After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream". In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji. He tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals (balloons used to determine upper level winds), as they rose into the atmosphere. Oishi's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto. American pilot Wiley Post, the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams.
Discovery
Jet stream
Jet stream | Discovery
In 1920s, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji. Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream and Wiley Post  is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream". In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji. After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream"
where do jet streams occur in the atmosphere
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On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds
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how were they discovered?
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After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream". In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji. He tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals (balloons used to determine upper level winds), as they rose into the atmosphere. Oishi's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto. American pilot Wiley Post, the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams.
Jet stream | Discovery
Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above . In the year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed. German meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term, "Strahlströmung" (literally "jet current"), for the phenomenon in 1939. Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight-path traversals during World War II. Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of in flights, for example, from the US to the UK. Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan.
Jet stream | Discovery
The discovery of "Easterly Jet Stream" is one of the principal contributions of Koteswaram to metereology. He explained the phenomenon in the mid-fifties, defining it as an air current which reaches the speed of about 40m/sec during June–September periods and located near 14N with axis lying between 200-100mb (12-13 km). The discovery earned him an invitation from Herbert Riehl, the German-born US meteorologist, for joint research at the University of Chicago from 1955 to 1956 which returned new findings on the phenomenon. The duo found out that the jet stream was caused by the high levels of heat over Tibetan region and their findings assisted another German meteorologist, Hermann Flohn, in his work, besides providing a tool for predicting the Indian summer monsoon.
Pancheti Koteswaram | Scientific achievements
In June 1931 he was a.o. Professor at the Technical University of Hannover, since 1940 also lecturer at the University of Hamburg for "Seeflugmeteorologie". In 1939 he had discovered the jet stream. In 1941 he was Director at the German Weather Service Seewetteramt in Hamburg-Nienstetten.
Heinrich Seilkopf | Introduction
Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of some planets, including Earth. On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths typically have a meandering shape. Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet. The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, at above sea level, and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at .
Jet stream | Introduction
Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa (about 1/4 atmosphere) pressure level, or above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher, between . Jet streams wander laterally dramatically, and have large changes in their altitude. The jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause, at the transitions between the Polar, Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells, and whose circulation, with the Coriolis force acting on those masses, drives the jet streams. The Polar jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affect weather and aviation. The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30° and 60° (closer to 60°), while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30°.
Jet stream | Description
The first vortex on Venus was discovered at the north pole by the Pioneer Venus mission in 1978. A discovery of the second large 'double-eyed' vortex at the south pole of Venus was made in the summer of 2006 by Venus Express, which came with no surprise. Images from the "Akatsuki" orbiter revealed something similar to jet stream winds in the low and middle cloud region, which extends from 45 to 60 kilometers in altitude. The wind speed maximized near the equator. In September 2017 JAXA scientists named this phenomenon 'Venusian equatorial jet'.
Atmosphere of Venus | Circulation
Since 2007, and particularly in 2012 and early 2013, the jet stream has been at an abnormally low latitude across the UK, lying closer to the English Channel, around 50°N rather than its more usual north of Scotland latitude of around 60°N. However, between 1979 and 2001, the average position of the jet stream moved northward at a rate of per year across the Northern Hemisphere. Across North America, this type of change could lead to drier conditions across the southern tier of the United States and more frequent and more intense tropical cyclones in the tropics. A similar slow poleward drift was found when studying the Southern Hemisphere jet stream over the same time frame.
Jet stream | Longer-term climatic changes
On September 14, 2001, scientists at the Arecibo Observatory photographed a gigantic jet—double the height of those previously observed—reaching around into the atmosphere. The jet was located above a thunderstorm over an ocean, and lasted under a second. The jet was initially observed to be traveling up at around at a speed similar to typical lightning, increased to , but then split in two and sped upward with speeds of at least to the ionosphere where it then spread out in a bright burst of light. On July 22, 2002, five gigantic jets between in length were observed over the South China Sea from Taiwan, reported in "Nature".
Upper-atmospheric lightning | Observations
After the war, Findlater joined the Met Office, beginning his career as a teacher of meteorology in Nairobi, Kenya. While in Kenya, he began studying the monsoon winds that develop around the Horn of Africa, conducting hundreds of research flights over the Indian Ocean to gather data. During this period, he discovered a previously unknown wind system that blows diagonally across the Indian Ocean parallel to the Somalian coast; the phenomenon was named the Findlater jet in his honour. Findlater furthermore received the LG Groves Memorial Prize for his research. He then returned to the United Kingdom, where he served as a Principal Scientific Officer and air crash investigator for the Met Office.
John Findlater | Met Office work and retirement
Systematic photographic observations of the clouds were organized in 1887 by Jesse, Foerster, and Stolze and, after that year, continuous observations were carried out at the Berlin Observatory. During this research, the height of the clouds was first determined, via triangulation. The project was discontinued in 1896. In the decades after Otto Jesse's death in 1901, there were few new insights into the nature of noctilucent clouds. Wegener's conjecture, that they were composed of water ice, was later shown to be correct. Study was limited to ground-based observations and scientists had very little knowledge of the mesosphere until the 1960s, when direct rocket measurements began.
Noctilucent cloud | Discovery and investigation
A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet is more applicable to the subtropical jet which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell, and to first order this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude. Tropical air rises to the tropopause, and moves poleward before sinking; this is the Hadley cell circulation. As it does so it tends to conserve angular momentum, since friction with the ground is slight. Air masses that begin moving poleward are deflected eastward by the Coriolis force (true for either hemisphere), which for poleward moving air implies an increased westerly component of the winds (note that deflection is leftward in the southern hemisphere).
Jet stream | Subtropical jet
The Equatorial jet stream is unusual in that it sometimes flows from east to west at about 10° N, approximately the same latitude as Kerala (8° N) and Mayon Volcano (13° N). This hypothesis was also ruled out as the particles were neither acidic nor of volcanic origin, but were spores.
Red rain in Kerala | Alternative hypotheses
Shortly after the discovery by LINEAR, Scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Athabasca University (Canada), the Queen's University in Kingston (Ontario, Canada), the York University in Toronto and the Tuorla Observatory of the University of Turku in Finland determined the unusual orbit of , and through further observations at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope in Hawaii it was confirmed that:
2002 AA29 | Orbital data
DENIS J082303.1-491201 was discovered by Ngoc Phan-Bao "et al" as part of the "Deep Near Infrared Survey of the Southern Sky" or DENIS for short.
DENIS J082303.1−491201 | History
The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet. The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round. The southern hemisphere mid-latitude jet is a relatively narrow band of strong winds stretching from the Earth's surface to the top of the troposphere at about 12 km increasing steadily in strength with height. Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large-scale Polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses.
Jet stream | Introduction
LAE J095950.99+021219.1 was discovered in mid-2012. It was observed using the Magellan Telescopes at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile.
LAE J095950.99+021219.1 | Discovery
These two jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are well separated. The northern Polar jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it slowly migrates northward as that hemisphere warms, and southward again as it cools. The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical thickness often less than . Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are common. The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.
Jet stream | Description
was discovered on 10 January 2002, by astronomers at the Palomar Observatory in California. Astronomers involved in the discovery were Michael Brown, Chad Trujillo, Eleanor Helin, Michael Hicks, Kenneth Lawrence and Steven H. Pravdo. It is located near the Kuiper cliff.
(55565) 2002 AW197 | Discovery
The Magellanic Stream as such was discovered as a Neutral Hydrogen (HI) gas feature near the Magellanic Clouds by Wannier & Wrixon in 1972. Its connection to the Magellanic Clouds was made by Mathewson et al. in 1974. Owing to the closeness of the Magellanic Clouds and the ability to resolve individual stars and their parallaxes, and proper motion, subsequent observations gave the full 6-dimensional phase space information of both clouds (with very large relative errors for the transverse velocities). This enabled the calculation of the likely past orbit of the Large and the Small Magellanic Cloud in relation to the Milky Way.
Magellanic Stream | Discovery and early observations
It was also detected by Ulysses, a robotic space probe designed to study the Sun, and by the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) on board the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. The burst also occurred within the field of view of one of BeppoSAX's two X-ray Wide Field Cameras. Within a few hours, the BeppoSAX team localized the burst to an error box—a small area around the specific position to account for the error in the position—with a diameter of approximately 10 arcminutes.
GRB 970508 | Discovery
Therefore, the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the North and South poles.
Jet stream | Cause
Using charts of mean 200-hectopascal circulation for July through August (located above sea level) to locate the circumpolar troughs and ridges, trough lines extend over the eastern and central North Pacific and over the North Atlantic. Case studies of upper tropospheric cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific have been performed by using airplane reports (winds, temperatures and heights), radiosonde data, geostationary satellite cloud imagery, and cloud-tracked winds throughout the troposphere. It was determined they were the origin of an upper tropospheric cold-core lows, or cut-off lows.
Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex | History of research
These showed for the first time that the occurrence of the clouds coincided with very low temperatures in the mesosphere. Noctilucent clouds were first detected from space by an instrument on the OGO-6 satellite in 1972. The OGO-6 observations of a bright scattering layer over the polar caps were identified as poleward extensions of these clouds. A later satellite, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer, mapped the distribution of the clouds between 1981 and 1986 with its ultraviolet spectrometer. The clouds were detected with a lidar in 1995 at Utah State University, even when they were not visible to the naked eye.
Noctilucent cloud | Discovery and investigation
With very-long-baseline interferometry, the fine detail of radio waves can be seen down to milliarcsecond (mas) resolution. A central very bright single point called the "core" is observed. From the core an extremely high-speed blast of plasma emerges in a narrow cone shape as a one-sided jet. After 30 milliarcseconds, the jet, which is 300 pc long, does a 90° turn and fans out. The inner jet before the kink shows bright edges or a limb-brightened structure less than 10 mas wide. This is probably due to a fast-moving central part to the jet, combined with slower edges. Normally, there would be jets of gas shooting out in opposite directions.
Markarian 501 | Jet
The Enceladus Life Finder mission was first proposed in 2015 for Discovery Mission 13 funding, and then it was proposed in May 2017 to NASA's New Frontiers program Mission 4, but it was not selected. If selected at another future opportunity, the ELF mission would search for biosignature and biomolecules in the geysers of Enceladus. The south polar jets loft water, salts and organic molecules dozens of miles over the moon's surface from an underground regional ocean. The hypothesis is that the water is warmed by thermal vents similar to features found deep in Earth's oceans. ELF's instruments would measure amino acids — the building blocks of proteins — analyze fatty acids, and determine whether methane (CH) found in the plumes could have been produced by living organisms.
Enceladus Life Finder | Overview
If the airliner, which had to cross the Andes mountain range at , had entered the jet-stream zone—which in this area normally blows from the west and south-west, resulting in the aircraft encountering a headwind—this would have significantly decreased the aircraft's ground speed.
1947 BSAA Avro Lancastrian Star Dust accident | Discovery of wreckage and reconstruction of the crash
was discovered on 18 June 2002 by Chad Trujillo and Michael Brown at Palomar Observatory. The discovery was announced by the Minor Planet Center on 21 November 2002. In 2007, an archive search revealed the existence of several precovery observations of , the earliest of which was taken on 8 April 1954, as part of the Digitized Sky Survey at Palomar Mountain. In July 2016, was observed by the "New Horizons" spacecraft, as part of its extended Kuiper belt mission. The observations significantly improved the knowledge of 's orbit and phase curve. , has been observed 74 times. It has an observation arc of 64 years.
(307261) 2002 MS4 | Discovery
In 1971 he discovered a thin atmosphere around Ganymede, a satellite of Jupiter. For this he used ground-based, optical telescope at Kavalur, Tamil Nadu, India. In 1977 he discovered an extended ring system around Uranus using lunar an Occultation technique. The Voyager mission later confirmed his discovery.
J. C. Bhattacharyya | Discoveries
It was discovered and named after Dr. John W. Huffman.
JWH-015 | Introduction
In 1902, Léon Teisserenc de Bort from France and Richard Assmann from Germany, in separate but coordinated publications and following years of observations, published the discovery of an isothermal layer at around 11–14 km, which is the base of the lower stratosphere. This was based on temperature profiles from mostly unmanned and a few manned instrumented balloons.
Stratosphere | Discovery
They were first photographed on July 6, 1989 by scientists from the University of Minnesota and have subsequently been captured in video recordings many thousands of times. Even though these were discovered only 20 years ago, they hold the key to comprehend the Earth's electrical circuitry that give rise to the storms and currents that churn up the atmosphere. Blue jets can move at speeds of up to 360,000 km/h (220,000 mph) and without a high speed camera they can be easily missed by the human eye.
Thor experiment | Details
was discovered on December 9, 2001 by David C. Jewitt, Scott S. Sheppard, and Jan Kleyna observing from the Mauna Kea Observatory.
(148975) 2001 XA255 | Discovery
was discovered on 9 October 2002 by Mike Brown's team at the Palomar Observatory. It has been observed 76 times back to 5 August 2000.
(84522) 2002 TC302 | Discovery
was discovered by Sahlmann et al. (2013) using the ESO telescopes at the La Silla Paranal Observatory. It is part of an ultracool binary system.
DENIS-P J082303.1−491201 b | Discovery
WISE J004945.61+215120.0 was discovered in 2012 by Mace et al. from data, collected by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Earth-orbiting satellite — NASA infrared-wavelength 40 cm (16 in) space telescope, which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. In 2013, the discovery paper was published.
WISE J004945.61+215120.0 | Discovery
WISE 0254+0223 was discovered in 2011 from data, collected by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Earth-orbiting satellite — NASA infrared-wavelength 40 cm (16 in) space telescope, which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. WISE 0254+0223 has two discovery papers: "Scholz et al. (2011)" and "Kirkpatrick et al. (2011)" (the first was published earlier).
WISE J0254+0223 | Discovery
He examined how cloud formations were related to the weather and examined the value of cloud observation in forecasting weather. He was possibly the first to examine upper air circulations and their relation to air flow in lower altitudes. He studied cirrus drifts and examined what are now termed as jet streams.
William Clement Ley | Life
A horizontal temperature gradient exists while moving North-South along a meridian because curvature of the Earth allows for more solar heating at the equator than at the poles. This creates a westerly geostrophic wind pattern to form in the mid-latitudes. Because thermal wind causes an increase in wind velocity with height, the westerly pattern increases in intensity up until the tropopause, creating a strong wind current known as the jet stream. The Northern and Southern Hemispheres exhibit similar jet stream patterns in the mid-latitudes. The strongest part of jet streams should be in proximity where temperature gradients are the largest.
Thermal wind | Jet stream
The Earth's turbopause lies near the mesopause, at the intersection of the mesosphere and the thermosphere, at an altitude of roughly 100 km. Some other turbopauses in the solar system that are known include Venus' turbopause at about 130 – 135 km, Mars' at about 130 km, Jupiter's at roughly 385 km, and Titan's at around 800 – 850 km. It was discovered by French scientists following the firing of two sounding rockets Véronique March 10th and 12th, 1959
Turbopause | Introduction
The wind speed maximized near the equator. In September 2017 JAXA scientists named this phenomenon 'Venusian equatorial jet'. They also published results on equatorial winds at cloud-top level by tracking clouds on the UV spectrum. A significant result in 2018 is the appearance of thick clouds of small particles near the transition between upper and middle clouds, what was described as a "new and puzzling morphology of the complex cloud cover." By 2017, the science team published 3D maps on the Venus atmosphere structure. The physical quantities retrieved include the pressure, the temperature, the vapor density, and the ionospheric electron density and their variations.
Akatsuki (spacecraft) | Science
A search of the impact zone that began on December 6, 2008, turned up of rock in some 600 fragments. These meteorites are collectively named Almahata Sitta, which means "Station Six" in Arabic and is a train station between Wadi Halfa and Khartoum, Sudan. This search was led by Peter Jenniskens from the SETI Institute, California and Muawia Shaddad of the University of Khartoum in Sudan and carried out with the collaboration of students and staff of the University of Khartoum. The initial 15 meteorites were found in the first three days of the search. Numerous witnesses were interviewed, and the hunt was guided with a search grid and specific target area produced by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.
2008 TC3 | Recovered fragments
If two air masses, one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South, are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed, the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass. The Coriolis effect will then cause poleward-moving mass to deviate to the East, while equatorward-moving mass will deviate toward the west. The general trend in the atmosphere is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction. As a result, winds develop an eastward component and that component grows with altitude.
Jet stream | Cause
Following the storm meteorologists at the University of Reading led by Professor Keith Browning developed the Sting jet concept. During reanalysis of the storm they identified a mesoscale flow where the most damaging winds were shown to be emanating from the evaporating tip of the hooked cloud head on the southern flank of the cyclone. This cloud, hooked like a scorpion's tail, gives the wind region its name the "Sting Jet".
Great Storm of 1987 | New understandings
The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water.
Aeolis quadrangle | "Spirit" rover discoveries
Clear-air turbulence is usually impossible to detect with the naked eye and very difficult to detect with a conventional radar, with the result that it is difficult for aircraft pilots to detect and avoid it. However, it can be remotely detected with instruments that can measure turbulence with optical techniques, such as scintillometers, Doppler LIDARs, or N-slit interferometers. Although the altitudes near the tropopause are usually cloudless, thin cirrus cloud can form where there are abrupt changes of air velocity, for example associated with jet streams. Lines of cirrus perpendicular to the jet stream indicate possible CAT, especially if the ends of the cirrus are dispersed, in which case the direction of dispersal can indicate if the CAT is stronger at the left or at the right of the jet stream.
Clear-air turbulence | Detection
The equatorial electrojet (EEJ) is a narrow ribbon of current flowing eastward in the day time equatorial region of the Earth's ionosphere. The abnormally large amplitude of variations in the horizontal components measured at equatorial geomagnetic observatories, as a result of EEJ, was noticed as early as 1920 from Huancayo geomagnetic observatory. Observations by radar, rockets, satellites, and geomagnetic observatories are used to study EEJ.
Equatorial electrojet | Introduction
A hundred years later, Henri Coandă identified an application of the effect during experiments with his Coandă-1910 aircraft, which mounted an unusual engine he designed. The motor-driven turbine pushed hot air rearward, and Coandă noticed that the airflow was attracted to nearby surfaces. In 1934 Coandă obtained a patent in France for a "method and apparatus for deviation of a fluid into another fluid." The effect was described as the "deviation of a plain jet of a fluid that penetrates another fluid in the vicinity of a convex wall." The first official documents that explicitly mention the Coandă effect were two 1936 patents by Henri Coandă.
Coandă effect | Discovery
was first observed on 21 August 2006 by the Siding Spring Survey, at the Siding Spring Observatory in Australia.
2006 QQ23 | Discovery
was discovered on March 7, 2010 by David L. Rabinowitz and Suzanne W. Tourtellotte using the 1.3-m reflector from Cerro Tololo.
(316179) 2010 EN65 | Discovery
The calculation necessitated large assumptions, for example, on the shapes and masses of the 3 galaxies, and the nature of dynamical friction between the moving objects. Observations of individual stars revealed details of star formation history.
Magellanic Stream | Discovery and early observations
The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific, which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal, and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific. In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward, or north, of its normal position, which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent.
Jet stream | El Niño
Using the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the XMM-Newton, scientists have detected the warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) between the galaxies in the Sculptor Wall. Scientists observed the absorption of a background light source in the warm-hot intergalactic medium. This background source is the blazer H2356-309.
H2356-309 | Discovery
Investigations of this effect at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the University of Texas have not yielded a satisfactory explanation. No such anomaly was detected after the second Earth flyby of the Galileo spacecraft in December 1992, where the measured velocity decrease matched that expected from atmospheric drag at the lower altitude of 303 km. However, the drag estimates had large error bars, and so an anomalous acceleration could not be ruled out.
Flyby anomaly | Observations
Following reanalysis of the Great Storm of 1987, led by Professor Keith Browning at the University of Reading, researchers identified a mesoscale flow where the most damaging winds were shown to be emanating from the evaporating tip of the hooked cloud head on the southern flank of the cyclone. This cloud, hooked like a scorpion's tail, gives the wind region its name the "sting jet". It is thought that a zone of strong winds, originating from within the mid-tropospheric cloud head of an explosively deepening depression, are enhanced further as the "jet" descends, drying out and evaporating a clear path through snow and ice particles.
Sting jet | Concept
Observations made by Bridle et al. in 1981 using maps made with the VLA revealed a jet-like structure emerging from the nucleus of NGC 3862. In late January 1992, the HST observed NGC 3862 with the Faint Object Spectrograph confirmed the presence of an optical jet in nucleus of NGC 3862. The optical jet which has a measured length of , appears to expand slowly and dims in peak and integrated brightness within the interior to the apparent ring of dust. Within distances of about , the jet appears narrow and well-collimated. At a distance of the jet starts to abruptly expand and becomes turbulent.
NGC 3862 | Jet
In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during tornadoes, tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses. All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation. The balance of forces acting on an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force, or the difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel.
Jet stream | Cause
In 2013 a small-scale (20”/7.4 kpc) jet source was detected in NGC 1060, indicating a remnant of an old, low power outburst. The radio emission which arises from this jet was also detected.
NGC 1060 | Introduction
, also written as (126154) 2001 YH140, is a resonant trans-Neptunian object discovered on 18 December 2001, by American astronomers Chad Trujillo and Michael Brown at the Palomar Observatory in California. It measures approximately 345 kilometers in diameter.
(126154) 2001 YH140 | Introduction
Sadler was the author of many books and essays on tropical meteorology including "Average Cloudiness in the Tropics from Satellite Observations " (1969) and "Pacific Ocean Cloudiness from Satellite Observations" (1976). Sadler documented the tropical cyclones over the eastern North Pacific that were revealed by satellite observations, and suggested that the upper-tropospheric circulation is a factor of development, as well as the life history of the tropical cyclones. Using charts of mean 200-hectopascal circulation for July through August to locate the circumpolar troughs and ridges, he observed that there is a trough line extending over the eastern and central North Pacific and another one extending over the North Atlantic.
James C. Sadler | Publications
The jet blows up the dusty envelope of the star, giving rise to 0.3 parsec long molecular outflow.
HH 34 | Introduction
Some have speculated that these ice chunks must have fallen from aircraft fuselages after plain water ice accumulating on those aircraft through normal atmospheric conditions has simply broken loose. However, similar events occurred prior to the invention of aircraft. Studies indicate that fluctuations in tropopause, associated with hydration of the lower stratosphere and stratospheric cooling, can be related to their formation. A detailed micro-Raman spectroscopic study made it possible to place the formation of the megacryometeors within a particular range of temperatures: . They are sometimes confused with meteors because they can leave small impact craters.
Megacryometeor | Formation
It was discovered in 2005 at the MMT Observatory of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), by astronomers Warren Brown, Margaret J. Geller, Scott J. Kenyon and Michael J. Kurtz.
SDSS J090745.0+024507 | Introduction
He was also a part of the research into molecule formation on Titan, research that was published in 1981 by "Nature", as well as ion cyclotron resonance and ion-molecule reactions in off-Earth environments.
Wesley Huntress | Jet Propulsion Laboratory
The crash site was not discovered until July 1947, when remains were found at an altitude of .
Aiguille des Glaciers | Introduction
In 1951, Fred Whipple predicted that micrometeorites smaller than 100 micrometers in diameter might be decelerated on impact with the Earth's upper atmosphere without melting. The modern era of laboratory study of these particles began with the stratospheric collection flights of D. E. Brownlee and collaborators in the 1970s using balloons and then U-2 aircraft. Although some of the particles found were similar to the material in present-day meteorite collections, the nanoporous nature and unequilibrated cosmic-average composition of other particles suggested that they began as fine-grained aggregates of nonvolatile building blocks and cometary ice. The interplanetary nature of these particles was later verified by noble gas and solar flare track observations.
Interplanetary dust cloud | Dust collection on Earth
For two days, when the comet was at its closest, the Earth was actually within the comet's tail, and streams of cometary material converging towards the distant nucleus could be seen.
C/1861 J1 | Introduction
Joan Feynman spent the bulk of her career studying the interactions between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere. While working at the NASA Ames Research Center in 1971, Feynman discovered that the periodic spouting of solar material known as a solar coronal mass ejection (CME) could be identified by the presence of helium in the solar wind. This was an important find because, although CME's were known at the time, they had until then been difficult to detect. After her time at NASA Ames, Feynman moved on to a number of different research posts. These included positions with the High Altitude Observatory; the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado; the National Science Foundation in Washington, DC; and Boston College in Massachusetts.
Joan Feynman | Career
Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partly responsible for the widespread drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States. Normally, the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains. During the Dust Bowl, the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal. This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of rainfall, causing extraordinary drought conditions.
Jet stream | Dust Bowl
WISE J031624.35+430709.1 was discovered in 2012 by Mace et al. from data, collected by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Earth-orbiting satellite — NASA infrared-wavelength 40 cm (16 in) space telescope, which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. In March 2013, the discovery paper was published.
WISE J031624.35+430709.1 | Discovery
IGR J17091 was discovered by ESA's INTEGRAL satellite in April 2003.
IGR J17091-3624 | Discovery
The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.
Meteorology | Research into cyclones and air flow
was discovered on 14 April 2012 by the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope, observing from Haleakala, Hawaii.
2012 GX17 | Discovery
Careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the Great Red Spot's counter-clockwise circulation as far back as 1966, observations dramatically confirmed by the first time-lapse movies from the "Voyager" fly-bys. The spot is confined by a modest eastward jet stream to its south and a very strong westward one to its north. Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about , currents inside it seem stagnant, with little inflow or outflow. The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time, perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size.
Great Red Spot | Structure
, is an extreme trans-Neptunian object of the extended scattered disc in the outermost region of the Solar System, approximately 180 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by astronomers at the Mauna Kea Observatory on 26 April 2003.
(506479) 2003 HB57 | Introduction
The volcano was first observed during the "Voyager 1" encounter with the Jupiter system on March 5, 1979. "Voyager" discovered a tall, wide volcanic dust plume, composed primarily of sulfur dioxide, at the northern end of a long dark lava flow. To date, images taken by "Voyager 1's" Imaging Science Sub-system Wide-Angle Camera shortly before the spacecraft's closest approach to Io have the highest spatial resolution coverage of this volcano at two kilometers per pixel. These images reveal a lava flow with a V-shaped northern end, associated with the plume source as noted by the dark plume deposit ring surrounding it, and bifurcated southern section.
Masubi (volcano) | Observations by "Voyager 1"
The Viking Orbiters discovered much about water on Mars. Branched streams, studied by the Orbiters in the southern hemisphere, suggested that rain once fell.
Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle | Branched streams seen by Viking
Noctilucent clouds are first known to have been observed in 1885, two years after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. It remains unclear whether their appearance had anything to do with the volcanic eruption or whether their discovery was due to more people observing the spectacular sunsets caused by the volcanic debris in the atmosphere. Studies have shown that noctilucent clouds are not caused solely by volcanic activity, although dust and water vapour could be injected into the upper atmosphere by eruptions and contribute to their formation. Scientists at the time assumed the clouds were another manifestation of volcanic ash, but after the ash had settled out of the atmosphere, the noctilucent clouds persisted.
Noctilucent cloud | Discovery and investigation
This year it traveled from Scheat and Markab in western Pegasus, 13 January 1884; southward (through Pisces) to reach perihelion below Iota and Beta Ceti (~RA 0h, Dec. -10°) around 24 January.
12P/Pons–Brooks | Discovery
Officially discovered on 31 May 2008, the discovery was announced on 16 July 2008, by the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey team led by Brett Gladman. The discovery team nicknamed "Drac" after Count Dracula.
(528219) 2008 KV42 | Introduction
On September 27, 2012, NASA scientists announced that "Curiosity" found evidence for an ancient streambed suggesting a "vigorous flow" of water on Mars.
Aeolis quadrangle | Mars Science Laboratory discoveries
was discovered on 11 May 2004, by leading astronomer Brian Skiff of the "Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search" (LONEOS) at Anderson Mesa Station near Flagstaff, Arizona, United States. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Anderson Mesa, as no precoveries were taken and no prior identifications were made.
(434326) 2004 JG6 | Discovery
, provisionally known as , is a resonant trans-Neptunian object from the outermost regions of the Solar System, approximately 154 kilometers in diameter. It discovered on 20 December 2001, by American astronomers Chad Trujillo, Glenn Smith and Michael E. Brown at the Palomar Observatory in California.
(126155) 2001 YJ140 | Introduction
These objects lose heat as they age, so they are more readily discovered while they are still young.
IC 348 | Introduction
He moved his equipment to a more remote location, one which was free from such electrical interference, and where he established the Jodrell Bank Observatory, near Goostrey in Cheshire. It was an outpost of the university's botany department and had been a searchlight station during the war. In the course of his experiments, he was able to show that radar echoes could be obtained from daytime meteor showers as they entered the Earth's atmosphere and ionised the surrounding air. He was later able to determine the orbits of meteors in annual meteor showers to show they were in solar orbit and not of interstellar origin.
Bernard Lovell | Career and research
Masubi was last observed by a spacecraft during "New Horizons"' February 28, 2007 encounter with the Jupiter system. During this encounter, two plumes were observed along Masubi Fluctus. One was seen at the northern end of the flow, interpreted as the main source vent for the flow. The second was observed near the middle of the elongated flow field. These two plumes were 70 and 80 kilometers tall respectively. "New Horizons" also observed a fresh, 240-kilometer lava flow at Masubi, which formed between "Galileo's" last observation of Masubi Fluctus in 1999 and the "New Horizons" flyby in 2007. This was the largest new lava flow observed anywhere in the solar system since extraterrestrial volcanism was discovered on Io in 1979.
Masubi (volcano) | Observations by "New Horizons"
The images were taken at Lane's Abbey Ridge Observatory on 31 December 2010 with a Celestron C14 0.36-meter f/5.5 telescope, and the supernova was spotted by them on 2 January 2011. The discovery was confirmed on 3 January 2011 by the amateur astronomers Brian Tieman and Jack Newton and announced by the IAU Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was announced by the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada on the same day.
SN 2010lt | Discovery
The tail was straight and narrow, stretching across from 1° to 2° of the sky at the tail's end. According to David A. J. Seargent,
C/1874 H1 | Discovery and observations
WISEP J180026.60+013453.1 was discovered in 2011 by Gizis et al. from data, collected by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Earth-orbiting satellite — NASA infrared-wavelength ) space telescope, which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. There are also precovery identifications of this object in Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) data (observed on 2000 September 23) and in the 3rd release of the database (close in time to the 2MASS observation). On 2011 June 22 Gizis et al. had conducted near-infrared spectroscopy with SpeX spectrograph, mounted on the 3 m Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF), located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii.
WISE 1800+0134 | Discovery
"Galileo" flew by Io again on October 16, 2001, this time passing over the satellite's south polar region at an altitude of . As a result of the discovery of the Thor eruption during the previous flyby, the observation plan was adjusted so that the camera and near-infrared spectrometer could take high-resolution images and spectra of the new eruption site. The camera acquired a single, clear-filter frame over the volcano with a spatial resolution of per pixel. The image revealed several new dark, silicate lava flows, many surrounded by dark, pyroclastic flow deposits. The dark flows generally covered over the previously observed yellow flows, though by October 2001, some of those older flows remained visible.
Thor (volcano) | October 2001
Kite Stream is named after a researcher, James Kite, who found numerous meteorites in the area (1977–1978).
Lake Vida | Natural history
. The discovery was made possible by the melting away of the formerly permanent ice field during the exceptionally hot summer of 2003.
Schnidejoch | Introduction
The jets lasted under a second, with shapes likened by the researchers to giant trees and carrots. On November 10, 2012, the Chinese Science Bulletin reported a gigantic jet event observed over a thunderstorm in mainland China on August 12, 2010. "GJ event that was clearly recorded in eastern China (storm center located at 35.6°N,119.8°E, near the Huanghai Sea)".
Upper-atmospheric lightning | Observations
was discovered on March 13, 2010 by David L. Rabinowitz and S. Tourtellotte, observing from La Silla, Chile.
2010 EU65 | Discovery
Due to land masses in the northern hemisphere, largest temperature contrasts are observed on the east coast of North America (boundary between Canadian cold air mass and the Gulf Stream/warmer Atlantic) and Eurasia (boundary between the boreal winter monsoon/Siberian cold air mass and the warm Pacific). Therefore, the strongest boreal winter jet streams are observed over east coast of North America and Eurasia. Since stronger vertical shear promotes baroclinic instability, the most rapid development of extratropical cyclones (so called bombs) is also observed along the east coast of North America and Eurasia. The lack of land masses in the Southern Hemisphere leads to a more constant jet with longitude (i.e.
Thermal wind | Jet stream
He wrote the first official report from Japan's Aerological Observatory (written in 1926 and in the auxiliary language of Esperanto). In this report ("Raporto de Aerologia Observatorio de Tateno)" data was stratified by season and used to produce the mean seasonal wind profiles. The profile for winter gave the first known evidence of the persistent strong westerlies over Japan that would later become known as the jet stream. In an attempt to reach an unresponsive foreign audience , Wasaburo Oishi published nineteen reports between 1926 and 1944, all of them written in Esperanto, in total 1246 pages. Wasaburo Ooishi was not only the director of Japan’s Tateno atmospheric observatory but also the head of the Japan Esperanto Society.
Wasaburo Oishi | Jet stream and Esperanto
Pr0201 b and Pr 0211 b were discovered in 2012 by Sam Quinn and his colleagues while observing 53 stars in the Beehive cluster using the telescope at the University of Georgia in the United States.
Pr0201 b | Discovery
Jetavana is located at .
Jetavana | Discovery and current situation
The mid-level African easterly jet occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10°N and 20°N above West Africa, and the nocturnal poleward low-level jet occurs in the Great Plains of east and South Africa. The low-level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa, and helps form the tropical waves which move across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season. The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low-level westerly jet stream from June into October.
Jet stream | Africa
This trans-Neptunian object was discovered on 1 July 2010, by NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). It was first observed by the Mount Lemmon Survey in 2009, extending the body's observation arc by 8 months prior to its official discovery observation by WISE.
(336756) 2010 NV1 | Discovery