycerin (NG), also known as nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin (TNG), nitro, glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), or 1,2,3-trinitroxypropane, is a dense, colorless, oily, explosive liquid most commonly produced by nitrating glycerol with white fuming nitric acid under conditions appropriate to the formation of the nitric acid ester. Chemically, the substance is an organic nitrate compound rather than a nitro compound, yet the traditional name is often retained. Invented in 1847, nitroglycerin has been used ever since as an active ingredient in the manufacture of explosives, mostly dynamite, and as such it is employed in the construction, demolition, and mining industries. Since the 1880s, it has been used by the military as an active ingredient, and a gelatinizer for nitrocellulose, in some solid propellants, such as cordite and ballistite.
Nitroglycerin | Introduction
During his time at the University of Wisconsin, Stork kept a steak on his windowsill in the winter in order to keep it refrigerated. The steak began to degrade and to dispose of it Stork put it in a hot acid bath used to clean glassware which contained nitric and sulphuric acids. He was then concerned he would produce nitroglycerine due to the glycerine in the steak and the presence of nitric and sulphuric acids. However, due to the high temperature of the bath, the oxidation of glycerol was much faster than the nitration of glycerin thus preventing the formation of explosives.
Gilbert Stork | The explosive steak
Chemically "desensitizing" nitroglycerin is possible to a point where it can be considered about as "safe" as modern high explosives, such as by the addition of roughly 10 to 30% ethanol, acetone, or dinitrotoluene (the percentage varies with the desensitizing agent used). Desensitization requires extra effort to reconstitute the "pure" product. Failing this, desensitized nitroglycerin must be assumed to be substantially more difficult to detonate, possibly rendering it useless as an explosive for practical application. A serious problem in the use of nitroglycerin results from its high freezing point of . Solid nitroglycerin is much less sensitive to shock than the liquid, a common feature in explosives.
Nitroglycerin | Instability and desensitization
In the case of a liquefied gas such as hydrogen or chlorine, or a compressed gas such as compressed natural gas or MAPP, the storage tank must be made to withstand the sometimes immense pressures exerted by the contents. These tanks may be called "cylinders" and, being pressure vessels, are sometimes excluded from the class of "tanks".
Storage tank | High pressure
Some experts recommend storing ammunition in secure locations away from firearms. Ammunition should be kept in cool, dry conditions free from contaminating vapors to prevent deterioration of the propellant and cartridge. Handloaders must take special precautions for storing primers and loose gunpowder.
Gun safety | Ammunition storage
Aluminium cylinders have a low tolerance for heat, and a cylinder containing less than may lose sufficient strength in a fire to explode before the internal pressure rises enough to rupture the bursting disc, so storing aluminium cylinders with a bursting disc has a lower explosion risk in case of fire if stored either full or nearly empty.
Diving cylinder | Long term storage
Alternatives include storing energy by moving large solid masses upward against gravity. This can be achieved inside old mine shafts or in specially constructed towers where heavy weights are winched up to store energy and allowed a controlled descent to release it. In rail energy storage, rail cars carrying large weights are moved up or down a section of inclined rail track, storing or releasing energy as a result; In disused oil-well potential energy storage, weights are raised or lowered in a deep, decommissioned oil well.
Grid energy storage | Gravitational potential energy storage with solid masses
A solid at room temperature, LiD, if it worked, would be far more practical than the cryogenic liquid deuterium fuel in the Ivy Mike device. The same Teller-Ulam principle would be used as in the "Ivy Mike" so-called "Sausage" device, but the fusion reactions were different. "Ivy Mike" fused deuterium with deuterium, but the LiD devices would fuse deuterium with tritium. The tritium was produced during the explosion by irradiating the lithium with fast neutrons.
Operation Castle | Experiments
Dualin is an explosive material based on nitroglycerin and nitrogenized cellulose using sawdust or wood pulp. Dualin is inferior to dynamite and more liable to explosion. Dualin was invented by the Prussian chemist Lieutenant Dittmar in April 1869.
Dualin | Introduction
Sweet potatoes may be harvested and stored in building. This could include in the living area or in a granary built specifically to store produce. In home storage is typically done in straw woven baskets, cloth bags or wooden boxes. Baskets and boxes have been shown to be more effective at minimizing mechanical damage. If possible tubers should be kept off of the ground to keep them away from rodents and other pests. This is an effective technique for maintaining proper ventilation though depending on the type of building maintaining proper storage temperature and RH may be difficult. Granaries or other storage buildings typically consist of a round hut with walls made of straw, mud, clay and wood and a conical straw roof.
Sweet potato storage | Indoor storage
Dynamit Nobel AG originates from the company Alfred Nobel & Co., founded on 21 June 1865 in Hamburg by the Swedish chemist and industrialist Alfred Nobel. At the beginning, the company was manufacturing nitroglycerin explosives in the dynamite factory of Krümmel located in Geesthacht, near Hamburg. This factory was the first one to be located outside of Sweden. Nobel wanted to produce nitroglycerine on several sites in Europe because the transportation of explosives was very dangerous due to its well-known sensitivity to shocks. Because of the danger associated with handling nitroglycerine, Nobel started to develop a more secure explosive commonly known as dynamite.
Dynamit Nobel | From 1865 to 1918
Nitroglycerin, dynamite, or other explosives are used to shatter reinforced concrete supports. Linear shaped charges are used to sever steel supports. These explosives are progressively detonated on supports throughout the structure. Then, explosives on the lower floors initiate the controlled collapse.
Building implosion | Terminology
At the end of the funnel is the inlet for the screw conveyor or the extraction pipe. More outlets in the storage room ensure unobstructed operation even in case of problems of one of the extraction points. Alternatives to a storage room are prefabricated tanks made of fabric or sheet steel. Buried underground tanks or free-standing silos can be used, if sufficient space is available in the building. In areas with high humidity it is important to use must tight tank systems to ensure the quality of pellet fuel.
Pellet boiler | Day-reservoir
Benefiting from the availability of dynamite, a high-velocity explosive based on a stabilized form of nitroglycerine, and borrowing from techniques used in rock-blasting, such as staggered detonation of several small charges, building demolition edged toward efficient building implosion.
Building implosion | Historical overview
These centres continued to grow, as the processes for refining and preserving gunpowder became more complicated and as new explosives began to be used, requiring their own storage and maintenance areas.
Board of Ordnance | Gunpowder storage
Various countries around the world have enacted explosives laws and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients.
Dynamite | Regulation
This was due to the thin steel walls on the weapon. In storage and handling, both corrosion and rough handling were found to cause the bomb to leak. When the bomb is loaded with the chemical filler H, it weighs approximately , of which are from H. The M47 bomb can also be used as an incendiary device as well. A mixture of rubber and gasoline can be used in the field to produce a crude incendiary bomb. A mixture of white phosphorus and jelled gasoline also produces a flammable mixture. Other mixtures include: LA-60 in which crude latex is combined with caustic soda, coconut oil, and water, crepe rubber (CR) in which crude latex reduced to a solid by precipitation and kneading, LA-100 in which crude latex is dried until it is 100% solid, smoked rubber sheets (SR) in which crude latex that has been dried over a fire until it is 100% solid.
M47 bomb | Design
Small particles can also be suspended with optical tweezers, using a highly focused laser beam. In 2011, CERN scientists were able to preserve antihydrogen for approximately 17 minutes. The record for storing antiparticles is currently held by the TRAP experiment at CERN: antiprotons were kept in a Penning trap for 405 days. A proposal was made in 2018, to develop containment technology advanced enough to contain a billion anti-protons in a portable device to be driven to another lab for further experimentation.
Antimatter | Preservation
Dynamite was first manufactured in the U.S. by the Giant Powder Company of San Francisco, California, whose founder had obtained the exclusive rights from Nobel in 1867. Giant was eventually acquired by DuPont, which produced dynamite under the Giant name until Giant was dissolved by DuPont in 1905. Thereafter, DuPont produced dynamite under its own name until 1911–12 when its explosives monopoly was broken up by the U.S. Circuit Court in the "Powder Case". Two new companies were formed upon the breakup, the Hercules Powder Company and the Atlas Powder Company, which took up the manufacture of dynamite (in different formulations) thereafter.
Dynamite | United States
Because of their fluffy and nearly white appearance, nitrocellulose products are often referred to as cottons, e.g. lacquer cotton, celluoid cotton, and gun cotton. Guncotton was originally made from cotton (as the source of cellulose) but contemporary methods use highly processed cellulose from wood pulp. While guncotton is dangerous to store, the hazards it presents can be reduced by storing it dampened with various liquids, such as alcohol. For this reason, accounts of guncotton usage dating from the early 20th century refer to "wet guncotton." The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting. As a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating.
Nitrocellulose | Guncotton
Nitrocellulose (also known as cellulose nitrate, flash paper, flash cotton, guncotton, pyroxylin and flash string) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid, or to a mixture of nitric acid and another acid, usually either hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, or to another powerful nitrating agent. One of its first major uses was as guncotton, a replacement for gun powder as propellant in firearms. It was also used to replace gunpowder as a low-order explosive in mining and other applications.
Nitrocellulose | Introduction
Nitrate film must be handled carefully, as it is highly flammable; cellulose acetate film stocks are at risk of vinegar syndrome, whereas polyester-backed films are not. Film is stored in a colder environment than other time-based media, and different types of film have different optimum storage temperatures. "Color film should be stored at the coldest possible temperature to reduce fading," 0-30 degrees Fahrenheit, while black and white film can be stored at a temperature of 25-50 degrees Fahrenheit. Magnetic videotape- Magnetic videotape was never meant to last, and often has a short life (often only a few decades) especially if exposed to warm or humid conditions.
Conservation and restoration of time-based media art | Storage and maintenance of physical objects
Starting in the 19th century, more powerful explosives than gunpowder were developed, often for non-military reasons such as blasting train tunnels in the Alps and Rockies. Guncotton, up to four times more powerful than gunpowder, was invented by Christian Schonbein in 1846. It was dangerous to make until Frederick Augustus Abel developed a safe method in 1865. From the 1870s to the First World War, it was the standard explosive used by the British military. In 1847, Ascanio Sobrero invented nitroglycerine to treat angina pectoris and it turned out to be a much more powerful explosive than guncotton. It was very dangerous to use until Alfred Nobel found a way to incorporate it in a solid mixture called dynamite and developed a safe detonator.
Land mine | High explosives
Detasheet is a flexible rubberized explosive, somewhat similar to plastic explosives, originally manufactured by DuPont. Its ingredients are PETN with nitrocellulose and a binder.
Detasheet | Introduction
Refrigerators and freezers can be used to store flammable and hazardous chemicals. In most situations, specialized laboratory refrigerators are used to ensure that the flash points of certain chemicals are not reached. For flammable chemicals, explosion-proof equipment must be used because conventional refrigerators have sources of ignition.
Chemical storage | Cold storage
To write a value to memory, the address was amplified and sent to the Y deflection plates, such that the beam would be fixed to a horizontal line on the screen. A timer then set the X deflection plate to increasing voltages, causing the beam to be scanned across the selected line. The gun was set to a default energy close to , and the bits from the computer fed to the gun to modulate the voltage up and down such that 0's would be below and 1's above it. By the time the beam reached the other side of the line, a pattern of short dashes was drawn for each 1, while 0's were empty locations.
Storage tube | Storage
The simplest and oldest bombs store energy in the form of a low explosive. Black powder is an example of a low explosive. Low explosives typically consist of a mixture of an oxidizing salt, such as potassium nitrate (saltpeter), with solid fuel, such as charcoal or aluminium powder. These compositions deflagrate upon ignition, producing hot gas. Under normal circumstances, this deflagration occurs too slowly to produce a significant pressure wave; low explosives, therefore, must generally be used in large quantities or confined in a container with a high burst pressure to be useful as a bomb.
Bomb | Low explosive