Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable. Containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat 'Starvationer' with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph (quarry) to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. In 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.
Origin
Containerization
Containerization | Origin
The late 18th century In the late 18th century. In the late 18th century. Beginning in the late 18th century.
what was ss christopher columbus?
user
An American excursion liner on the Great Lakes
assistant
where is this lake situated?
user
The upper mid-east region of North America
assistant
which religions are practiced in that continent?
user
Christianity, Atheism,  Buddhism
assistant
what are the symbols associated with the first religion?
user
The cross
assistant
are there emblems like that symbol?
user
Yes
assistant
what was its significance in pre christian era?
user
In the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial.
assistant
and what is its significance in christianity?
user
Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
assistant
does the lake mentioned above has any sea transport connection to any ocean?
user
Yes, the Great Lakes accessible to ocean-going vessels, shifts in shipping to wider ocean-going container ships
assistant
how does the last type of ship mentioned above carries cargo?
user
They carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization.
assistant
when did this technique originate?
user
Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory and taken to a port warehouse where they would be offloaded and stored awaiting the next vessel. When the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at several other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo. Delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination.
Containerization | Origin
Modern intermodal containers for freight were developed in the 1950s and standardised by ISO standards from the end of the 1960s. They were rapidly transforming cargo shipping. Lamport and Holt's traditional break-bulk cargo ships were not equipped to carry containers, but the company believed that it would be some time before all ports in South America would be adapted to handle them. Since 1967 Austin & Pickersgill had been mass-producing a standardised motor ship, the SD14, in Sunderland on the River Wear. The SD14 was designed as a shelter deck break-bulk cargo ship to replace Liberty ships and Victory ships.
Lamport and Holt | Containerisation
After the US Department of Defense standardized an cross section container in multiples of lengths for military use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes. In 1955, former trucking company owner Malcom McLean worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the modern intermodal container. The challenge was to design a shipping container that could efficiently be loaded onto ships and would hold securely on long sea voyages. The result was a tall by wide box in -long units constructed from thick corrugated steel. The design incorporated a twistlock mechanism atop each of the four corners, allowing the container to be easily secured and lifted using cranes.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
There are two main types of dry cargo: bulk cargo and break bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the hull of the ship, generally in large volume. Break-bulk cargoes, on the other hand, are transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods. Before the advent of containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items were loaded, lashed, unlashed and unloaded from the ship one piece at a time. However, by grouping cargo into containers, of cargo, or up to about , is moved at once and each container is secured to the ship once in a standardized way.
Container ship | History
A container ship is a cargo ship that carry all of its load in truck-size containers, in a technique called containerization. They form a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport.
Merchant ship | Container ship
Containerization revolutionized maritime transport starting in the 1970s. "General cargo" includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal.
Maritime transport | Introduction
Container ships (sometimes spelled containerships) are cargo ships that carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. They are a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo. Container ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-standard containers, with the latter predominant. Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container ships, and the largest modern container ships can carry over 23,000 TEU (e.g., "MSC Gülsün"). Container ships now rival crude oil tankers and bulk carriers as the largest commercial seaborne vessels.
Container ship | Introduction
Atlantic coast, from North Carolina to New York. It soon became apparent that "trailerships", as they were called, would be inefficient because of the large waste in potential cargo space on board the vessel, known as broken stowage. The original concept was modified into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ships, hence the designation container ship or "box" ship. At the time, U.S. regulations would not allow a trucking company to own a shipping line. McLean secured a bank loan for $22 million and in January 1956 bought two World War II T-2 tankers, which he converted to carry containers on and under deck.
Malcom McLean | Containerization
Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in Yukon and moved by rail, ship, and truck to their consignees without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 until 1982.
Containerization | Purpose-built ships
As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle.
Containerization | Loss at sea
Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%. In 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers. In 2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125 million TEU or 1.19 billion tonnes worth of cargo. The first ships designed to carry standardized load units were used in the late 18th century in England. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat "Starvationer" with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal.
Container ship | History
Prior to the 1940s, the majority of cargo movement in ports were mainly done by hand and required a large number of skilled workers. There were some new technologies that were introduced in order to aid in the movement of shipments, such as rope slings, dollys, forklifts, and even cranes that helped longshoremen take large loads off of ships. However, longshoremen were still needed as they were skilled to maximize the space in each container. The methods of cargo movement differed greatly between each port on the . Depending on the size of the cargo and what was being shipped, many ports required extensive manual labor of dock workers while others required the use of specialized mechanical cranes to hoist large truck containers off of ships.
Mechanization and Modernization Agreement 1960 | Origins
Safmarine had eight of its newest dry cargo ships lengthened to carry a small number of containers. Now was the time for Safmarine to get into the container business which was starting to change the way that cargo was transported all round the world. An order was placed with French ship building yards to build four large container ships with all the latest designs & technology that was available at that time. They were all completed between 1977 & 1978. They were named "S.A. Helderberg" "S.A. Sederberg" "S.A. Waterberg" & "S.A. Winterberg". These ships were fitted with two large diesel engines; two bow thrusters; stabilisers & full air conditioning which included the engine control room.
Safmarine | Container ships
The use of standardized steel and aluminum shipping containers began during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when commercial shipping operators and the US military started developing such units. During World War II, the US Army began experiments with containers to ship supplies to the front lines. Cargo was being delayed at ports due to the time required by break bulk loading and offloading of ships. In addition the supplies suffered from pilferage and in-transit damage. In 1948 the U.S. Army Transportation Corps developed the "Transporter", a rigid, corrugated steel container, able to carry . It was long, wide, and high, with double doors on one end, was mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.
Conex box | History
Either loading or unloading break bulk cargo on and off ships typically took several days. It was strenuous and somewhat dangerous work. Losses from damage and theft were high. The work was erratic and most longshoreman had a lot of unpaid idle time. Sorting and keeping track of break bulk cargo was also time-consuming, and holding it in warehouses tied up capital. Old style ports with warehouses were congested and many lacked efficient transportation infrastructure, adding to costs and delays in port. By handling freight in standardized containers in compartmentalized ships, either loading or unloading could typically be accomplished in one day.
Productivity-improving technologies | Containerization
Those immigrant accommodations were of two types, one for tropical routes and one for North Atlantic routes with more stringent requirement for enclosed quarters due to the colder passage. The transverse framed, length overall, length between perpendiculars double bottomed hull was divided into fourteen watertight compartments by watertight bulkheads extending up to "A" deck. The cargo specifications for the seven ships were a bale cargo capacity of of which was cargo cold storage with separate meat and vegetable compartments insulated by layers of wood and cork. Under tropical conditions meat compartment was to maintain a temperature of and the vegetable compartment at .
Design 1095 ship | Initial design
However, none of these services was particularly successful. First, the containers were rather small, with 52% of them having a volume of less than . Almost all European containers were made of wood and used canvas lids, and they required additional loading into rail or truck bodies. The world's first purpose-built container vessel was "Clifford J. Rodgers", built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon Corporation. Her first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia, and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955; in Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships, and railroad cars.
Containerization | Purpose-built ships
Cargo in holds may be either packaged in crates, bales, etc., or unpackaged (bulk cargo). Access to holds is by a large hatch at the top. Ships have had holds for centuries; an alternative way to carry cargo is in standardized shipping containers, which may be loaded into appropriate holds or carried on deck. Holds in older ships were below the orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull, especially when considered as storage space, as for cargo. In later merchant vessels it extended up through the decks to the underside of the weather deck. Some ships have built in cranes and can load and unload their own cargo.
Hold (compartment) | Description
The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers had begun operation in 1926 for the regular connection of the luxury passenger train between London and Paris, the Golden Arrow/Fleche d'Or. Four containers were used for the conveyance of passengers' baggage. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to the ports of Dover or Calais. The next step was in Europe was after the Second World War. Vessels purpose-built to carry containers were used between UK and Netherlands and also in Denmark in 1951. In the United States, ships began carrying containers in 1951, between Seattle, Washington and Alaska.
Containerization | Purpose-built ships
Intermodal containers exist in many types and a number of standardized sizes, but ninety percent of the global container fleet are so-called "dry freight" or "general purpose" containers, durable closed steel boxes, mostly of either standard length. The common heights are and – the latter are known as High Cube or Hi-Cube containers. First invented in the early 20th century, modern 40-foot intermodal containers proliferated during the 1960s and 1970s under the containerization innovations of the American shipping company SeaLand. Just like cardboard boxes and pallets, these containers are a means to bundle cargo and goods into larger, unitized loads, that can be easily handled, moved, and stacked, and that will pack tightly in a ship or yard.
Intermodal container | Introduction
This happened well before the ships would be finished and as a result the ships were all delivered with COSCO Shipping name and colors.
Universe-class container ship | Introduction
Before specialized bulk carriers were developed, shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship. In the first method, longshoremen loaded the cargo into sacks, stacked the sacks onto pallets, and put the pallets into the cargo hold with a crane. The second method required the shipper to charter an entire ship and spend time and money to build plywood bins into the holds. Then, to guide the cargo through the small hatches, wooden feeders and shifting boards had to be constructed. These methods were slow and labor-intensive. As with the container ship, the problem of efficient loading and unloading has driven the evolution of the bulk carrier.
Bulk carrier | History
Cargo determines the main function, transportation mode and related characters required for the container port. In container port design, the object cargo is intermodal container. Containers are usually classified as 20-foot and 40-foot. 53-foot containers were introduced and used both in the U.S.A. and Canada, mainly for domestic road and rail transport.
Container port design process | Cargo
There are several key points in the design of modern container ships. The hull, similar to bulk carriers and general cargo ships, is built around a strong keel. Into this frame is set one or more below-deck cargo holds, numerous tanks, and the engine room. The holds are topped by hatch covers, onto which more containers can be stacked. Many container ships have cargo cranes installed on them, and some have specialized systems for securing containers on board. The hull of a modern cargo ship is a complex arrangement of steel plates and strengthening beams. The hull is built around the keel.
Container ship | Architecture
2, which was , allowing such cargo as locomotives, naval guns, long bars, etc. Ventilation to the holds was provided by hollow kingposts, which also served as cargo masts. Cargo handling gear consisted of fourteen 5-ton cargo booms, plus two 30-ton booms at Nos. 3 and 4 hatches.
Type C2 ship | Introduction
The first commercially successful container ship was , a T2 tanker, owned by Malcom McLean, which carried 58 metal containers between Newark, New Jersey and Houston, Texas, on its first voyage. In 1955, McLean built his company, McLean Trucking into one of United States' biggest freighter fleets. In 1955, he purchased the small Pan Atlantic Steamship Company from Waterman Steamship and adapted its ships to carry cargo in large uniform metal containers. On April 26, 1956, the first of these rebuilt container vessels, "Ideal X", left the Port Newark in New Jersey and a new revolution in modern shipping resulted.
Container ship | History
This overly simplistic system was replaced by the Moorsom System in 1854 and calculated internal volume, not weight. This system evolved into the current set of internationally accepted rules and regulations. When steamships came into being, they could carry less cargo, size for size, than could sailing ships. In addition to space taken up by boilers and steam engines, steamships carried extra fresh water for the boilers and coal for the engines. Thus, to move the same volume of cargo as a sailing ship, a steamship would be considerably larger than a sailing ship. Harbour dues are based on tonnage.
Tonnage | Origins
Until the 1950s, hatches were typically secured with wooden boards and tarpaulins held down with battens. Today, some hatch covers can be solid metal plates that are lifted on and off the ship by cranes, while others are articulated mechanisms that are opened and closed using powerful hydraulic rams. Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use of "cell guides". Cell guides are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds. These structures guide containers into well-defined rows during the loading process and provide some support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea.
Container ship | Cargo holds
A water-tight center-line bulkhead ran the entire length of the ship from keel to the top of main deck. In order to be able to load and unload her cargo in a day or less, her holds and hatches were arranged in such a way so they could easily work together with the conveyor cargo loading system. The freighter had no cargo-handling gear of her own with the exception of a forward hoist which were to be used sparingly. The vessel was also equipped with wireless apparatus located in the bridge house, had submarine signal system installed and had electrical lights installed along the decks.
SS William O'Brien | Design and construction
Containerization allowed tremendous cost saving versus break bulk cargo, where each piece of cargo had to be loaded and unloaded individually. Malcom McLean, who founded the pioneer container line Sea-Land Service in 1956, conceived the concept of containerization while sitting in his truck at the port waiting for a ship to be unloaded. Simply put, his idea was to separate the truck's "box" from its chassis and wheels and load the entire "box" with its cargo inside onto the ship, thus speeding up loading and unloading of ships. It would also dramatically increase ship productivity by reducing ship idle time, and reduce damage and pilferage of cargo at the same time.
Seatrain Lines | Containerization
CONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements. The first major shipment of CONEXes, containing engineering supplies and spare parts, was made by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the Port of San Francisco, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952; shipment times were almost halved. By the time of the Vietnam War the majority of supplies and materials were shipped by CONEX. By 1965 the US military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967. making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
Large ships often have a long midsection with a uniform profile. In such cases, the ship is cut in two pieces and an additional section is inserted in between. This operation must be performed in a drydock. On large ships, the additional sections are typically 20 to 30 metres long, consisting of an oil tank, a cargo ship hold, or a group of cabins, depending on the type of ship. The tanker "Seawise Giant" became the largest ship in the world after her jumboization. Smaller ships are usually jumboized by replacing the entire bow or stern section of the ship.
Jumboisation | Methods
Before the Second World War first container ships were used to carry baggage of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris, Golden Arrow / Flèche d'Or, in 1926 by Southern Railway. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and "CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL" in France. The earliest container ships after the Second World War were converted oil tankers, built up from surplus T2 tankers after World War II. In 1951, the first purpose-built container vessels began operating in Denmark, and between Seattle and Alaska.
Container ship | History
Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable. Containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat 'Starvationer' with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph (quarry) to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. In 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.
Containerization | Origin
Freight containers are a reusable transport and storage unit for moving products and raw materials between locations or countries. There are about seventeen million intermodal containers in the world, and a large proportion of the world's long-distance freight generated by international trade is transported in shipping containers. In addition, it is estimated that several million of these containers have now been discarded due to the shipping cost of sending them back to their port of origin. Their invention made a major contribution to the globalization of commerce in the second half of the 20th century, dramatically reducing the cost of transporting goods and hence of long-distance trade.
Shipping container | Intermodal freight containers
So fundamental to container ship design are cell guides that organizations such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development use their presence to distinguish dedicated container ships from general break-bulk cargo ships. A system of three dimensions is used in cargo plans to describe the position of a container aboard the ship. The first coordinate is the "BAY", which starts at the front of the ship and increases aft. The second coordinate is the "ROW". Rows on the starboard side are given odd numbers and those on the port side are given even numbers. The rows nearest the centerline are given low numbers, and the numbers increase for slots further from the centerline.
Container ship | Cargo holds
The Type C6 ship is a United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) designation for a container ship developed during the transition years from moving goods by breakbulk cargo to containerization. The Type C4 ships "Mariner" class, arranged with its house/engine-room in the center vessel with cargo hatches at 4 forward and 2 aft, was very successful. Eleven of these "Mariner" ships were converted into Type C6 container ships, and eight vessels were new built. As of September 2018 only three C6 ships, the converted C4s, are extant. All three are crane ships in the National Defense Reserve Fleet.
Type C6 ship | Introduction
The early 1900s saw the first adoption of covered containers, primarily for the movement of furniture and intermodal freight between road and rail. A lack of standards limited the value of this service and this in turn drove standardisation. In the U.S. such containers, known as "lift vans", were in use from as early as 1911.
Intermodal freight transport | Origins
Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers (also called shipping containers and ISO containers). The containers have standardized dimensions. They can be loaded and unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred from one mode of transport to another—container ships, rail transport flatcars, and semi-trailer trucks—without being opened. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes and special forklift trucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed or widely applied until after World War II, when it dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the post-war boom in international trade, and was a major element in globalization.
Containerization | Introduction
To increase the fueled load of the "Cimarron"-class oilers it was decided in the late 1980s to lengthen the ships back in Avondale Shipyards. "Cimarron" became the first ship complete the so-called "jumboization" from August 1991 to September 1992. A mid-body section was added to the center of the ship. This mid-body increased fuel capacity by 30,000 barrels and added an ordnance cargo capability of 625 tons. The mid-body also featured an additional emergency diesel generator and two "Standard Tensioned Replenishment Alongside Method" (STREAM) cargo stations. Ballast and cargo transfer systems were fully automated and designed to effect safe and efficient transfer of bulk petroleum cargo.
USS Cimarron (AO-177) | Jumboization
There are many established methods and materials for stabilizing and securing intermodal containers loaded on ships, as well as the internal cargo inside the boxes. Conventional restraint methods and materials such as steel strapping and wood blocking and bracing have been around for decades and are still widely used. Polyester strapping and lashing, and synthetic webbings are also common today. Dunnage bags (also known as "air bags") are used to keep unit loads in place. Flexi-bags can also be directly loaded, stacked in food-grade containers. Indeed, their standard shape fills the entire ground surface of a 20 ft ISO container.
Intermodal container | Securing containers and contents
About 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container, and the largest container ships can carry over 19,000 TEU (Twenty-Foot Equivalent, or how many 20 foot containers can fit on a ship). Between 2011 and 2013, an average of 2,683 containers were reported lost at sea. Other estimates go up to 10,000; of these 10% are expected to contain chemicals toxic to marine life.
Intermodal container | Ship
In order to prevent steamships operating at a disadvantage, various tonnage calculations were established to minimize the disadvantage presented by the extra space requirements of steamships. Rather than charging by length, displacement, or the like, charges were calculated based on the viable cargo space. As commercial cargo sailing ships are now largely extinct, gross tonnage is becoming the universal method of calculating ships' dues, and is also a more straightforward and transparent method of assessment.
Tonnage | Origins
Original names of the ships in the table might have been changed after transferring to different governmental establishments.
Type 614 research vessel | Ships
In addition the ships can carry special ten-foot ore concentrate containers in holds No. 2, 3 and 4, with two layers on tank top and one on tweendeck. For loading and unloading of general cargo, containers and bulk cargo the ships are geared with four deck cranes located on the centerline, one on the aft deck and three forwards of the superstructure. The No. 2 crane on the foredeck is a twin type crane with a lifting capacity of 2 × 40 tonnes at while the others are single hydraulic cranes, capable of lifting 20 tonnes, with a maximum outreach of .
SA-15 (ship) | Cargo handling
Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships. While containers may be carried on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at sea. A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings from the main deck to the cargo holds. The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds, and are surrounded by a raised steel structure known as the "hatch coaming". On top of the hatch coamings are the hatch covers.
Container ship | Cargo holds
(For further discussion, see Ship prefixes.)
Cargo ship | Vessel prefixes
The final designs incorporated many changes suggested by these constituencies. The ships were to be reasonably fast but economical cargo ships which, with some government subsidies to operators, could compete with vessels of other nations. Building costs were to be minimized by standardization of design and equipment, and the ships were to have sufficient speed and stability that they could be used as naval auxiliaries in time of national emergency. The basic specifications called for a five-hold steel cargo ship with raked stem and cruiser stern, complete shelter and second decks, and a third deck in Nos. 1–4 holds. Dimensions of the hatches were , except for No.
Type C2 ship | Introduction
Since the late 1960s the volume of break bulk cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization has grown. Moving cargo on and off ship in containers is much more efficient, allowing ships to spend less time in port. Break bulk cargo also suffered from greater theft and damage.
Break bulk cargo | Description
The last was a Dutch unit of mass, volume, and number, and a large English unit of weight, mass, volume, and number. It referred to standardized amounts of ships' lading and varied by commodity and over time.
Last (unit) | Introduction
Subsequently, A&P adapted the design to carry 118 20-foot containers on deck and on the hatch covers as well as break-bulk cargo in the holds. Accordingly, in the late 1970s Lamport and Holt ordered four SD14s of and from A&P. They were launched as "Bronte". "Browning" and "Boswell" in 1979 and "Belloc" in 1980. They formed a new "B-class", and Lamport and Holt rapidly sold its existing fleet as they were delivered. Unlike previous Lamport and Holt ships, the new B-class had no passenger berths at all. Their introduction brought the company's passenger service to an end after 135 years.
Lamport and Holt | Containerisation
Five large hatches by , two by hatches, one by hatch and one by hatch served general cargo spacees. Refrigerated spaces were served by two by hatches. Cargo service was by means of thirty-two six ton booms and one thirty ton boom with ten kingpost.
Design 1095 ship | Initial design
SD18 ships had aft superstructure and machinery, and four cargo holds with a capacity totalling grain (i.e. loose material). The most forward cargo hold had a hatch with McGregor single-pull hatch covers, the other three cargo holds had double hatches, which were also sealed with McGregor single-pull hatch covers.
SD18 (ship type) | Description
The Type C7 ship "(Lancer Class)" is a United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) designation for a cargo ship and the first purpose-built container ship. The vessels were constructed in US shipyards and entered service starting in 1968. As US-built ships they were Jones Act qualified for shipments between US domestic ports. Under the Jones Act domestic US maritime trade is restricted to US-built and flagged vessels of US owners and manned by predominantly US-citizen crews. The last active "Lancer" container-configured ship was scrapped in 2019. "Lancers" of the vehicle Roll-on/Roll-off (RO/RO) configuration remain held in the Ready Reserve Force, National Defense Reserve Fleet and the US Navy Military Sealift Command.
Type C7 ship | Introduction
860
Intermodal container | Types
, container ships made up 13.3% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total of container ship deadweight tonnage has increased from in 1980 to in 2010. The combined deadweight tonnage of container ships and general cargo ships, which also often carry containers, represents 21.8% of the world's fleet. , the average age of container ships worldwide was 10.6 years, making them the youngest general vessel type, followed by bulk carriers at 16.6 years, oil tankers at 17 years, general cargo ships at 24.6 years, and others at 25.3 years. Most of the world's carrying capacity in fully cellular container ships is in the liner service, where ships trade on scheduled routes.
Container ship | Fleet characteristics
Liquids were usually loaded in casks—hence the term "tonnage", which refers to the volume of the holds in terms of how many tuns or casks of wine could be carried. Even potable water, vital for the survival of the crew, was stowed in casks. Carrying bulk liquids in earlier ships posed several problems: Tankers were first used by the oil industry to transfer refined fuel in bulk from refineries to customers. This would then be stored in large tanks ashore, and subdivided for delivery to individual locations. The use of tankers caught on because other liquids were also cheaper to transport in bulk, store in dedicated terminals, then subdivide.
Tanker (ship) | Description
In 2013 however, APL stopped offering vessel space for 53-foot containers on its trans-Pacific ships. Nevertheless, In 2015 both Crowley and TOTE Maritime each announced the construction of their respective second combined container and roll-on/roll-off ships for Puerto Rico trade, with the specific design to maximize cubic cargo capacity by carrying 53-foot, containers. Within Canada, Oceanex offers 53-foot-container ocean service to and from the island of Newfoundland. Fifty-three-foot containers are also being used on some Asia Pacific international shipping routes.
Intermodal container | 53-foot containers
In the United Kingdom containers were first standardised by the Railway Clearing House (RCH) in the 1920s, allowing both railway owned and privately owned vehicles to be carried on standard container flats. By modern standards these containers were small, being long, normally wooden and with a curved roof and insufficient strength for stacking. From 1928 the London, Midland & Scottish Railway offered "door to door" intermodal road-rail services using these containers. This standard failed to become popular outside the United Kingdom. Pallets made their first major appearance during World War II, when the United States military assembled freight on pallets, allowing fast transfer between warehouses, trucks, trains, ships, and aircraft.
Intermodal freight transport | Early containers
The shipping container is a High Cube container in that it is tall on the exterior. It is wide which makes it wider than ISO-standard containers. This size was introduced by container shipping company APL in 1986, and is used domestically in North America on road and rail, and may be transported on deck by ship. This size being longer and wider has 29% more volume capacity than the standard 40-ft High Cube, yet costs of moving it by truck or rail are almost the same.
Intermodal container | 48-foot containers
Wooden boxes or crates are stowed on double dunnage in the holds and single dunnage in the 'tween decks. Heavy boxes are given bottom stowage. The loading slings are often left on to aid discharge.
Break bulk cargo | Wooden shipping containers
The physical design began in 1957-1958, a critical time, both from the point of view of the development of maritime transport and port facilities for cargo handling, and from the point of view of the development of cargo vessels. It was during this period that modern shipping concepts began to be applied throughout the world. Its construction was based on a long term development plan. Breakwaters were built to create a harbor where quays could be built and developed in stages. In the first stage, quays 1 and 3 were built, mainly for the handling of citrus and other agricultural exports.
Port of Ashdod | History
Intermodal transportation has its origins in 18th century England and predates the railways. Some of the earliest containers were those used for shipping coal on the Bridgewater Canal in England in the 1780s. Coal containers (called "loose boxes" or "tubs") were soon deployed on the early canals and railways and were used for road/rail transfers (road at the time meaning horse-drawn vehicles). Wooden coal containers were first used on the railways in the 1830s on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. In 1841, Isambard Kingdom Brunel introduced iron containers to move coal from the vale of Neath to Swansea Docks. By the outbreak of the First World War the Great Eastern Railway was using wooden containers to trans-ship passenger luggage between trains and sailings via the port of Harwich.
Intermodal freight transport | Origins
The methods of securely tying up parcels of goods is called "stevedore lashing" or "stevedore knotting". While loading a general cargo vessel, they use dunnage, which are pieces of wood (or nowadays sometimes strong inflatable dunnage bags) set down to keep the cargo out of any water that might be lying in the hold or are placed as shims between cargo crates for load securing. Today, the vast majority of non-bulk cargo is transported in intermodal containers. The containers arrive at a port by truck, rail, or another ship and are stacked in the port's storage area. When the ship that will be transporting them arrives, the containers that it is offloading are unloaded by a crane.
Stevedore | Loading and unloading ships
The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.
Containerization | Origin
By the 1950s, the needs of cargo transport customers were no longer being met by the break bulk system of loading individual cargo pieces into a ship's hold. The dimensions and shapes of cargo pieces varied widely, and the ISO standard cargo container had only slowly begun to be adopted during the 1960s. Large container terminals with extensive conveyor systems and storage areas were still only in planning or in the development stages. The LASH system was developed as an alternative and supplement to the developing container system. The lighters, which may be characterized as floating cargo containers, served dual purposes: transportation over water, and the establishment of a modular, standardized shape for loading and unloading cargo.
Lighter aboard ship | Development
The ship was built as a U.S. Army freight and supply vessel, Design 381 (officially Vessel, Supply, Diesel, Steel, 177') also called coastal cargo ships. The type was built by several shipbuilders during World War II with "FS-400" being the last of a series of the design built by Ingalls Shipbuilding, Decatur, Alabama, in 1944. NOAA history, primarialy concerned with the NOAA operation of the vessel, has design by Sturgeon Bay Shipbuilding and Drydock Company of Wisconsin with Nickum & Sons Consultants of Seattle, Washington but the designs were of U.S. Army origin according to other references.
NOAAS George B. Kelez (R 441) | Construction
On 28 August 1913, a contract for two steel freight steamships was signed by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company and the Mallory Steamship Company of the United States. "The vessel will be a single screw steamship of the hurricane deck type with straight stem and elliptical stern, and with deck houses amidship and aft for the crew accommodations..." The original specifications referred to the vessels as hulls No. 175 and No. 176. Hull No. 175 would eventually be named SS "Neches" and hull No. 176 became SS "Medina". ("Neches" would be lost in a collision with British warship in 1918.) The full contract for the vessels filled a 186-page volume and included the fittings commonly used in a ship for her era and also provision for tropical itineraries – mosquito nets for the crew quarters.
MV Doulos Phos | Cargo ship era
By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. "Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where they were transferred to horse-drawn carts by crane." Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones.
Containerization | Origin
It is supposed that the famous ship sailed by the hero Theseus in a great battle was kept in a harbor as a museum piece, and as the years went by some of the wooden parts began to rot and were replaced by new ones; then, after a century or so, every part had been replaced. The question then is if the "restored" ship is still the same object as the original. If it is, then suppose the removed pieces were stored in a warehouse, and after the century, technology was developed that cured their rot and enabled them to be reassembled into a ship? Is this "reconstructed" ship the original ship? If it is, then what about the restored ship in the harbor still being the original ship as well?
Ship of Theseus | Thought experiment
The earliest records of waterborne activity mention the carriage of items for trade; the evidence of history and archaeology shows the practice to be widespread by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, and as early as the 14th and 15th centuries BC small Mediterranean cargo ships like those of the 50 foot long (15–16 metre) Uluburun ship were carrying 20 tons of exotic cargo; 11 tons of raw copper, jars, glass, ivory, gold, spices, and treasures from Canaan, Greece, Egypt, and Africa. The desire to operate trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year, motivated improvements in ship design during the Middle Ages.
Cargo ship | History
By the 1830s, railways across several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. "Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a truck, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where they were transferred to horse-drawn carts by crane." Early versions of standardized containers were used in Europe before World War II. Construction of these containers had a steel frame with wooden walls, floor, roof and doors. The first international standard for containers was established by the Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal (B.I.C.) in 1933, and a second one in 1935, primarily for transport between European countries.
Intermodal container | History
In shipping, break bulk cargo or general cargo are goods that must be loaded individually, and not in intermodal containers nor in bulk as with oil or grain. Ships that carry this sort of cargo are called general cargo ships.
Break bulk cargo | Introduction
Three C7 ships in the RO/RO configuration, designated as MARAD design C7-S-1331a, were built for the Waterman Line. The "John B. Waterman" and "Thomas Heyward" were completed by Sun Shipbuilding. The "Charles Carroll" was subcontracted to the General Dynamics Quincy Shipbuilding Division. These would be the last ships constructed by the respective shipyards before their closure. In 1984-1985 all three were converted to pre-positioning supply ships for the US Navy Military Sealift Command (MSC) by the National Steel and Shipbuilding Company, San Diego, CA. The ships gained 157 feet amidships, a helicopter landing platform, and cranes to enable them to unload their own cargo.
Type C7 ship | Waterman Line C7-S-133a Series
From 1956 to 1961, the company acquired its last three steam passenger ships , and . Competition from airlines forced CP to retire these ships in the 1970s. The company looked towards bulk carrier and tanker fleets as replacements for its steamships. In 1971, the company changed its name to CP Ships Ltd. Container ships added as Intermodal freight transport became popular. Intermodal transportation integrated well with CP's rail assets. In 1972, CP Ships regular transatlantic passenger service from the Port of Liverpool finished with the sale of "Empress of Canada". In 1984, CP Ships entered a joint venture with Compagnie Maritime Belge called Canada Maritime to secure North Atlantic container traffic for its rail facilities at the Port of Montreal.
CP Ships | Post-war period (1945–2005)
"Naess Norseman" was delivered in November 1965 and was long with a beam of , a draft of , and a gross register tonnage of 37,965 tonnes. The OBO carrier quickly became popular among shipowners around the world and as of today several hundreds of this type of vessel have been built. The ship type had its glory days in the early 1970s. In the 1980s, it became clear that the type required more maintenance than other vessels. Also, it was expensive to "switch" from wet to dry cargoes, and it took valuable time. If you had carried oil, you could switch to carrying ore or other dirty bulk cargoes, but not grain or other clean bulk cargoes.
Ore-bulk-oil carrier | History
Container ships are used to transport containers by sea. These vessels are custom-built to hold containers. Some vessels can hold thousands of containers. Their capacity is often measured in TEU or FEU. These initials stand for "twenty-foot equivalent unit," and "forty-foot equivalent unit," respectively. For example, a vessel that can hold 1,000 40-foot containers or 2,000 20-foot containers can be said to have a capacity of . After the year 2006, the largest container ships in regular operation are capable of carrying in excess of . Onboard ships they are typically stacked up to seven units high. A key consideration in the size of container ships is that larger ships exceed the capacity of important sea routes such as the Panama and Suez canals.
Intermodal freight transport | Container ships
A&P maximised the competitiveness of its prefabrication process by producing ships to standard designs rather than individual specifications. From 1962 onwards the company offered standard bulk carriers in a range of sizes designated according to tonnage. A&P's most numerous product was another of its standard designs, the SD14 shelter deck cargo ship. During the Second World War, shipyards in the United States had delivered more than 2,700 Liberty ship shelter deck cargo ships. By the 1960s many Liberty ships were reaching the end of their service lives, so in 1965 A&P started to develop a low-cost shelter-deck cargo vessel to replace them.
Austin &amp; Pickersgill | Ship Production
The Type C5 ship is a United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) designation for World War II breakbulk cargo and later a container ship for containerization shipments. The first type C5-class ship was a class of ships constructed and produced in the United States during World War II. The World War II C5-class ship was dry bulk cargo ship built by Bethlehem Steel in Sparrows Point, Maryland. Bethlehem Steel built eight ships in this bulk cargo class and four orders were canceled. The C5-class ship has a and was long. The C5 was mainly used as iron ore carriers. The C5 was needed to replace other ships that sank during World War II.
Type C5 ship | Introduction
Næss was always searching for increased efficiency, and the long voyages ballasted for tankers posed an intriguing problem. In the mid of the 1950s he started to think about a combination ship that could carry both oil and bulk cargoes. Oil and ore ships had been in operation since the 1920s, but a vessel with the capability of carrying both oil and bulk cargoes seemed impossible to construct. Næss pushed his chief naval architect T. M. Karlsen to keep researching the combined vessel, also checking in on various failed projects like the "Mando Theodoracopulos". One of the deficiencies of that vessel was the small hatches, too small for efficient discharging.
Erling Dekke Næss | The OBO carrier
The C1-B cargo ships were constructed with flush full scantling type decks having a raked stem and cruiser stern. Two complete steel decks, the main and second decks, were fitted and a third deck was fitted below the second deck extending from the stem to the forward machinery space bulkhead. The double bottom extended from the forward collision bulkhead to the after collision bulkhead. Two 28-foot lifeboats, with a capacity of 60 persons each, were stowed under mechanical davits on the bridge deck. The hull was subdivided by seven transverse bulkheads, all watertight to the main deck. Five cargo holds were provided: three forward and two aft of the machinery space.
MS American Leader | Hull Design
The first container ship, MOL's America Maru, sailed from Kobe to San Francisco in October 1969. Containerization spread to other routes, including the Australia route, with NYK and Yamashita-Shinnihon Steamship Co., in 1970; the North Pacific route, with five other Japanese companies, in 1971; and the Europe route, as part of the TRIO Group consisting of MOL, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Overseas Container Line, Ben Line, and Hapag-Lloyd, in 1971. On the New York route and Mediterranean routes a container service began in 1972.
Mitsui O.S.K. Lines | Containerization
This class of ships, Project 1563, was developed at the Central Design Bureau Chernomorsudoproekt (CDB ChSP) in Nikolayev. Major designer: the main construktor Pankov V.A. The ship was built in Kherson shipyard in 1967 and handed over to Black Sea Shipping Company, home port Odessa. Five cargo holds. All ships of this class of cargo ships were built without longitudinal partitions and without side tanks in cargo holds.
MS Sarny | Ship's data
Shipping is supplemented by air freight, a more expensive process mostly used for particularly valuable or perishable cargoes. Seaborne trade carries more than US$4 trillion worth of goods each year. There are two main kinds of freight, bulk cargo and break bulk or general cargo, most of which is now transported in containers. Commodities in the form of liquids, powder or particles are carried loose in the holds of bulk carriers and include oil, grain, coal, ore, scrap metal, sand and gravel. Break bulk cargo is usually manufactured goods and is transported in packages, often stacked on pallets. Before the arrival of containerization in the 1950s, these goods were loaded, transported and unloaded piecemeal.
Sea | Trade
The loading and unloading of cargo has traditionally been handled by stevedores, also known as longshoremen, wharfies, etc. Today, the vast majority of non-bulk cargo is transported in intermodal containers, which are loaded and unloaded using specialized cranes. People normally board and depart a ship via a gangplank (gangway), a movable structure usually consisting of a ramp with stairs and railings. The gangplank may lead to either a dock or a small boat (or lighter) that connects to the shore. Accidents during disembarkation are most often due to being struck by a rope (line), railing or other item due to the ship's motion, or attempting to avoid such items.
Disembarkation | Civilian
The system was very similar to modern intermodal container loading systems, with the exception that it lifted the load from the bottom rather than the top. The crane rolled the cradle over a large hatch slightly longer than the cradle and as wide as the ship. The cradle could be lowered to match one of four internal decks (including the top surface) and moved side-to-side to match one of four parallel sets of rails on the decks. Once positioned, the car was pulled off by steam driven winches. During the voyage of the ship the cars were secured by chocking the wheels and using jacks and turnbuckles at each corner of the car.
Seatrain Lines | History
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) then issued standards based upon the U.S. Department of Defense standards between 1968 and 1970.
Intermodal freight transport | Containerization
The vessel was a break-bulk transporter. That meant that the freight was unloaded from the rail car and loaded onto the ship by hand, rather by packages or by bulk into large ship containers. The freight material was then transported across Lake Michigan. At the other end the freight was unloaded by hand and reloaded into other freight cars at the port the vessel arrived at. All the cross-lake ferries until 1896 were of this type.
SS John Sherman | Description
The origin of Type 79 series LSM dates back in the 1970s, when North Vietnam asked China to produce a landing ship capable of carrying around 200 tons of cargo with maximum speed of 12 kts, but more importantly, the manufacturing technique had to be simply so that it must be able to be built quickly in large numbers. Design of Type 079 LSM took more than two years, lasting from 1971 to 1973, and construction begun in May 1974 at Guangzhou Shipyard International, and launched on July 22, 1976. Due to the changes of Sino-Vietnamese relations, the end customer became PLAN instead, and the ship entered PLAN service in October, 1976.
Type 079 landing ship medium | Type 79I
It was first expected that , operating alongside would be able to meet this demand and the company sold their other general cargo vessel, at the beginning of 1973. However, the majority of cargo shipping soon switched to containers, and given "Ramsey"s deficiencies in handling containerized cargoes, it became apparent that a second container vessel would be needed to expedite matters. The "Spaniel" was chartered as a container ship by the Steam Packet Company early in 1973, and bought outright by them in November of that year.
MV Conister | Service life
These were the last of the dry cargo ships to be built in the 1960s for Safmarine. The "S.A. Alphen" and "S.A. Huguenot" came into service in the mid-1960s, and later the "S.A. Constantia", "S.A. Morgenster", and the "S.A. Vergelegen" were built of the same design in Japan. S.A. Vergelegen was later modified in Germany with a Stulken derrick capable of lifting 250 tons. This class of vessel had the most pleasing lines of all the dry cargo ships built for the corporation. They were powered by a six-cylinder Sulzer 6RND90 two-stroke diesel engine developing 15,000 BHP giving them a speed of 21 knots.
Safmarine | Alphen Class
Writers have characterized the origin of shanties (or perhaps a "revival" in shanties, as William Main Doerflinger theorized) as belonging to an era immediately following the War of 1812 and up to the American Civil War. This was a time when there was relative peace on the seas and shipping was flourishing. Packet ships carried cargo and passengers on fixed schedules across the globe. Packet ships were larger and yet sailed with fewer crew than vessels of earlier eras, in addition to the fact that they were expected on strict schedules. These requirements called for an efficient and disciplined use of human labor.
Sea shanty | New ships and new requirements
After helping McLean create the successful design, Tantlinger convinced him to give the patented designs to industry; this began international standardization of shipping containers.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
Ice cargoes tended to cause damage to ships in the longer term, as the constant melting of the ice and the resulting water and steam encouraged dry rot. Shipment sizes varied; depending on the ports and route. The typical late 19th-century U.S. vessel was a schooner, carrying around 600 tons (500,000 kg) of ice; a large shipment from Norway to England might include up to 900 tons (800,000 kg).
Ice trade | Transportation
The third coordinate is"TIER", with the first tier at the bottom of the cargo holds, the second tier on top of that, and so forth.
Container ship | Cargo holds
The most common and noted type of containers are the 20 feet and 40 feet containers. There are also containers with an extent in height called "High Cube" containers. The fixed exterior dimension of the standard size boxes are: Container vessels are built to contain as many containers as possible, accordingly the vessels are divided into sections: The cargo hold and on-deck are the spaces where the cargo, stored in containers, is kept.
Stowage plan for container ships | Containers and ship sections
During the first 20 years of containerization, many container sizes and corner fittings were used; there were dozens of incompatible container systems in the United States alone. Among the biggest operators, the Matson Navigation Company had a fleet of containers, while Sea-Land Service, Inc used containers. The standard sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that now exist evolved out of a series of compromises among international shipping companies, European railroads, US railroads, and US trucking companies. Four important ISO (International Organization for Standardization) recommendations standardized containerization globally: Based on these standards, the first TEU container ship was the Japanese "" from shipowner NYK, who started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers.
Containerization | Toward standards
The type of vessel, its dimension and capacity, determines the required capacity for a port's input capacity, which involves berth design, water-borne handling equipment selection and requirements for both storage and land-mode capacity. The characteristics of vessels and the port characteristics: The selection of designed vessel shall also consider the development of the container ship. Underestimating the trend of size development of container ship will result in incapability and low sustainability.
Container port design process | Vessels
Loading and unloading ships requires knowledge of the operation of loading equipment, the proper techniques for lifting and stowing cargo, and correct handling of hazardous materials. In addition, workers must be physically strong and able to follow orders attentively. In order to unload a ship successfully, many longshoremen are needed. There is only a limited amount of time that a ship can be at a port, so they need to get their jobs done quickly. In earlier days before the introduction of containerization, men who loaded and unloaded ships had to tie down cargoes with rope. A type of stopper knot is called the stevedore knot.
Stevedore | Loading and unloading ships
On transfer to the Navy the vessel was classified as a "light cargo ship" for the United States Navy′s Military Sea Transportation Service as USNS "AKL-30" (T-AKL-30) from 1950 to 1961.
NOAAS George B. Kelez (R 441) | Introduction