The religion has between four and five million followers, mostly in India. Outside India, some of the largest communities are in Canada, Europe, and the United States. Jain Dharma is growing in Japan, where more than 5,000 ethnic Japanese families have converted to Jainism. Major festivals include "Paryushana" and "Daslakshana", "Ashtanika", "Mahavir Janma Kalyanak", and "Dipawali".
Introduction
Jainism
Jainism | Introduction
Violence, attachment, sensual pleasures, lie and possessiveness are some of them. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
which of the following is not among the practices of jainism
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Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes "ahimsa" (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are "ahimsa", "anekantavada" (non-absolutism), "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: "ahimsa", "satya" (not lying), "asteya" (non stealing), "brahmacharya" (chastity), and "aparigraha". Monks follow them completely whereas "śrāvakas" (householders) observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Timeline of Jainism | Introduction
Jainism has been engaged in debates with the other philosophical and religious traditions, in which its theories and its followers' practices have been questioned and challenged.
Criticism of Jainism | Introduction
Devout Jains take five main vows: "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "satya" (truth), "asteya" (not stealing), "brahmacharya" (sexual continence), and "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. "Parasparopagraho Jīvānām" (the function of souls is to help one another) is its motto and the "Ṇamōkāra mantra" is its most common and basic prayer. Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender and which texts can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons ("śrāvakas" and "śrāvikas").
Jainism | Introduction
However, in the 2006 verdict, Supreme Court of India found that the "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion".
Jainism in India | History
Hindus do not accept any Jain text and Jains do not recognize any Hindu scripture.
Jainism and Hinduism | Religious texts
Jainism is considered by some to be distinct from Vedic religion and from a pre-Aryan tradition viz. "Sramana" or "Aarahata" tradition.
Jainism and Hinduism | History
Jainism and Other Religions: Illustrations noted by Supreme Court of India in the U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad Judgment (the para numbers refer to the paragraphs in the Judgment):
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | Illustrations noted by the Supreme Court
In 2006, the Supreme Court opined that "Jain Religion is indisputably is not a part of Hindu Religion".
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad Judgment
Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called "devapuja", and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.
Jainism | Rituals and worship
The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.
Jainism | Many-sided reality ("anekāntavāda")
Jainism is an Indian religion which is traditionally believed to be propagated by twenty-four spiritual teachers known as "tirthankara". Broadly, Jainism is divided into two major schools of thought, Digambara and Svetambara. These are further divided into different sub-sects and traditions. While there are differences in practices, the core philosophy and main principles of each sect is same.
Jain schools and branches | Introduction
No furs, plumes or silk are worn. Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals. Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable, since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night. The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed; even with this precaution, liquids are always strained before use. Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury, and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking, commerce and other mercantile trades.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Householders adherence to the vow
The Tattvārthasūtra, which encapsulates major philosophical doctrines, is accepted by all traditions of Jainism. This coherence in philosophical doctrine and consistency across different schools has led scholars like Jaini to remark that in the course of history of Jainism no heretical movements like Mahayana, tantric or bhakti movement developed outside mainstream Jainism. Thus, there are traditions within Jainism, but basically the same philosophy that is at the core of Jainism.
Jain philosophy | Schools and traditions
This form of reverence is not a central tenet of the faith.
Cult image | Jainism
Jainism as a religion exists throughout India. Jainism also varies from state to state, but the core values are the same.
Jainism in India | Jainism by state
Mahavira (599–527 BC), the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and subjectivism known as "Anekantavada". As a result of this acceptance of alternate religious practices, the phenomenon of proselytisation is largely absent in these religions but not unknown. Converts are welcome to the Jain faith.
Proselytism | Jainism
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching "siddha" and "moksha" ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like "Tattvartha Sūtra" and "Uttaradhyayana Sūtra" discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
Jainism (), traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Jain dharma traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or "tirthankaras", with the first being Rishabhanatha or also known as Adinath bhagwan of this era, whom the Jain tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third "tirthankara" Parshvanatha whom historians date to 8th or 7th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth "tirthankara," Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal "dharma" with the "tirthankaras" guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology. The main religious premises of the Jain dharma are "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "anekāntavāda" (many-sidedness), "aparigraha" (non-attachment) and "asceticism" (abstinence from sensual pleasures).
Jainism | Introduction
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first "tirthankara" Rishabhanatha as its earthly founder. Scholars have conjectured that images such as those of the bull in Indus Valley Civilization seal are related to Jainism. It is one of the "Śramaṇa" traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, it existed before them. The historicity of first twenty two Tirthankars is not traced yet. The 23rd tirthankar, Parshvanatha, was a historical being, possibly of the eighth century BCE. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the 5th century BCE.
Jainism | Ancient
Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the "Dandasan" – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.
Jainism | Asceticism and monasticism
John Cort states that the "Anekantavada" doctrine in pre-20th century Jain literature had no relation to religious tolerance or "intellectual Ahimsa". Jain intellectual and social history toward non-Jains, according to Cort, has been contrary to the modern revisionist attempts, particularly by diaspora Jains, to present "Jains having exhibited a spirit of understanding and tolerance toward non-Jains", or that Jains were rare or unique in practicing religious tolerance in Indian intellectual history. According to Padmanabha Jaini, states Cort, indiscriminate open mindedness and the approach of "accepting all religious paths as equally correct when in fact they are not" is an erroneous view in Jainism and not supported by the "Anekantavada" doctrine.
Anekantavada | Against religious intolerance and contemporary terrorism
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion founded around the sixth century BCE. Janism is a nontheistic religion currently practiced in multiple countries, due to Jain settlers who immigrated there (mainly United Kingdom, United States, Canada and some African countries). Jainism is inclusive of women. One of the cornerstones of the religion is the “fourfold" sangha which describes the Jainism community, which is made up of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. The religious status of women is a very important aspect of the history of the religion and one of the most critical issues between the oldest religious divisions of the religion, Svetambar and Digambar.
Women and religion | Jainism
But a few days later, The Supreme Court of India stayed the High Court's order.
Criticism of Jainism | Sallekhana
In India, Digambara monks reject any form of clothing and practice nudity. Digambara (lit. 'sky clad') is one of the two main sects of Jainism. However, the "Shwetambar" sect is "white-clad" and their holy statues wear a loin cloth.
Nudity in religion | Jainism
According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna. Jains consider their religion eternal. The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE. After the 12th-century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.
History of Jainism | Introduction
Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians. Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.
Vegetarianism | Jainism
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to the Jain tradition. Though all life is considered sacred, human life is deemed the highest form of earthly existence. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only substantial religious tradition that requires both monks and laity to be vegetarian. It is suggested that certain strains of the Hindu tradition became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. The Jain tradition's stance on nonviolence, however, goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice veganism. Jains run animal shelters all over India.
Compassion | Jainism
Scholars in the Jain tradition, as well as several groups amongst the Jain community protested, and emphasised that Jain religion stands as a religion in its own right. While Hinduism as a mode of living, and as a culture is to be found across various religions in India because of several common customs, traditions and practices, but as religions Hindu religion and Jain religion are distinct.
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | The Bal Patil Judgement
Some Indian writers state that Anekantavada is an inclusivist doctrine positing that Jainism accepts "non-Jain teachings as partial versions of truth", a form of sectarian tolerance. Others scholars state this is incorrect and a reconstruction of Jain history because Jainism has consistently seen itself in "exclusivist term as the one true path". Classical Jain scholars saw their premises and models of reality as superior than the competing spiritual traditions of Buddhism and Hinduism, both of which Jainism considered inadequate. For instance, the Jain text "Uttaradhyayana Sutra" in section 23.63 calls the competing Indian thought to be "heterodox and heretics" and that they "have chosen a wrong path, the right path is that taught by the Jinas".
Anekantavada | Inclusivist or exclusivist
According to Padmanabh Jaini, Vasudhara Dharani, a Buddhist work was among the Jainas of Gujarat in 1960s, and a manuscript was copied in 1638 CE. The Dharani was recited by non-Jain Brahmin priests in private Jain homes.
Buddhism and Jainism | Buddhist Texts in Jain Libraries
Jainism is the religion of the followers of Mahavira. He is said to be the 24th Tirthankara, or the 24th in a line of teachers espousing Jain principles. Jains reject the Vedas and highlight the practice of austerity. Jain philosophy states that the jiva, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death through strict ethical behavior. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a "jina", or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering. Ahimsa, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith, philosophy and practice.
Eastern religions | Jainism
According to Jeffery Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of "bhakti" or devotion just like their Hindu neighbors. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. "Abhisekha", festival prayers, community recitals and "Murti puja" (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice.
Bhakti | Jainism
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, Like most ancient Indian religions, Jainism has its roots from the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India. Other scholars suggested the Shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion. In August 2005, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Jainism, Sikhism (and Buddhism) are distinct religions, but are inter-connected and inter-related to Hinduism, so these three are part of wider broader Hindu religion, based on the historic background on how the Constitution had come into existence after.
Jainism in India | History
As per Jains, the knowledge of "Śhrut Jnāna", may be of things which are contained in the "Angas" (Limbs or sacred Jain books) or of things outside the Angas.
Jain epistemology | Jain Agamas
Anekantvada is non-absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms, even including any assertion that only Jainism is the right religious path.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Anekantavada
Jain philosophy can be described in various ways, but the most acceptable tradition is to describe it in terms of the "tattvas" or fundamentals. Without knowing them one cannot progress towards liberation. According to major Jain text, Tattvarthsutra, these are: Each one of these fundamental principles are discussed and explained by Jain scholars in depth. There are two examples that can be used to explain the above principle intuitively. This simple scenario can be interpreted as follows:
Tattva | Jainism
According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory. The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.
Nonviolence | Jainism
"Ahimsa" was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" ("Caujjama"), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of "Ahimsa". According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed. The Jain concept of "Ahimsa" is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.
Ahimsa | Jainism
This practice of self study (reciting scriptures and thinking about the meaning) is included in the practice of equanimity (sāmāyika) which is the spiritual practice emphasized by 20th century Digambara sects. The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his "Pravacanasara" states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on "I, the pure self". Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge" is on the right road to meditating on the "soul, the pure self".
Jain meditation | Modern history
For Jains, lacto-vegetarianism (generally known simply as vegetarianism in India) is mandatory. Food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable. Some Jain scholars and activists support veganism, as the industrial production of dairy products involves violence against cows. Strict Jains don't eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, roots and tubers. This is so because tiny life forms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because the bulb is seen as a living being, as it is able to sprout. Also, consumption of most root vegetables involves uprooting and killing the entire plant, in contrast to consumption of most other terrestrial vegetables, upon which the plant lives on after plucking the vegetables (or it was seasonally supposed to wither away anyway).
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ahimsa and vegetarianism
This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali" bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Jain meditation | Post-canonical
This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of "aparigraha" which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the 5th-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
The texts that do not belong to "Anga" are called "Angabahyas". There were fourteen "Angabahyas". The first four "Angabahayas", "Samayika", "chaturvimasvika", "Vandana" and "Pratikramana" corresponds to sections of second "Mulasutra" of "Svetambara". The only texts of "Angabahyas" that occurs in "Svetambara" texts are "Dasavaikalika", "Uttaradhyayana" and "Kalpavyavahara".
History of Jainism | Literature
The practice of Vedic animal sacrifices was opposed by Jains. Hemachandra, a Jain monk, cites passages from Manusmriti, one of the law book of Hindus, to demonstrate how, in light of false scriptures, Hindus have resorted to violence. Akalanka, another Jain monk, sarcastically said that if killing can result in enlightenment, one should become a hunter or fisherman.
Jainism and Hinduism | Vedic sacrifices
Sikhism rejects asceticism - The Gurus lived as householders. On asceticism Guru Nanak stated: Jain community is a fourfold order of male monastics ("muni"), female monastics ("aryika") and householder ("Śrāvaka and Śrāvika)"
Jainism and Sikhism | Asceticism
However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world ("Saṃsāra") is full of "hiṃsā" (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya, that are Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra which are the key requisites to attain liberation.
Indian philosophy | Jain philosophy
As per the tradition, Jain Sangh was divided into two major sects: The now defunct Yapaniya sect followed the Digambara practice of nudity and eating from the hands while standing up along with Śvetāmbara beliefs and texts. They notably also permitted their ascetics to be "half-clothed" ("ardhambara") in public areas only. The Yapaniya sect was absorbed into the Digambara community during the medieval period.
Jain philosophy | Earlier traditions
Jainism made its own unique contribution to this mainstream development of philosophy by occupying itself with the basic epistemological issues. According to Jains, knowledge is the essence of the soul. This knowledge is masked by the karmic particles. As the soul obtains knowledge through various means, it does not generate anything new. It only shreds off the knowledge-obscuring karmic particles. According to Jainism, consciousness is a primary attribute of "Jīva" (soul) and this consciousness manifests itself as "darsana" (perception) and "jnana" (knowledge).
Jain epistemology | Introduction
Amongst Jain merchants, there is a tradition of inviting monks to their respective cities during Chaturmas to give religious instruction.
Chaturmas | Jainism
He argued that these practices were spiritually dangerous by grounding them as violations of "ahiṃsā," the principle of non-injury central to Jain religion and philosophy. According to Loṅkā, re-shaping the land to build temples leads to the destruction of small and microscopic organisms, and "pūjā" rituals entail "subtle forms of harm" through material offerings like flowers or incense. Loṅkā's lasting influence brought to light an aniconic impulse within a strict, doctrinal understanding of Jain teaching. The Śvetāmbara Sthānakavāsī and Terāpanthī sects accept this impulse, agreeing with Loṅkā that the most appropriate form of religious practice is mental worship ("bhāva-pūjā)," which is already performed by mendicants, because the reliance on images and temples is indicative of an attachment to objects that is "spiritually counterproductive." Mūrtipūjaka Jains respond to the criticisms of "mūrti-pūjā "in two ways: first, by revealing that it is, in fact, scripturally prevalent; and second, by saying that images are necessary for the spiritual practices of laypeople.
Murtipujaka | Agreements and disagreements
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata".
Jainism | Food and fasting
Ascetics do not have a home or possessions. They choose austerity, avoid services such as telephones and electricity. Monks engage in activities such as meditation, seeking knowledge and acquiring self-discipline. Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of "ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata". "Digambara" monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day. The "Yati" of the "Śvētāmbara" sect and the "Bhattaraka" of the Digambara Terapanth do not wander; they usually live in temples and perform daily rituals. The monks rise before dawn, most around 5:00 a.m. but some as early as 2:00 a.m. In observance of "utsarg-samiti", defecation takes place in the open where feces does not harm living creatures; urination is into a shallow pan, which is emptied onto a dry patch of ground.
Jain monasticism | Rules of conduct
This is problematic and a misreading of Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings, states Dundas. The "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahavira is a doctrine about the nature of Absolute Reality and human existence, and it is sometimes called "non-absolutism" doctrine. However, it is not a doctrine about tolerating or condoning activities such as sacrificing or killing animals for food, violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The Five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps, just one perspective". Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism, according to Dundas, but Jainism was highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of its rivals, and vice versa.
Anekantavada | Inclusivist or exclusivist
The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as "Aryikas". Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that "Acharya" Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, "samayika" connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".
Jainism | Meditation
Jainism is a non-theistic Indian religion and philosophical system originating in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population, and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.
Religion in India | Jainism
Jain philosophy arose from the shramana traditions. In its 2500 years post-Mahavira history, it remained fundamentally the same as preached by Mahavira, who preached essentially the same religion as the previous Tirthankara. Harry Oldmeadow notes that the Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components. The schisms into Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and liberation of women. Apart from these minor differences in practices, there are no major philosophical differences between the different sects of Jainism.
Jain philosophy | Schools and traditions
The canonical texts of Jainism are called "Agamas". These are said to be based on the discourse of the "tirthankara", delivered in a "samavasarana" (divine preaching hall). These discourses are termed as "Śrutu Jnāna" ("Jinvani") and comprises eleven "angas" and fourteen "purvas". According to the Jains, the canonical literature originated from the first "tirthankara" Rishabhanatha. The "Digambara" sect believes that there were 26 "Agam‑sutras" (12 "Ang‑agams" + 14 "Ang‑bahya‑agams"). However, they were gradually lost starting from one hundred fifty years after Lord Mahavir's "nirvana". Hence, they do not recognize the existing Agam-sutras (which are recognized by the "Śvētāmbara" sects) as their authentic scriptures.
Jain literature | Canonical
In its judgement the court left the decision to the Central government.
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | 2014: National minority status granted
Jainism rejects the idea of a creator deity responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion) have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws and an immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. Jainism offers an elaborate cosmology, including heavenly beings (devas), but these beings are not viewed as creators; they are subject to suffering and change like all other living beings, and must eventually die. Jains define godliness as the inherent quality of any soul characterising infinite bliss, infinite power, Kevala Jnana (pure infinite knowledge) and Perfect peace.
Irreligion in India | Buddhism and Jainism
According to the famous Tamil classic, Tirukkuṛaḷ, which is also considered a Jain work by some scholars: If the world did not purchase and consume meat, no one would slaughter and offer meat for sale. (Kural 256)
Jain vegetarianism | Historical background
Jainism (; ', "Samaṇam", ', ', "Jainmat", '), is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul toward divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a "jina" ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as "shramana dharma" (self-reliant) or the "path of the nirganthas" (those without attachments or aversions). In Jainism highest form of pure knowledge a soul can attain is called Kevala Jnana (Sanskrit: केवलज्ञान) or Kevala Ṇāṇa (Prakrit: केवल णाण).
Enlightenment (spiritual) | Jainism
They, instead, see renunciation rather than self-sacrifice as the highest ideal for a Jain sati. Hindus think Jainism is simply another branch of Hinduism. Jain apologist like Champat Rai Jain, held that Hindus are Jaina allegorists who have allegorised the Jain teachings. However, such claims are not supported by historical facts.
Jainism and Hinduism | Jains and the Hindu society
Additionally, Śvetāmbara Jains argued that women were not exempt from spiritual liberation, given that there is nothing within Jain scriptures that precludes such. The debates haunt the discussion of gender, and particularly women, in Jainism, as the mendicant tradition is seen as one of the most significant features of Jain religious practice. Yet, it is important to note that simply because the "liberal" Śvetāmbaras do not preclude spiritual liberation for women, women are still viewed in various ways - both positively and negatively - as shown by the Jain literary tradition.
Sexual differences in Jainism | Debates on women
The Jain morality and ethics are rooted in its metaphysics and its utility towards the soteriological objective of liberation. Jaina ethics evolved out of the rules for the ascetics which are encapsulated in the "mahavratas" or the five great vows. These ethics are governed not only through the instrumentality of physical actions, but also through verbal action and thoughts. Thus, ahimsa has to be observed through mind, speech, and body. The other rules of the ascetics and laity are derived from these five major vows. Jainism does not invoke fear of or reverence for God or conformity to the divine character as a reason for moral behaviour, and observance of the moral code is not necessary simply because it is God's will.
Jain philosophy | Ethics
A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks.
Altruism | Jainism
A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns. Out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest (the one sensed, such as vegetables, herbs, cereals, etc., which are endowed with only the sense of touch).
Jain vegetarianism | Introduction
In Jainism: The Jaina tradition exists in tandem with Hinduism and shares many of its biocentric elements. Ahimsa (non-violence), the central teaching of Jainism, means more than not hurting other humans. It means intending not to cause physical, mental or spiritual harm to any part of nature. In the words of Mahavira: 'You are that which you wish to harm.' Compassion is a pillar of non-violence. Jainism encourages people to practice an attitude of compassion towards all life. The principle of interdependence is also very important in Jainism. This states that all of nature is bound together, and that "if one does not care for nature one does not care for oneself.".
Biocentrism (ethics) | Jainism
are geared towards observance of . The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct, where they must eat, sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings. Jain ascetics sweep the ground before them to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life. They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves. Ascetics of the Śvētāmbara tradition wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa
The period of 16th to 18th century was a period of reforms in Jainism. The following schools arose during this period :
Jain philosophy | Medieval traditions
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ("pramana"). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ("pratyaksa"), inference ("anumana") and testimony ("sabda" or the word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as "Tattvarthasūtra", "Parvacanasara", "Nandi" and "Anuyogadvarini". Some Jain texts add analogy ("upamana") as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, "jnāna" (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – "Kevala Jnana" (Omniscience), "Śrutu Jñāna" (Scriptural Knowledge), "Mati Jñāna" (Sensory Knowledge), "Avadhi Jñāna" (Clairvoyance), and "Manah prayāya Jñāna" (Telepathy). According to the Jain text "Tattvartha sūtra", the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge.
Jainism | Epistemology
The doctrines of "anekāntavāda" and "syādavāda" are criticized on the grounds that they engender a degree of hesitancy and uncertainty, and may compound problems rather than solve them. Critics submit Jain epistemology asserts its own doctrines, but is unable to deny contradictory doctrines, and is therefore self-defeating. It is argued that if reality is so complex that no single doctrine can describe it adequately, then "anekāntavāda" itself, being a single doctrine, must be inadequate. This criticism seems to have been anticipated by Ācārya Samantabhadra who said: "From the point of view of "pramana" (means of knowledge) it is "anekānta" (multi-sided), but from a point of view of "naya" (partial view) it is "ekanta" (one-sided)." In defense of the doctrine, Jains point out that "anekāntavāda" seeks to reconcile apparently opposing viewpoints rather than refuting them.
Criticism of Jainism | Anekantavada
Most of them are not recorded or noticed. Statistically, "Sallekhana" is undertaken both by men and women of all economic classes and among the educationally forward Jains. It is observed more often by women than men.
Sallekhana | Modern
10.3 Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the former President of India, in his book "Indian Philosophy Vol I" mentioned as under: 15. Dr. Radhakrishnan, who edited the 6th Volume of The Cultural Heritage of India, mentioned as under:
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
Svetambara ascetics have an Ogho or Rajoharan (a broom of woolen threads) to clean insects around their sitting place or while they are walking. Digambara ascetics have a Morpichhi and a Kamandal in their hands. This practice may vary among different sects of Jains but essential principle remains the same to limit needs.
Religious habit | Jainism
Sallekhana is the religious vow of gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids observed by terminally ill or old Jain disciples. It is widely called fasting unto death as there is a reduction in food intake. It is practiced with the approval of Jain monks and can last over 12 years or more. It was petitioned that Rajasthan High Court should declare the practice illegal. In response, the Jain community said that the practice was a religious activity which was protected under article 25 of the Indian constitution. In August 2015, Rajasthan High Court cited that the practice is not an essential tenet of Jainism and banned the practice, making it punishable under section 306 and 309 IPC (Abetment of Suicide).
Criticism of Jainism | Sallekhana
Aparigraha is one of the virtues in Jainism. It is also one of the five vows that both householders ("Śrāvaka") and ascetics must observe. This Jain vow is the principle of limiting one's possessions ("parimita-parigraha") and limiting one's desires ("iccha-parimana"). In Jainism, worldly wealth accumulation is considered as a potential source of rising greed, jealousy, selfishness and desires. Giving up emotional attachments, sensual pleasures and material possession is a means of liberation, in Jain philosophy. Eating enough to survive is considered more noble than eating for indulgence. Similarly, all consumption is more appropriate if it is essential to one's survival, and inappropriate if it is a form of hoarding, show off or for ego.
Aparigraha | Jainism
It suggests that the great error is belief in "ekānta" (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the "Samaññaphala Sutta". The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ("syāt"). These texts identify "anekāntavāda" as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.
Jainism | Many-sided reality ("anekāntavāda")
Jain vegetarianism is practiced by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy. It is one of the most rigorous forms of spiritually motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Jain cuisine is completely vegetarian and also excludes underground vegetables such as potato, garlic, onion etc, to prevent injuring small insects and microorganisms; and also to prevent the entire plant getting uprooted and killed. It is practised by Jain ascetics and lay Jains. Jain objections to the eating of meat, fish and eggs are based on the principle of non-violence (ahimsa, figuratively "non-injuring"). Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as act of violence ("himsa"), which creates harmful reaction karma.
Jain vegetarianism | Introduction
Jainism is considered to be a legally distinct religion in India. A section of scholars earlier considered it as a Hindu sect or a Buddhist heresy, but it is one of the three ancient Indian religions. On 30 January 2014, the Government of India explicitly awarded the status of a "minority religion" to the Jain community in India, as per Section 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) Act (NCM), 1992.
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | Introduction
Similarly, the early Jain scholar Haribhadra, who likely lived between the 6th and 8th century, states that those who do not follow the teachings of Jainism cannot be "approved or accommodated". John Koller states "anekāntavāda" to be "epistemological respect for view of others" about the nature of existence whether it is "inherently enduring or constantly changing", but "not relativism; it does not mean conceding that all arguments and all views are equal". In contemporary times, according to Paul Dundas, the "Anekantavada" doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions".
Anekantavada | Inclusivist or exclusivist
The Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal, and the teachings of their first "Tirthankara Rishabhanatha" were their scriptures millions of years ago. The mythology states that the "tirthankaras" taught in divine preaching halls called "samavasarana", which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and laypersons. The discourse delivered is called "Śhrut Jnāna" (or heard knowledge) and comprises eleven "angas" and fourteen "purvas". The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the "Ganadharas" (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve "angas" (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. According to the Jain tradition, an "araha" (worthy one) speaks meaning that is then converted into "sūtra" ("sutta") by his disciples, and from such "sūtras" emerge the doctrine.
Jain literature | Canonical
The emperors include Bharata and Sagara, and Brahmadeva or Brahmadatta who is familiar also to the Buddhists, but the others are not familiar elsewhere. Three of them, including Santi, became Jinas also. The Jaina traditions seem to draw in part on ancient sources independent of those of the brahmanas, as do the Buddhists also, and are not merely corruptions of Brahmanical traditions. It is noticeable that their legends are much more schematic and regular than the others.
Itihasa | Jaina tradition
One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining Nirvana or Moksha (i.e., liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara.
Monk | Jainism
Jainism made its own unique contribution to this mainstream development of philosophy by occupying itself with the basic epistemological issues, namely, with those concerning the nature of knowledge, how knowledge is derived, and in what way knowledge can be said to be reliable. Knowledge for the Jains takes place in the soul, which, without the limiting factor of karma, is omniscient. Humans have partial knowledge – the object of knowledge is known partially and the means of knowledge do not operate to their full capacity. According to "Tattvārthasūtra", the knowledge of the basic Jaina truths can be obtained through:
Jain philosophy | Epistemology
He regarded Jainism as "a most dreadful religion", writing that Jains were intolerant and hostile towards the non-Jains.
Dayananda Saraswati | Jainism
The creation of idols, their consecration, the inclusion of Jaina layperson in idols and temples of Jainism by the Jaina monks has been a historic practice. However, during the iconoclastic era of Islamic rule, between the 15th and 17th century, a Lonka sect of Jainism emerged that continued pursuing their traditional spirituality but without the Jaina arts, images and idols.
Idolatry | Jainism
On 3 September 1949, while addressing a public meeting at Allahabad, the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru said: The said speech can be considered to be a clarification on Article 25 of the Constitution of India. 10.2 On 31 January 1950, the PPS to the then Prime Minister of India sent a letter to the Jain Deputation on behalf of the then Prime Minister, which reads as under: (See adjoining image for original letter)
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | Jawaharlal Nehru
Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara". The monastic practices of two the major sects vary greatly, but the major principles of both are identical. Five "mahāvratas" (Great Vows), from Mahavira's teachings, are followed by all Jain ascetics. Historians believe that a united Jain "sangha" (community) existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the "moksha" (liberation) of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into the major denominations.
Jain monasticism | Introduction
In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them.
Monasticism | Jainism
The Jaina Puranas are like Hindu Puranas encyclopedic epics in style, and are considered as "anuyogas" (expositions), but they are not considered Jain Agamas and do not have scripture or quasi-canonical status in Jainism tradition. They are best described, states John Cort, as post-scripture literary corpus based upon themes found in Jain scriptures.
Puranas | Jainism
According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion—have always existed. Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same (similar to law of conservation of mass). Jain texts claim that the universe consists of "jiva" (life force or souls) and "ajiva" (lifeless objects). The soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has existed during beginningless time.
Jainism and non-creationism | Introduction
Anēkāntavāda refers to the principles of perspectivism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with "adhgajanyāyah", which can be illustrated through the parable of the "blind men and an elephant". This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. According to the Jains, only the "Kevalis"—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge.
Jain epistemology | Anekāntavāda
Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal. Both traditions consider his "Niryuktis" and "Samhitas" important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati, the "Tattvarthasūtra" is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism. In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential. Other important Jain texts include: "Samayasara", "Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra", and "Niyamasara".
Jainism | Scriptures and texts
In Jainism, ideas similar to Shaktism tradition are found, such as the Vidyadevis and the Shasanadevis.
Shaktism | Jainism
According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.
History of Jainism | Buddhism
However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.
Indian religions | Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India
Jain philosophy accepts the concept of a permanent soul ("jiva") as one of the five "astikayas" (eternal, infinite categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four being "dhárma", "adharma", "ākāśa" ('space'), and "pudgala" ('matter'). The Jain thought separates matter from the soul completely, with two major subtraditions: "Digambara" ('sky dressed', 'naked') and "Śvētāmbara" ('white dressed'), along with several more minor traditions such as "Terapanthi". Asceticism is a major monastic virtue in Jainism. Jain texts such as the "Tattvartha Sutra" state that right faith, right knowledge and right conduct is the path to liberation. The Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.
Philosophy | Jain philosophy
This is best understood by the term – "vandetadgunalabhdhaye" i.e. we pray to the attributes of such gods to acquire such attributes”.
Jainism and non-creationism | Siddhas
Jainism is India's sixth-largest religion and is practiced throughout India. Per the 2011 census, there are 4,451,753 Jains in the 1.21 billion population of India, the majority living in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, however, the influence of Jainism has been far greater on the Indian population than these numbers suggest. Jains can be found in 34 out of 35 states and union territories, with Lakshdweep being the only union territory without Jains. The state of Jharkhand, with a population of 16,301 Jains also contains the holy pilgrimage centre of Shikharji.
Jainism in India | Introduction