The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar. Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.
Vertical structure
Atmosphere of Jupiter
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere It is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude-  the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere
what are the alternating dark and light bands in jupiter’s atmosphere called
user
Lightly colored "zones" and relatively dark "belts."
assistant
what is the atmosphere like in jupiter?
user
It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water.
assistant
how can you describe its structure vertically?
user
In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar. In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter. As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary. The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface". The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar. Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
In the areas that preserve the face of this structure it is possible to identify some negatives of what appear to be horizontally arranged boards, which would probably form part of the frame work system assembled for its construction.
Barragem Romana da Fonte Coberta | Structure
Physically, there is no clear boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. At the pressure level of 10 bars (1 MPa), the temperature is around . At the phase transition region where hydrogen—heated beyond its critical point—becomes metallic, it is calculated the temperature is and the pressure is 200 GPa.
Jupiter | Internal structure
Titan's vertical atmospheric structure is similar to Earth. They both have a troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. However, Titan's lower surface gravity creates a more extended atmosphere, with scale heights of 15-50 km in comparison to 5-8 km on Earth. Voyager data, combined with data from "Huygens" and radiative-convective models provide increased understanding of Titan's atmospheric structure.
Atmosphere of Titan | Vertical structure
For bounded solutions and at altitudes above the forcing region, the "vertical structure equation" in its canonical form is: with solution formula_37
Atmospheric tide | Vertical structure equation
In astronomy, geography, and related sciences and contexts, a "direction" or "plane" passing by a given point is said to be vertical if it contains the local gravity direction at that point. Conversely, a direction or plane is said to be horizontal if it is perpendicular to the vertical direction. In general, something that is vertical can be drawn from up to down (or down to up), such as the y-axis in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Vertical and horizontal | Introduction
The structure is composed of two vertical slabs that rest on the floor, to which the bottom component is conjoined, and the ceiling of the structure extends to the outer edges of the vertical walls.
Donald Judd | Mature work
The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored "zones" and relatively dark "belts." The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ). The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted. The basic belt-zone structure probably extends well towards the poles, reaching at least to 80° North or South.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Zones, belts and jets
When divided horizontally, it exhibits, to some extent, the appearance of a biconvex lens, while a coronal section of its central part presents a somewhat triangular outline. It is shorter than the caudate nucleus and does not extend as far forward.
Lentiform nucleus | Structure
The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices—circular rotating structures that, as in the Earth's atmosphere, can be divided into two classes: cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern); anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction. However, unlike in the terrestrial atmosphere, anticyclones predominate over cyclones on Jupiter—more than 90% of vortices larger than 2000 km in diameter are anticyclones. The lifetime of Jovian vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years, depending on their size. For instance, the average lifetime of an anticyclone between 1000 and 6000 km in diameter is 1–3 years.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vortices
Refer to the second illustration on the right. The vertical component and its corresponding plane are illustrated in blue while the horizontal component and its corresponding plane are illustrated in green. Notice that the rightward (relative to the direction of travel) horizontal component leads the vertical component by one quarter of a wavelength. It is this quadrature phase relationship which creates the helix and causes the points of maximum magnitude of the vertical component to correspond with the points of zero magnitude of the horizontal component, and vice versa. The result of this alignment is that there are select vectors, corresponding to the helix, which exactly match the maxima of the vertical and horizontal components.
Circular polarization | General description
Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining 1% consisting of other elements. The interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia, possibly underlaid by a thin layer of water. Jupiter is covered with a cloud layer about 50 km deep.
Extraterrestrial atmosphere | Jupiter
The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion. However it has major difficulties; it produces a very small number of broad jets, and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008, meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter. One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band-jet structure. It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models; occupying only the outer 10% of Jupiter's radius.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Deep models
Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 88–92% hydrogen and 8–12% helium by percent volume of gas molecules. A helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom, so the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms. Thus, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining one percent of the mass consisting of other elements. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia.
Jupiter | Composition
When the curvature of the earth is taken into account, the concepts of vertical and horizontal take on yet another meaning. On the surface of a smoothly spherical, homogenous, non-rotating planet, the plumb bob picks out as vertical the radial direction. Strictly speaking, it is now no longer possible for vertical walls to be parallel: "all" verticals intersect. This fact has real practical applications in construction and civil engineering, e.g., the tops of the towers of a suspension bridge are further apart than at the bottom. Also, horizontal planes can intersect when they are tangent planes to separated points on the surface of the earth.
Vertical and horizontal | The spherical Earth
The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures, which are parallel to the equator. The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets. Therefore, in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them. While these weather–layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets, they have serious problems. A glaring failure of the model is the prograde (super-rotating) equatorial jet: with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde (subrotating) jet, contrary to observations. In addition, the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Shallow models
It is lighter in colour than the A horizon, and is often weakly illuviated (leached). Due to limited leaching only the more soluble bases are moved down through the profile. Horizon C is made up of the parent material, which is generally permeable and non- or slightly acidic, for example clay loam.
Brown earth | Horizontal structure
The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500 GPa.
Jupiter | Internal structure
Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter (within 10° of latitude), where they are unstable. As on any rapidly rotating planet, Jupiter's anticyclones are high pressure centers, while cyclones are low pressure. The anticyclones in Jupiter's atmosphere are always confined within zones, where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles. They are usually bright and appear as white ovals. They can move in longitude, but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone. The wind speeds at their periphery are about 100 m/s.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vortices
The gap between cyclones one and two provides more movement for those specific CPCs, which also causes the other cyclones that are close to move as well, but cyclone four moves less because it is farthest from the gap. The southern cyclones move clockwise individually, but their movement as a pentagonal structure moves counter-clockwise and drifts more toward the west.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Circumpolar cyclones
The equations were said to apply to parcels of air moving on horizontal planes. Indeed, when one considers a column of atmosphere, it is seldom the case that the air density is the same all the height up, since temperature and moisture content, hence density, do change with height. Every parcel within such a column moves according to the air properties at its own height. Homogeneous sheets of air may slide one over the other, so long as stable stratification of lighter air on top of heavier air leads to well-separated layers. If some air happens to be heavier/lighter than that in the surroundings, though, vertical motions do occur and modify the horizontal motion in turn.
Balanced flow | Vertical differences of air properties
A possible cause is an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core. Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K. In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km, and as liquid in deeper layers.
Jupiter | Internal structure
The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole. Jupiter's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the "Galileo" atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7, 1995. Other sources of information about Jupiter's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), the "Galileo" and "Cassini" orbiters, and Earth-based observations. The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen () and helium. The helium abundance is relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is , which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Chemical composition
Vertical wind is crucial to weather and storms of all types. Even slow, broad updrafts can create convective instability or bring air to its lifted condensation level creating stratiform cloud decks. Unfortunately, predicting vertical motion directly is difficult. For synoptic scales in Earth's broad and shallow troposphere, the vertical component of Newton's law of motion is sacrificed in meteorology's primitive equations, by accepting the hydrostatic approximation. Instead, vertical velocity must be solved through its link to horizontal laws of motion, via the mass continuity equation. But this presents further difficulties, because horizontal winds are mostly geostrophic, to a good approximation.
Omega equation | Concept and summary
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium, though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules. It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements, but like the other giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope.
Jupiter | Introduction
The label "second parameter" acknowledges that some unknown physical effect is responsible for HB morphology differences in clusters that seem otherwise identical.
Horizontal branch | The RR Lyrae gap
Jupiter was expected to either consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 78% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting predominantly of molecular hydrogen, or perhaps to have no core at all, consisting instead of denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the center, depending on whether the planet accreted first as a solid body or collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk. However, the "Juno" mission, which arrived in July 2016, found that Jupiter has a very diffuse core, mixed into the mantle.
Jupiter | Internal structure
The bands seen in the atmosphere of Jupiter are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere. They have an internal updraft and are high-pressure regions. The belts are the darker bands, are lower in the atmosphere, and have an internal downdraft. They are low-pressure regions. These structures are somewhat analogous to the high and low-pressure cells in Earth's atmosphere, but they have a very different structure—latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure.
Giant planet | Atmospheres
The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976. His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others. Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Deep models
The southern CPCs tend to be bigger with radii ranging from 5,600 km to 7,000 km while northern CPCs range from 4,000 km to 4,600 km. The northern cyclones tend to maintain an octagonal structure with the NPC as a center point. Northern cyclones have less data than southern cyclones because of limited illumination in the north-polar winter, making it difficult for JunoCam to obtain accurate measurements of northern CPC positions at each perijove (53 days), but JIRAM is able to collect enough data to understand the northern CPCs. The limited illumination makes it difficult to see the northern central cyclone, but by making four orbits, the NPC can be partially seen and the octagonal structure of the cyclones can be identified.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Circumpolar cyclones
Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients. The lowest layer, the troposphere, has a complicated system of clouds and hazes, comprising layers of ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfide and water. The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows (winds) known as "jets". The bands alternate in color: the dark bands are called "belts", while light ones are called "zones". Zones, which are colder than belts, correspond to upwellings, while belts mark descending gas. The zones' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice; what gives the belts their darker colors is uncertain.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Introduction
The planet seems to be a gas giant with a low core mass (<~10M(Earth)) and a low heavy elements content (Z<~0.2).
WASP-28b | Internal structure
The vertical panels of the frame contain cable motifs; the frame on the left has a single larger cable of white on pink, while the frame on the right has two smaller cables of white on pink separated by a yellow bar. The upper and lower panels are broken into smaller square panels separated by thin bars. The smaller panels are composed of chevrons and triangles that alternate in pink and yellow. The side top and bottom panels continue to the right edge of the frame. Above the left vertical frame there are two square frames containing circular motifs; the top with a cross inside a circle, and the bottom with a rosette.
Bobbio Orosius | Introduction
The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System. It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water. Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere, its directly measured concentration is very low. The nitrogen, sulfur, and noble gas abundances in Jupiter's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three. The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet. From lowest to highest, the atmospheric layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Introduction
The cloud deck instead absorbs the sun's radiation; between that and the hot, high pressure gas surrounding the mantle, exists a stratosphere of cooler gas. The outer shell of dark, opaque, hot cloud is assumed to consist of vanadium and titanium oxides, but other compounds like tholins cannot be ruled out yet.
Upsilon Andromedae b | Physical characteristics
55 Cancri b is a gas giant with no solid surface. The atmospheric transit has demonstrated hydrogen in the upper atmosphere. That transit is so tangential, that properties such as its radius, density, and temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and that its environment is close to chemical equilibrium, 55 Cancri b's upper atmosphere is predicted to be cloudless with a spectrum dominated by alkali metal absorption. The atmosphere's transit indicates that it is slowly evaporating under the sun's heat. The evaporation is slower than that for previously studied (hotter) hot Jupiters.
55 Cancri b | Characteristics
The formation of the larger set of waves can be explained if the ring was impacted by a cloud of particles released by the comet with a total mass on the order of 2–5 × 10 kg, which would have tilted the ring out of the equatorial plane by 2 km. A similar spiraling wave pattern that tightens over time has been observed by "Cassini" in Saturns's C and D rings.
Rings of Jupiter | Vertical corrugations
The vertical temperature structure of the Martian atmosphere differs from Earth's atmosphere in many ways. Information about the vertical structure is usually inferred by using the observations from thermal infrared soundings, radio occultation, aerobraking, landers' entry profiles. Mars's atmosphere can be classified into three layers according to the average temperature profile: Mars does not have a persistent stratosphere due to the lack of shortwave-absorbing species in its middle atmosphere (e.g. stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere and organic haze in Jupiter's atmosphere) for creating a temperature inversion. However, a seasonal ozone layer and a strong temperature inversion in the middle atmosphere have been observed over the Martian south pole.
Atmosphere of Mars | Vertical structure
The jet speeds are high on Jupiter, reaching more than 100 m/s. These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range 0.7–1 bar. The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets. The vertical extent of jets is not known. They decay over two to three scale heights above the clouds, while below the cloud level, winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar—the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Zones, belts and jets
The following illustration depicts the profile of the Welland Canal. The horizontal axis is the length of the canal. The vertical axis is the elevation of the canal segments above mean sea level.
Welland Canal | Profile
Stars on the horizontal branch all have very similar core masses, following the helium flash. This means that they have very similar luminosities, and on a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram plotted by visual magnitude the branch is horizontal. The size and temperature of an HB star depends on the mass of the hydrogen envelope remaining around the helium core. Stars with larger hydrogen envelopes are cooler. This creates the spread of stars along the horizontal branch at constant luminosity. The temperature variation effect is much stronger at lower metallicity, so old clusters usually have more pronounced horizontal branches. Although the horizontal branch is named because it consists largely of stars with approximately the same absolute magnitude across a range of temperatures, lying in a horizontal bar on a color–magnitude diagrams, the branch is far from horizontal at the blue end.
Horizontal branch | Horizontal branch morphology
The architects sought to create an approachable building that reflected the role of the PUB as a public supplier of gas and electricity, and this led them to choose strong horizontal elements for the design. In the building's façade, this is achieved with distinctive rows of vertical fins, staggered so as to emphasise horizontal movement; these fins also provide shade. A secondary horizontal pattern results from grouping two or more rows of these fins in blocks. The Singapore Power Building's defining architectural motif is its "inverted ziggurat" façade. The building tapers from cantilevered upper floors to recessed lower floors, and the resulting overhangs help to shade the lower levels, a logical response to the tropical climate.
111 Somerset | Horizontal emphasis
The Galileo Probe, which suffered an antenna problem, saw less of Jupiter's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth. Today, astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope. These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances, but that, overall, it is remarkably stable. The vertical motion of Jupiter's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground-based telescopes. Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 gave a glimpse of the Jupiter's composition beneath the cloud tops.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Observational history
The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s. They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology, which had become well developed by that time. Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence, which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere (above the water clouds). The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather. The production of the jets in this model is related to a well-known property of two dimensional turbulence—the so-called inverse cascade, in which small turbulent structures (vortices) merge to form larger ones.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Shallow models
The design of some large structures needs to take the shape of the Earth into account. For example, the towers of the Humber Bridge, although both vertical with respect to gravity, are farther apart at the top than the bottom due to the local curvature. On level ground, the difference in the distance to the horizon between lying down and standing up is large enough to watch the Sun set twice by "quickly" standing up immediately after seeing it set for the first time while lying down. This also can be done with a cherry picker or a tall building with a fast elevator.
Spherical Earth | Architecture. Watching the sunset again with an elevator
At present, six columns remain standing along its south side with their entablature. Their capitals remain nearly perfect on the south side, while the Beqaa's winter winds have worn the northern faces almost bare. The remaining architrave and frieze blocks weigh as much as , with one corner block weighting over , all of them raised to a height of above the ground.
Temple of Jupiter (Roman Heliopolis) | Present condition
Jet streak dynamics through the imbalance of Coriolis and pressure gradient forces, causing subgeostrophic and supergeostrophic flows, can also create upward vertical velocities. There are numerous other atmospheric setups in which upward vertical velocities can be created.
Atmospheric convection | Boundaries and forcing
Northern CPCs generally maintain their shape and position compared to the southern CPCs and this could be due to the faster wind speeds that are experienced in the south, where the average wind speed around 80 m/s to 90 m/s. Although there is more movement among the southern CPCs they tend to retain the pentagonal structure relative to the pole. It has also been observed that the angular wind velocity increases as the center is approached and radius becomes smaller, except for one cyclone in the north, which may have rotation in the opposite direction. The difference in the number of cyclones in the north compared to the south is due to the size of the cyclones.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Circumpolar cyclones
Structural studies have been conducted by Italian engineer Sergio Musmeci. The building's structure concept is based on the body of a mammal and it explores the route of the maximum reduction of wind pressures and structural bulkiness. Particularly, it was inspired by the mammal's limb, with its compressed central bone - external tensioned muscle. The central nucleus in steel and cement is compressed and made up of three interconnected cylindrical trunks which house all the vertical systems. Anchored to this nucleus are a group of trunks wired in steel which keep the external strips in traction where the latticed structures of the attics are located, which compress themselves towards the nucleus and collaborates with the overall static system.
Helicoidal Skyscraper | Concept
Each page of the manuscript was approximately 32 cm high by 47 cm wide. Since the text of each canto was written on a single page and the accompanying illustration was on a separate page, arranging the two pages in a horizontal format would have been impractical as it would be approximately wide. This would entail the readers turning their heads from left to right while trying to connect the text columns on the left to the illustration on the right. A vertical arrangement, stacking the illustration page on top of the text page, is a more efficient way of combining the text-illustration pair; a volume designed to open vertically is a more probable scenario for Botticelli's manuscript.
Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli | Dimensions
The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood, though a "shallow model" and a "deep model" exist. The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena, including band instabilities, vortices (cyclones and anticyclones), storms and lightning. The vortices reveal themselves as large red, white or brown spots (ovals). The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot (GRS) and Oval BA, which is also red. These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic. Smaller anticyclones tend to be white. Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Introduction
The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939. They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation, but contracted rapidly during their first decade; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965. Although they originated as segments of the STZ, they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt, suggesting that they moved north, "digging" a niche into the STB. Indeed, much like the GRS, their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries, with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | White ovals
Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Dynamics
\end{align} Horizontal-branch stars
16 Virginis | References
The height to which the column is lifted is given by Jurin's law:
Surface tension | Liquid in a vertical tube
Current data shows that the SPC shows a positional variation between 1˚ and 2.5˚ in the latitude and stays between 200˚ to 250˚ longitude and has shown evidence of this recurring approximately every 320 days. The southern cyclones tend to behave similarly to the northern ones and maintain the pentagonal structure around the SPC, but there is some individual movement from some of the CPCs. The southern cyclones don't move around the south pole, but their rotation is more steady around the SPC, which is offset from the pole. Short term observation shows that the southern cyclones move approximately 1.5˚ per perijove, which is small compared to the wind speeds of the cyclones and the turbulent atmosphere of Jupiter.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Circumpolar cyclones
Running vertically through the middle of the gimbal rings was a diameter pole that sat in large bearings at the top and bottom of a diameter terylene fabric sphere that was inflated by a fan in the base. The bearings allowed the sphere to turn without moving the radar system, which allowed the balloons to move about in the wind without rotating the antenna. The pole also acted as the connection points on the top and bottom for the guy wires that ran to the ground below and the balloons above. The entire assembly massed .
Blue Joker | Description
The halo ring is the innermost and the vertically thickest Jovian ring. Its outer edge coincides with the inner boundary of the main ring approximately at the radius (). From this radius the ring becomes rapidly thicker towards Jupiter. The true vertical extent of the halo is not known but the presence of its material was detected as high as over the ring plane. The inner boundary of the halo is relatively sharp and located at the radius (), but some material is present further inward to approximately . Thus the width of the halo ring is about . Its shape resembles a thick torus without clear internal structure.
Rings of Jupiter | Appearance and structure
Musical notation for some Japanese instruments such as the shakuhachi is written vertically. Horizontal writing is easier for some purposes; academic texts are sometimes written this way since they often include words and phrases in other languages, which are more easily incorporated horizontally. Scientific and mathematical texts are nearly always written horizontally, since in vertical writing equations must be turned sideways, making them more difficult to read. Similarly, English language textbooks, which contain many English words, are usually printed in horizontal writing. This is not a fixed rule, however, and it is also common to see English words printed sideways in vertical writing texts.
Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts | Japanese and Traditional Chinese
In the vertical diagrams, the pitch letters are on the left and the hexachords are depicted ascending. In the circular diagram, the pitch letters are in the outermost circle, and the hexachords are depicted spiraling inward counterclockwise beginning in the second inner circle.
Domingo Marcos Durán | Contributions
If one is to analyze the vertical pressure variation of the atmosphere of Earth, the length scale is very significant (troposphere alone being several kilometres tall; thermosphere being several hundred kilometres) and the involved fluid (air) is compressible. Gravity can still be reasonably approximated as constant, because length scales on the order of kilometres are still small in comparison to Earth's radius, which is on average about 6371 km, and gravity is a function of distance from Earth's core. Density, on the other hand, varies more significantly with height. It follows from the ideal gas law that where
Vertical pressure variation | In the context of Earth's atmosphere
These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.
Jupiter | Cloud layers
The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood, but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter. This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain: as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than 10,000 km, helium separates from it forming droplets which, being denser than the metallic hydrogen, descend towards the core. This can also explain the severe depletion of neon (see Table), an element that easily dissolves in helium droplets and would be transported in them towards the core as well.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Chemical composition
When vertically developed, this largest of all clouds usually extends through all three cloud regions. Even the smallest cumulonimbus cloud dwarfs its neighbors in comparison.
Cumulonimbus cloud | Appearance
Jupiter retained the short, squat shape intended to fit in naval submarines.
PGM-19 Jupiter | Introduction
The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale, which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale. Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves. This process works as follows: when the largest turbulent structures reach a certain size, the energy begins to flow into Rossby waves instead of larger structures, and the inverse cascade stops. Since on the spherical rapidly rotating planet the dispersion relation of the Rossby waves is anisotropic, the Rhines scale in the direction parallel to the equator is larger than in the direction orthogonal to it.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Shallow models
This yields an inverse mass ratio of 1,047.341 ± 0.011 for Jupiter relative to the sun.
33 Polyhymnia | Introduction
The size was increased from the northwest to the southeast by creating a new line of orientation to the wall, which is the one that generates the trapezoidal plant that will have the nave. In this space, different rupture interfaces are observed along the entire surface.
Cave of Hercules | History
The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a common device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load-bearing strength of the lintel itself. Likewise, the columns always have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of a comparatively thin upright. The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that do not meet at a sharp edge but have a flat band or "fillet" between them. The usual number of flutes is twenty-four but there may be as many as forty-four.
Ancient Greek architecture | Ionic order
Images from the "Galileo" and "New Horizons" space probes show the presence of two sets of spiraling vertical corrugations in the main ring. These waves became more tightly wound over time at the rate expected for differential nodal regression in Jupiter's gravity field. Extrapolating backwards, the more prominent of the two sets of waves appears to have been excited in 1995, around the time of the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter, while the smaller set appears to date to the first half of 1990. "Galileo"'s November 1996 observations are consistent with wavelengths of and , and vertical amplitudes of and , for the larger and smaller sets of waves, respectively.
Rings of Jupiter | Vertical corrugations
In particular, a plane tangent to a point on the equator intersects the plane tangent to the North Pole at a right angle. (See diagram). Furthermore, the equatorial plane is parallel to the tangent plane at the North Pole and as such has claim to be a horizontal plane. But it is. at the same time, a vertical plane for points on the equator. In this sense, a plane can, arguably, be "both" horizontal and vertical, horizontal "at one place", and vertical "at another".
Vertical and horizontal | The spherical Earth
The walls are erected by what is known as the drop-slab-panel system - upright panels formed of three-foot slabs cut from the outside slice of tree-trunks, and dropped horizontally, one above the other, between grooved posts - a simple arrangement, quickly run up and artistic in appearance - outside, a horizontally fluted surface, formed by the natural curves of the timber, and inside, flat, smooth walls. As in every third panel there was a door or a window, and as the horizontal slabs stopped within two feet of the ceiling, the building was exceedingly airy, and open on all sides.
Slab hut | Vertical slab walled church "circa" 1838
A uniformly loaded cable spanning between two supports forms a curve intermediate between a catenary curve and a parabola. The simplifying assumption can be made that it approximates a circular arc (of radius "R"). By equilibrium: The horizontal and vertical reactions :
Tensile structure | Transversely and uniformly loaded cable
In the three-dimensional case, the situation is more complicated as now one has horizontal and vertical planes in addition to horizontal and vertical lines. Consider a point P and designate a direction through P as vertical. A plane which contains P and is normal to the designated direction is the "horizontal plane" at P. Any plane going through P, normal to the horizontal plane is a "vertical plane" at P. Through any point P, there is one and only one horizontal plane but a "multiplicity" of vertical planes. This is a new feature that emerges in three dimensions. The symmetry that exists in the two-dimensional case no longer holds.
Vertical and horizontal | In three dimensions
In standard models of the Jovian interior, the mantle comprises the outer 20–30%. The driving of deep circulation is another problem. The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces (moist convection, for instance) or by deep planet-wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior. Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Deep models
That is, "V""E" = T(E). The vertical space is therefore a vector subspace of T"E". A horizontal space H"E" is then a choice of a subspace of T"E" such that T"E" is the direct sum of V"E" and H"E". The disjoint union of the vertical spaces V"E" for each "e" in "E" is the subbundle V"E" of T"E": this is the vertical bundle of "E". Likewise, a horizontal bundle is the disjoint union of the horizontal subspaces H"E". The use of the words "the" and "a" in this definition is crucial: the vertical subspace is unique, it is determined solely by the fibration.
Vertical and horizontal bundles | Introduction
The altitude of the turbopause of Mars varies greatly from 60 to 140 km, and the variability is driven by the CO density in the lower thermosphere. Mars also has a complicated ionosphere that interacts with the solar wind particles, extreme UV radiation and X-rays from Sun, and the magnetic field of its crust. The exosphere of Mars starts at about 230 km and gradually merges with interplanetary space.
Atmosphere of Mars | Vertical structure
Globus Cassus has the form of a compressed geodesic icosahedron with two diagonal openings. Along the edges of the icosahedron run the skeleton beams, the gaps between the beams contain a shell and, where there are windows, inward-curving domes.
Globus Cassus | Geometric structure
The deflection of the vertical has a north-south component "ξ" (xi) and an east-west component "η" (eta). The value of "ξ" is the difference between the "astronomic latitude" minus the "geodetic latitude" (taking north latitudes to be positive and south latitudes to be negative); the latter is usually calculated by geodetic network coordinates. The value of "η is" the "astronomic longitude" minus the longitude (taking east longitudes to be positive and west longitudes to be negative). When a new mapping datum replaces the old, with new geodetic latitudes and longitudes on a new ellipsoid, the calculated vertical deflections will change too.
Vertical deflection | Introduction
Vertical and horizontal are physical and mathematical concepts, and may refer to:
Vertical and horizontal (disambiguation) | Introduction
A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar. Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning. The imaging of the night–side hemisphere of Jupiter by "Galileo" and "Cassini" spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets, particularly at 51°N, 56°S and 14°S latitudes. On Jupiter lightning strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth. However, they are less frequent; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Storms and lightning
Figure 1 shows the positions of the Hildas (black) against a background of all known asteroids (gray) up to Jupiter's orbit at January 1, 2005. Each of the Hilda objects moves along its own elliptic orbit. However, at any moment the Hildas together constitute this triangular configuration, and all the orbits together form a predictable ring. Figure 2 illustrates this with the Hildas positions (black) against a background of their orbits (gray). For the majority of these asteroids, their position in orbit may be arbitrary, except for the external parts of the apexes (the objects near aphelion) and the middles of the sides (the objects near perihelion).
Hilda asteroid | Dynamics
Girard Desargues defined the vertical to be perpendicular to the horizon in his 1636 book "Perspective". The word "horizontal" is derived from "horizon", whereas "vertical" originates in the late Latin "", which is from the same root as "vertex", meaning "highest point".
Vertical and horizontal | Historical definition
The horizontal "geison" runs around the full perimeter of a Greek temple, projecting from the top of the entablature to protect it from the elements and as a decorative feature. Horizontal "geisa" may be found in other ancient structures that are built according to one of the architectural orders. The horizontal sima (with its antefixes and water-spouts) ran above the horizontal geison along the sides of a building, acting as a rain gutter and final decoration.
Geison | Horizontal geison
The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter. As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Dynamics
The roof is carried by 19 interior and 31 exterior masts and by six funnel shaped framework shells consisting of steel and glass. It has a height of 45 m and a free projection of 80 m. These so-called Sun Valleys direct natural LED light below.
Expo Axis | Structure
It is believed that the Jovian atmosphere could be a historical record for celestial objects that vaporize in its atmosphere, providing data about the composition of the Solar System. Since the atmosphere of Jupiter is the deepest among all the planets in the Solar System, it can help experts better understand flow dynamics, cloud microphysics and radiative transfer under conditions far different than those on Earth.
SMARA (spacecraft) | Sciences
In contrast to the main ring, the halo's appearance depends only slightly on the viewing geometry. The halo ring appears brightest in forward-scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by "Galileo". While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than , the halo's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form "z" to "z", where "z" is altitude over the ring plane.
Rings of Jupiter | Appearance and structure
Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found. The interior contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements. The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Helium is also depleted to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet.
Jupiter | Composition
Optional elevator-like systems allowed the cars to move vertically as well.
Dashaveyor | Original design
According to lead guitarist Vince Melouney: Allmusic's Bruce Eder describes some songs in the album: "World" as 'a poignant, even somber yet gorgeous ballad filled with clever lyrics, and highlighted by a quavering Mellotron accompaniment, a very close grand piano sound and twangy fuzz-tone guitar' and "And the Sun Will Shine" as 'an even more serious, regretful ballad that is bearable because it is also prettier than "World"', and "Harry Braff" as 'cheerful'.
Horizontal (album) | Release and reception
The vertical dimension of a fold can be described as an amplitude. The horizontal dimension of a fold can by described by wavelength and hinge line of a fold. As a fold grows in three-dimension, amplitude, wavelength and the length of the hinge line will increase.
3D fold evolution | Fold structure
The derivation of the formula_1 equation is based on the vertical component of the vorticity equation, and the thermodynamic equation. The vertical vorticity equation for a frictionless atmosphere may be written using pressure as the vertical coordinate: Here formula_14 is the relative vorticity, formula_15 the horizontal wind velocity vector, whose components in the formula_16 and formula_17 directions are formula_18 and formula_19 respectively, formula_20 the absolute vorticity formula_21, formula_22 is the Coriolis parameter, formula_2 the material derivative of pressure formula_24, formula_25 is the unit vertical vector, formula_26 is the isobaric Del (grad) operator, formula_27 is the vertical advection of vorticity and formula_28 represents the "tilting" term or transformation of horizontal vorticity into vertical vorticity.
Omega equation | Derivation
The centre of the first, and larger of the two epicycles, represented by the point e1 in the diagram, revolves uniformly from west to east around the circumference of a deferent whose centre is the centre of the Earth's orbit, represented by the point S in the diagram, with a period relative to the fixed stars as given in the section "The order of the spheres" above. The centre of the second epicycle, represented by the point e2 in the diagram, revolves uniformly from east to west around the circumference of the first, with the same period relative to the radial line joining S to e1.
Commentariolus | The outer planets, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars
Systems like the McDonnell Douglas DC-X (Delta Clipper) and those by SpaceX are examples of this type. The boosters of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy land using one of their nine engines. Both stages of Starship are planned to land vertically, too.
Reusable launch system | Vertical (retrograde)
Extratropical cyclones slant back into colder air masses and strengthen with height, sometimes exceeding 30,000 feet (approximately 9 km) in depth. Above the surface of the earth, the air temperature near the center of the cyclone is increasingly colder than the surrounding environment. These characteristics are the direct opposite of those found in their counterparts, tropical cyclones; thus, they are sometimes called "cold-core lows". Various charts can be examined to check the characteristics of a cold-core system with height, such as the chart, which is at about altitude. Cyclone phase diagrams are used to tell whether a cyclone is tropical, subtropical, or extratropical.
Extratropical cyclone | Vertical structure
Consider for example the momentum equation of the Navier–Stokes equations in the vertical coordinate direction of the atmosphere where "R" is Earth radius, Ω is frequency of rotation of the Earth, "g" is gravitational acceleration, φ is latitude, ρ is density of air and ν is kinematic viscosity of air (we can neglect turbulence in free atmosphere). In synoptic scale we can expect horizontal velocities about "U" = 10 m.s and vertical about "W" = 10 m.s. Horizontal scale is "L" = 10 m and vertical scale is "H" = 10 m. Typical time scale is "T" = "L"/"U" = 10 s.
Scale analysis (mathematics) | Example: vertical momentum in synoptic-scale meteorology
This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they are while entasis adds to that effect. There are flutes and fillets that run up the shaft of columns. The flute is the part of the column that is indented in with a semi circular shape. The fillet of the column is the part between each of the flutes on the Ionic order columns. The flute width changes on all tapered columns as it goes up the shaft and stays the same on all non tapered columns.
Column | Structure