Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called "devapuja", and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.
Rituals and worship
Jainism
Jainism | Rituals and worship
The basic ritual followed is "darsana" of "deva", seeing of gods and goddesses.. The basic ritual is "darsana" (seeing) of "deva", which includes Jina, or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi). They follow a basic rituals like Darsana, Devepuja, Enter the Temple bare foot with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers. The "Panch Kalyanaka" rituals, Tirthankaras
which of the following is not among the practices of jainism
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Violence, attachment, sensual pleasures, lie and possessiveness are some of them.
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and which are the practices?
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Jains take five main vows: “ahiṃsā”, “satya”, “asteya”, “brahmacharya” and “aparigraha".
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when did jainism begin?
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Historians date it to 8th or 7th century BCE.
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who is the leader?
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Rishabhanatha
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what are the beliefs?
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It is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism, auto executed through the middle ground between the principles of parallelism and interactionism.
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do jains fast?
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They fast particularly during festivals and it is  practiced according to one's ability.
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what food do they eat?
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The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to them to follow vegetarian diet.
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and what are they not allowed to eat?
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Eggs, root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic are some of the food avoided.
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which symbols are used by them?
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"Swastika", "Om" and "Ashtamangala".
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which symbols are used by them?
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"Swastika", "Om" and "Ashtamangala".
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do they have any pilgrimages?
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Yes, they do. "Nagarparkar" located at Pakistan  is one of them.
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do they practice meditation?
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Yes, they do.
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what rituals do they follow?
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Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called "devapuja", and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.
Jainism | Rituals and worship
"Devapuja" means worship of tirthankaras. It is usually done in front of images of any liberated soul (Siddha) such as Tirthankara, or Arihant. In Jainism, the Tirthankaras represent the true goal of all human beings. Their qualities are worshipped by the Jains. Sthanakavasi oppose idol worship. They believe in meditation and silent prayers. Jain idols are seen as a personification of ideal state which one should attain. During medieval period, worship of some Yaksha and Yakshini, heavenly beings who are not liberated souls, started. They are believed to help a person by removing obstacles in life.
Jain rituals | Worship
Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially the "Jinas". In Jainism a "Jina" as "deva" is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic "tirthankara" achieved. Out of the 24 Tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha. Among the non-"tirthankara" saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The "Panch Kalyanaka" rituals remember the five life events of the "tirthankaras", including the "Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava", "Panch Kalyanaka Puja" and "Snatrapuja". The basic ritual is "darsana" (seeing) of "deva", which includes Jina, or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi).
Jainism | Rituals and worship
Jain rituals play an everyday part in Jainism. Rituals take place daily or more often. Rituals include obligations followed by Jains and various forms of idol worships. Jains rituals can be separated broadly in two parts: "Karyn" (Obligations which are followed) and "Kriya" (Worships which are performed).
Jain rituals | Introduction
Samayika is the practice of equanimity, translating to meditation. It is a ritual act undertaken early in the morning and perhaps also at noon and night. It lasts for forty-eight minutes (Two Ghadis) and usually involves not only quiet recollection but also usually the repetition of routine prayers. The ritual is chanting and also praying about the good things.
Jain rituals | Samayika
There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of Tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual is "sallekhana", a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.
Jainism | Rituals and worship
After that some Jains also use "Chamara" (Whisk), "Darpana" (Mirror) and a "Pankho" (Hand fan) also for worship.
Jain rituals | Dravya Puja
Jainism considers meditation ("dhyana") a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini, "Sāmāyika" is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of "siksavrata" (ritual restraint). The goal of "Sāmāyika" is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second "siksavrata". The "samayika" ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as "Puja" in a Jain temple and doing charity work.
Jainism | Meditation
According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, "samayika" connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".
Jainism | Meditation
Upadesam - the formal induction into religious practices and adherences is called Upadesam. This is done to both boys and girls, at around the age of 15. After Upadesam, one is supposed to follow religious practices with vigor and seriousness. Marriage - outwardly, Jain marriages resemble Hindu marriages. However, the mantras chanted are Jain. There is no Brahmin priest; instead there is a Samaṇar called a "Koyil Vaadhiyar" or temple priest, who conducts the ceremonies. Pilgrimage - most Jains go on pilgrimage to tirthas and major Jain temples in North India - Sammed Shikharji, Pavapuri, Champapuri and Urjayanta Giri - as well as places in South India such as Shravanabelagola, Humcha or Hombuja Humbaj, Simmanagadde in Karnataka and Ponnur Malai in Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Jain | Other Ceremonies
Many other forms of worships are mainly performed on special occasions. Some forms of worships have close relationship with these five auspicious life events of Tirthankara called Panch Kalyanaka. Others are:
Jain rituals | Other forms
In temples and homes, devotees sing and chant hymns and mantras from Jain religious texts in praise of the Tirthankar and congregate for a prayer and recite verses from the Uttaradhyayan Sutra which contain the last teachings of Mahavira. Jains pay visit to Pawapuri, Nalanda in Bihar on this special day to offer their prayers. The Jain year starts with Pratipada, next day of Diwali.
Diwali (Jainism) | Celebration
Ascetics do not have a home or possessions. They choose austerity, avoid services such as telephones and electricity. Monks engage in activities such as meditation, seeking knowledge and acquiring self-discipline. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata". "Digambara" monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day. The "Yati" of the "Śvētāmbara" sect and the "Bhattaraka" of the Digambara Terapanth do not wander; they usually live in temples and perform daily rituals. The monks rise before dawn, most around 5:00 a.m. but some as early as 2:00 a.m. In observance of "utsarg-samiti", defecation takes place in the open where feces does not harm living creatures; urination is into a shallow pan, which is emptied onto a dry patch of ground.
Jain monasticism | Rules of conduct
"Bhava puja"(means Psychic worship) is done by ritual called "Chaitya Vandana". It includes number of prayers and rituals done in prescribed manner and positions.
Jain rituals | Bhava Puja
In Jainism, six essential duties ("avashyakas") are prescribed for "śrāvakas" (householders). The six duties are: These duties became fundamental ritual activities of a Jain householder. Such as spreading the grain for the birds in the morning, and filtering or boiling the water for the next few hours' use became ritual acts of charity and non-violence. "Samayika" was used as a word for all spiritual activity including icon worship during medieval times.
Jain rituals | Six essential duties
They also have the habitual ritual of reading the history of the 24 Tirthankara at the temple, during the festival. During the Jain festival, there are no concrete norms for fasting and meditating and this is a rather surprising side of Jainism. The followers have the freedom to carryout prayers and fasting according to their capacity and desires. Jain followers are pure vegetarians "Jain vegetarianism" and they are forbidden from consuming alcohol. Those who consume meat and alcohol are strictly prohibited from entering the premises of the temple. Though they are vegetarians, they also do not consume anything that grows underground.
Jain temple, Alappuzha | Festival at Jain Temple
Amongst Jain merchants, there is a tradition of inviting monks to their respective cities during Chaturmas to give religious instruction.
Chaturmas | Jainism
The "Digambara" Jains recite the ten chapters of the sacred Jain text, "Tattvartha Sutra" on ten days of fasting. "Digambaras" celebrate "Ananta Chaturdashi" on which a special worship is done. Many towns have a procession leading to the main Jain temple. "Ananta Chaturdashi" marks the day when Lord Vasupujya attained "Moksha" ("nirvana"). At the conclusion of the festival, followers request forgiveness from others for any offenses committed during the last year. Forgiveness is asked by saying "Micchami Dukkadam" to others, which means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." During the eight-day festival, the Śvētāmbara Murtipujakas recite the "Kalpa Sūtra", which includes a recitation of the section on birth of Mahavira on the fifth day.
Paryushana | Observances
Another term used for consecration in the Jain tradition is ", the "eye-opening" rite by which a qualified practitioner "enlivens" a murti for worship. Digambara Jains consecrate the statue of a Jina by the ritual of Abhisheka, where the statue is awakened by pouring of auspicious liquids such as water, clarified butter, coconut milk, yellow sandalwood water, cow milk and other liquids successively. The temple is considered active only when the main Jina image has been consecrated. The ritual of consecrating an image to bring "life to temple" is attested in medieval Jain documents.
Prana Pratishtha | In Jainism
In Hinduism, Gods are worshiped in several ways and for several reasons such as knowledge, peace, wisdom, health, and it also believed to be one's duty to pray god as God is considered as our maker (as we originated from them and we are staying in them and at last will merge with them), for moksham (by attaining moksham we can join him and escape this Maya or dualistic nature which makes us think that we are different from the universal soul) and are also offered food as a respect, etc. In Jainism, the siddhas represent the true goal of all human beings, their qualities are worshiped by the Jains.
Jainism and Hinduism | Worship
Mahavira, the 24th Teerthankar of Jainism, believed that the only way to be released from the cycle of life (birth, death, and then rebirth), one must follow ahimsa and not harm any living creature (Regenstein 1991, p. 229). Some Jains will carry a broom with them and sweep their path as they walk to avoid stepping on any living creature. Jains will also wear masks over their mouths to prevent swallowing insects and inspect their fruit for worms. The fruit inspection is not, however, because of their aversion of worms, but for the protection of the worms themselves (Regenstein 1991, p.
Animal worship | Jainism
As a matter of ritual, they personally greet their friends and relatives "micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ" seeking their forgiveness. No private quarrel or dispute may be carried beyond samvatsari, and letters and telephone calls are made to the outstation friends and relatives asking their forgiveness. "Pratikraman" also contains the following prayer: "Khāmemi savva-jīve savvë jive khamantu me / "
Forgiveness | Jainism
There are some guidelines to follow when one is visiting a Jain temple: Prevailing traditional customs should be followed regarding worshipping at the temple and touching an idol. They can vary depending on the region and the specific sect.
Jain temple | Etiquette
Pratikramana is performed in the night for the repentance of violence committed during the night, and in the evening for the violence during the day and additionally on certain days of the year. During this, the Jain expresses remorse for the harm caused, or wrongdoing, or the duties left undone.
Jain rituals | Pratikramana
"Dravya puja" (worship with articles) includes "Ashtaprakari Puja"(means "eight worships") which is done by paying homage with eight articles in prescribed way. It is also called "archana": The following articles are used, in the Jaina Puja: The combination of all the eight articles is called "arghya". Of these, rice and coconut bits and almonds are to be washed and then all the articles are to be placed in a plate side by side, excepting water which is to be kept in a small pot separately. There should be provided a bowl for the pouring of water, another for the burning of incense, and a receptacle for lighting camphor.
Jain rituals | Dravya Puja
In "padāstha dhyāna" one focuses on a mantra. A mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind. Contemplation is a very old and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts. In "agnya vichāya", one contemplates on seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of "karmas", and the final accomplishment of liberation.
Meditation | Jainism
The idol of Lord Mahavir is carried out on a chariot, in a procession called "rath yatra". On the way stavans (religious rhymes) are recited. Statues of Mahavir are given a ceremonial anointment called the "abhisheka". During the day, most members of the Jain community engage in some sort of charitable act, prayers, pujas, and vratas. Many devotees visit temples dedicated to Mahavir to meditate and offer prayers. Lectures by monks and nuns are held in temples to preach the path of virtue as defined by Jainism. Donations are collected in order to promote charitable missions like saving cows from slaughter or helping to feed poor people.
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak | Celebrations
Goddess Padmavati along with Ambika, Chakreshvari are held as esteemed deities and worshipped in Jains along with tirthankaras. Ambika and Padmavati are associated with tantric rituals. These tantric rites involves "yantra-vidhi", "pitha-sthapana" and "mantra-puja".
Padmavati (Jainism) | Worship
He argued that these practices were spiritually dangerous by grounding them as violations of "ahiṃsā," the principle of non-injury central to Jain religion and philosophy. According to Loṅkā, re-shaping the land to build temples leads to the destruction of small and microscopic organisms, and "pūjā" rituals entail "subtle forms of harm" through material offerings like flowers or incense. Loṅkā's lasting influence brought to light an aniconic impulse within a strict, doctrinal understanding of Jain teaching. The Śvetāmbara Sthānakavāsī and Terāpanthī sects accept this impulse, agreeing with Loṅkā that the most appropriate form of religious practice is mental worship ("bhāva-pūjā)," which is already performed by mendicants, because the reliance on images and temples is indicative of an attachment to objects that is "spiritually counterproductive." Mūrtipūjaka Jains respond to the criticisms of "mūrti-pūjā "in two ways: first, by revealing that it is, in fact, scripturally prevalent; and second, by saying that images are necessary for the spiritual practices of laypeople.
Murtipujaka | Agreements and disagreements
According to Jeffery Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of "bhakti" or devotion just like their Hindu neighbors. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. "Abhisekha", festival prayers, community recitals and "Murti puja" (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice.
Bhakti | Jainism
229-230). Jains are also only allowed to eat during daylight hours, when their vision is not restricted, so that they avoid eating insects or other small creatures that could possibly be in their food (Regenstein 1991, p. 230). Jainism includes a lay form which is somewhat less restrictive (Regenstein 1991, p. 231). Basically lay Jains must distinguish between what forms of violence are necessary and unnecessary, but do not have to abstain entirely (Vallely 2002, p. 5). This results in avoiding all forms of hunting, tilling the soil (tilling involved disturbing creatures embedded in the earth), and brewing (brewing involved using living organisms such as yeasts) (Regenstein 1991, p.
Animal worship | Jainism
This form of reverence is not a central tenet of the faith.
Cult image | Jainism
The "Digambara" Jains worship completely nude idols of "tirthankaras" (omniscient beings) and "siddha" (liberated souls). The "tirthankara" is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the "Kayotsarga" posture.
Digambara | Worship
Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. There is no specific ritual for becoming a Jain. One does not need to ask any authorities for admission. One becomes a Jain on one's own by observing the five vows ("vratas") The five main vows as mentioned in the ancient Jain texts like Tattvarthasutra are: Following the five vows is the main requirement in Jainism. All other aspects such as visiting temples are secondary. Jain monks and nuns are required to observe these five vows strictly.
Religious conversion | Jainism
Devout Jains take five main vows: "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "satya" (truth), "asteya" (not stealing), "brahmacharya" (sexual continence), and "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. "Parasparopagraho Jīvānām" (the function of souls is to help one another) is its motto and the "Ṇamōkāra mantra" is its most common and basic prayer. Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender and which texts can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons ("śrāvakas" and "śrāvikas").
Jainism | Introduction
"Digambara" monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called "upavasa", "tapasya" or "vrata", and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for "Dasa-laksana-parvan", eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day "paryusana" with "samvatsari-pratikramana". The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ("punya"). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.
Jainism | Food and fasting
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes "ahimsa" (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are "ahimsa", "anekantavada" (non-absolutism), "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: "ahimsa", "satya" (not lying), "asteya" (non stealing), "brahmacharya" (chastity), and "aparigraha". Monks follow them completely whereas "śrāvakas" (householders) observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Timeline of Jainism | Introduction
"Aarti" and "Mangal Deevo" is a lamp ritual waving it in rotational manner in front of icons same as Hindu traditions. Lamps represent knowledge. It is performed everynight at all Jain temples.
Jain rituals | Aarti and Mangal Deevo
Jains have a very strict and particular code of rituals and rites and it is imperative that these rituals and rites are observed by everyone in the community strictly without any fail whatsoever. Every day "Sanatra Pooja" aka "Snatra Puja" is conducted for around one and half hours which is believed to bring spiritual sanctity and nirvana to their lives. The festival of their temple is called "Parva paryushana" and the same is conducted once every year. The festival lasts for eight days and it is usually celebrated in the month of August–September. During the festival, many aacharyas from Gujarat come to the temple.
Jain temple, Alappuzha | Festival at Jain Temple
Svetambara ascetics have an Ogho or Rajoharan (a broom of woolen threads) to clean insects around their sitting place or while they are walking. Digambara ascetics have a Morpichhi and a Kamandal in their hands. This practice may vary among different sects of Jains but essential principle remains the same to limit needs.
Religious habit | Jainism
This practice of self study (reciting scriptures and thinking about the meaning) is included in the practice of equanimity (sāmāyika) which is the spiritual practice emphasized by 20th century Digambara sects. The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his "Pravacanasara" states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on "I, the pure self". Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge" is on the right road to meditating on the "soul, the pure self".
Jain meditation | Modern history
Jainism believes in the existence of the soul (Self, atman) and considers it to have "god-quality", whose knowledge and liberation is the ultimate spiritual goal in both religions. Jains also believe that the spiritual nobleness of perfected souls (Jina) and "devas" make them worship-worthy beings, with powers of guardianship and guidance to better "karma". In Jain temples or festivals, the Jinas and Devas are revered.
Deity | Jainism
A historian has claimed that majority of those Jains seeking release from the material world (moksha) by inviting death through rituals and asceticism (sannyasa) were from the aristocratic and prosperous mercantile community, such rituals among people from lower social classes being a rarity. Women made endowments to Jain causes too, a royal concubine Nandavva and a wealthy feudal lady Attimabbe being examples. Jains worshipped the twenty four Tirthankaras ("Jina"s), whose images were consecrated in their temples. Some scholars believe that Jain worship was not meant to gain boons or favours from the deity, rather to meditate and obtain perfection through detachment.
Religion in Western Ganga kingdom | Jainism
This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali" bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Jain meditation | Post-canonical
Cult worship is considered consistent with the assimilation of forest and tribal dwellers into the Jain faith and a caste based society. While asceticism was upheld in the earlier period, an increased inflow of endowments from wealthy merchants and royalty made monks more settled in temples. Prayers, chantings, decoration and anointment of the deity in Digambara temples were carried out by upajjhayas or acharyas. In contrast, lay devotees in Svetambara derasars undertook these activities and the temple staff merely did the cleaning. Ascetics did not indulge in any direct contact with the image of the deity, rather they spent time in penance and contemplation.
Religion in Western Ganga kingdom | Jainism
No furs, plumes or silk are worn. Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals. Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable, since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night. The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed; even with this precaution, liquids are always strained before use. Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury, and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking, commerce and other mercantile trades.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Householders adherence to the vow
are geared towards observance of . The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct, where they must eat, sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings. Jain ascetics sweep the ground before them to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life. They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves. Ascetics of the Śvētāmbara tradition wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa
Devotional idolatry has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara ("Jina") and human "gurus" have been venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers. Like other major Indian religions, Jainism has premised its spiritual practices on the belief that "all knowledge is inevitably mediated by images" and human beings discover, learn and know what is to be known through "names, images and representations". Thus, idolatry has been a part of the major sects of Jainism such as Digambara and Shvetambara. The earliest archaeological evidence of the idols and images in Jainism is from Mathura, and has been dated to be from the first half of the 1st millennium AD.
Idolatry | Jainism
Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians. Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.
Vegetarianism | Jainism
By doing so they minimise the possibility of inhaling small organisms. The Śvētāmbara tradition follows the lineage of Acharya Sthulibhadra Suri. The Kalpa Sūtra mentions some of the lineages in ancient times. Both of the major Jain traditions evolved into sub-traditions over time. For example, the devotional worship traditions of Śvētāmbara are referred to as "Murti-pujakas", those who live in and around Jain temples became "Deravasi" or "Mandira-margi". Those who avoid temples and pursue their spirituality at a designated monastic meeting place came to be known as "Sthānakavāsī". Śvētāmbarins who are not Sthānakavāsins are called Murtipujaka ("Idol-worshipers"). Murtipujaka differ from Sthanakvasi Svetambaras in that their derasars contain idols of the Tirthankaras instead of empty rooms.
Jain schools and branches | Svetambara
Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost) completely without possessions. Some Jains (Shvetambara monks and nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment) and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from their hands.
Monk | Austerities and other daily practices
Ancient Jain temples across India typically see an extremely high volume of practitioners come to pay their respects and join in the celebrations. Ahimsa runs and rallies preaching Lord Mahavir's message of Ahiṃsā (non-violence) are taken out on this day.
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak | Celebrations
As a matter of ritual, Jains greet their friends and relatives on this last day with "Micchāmi Dukkaḍaṃ", seeking their forgiveness. The phrase is also used in Jain monastic practice on a more periodic basis as a part of a monk's or nun's confessional and repentance mantra during the "pratikramana" (fourth "avasyakas") ritual, particularly when they are venerating images or "murti" of Tirthankaras in Jain temples.
Micchami Dukkadam | Introduction
A Jain temple, a "Derasar" or "Basadi", is a place of worship. Temples contain "tirthankara" images, some fixed, others moveable. These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall. One of the images is marked as the "moolnayak" (primary deity). A "manastambha" (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. Temple construction is considered a meritorious act. Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
Jainism | Temples
Jains practise "pratikraman" (Sanskrit "introspection"), a process of repentance of wrongdoings during their daily life, and remind themselves to refrain from doing so again. Devout Jains often do Pratikraman at least twice a day.
Introspection | Jainism
Homa rituals are also found in Jainism. For example, the "Ghantakarn" ritual is a homa sacrifice, which has evolved over the centuries, and where ritual offerings are made into fire, with "pancamrit" (milk, curd, sugar, saffron and clarified butter) and other symbolic items such as coconut, incense, seeds and herbs. The mantra recited by Jains include those in Sanskrit, and the 16th-century Svetambara text "Ghantakarna Mantra Stotra" is a Sanskrit text which describes the homa ritual dedicated to Ghantakarna Mahavira in one of the Jaina sects. The "Adipurana" of Jainism, in section 47.348, describes a Vedic fire ritual in the memory of Rishabha.
Homa (ritual) | Jainism
Jainism and Hinduism are two ancient Indian religions. There are some similarities and differences between the two religions. Temples, gods, rituals, fasts and other religious components of Jainism are different from those of Hinduism. "Jain" is derived from the word "Jina", referring to a human being who has conquered all inner passions (like anger, attachment, greed and pride) and possesses Kevala Jnana (pure infinite knowledge). Followers of the path shown by the Jinas are called Jains. Followers of Hinduism are called Hindus.
Jainism and Hinduism | Introduction
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching "siddha" and "moksha" ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like "Tattvartha Sūtra" and "Uttaradhyayana Sūtra" discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
"Digambara" monks follow 28 "vratas" (vows): five "mahāvratas" (Great Vows); five "samitis" (regulations); the five-fold control of the senses ("pañcendriya nirodha"); six "Şadāvaśyakas" (essential duties), and seven "niyamas" (restrictions).
Jain monasticism | Digambara monks
There are some guidelines to follow when one is visiting a Jain temple:
Place of worship | Jainism
He is most preferred, discussed and often depicted in Jaina caves and marble temples, often with his wife Indrani. They greet the devotee as he or she walks in, flank the entrance to an idol of Jina (conqueror), and lead the gods as they are shown celebrating the five auspicious moments in a Jina's life, including his birth. These Indra-related stories are enacted by laypeople in Jainism tradition during special Puja (worship) or festive remembrances. In south Indian Digambara Jaina community, Indra is also the title of hereditary priests who preside over Jain temple functions.
Indra | Jainism
Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables. Shvetambara monks do not cook food but solicit alms from householders. Digambara monks have only a single meal a day. Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence from food and sometimes water) is a routine feature of Jain asceticism. Fasts last for a day or longer, up to a month.
Monk | Dietary practices
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata".
Jainism | Food and fasting
These are– authority of Bhattarakas, Use of flowers, cooked food or lamps, Abhisheka (panchamrita), consecretation of images without supervision by the representatives of Bhattarakas, Puja while seated, Puja at night, Using drums in the temple and Worship of minor gods like dikpalas, shasan devis (Padmavati etc.) and Kshetrapal. The Digambara Jains who have continued to follow these practices are termed Bispanthi.
Jain schools and branches | Monastic orders
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to the Jain tradition. Though all life is considered sacred, human life is deemed the highest form of earthly existence. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only substantial religious tradition that requires both monks and laity to be vegetarian. It is suggested that certain strains of the Hindu tradition became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. The Jain tradition's stance on nonviolence, however, goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice veganism. Jains run animal shelters all over India.
Compassion | Jainism
In the main assembly hall, "May I become the protector of all sentient beings without exception ..." is chanted. In the afternoon, fire rituals based on the Hevajra tantra are performed, which includes the fire dance by a retinue of the eight goddesses of Hevajra. In the evening, offerings are made to the protectors, followed by a three-day re-consecration ceremony.
Gongkar Chö Monastery | Festivals
The practice of Vedic animal sacrifices was opposed by Jains. Hemachandra, a Jain monk, cites passages from Manusmriti, one of the law book of Hindus, to demonstrate how, in light of false scriptures, Hindus have resorted to violence. Akalanka, another Jain monk, sarcastically said that if killing can result in enlightenment, one should become a hunter or fisherman.
Jainism and Hinduism | Vedic sacrifices
In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them.
Monasticism | Jainism
231). Food will never be prepared especially for them. They beg for food from others believing that because the food was prepared for someone else, they are not the cause of violence towards living creatures (Vallely 2002, p. 5).
Animal worship | Jainism
Jain meditation is also referred as Sāmāyika. A form of this which includes a strong component of scripture study (Svādhyāya) is mainly promoted by the more conservative Digambara tradition of Jainism. The word "Sāmāyika" means being in the moment of continuous real-time. This act of being conscious of the continual renewal of the universe in general and one's own renewal of the individual living being ("Jiva") in particular is the critical first step in the journey towards identification with one's true nature, called the "Atman". It is also a method by which one can develop an attitude of harmony and respect towards other humans, animals and Nature.
Jain meditation | Introduction
This is an important day in the Jain calendar of festivities. Digambara Jains observe Parv Paryushana in the last 10 days of the bhado month, Anant Chaturdashi (also known as Anant Chaudas) is the last day of Paryushana. Kshamavani, the day the Jains ask for forgiveness for mistakes they have made intentionally or otherwise, is observed one day after Anant Chaturdashi. This is the day when Lord Vasupujya, 12th Tirthankara of the present cosmic cycle, attained nirvana.
Anant Chaturdashi | Jain religious observance
As a matter of ritual, they personally greet their friends and relatives Micchami Dukkadam. No private quarrel or dispute may be carried beyond Saṃvatsarī and messages, telephone calls are made to the outstation friends and relatives asking their forgiveness. Being the holiest day of the Jain calendar, many Jains observe a complete fast on this day.
Samvatsari | Customs and Traditions
There are regular rituals at the Jain temples. Discourses of Kalpa Sutra are given by monks. Kalpa Sutra describes life of Mahavira and other Tirthankaras. On the third day, procession of Kalpa Sutra is carried out. On the fifth day, auspicious dreams of Trishala, mother of Mahavira are demonstrated and after that birth of Mahavira is celebrated. The tenth day of festival is called Anant Chaurdsashi. Anant Chaturdashi is the day when Lord Vasupujya attained moksha (nirvan). Usually, a procession is taken out by Jains on this day. Kshamavani is generally observed a day after Anant Chaturdashi by digambaras, while the shwetambaras observe it after the 8th ie the last day of their paryushan.(last day is called samvatsari) On Kshamavani, Jains ask for forgiveness from everybody for any acts during the previous year which may have hurt them.
Jain festivals | Paryushana
Digambara and Svethambara are the two living schools of the Jain community. Digambara monks do not wear clothes since they believe that clothes are like other possessions, increasing dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. Svetambara monks and nuns wear white, seamless clothes for practical reasons and believe there is nothing in the Jain Agamas that condemns wearing clothes.
Places of worship in Bangalore | Jainism and Jain derasars
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, "Om", and the "Ashtamangala". In Jainism, "Om" is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: ""Arihant", "Ashiri", "Acharya", "Upajjhaya", "Muni"", or the five lines of the "Ṇamōkāra" Mantra. The "Ashtamangala" is a set of eight auspicious symbols: in the Digambara tradition, these are Chatra, "Dhvaja", "Kalasha", Fly-whisk, Mirror, Chair, Hand fan and Vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, "Srivatsa", "Nandavarta", "Vardhmanaka" (food vessel), "Bhadrasana" (seat), "Kalasha" (pot), "Darpan" (mirror) and pair of fish. The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes "ahimsā". The wheel represents the "dharmachakra", which stands for the resolve to halt the "saṃsāra" (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of "ahimsā".
Jainism | Symbols
All three religions share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, with similar festivals and monastic traditions. They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day. They grant the freedom to choose beliefs such as in gods or no-gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as non-violence to be important, link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation ("moksha"). Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises.
Jainism | Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism
Jain yoga has been a central practice in Jainism. Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism), almsgiving (dana), right faith in the three jewels, the practice of austerities ("tapas") such as fasting, and yogic practices. Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self (atma) or soul (jiva) from the forces of karma, which keep all souls bound to the cycle of transmigration. Like Yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a multiplicity of individual souls which bound by their individual karma. Only through the reduction of karmic influxes and the exhaustion of one's collected karma can a soul become purified and released, at which point one becomes an omniscient being who has reaches "absolute knowledge" ("kevala jnana").
Yoga | Jain yoga
Their religious belief emphasizes that they must only eat such food that grows above the ground getting a lot of sunlight. For adherents of Jainism, attaining ‘moksha’ is the fundamental purpose of living. Their life is considered to be a means to reach or attain salvation. There is also a pilgrim house near the temple where Jain pilgrims can stay and offer 'puja' (worship).
Jain temple, Alappuzha | Festival at Jain Temple
The Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal, and the teachings of their first "Tirthankara Rishabhanatha" were their scriptures millions of years ago. The mythology states that the "tirthankaras" taught in divine preaching halls called "samavasarana", which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and laypersons. The discourse delivered is called "Śhrut Jnāna" (or heard knowledge) and comprises eleven "angas" and fourteen "purvas". The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the "Ganadharas" (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve "angas" (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. According to the Jain tradition, an "araha" (worthy one) speaks meaning that is then converted into "sūtra" ("sutta") by his disciples, and from such "sūtras" emerge the doctrine.
Jain literature | Canonical
There are eleven annual obligations for a year and some obligations for once in a life which should be completed by Jain lay person individually or in a group. They are prescribed by "Shravak Pragyapti".
Jain rituals | Annual and lifetime obligations
The creation of idols, their consecration, the inclusion of Jaina layperson in idols and temples of Jainism by the Jaina monks has been a historic practice. However, during the iconoclastic era of Islamic rule, between the 15th and 17th century, a Lonka sect of Jainism emerged that continued pursuing their traditional spirituality but without the Jaina arts, images and idols.
Idolatry | Jainism
These three ways are:- In performing "sāmayika" the "śrāvaka" has to stand facing north or east and bow to the "Pañca-Parameṣṭhi". He then sit down and recites the Namokara mantra a certain number of times, and finally devotes himself to holy meditation. This consists in: "Sāmayika" can be performed anywhere- a temple, private residence, forest and the like. But the place shouldn't be open to disturbance. According to the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, while performing "sāmayika", one should meditate on:
Jain meditation | For householders
The activities of mind, speech and body, according to Jain philosophy, lead to Asrava, that is, the influx and imprint of karmic residues to the "jiva" (soul) of the living being. These residues bind ("bandha"), forming "karma sarira", which can be stopped ("saṃvara") and released ("nirjara"). The operating mechanism, consistent with the dualism premise of Jainism, is not Saṃskāra as latent mental trace, rather "karma bandha" to the soul. The rituals and rites of passage, called Samskara in Jainism, are part of the "saṃvara" and "nirjara" initiation process, in order to free the soul from the crust of karmic residues.
Samskara (Indian philosophy) | Jainism
Traditional Jaina wedding ceremonies, like among the Hindus, is a Vedic fire sacrifice ritual.
Homa (ritual) | Jainism
According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory. The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.
Nonviolence | Jainism
On this sacred day, every member of the Jain community approaches everyone, irrespective of religion, and begs for forgiveness for all their faults or mistakes, committed either knowingly or unknowingly. Thus relieved of the heavy burden hanging over their head of the sins of yesteryears, they start life afresh, living in peaceful co-existence with others. Indeed, this day is not merely a traditional ritual, but a first step on their path to moksha (liberation) or salvation, the final goal of every man's life, according to the teachings of Jainism. Mahavira said we should forgive our own soul first. To forgive others is a practical application of this supreme forgiveness.
Kshamavani | Observance
On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Lord Mahavira in all Jain temples across the world. The most important principle of Jains is Ahinsa or non violence, thus they tend to avoid firecrackers during Diwali as they cause harm to living organisms. Diwali is celebrated in atmosphere of austerity, simplicity, serenity, equity, calmness, charity, philanthropy and environment-consciousness. Jain temples, homes, offices, shops are decorated with lights and diyas. Relatives distribute sweets to each other. The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Swetambar Jains observe two days of fasting in remembrance of the penance and sacrifice of Mahavira.
Diwali (Jainism) | Celebration
"Chaturmas" is the four-month monsoon period during which ascetics stay in one place to reduce the risk of accidentally killing insects and other small forms of life which thrive during the rains. This period is suitable for "sravakas" to renew their faith by listening to teachings of the "dharma", meditation and "vartas" (acts of self-control). During "Chaturmas", few "sadhu" of each group gives a daily "pravacana" or "vyakhyana" (sermon) attended mostly by shravaka and shravikas (jain followers). During their eight months of travel, the "sadhus" give sermons whenever requested (most often when they arrive in a new village or town in their travels).
Jain monasticism | Chaturmas
Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, "Nirvan Ladoo" is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities.
Jainism | Festivals
In the contemporary era, on Paryushana Samvatsari, Jains reach out to their friends and relatives in person, telephone or mail with "micchami dukkadam". Paryushana frequently falls in August or September. This annual observation during rainy season for the Jain laypeople is not found in early Jain texts, and appears in post-14th century texts such as the "Sraddha viddhi". The early texts of the Svetambara and Digambara traditions include it as a routine, around the year practice for monks and nuns as a part of their "avasyakas" ritual. It is particularly included when they are venerating images or "murti" of Tirthankaras in Jain temples.
Micchami Dukkadam | Practice
In Jainism this practice is collectively known as "Varshayog" and is prescribed for Jain monasticism. Wandering monks such as mendicants and ascetics in Jainism, believe that during the rainy season, countless bugs, insects and tiny creatures that cannot be seen in the naked eye take birth massively. Therefore, these monks reduce the amount of harm they do to other creatures so they opt to stay in a single place for the four months to incur minimal harm to other lives. These monks, who generally do not stay in one place for long(59 nights for females, 29 nights for males), observe their annual 'Rains Retreat' during this period, by living in one place during the entire period amidst lay people, observing a vow of silence (mauna), meditation, fasting and other austerities, and also giving religious discourses to the local public.
Chaturmas | Jainism
Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the "Dandasan" – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
A "Śvētāmbara" initiation involves a procession in which the initiate symbolically disposes of his material wealth and makes donations. This is followed (or preceded) by another ritual in which the initiate receives an "ogho" (a small broom made of wool) from their mentor as a symbol of welcome into the monastic order. The initiate then puts on monastic clothing and pluck out hairs by hand. Further rituals formally initiate them into the monastic order. The "Śvētāmbara Terapanth" sect requests written permission from a person's parents before initiating them into the ascetic order.
Jain monasticism | Initiation
Jains see their tradition as eternal. Organized Jainism can be dated back to Parshva who lived in the ninth century BCE, and, more reliably, to Mahavira, a teacher of the sixth century BCE, and a contemporary of the Buddha. Jainism is a dualistic religion with the universe made up of matter and souls. The universe, and the matter and souls within it, is eternal and uncreated, and there is no omnipotent creator deity in Jainism. There are, however, "gods" and other spirits who exist within the universe and Jains believe that the soul can attain "godhood"; however, none of these supernatural beings exercise any sort of creative activity or have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers.
History of atheism | Jainism
Jain scholars and some monks in general allowed a sort of cautious integration with the Hindu society. In today's date, there are a lot of common aspects in social and cultural life of Hindus and Jains. It is quite difficult to differentiate a lay Jain from a lay Hindu. The Jain code of conduct is quite similar to that which is found in Hindu Dharmasashtra, Manusmriti and other Law books of Brahmans. Many Jains now worship Hindu gods and celebrate Hindu festivals. The difference in the rituals of practitioners of the two religions would be that the Jains do not give any importance to bathing in holy water.
Jainism and Hinduism | Jains and the Hindu society
The concept of mantras in Jainism is not focused on material aspects, rather mainly deals with seeking forgiveness, praising Arihants, or deities like Nakoda, Padmavati, Manibhadra, Saraswati, Lakshmi, and others. Yet some mantras are claimed to enhance intellect, prosperity, wealth or fame. There are many mantras in Jainism; most of them are in Sanskrit or Prakrit, but in the last few centuries, some have been composed in Hindi or Gujrati languages. Mantras, couplets, are either chanted or sung, either aloud or by merely moving lips or in silence by thought.
Mantra | Jainism
The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as "Samvatsari". Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying ""Micchami Dukkadam"" or ""Khamat khamna"" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of "Paryushana" is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar.
Jainism | Festivals
The aim of ahimsa is to prevent the accumulation of such karma. Jains consider nonviolence to be the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahinsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples). Their scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, and especially to food, shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity. A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns. Jains do not practice animal sacrifice as they consider all sentient beings to be equal.
Vegetarianism and religion | Jainism
Ahikshetra is an important religious place for the followers of Jainism in India. Jain literatures cites this as a place where Parshvanatha attained Kevala Jnana
Ahichchhatra | Jain tradition
One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining Nirvana or Moksha (i.e., liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara.
Monk | Jainism