Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (), strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high-altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation. However, ozone present at the surface is a byproduct of smog and thus a pollutant. Oxygen was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774. Priority is often given for Priestley because his work was published first. Priestley, however, called oxygen "dephlogisticated air", and did not recognize it as a chemical element.
Introduction
Oxygen
Oxygen | Introduction
It was solated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele Philo of Byzantium Robert Boyle and John Mayow. Philo of Byzantium.
oxygen (o2) is formed in photosynthesis as a direct result of
user
Light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis
assistant
how does lavoisier contribute?
user
He conducted the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works
assistant
what are its isotopes?
user
They are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number
assistant
what are its allotropes?
user
Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
assistant
how is it stored?
user
Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
assistant
is it toxic?
user
No it is not toxic
assistant
what are its industrial uses?
user
Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
assistant
which scientist was involved in early experiments related to it?
user
He was surprised that it did not answer questions like the height at which to use oxygen, flow rates other than 4 L/m, and whether to use sleeping oxygen.
Griffith Pugh | Cho Oyo 1952
He also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work "Tractatus duo" in the tract "De respiratione".
Oxygen | Early experiments
The name "oxygen" was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, who first recognized oxygen as a chemical element and correctly characterized the role it plays in combustion.
Oxygen | Introduction
He then pumps the pure oxygen throughout the town of Quiquendone, causing the normally tranquil inhabitants and their animals to become aggressive and plants to grow rapidly. An explosion of the hydrogen and oxygen in Dr Ox's factory brings his experiment to an end. Verne summarised his story by explaining that the effects of oxygen described in the tale were his own invention. There is also a brief episode of oxygen intoxication in his "From the Earth to the Moon".
Oxygen toxicity | Society and culture
In 1925, a study on the phenomena of oxidation and reaeration in the Ohio River in the US was published by the sanitary engineer, Harold Warner Streeter and the consultant, Earle Bernard Phelps (1876–1953). The study was based on data obtained from May 1914 to April 1915 by the United States Public Health Service under supervision of Surg. W.H. Frost. More complex versions of the Streeter-Phelps model were introduced during the 1960s, where computers made it possible to include further contributions to the oxygen development in streams. At the head of this development were O'Connor (1960) and Thomann (1963). O'Connor added the contributions from photosynthesis, respiration and sediment oxygen demand (SOD).
Streeter–Phelps equation | History
These became the basis for most oxygen exposure calculation methods used for saturation and repetitive diving exposures to oxygen in breathing mixtures.
Robert William Hamilton Jr. | Research
Lavoisier conducted the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works. He used these and similar experiments, all started in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element. In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in.
Oxygen | Lavoisier's contribution
In 1902, von Foregger returned to US to work at the Medical Dioxide Co., in New York. There he first developed a method of producing peroxides of magnesium and zinc and then shifted to alkali peroxides aiming to use them for oxygen generation. In 1905, while working at the Roessler and Hasslacher Chemical Co., New York, he produced oxygen by reacting water with fused sodium peroxide. He quickly moved from chemical experiments to life supporting systems. In 1906 he performed two public experiments, in which a person was sealed in a box for six hours, and a group of rabbits for 15 hours, without showing any breathing discomforts.
Richard von Foregger | Anesthesiology work
Chemists (such as Sir Humphry Davy in 1812) eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regard (hydrogen forms the basis for acid chemistry), but by then the name was too well established.
Oxygen | Lavoisier's contribution
The chemistry of oxygen and its significance to the organism were the central objects of his research and provided the common thread uniting almost all of his scientific activity. Moritz Traube was a younger brother of the famous Berlin physician Ludwig Traube (physician), the co-founder of the German experimental pathology. A son, Wilhelm Traube, evolved a process of purine synthesis. Hermann Traube, another son, was a mineralogist.
Moritz Traube | Introduction
Polish alchemist, philosopher, and physician Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój) in his work "De Lapide Philosophorum Tractatus duodecim e naturae fonte et manuali experientia depromti" (1604) described a substance contained in air, referring to it as 'cibus vitae' (food of life), and this substance is identical with oxygen. Sendivogius, during his experiments performed between 1598 and 1604, properly recognized that the substance is equivalent to the gaseous byproduct released by the thermal decomposition of potassium nitrate. In Bugaj's view, the isolation of oxygen and the proper association of the substance to that part of air which is required for life, lends sufficient weight to the discovery of oxygen by Sendivogius.
Oxygen | Discovery
1926 – Vandeveer and Parr at the University of Illinois used oxygen to replace air.
Partial oxidation | History
Shrapnel broke Hervy's legs, one of which had to be amputated; he died of infection a few days later. To reduce the danger of explosion, the cast iron was replaced with wrought iron. By 1845, the Belgian chemists Daniel-Joseph-Benoît Mareska (1803-1858) and François-Marie-Louis Donny (1822-1896) had replaced the iron with copper and lead. A description of the apparatus and its operation was provided by the French chemist Charles-Adolphe Wurtz:
Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier | Apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide
He identified carbon monoxide as a compound containing carbon and oxygen in 1800. In 1800 he also used chlorine to purify water.He also discovered the chloralkali process.
William Cruickshank (chemist) | Discoveries and inventions
By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied and its components isolated by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on December 22, 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen. Just two days later, French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen. Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in each case and no meaningful analysis could be conducted.
Oxygen | Later history
ECMO was developed in the 1950s by John Gibbon, and then by C. Walton Lillehei. The first use for neonates was in 1965. Banning Gray Lary first demonstrated that intravenous oxygen could maintain life. His results were published in "Surgical Forum" in November 1951. Lary commented on his initial work in a 2007 presentation wherein he writes, "Our research began by assembling an apparatus that, for the first time, kept animals alive while breathing pure nitrogen. This was accomplished with very small bubbles of oxygen injected into the blood stream. These bubbles were made by adding a 'wetting agent' to oxygen being forced through a porcelain filter into the venous blood stream.
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation | History
1 part per 10,000). In 1895 he introduced a new value for the atomic weight ratio of oxygen to hydrogen, providing the most precise determination of the atomic weight of oxygen at the time. His research on the atomic weight of oxygen was recognized as a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society in 1995.
Edward W. Morley | Chemistry
To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product. Some organisms, including purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, use an anoxygenic form of photosynthesis that uses alternatives to hydrogen stripped from water as electron donors; examples are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur and iron. Such extremophile organisms are restricted to otherwise inhospitable environments such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents. The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life. The timing of oxygenic photosynthesis is more controversial; it had certainly appeared by about 2.4 Ga, but some researchers put it back as far as 3.2 Ga.
History of Earth | Oxygen revolution
The development of an analytical instrument that utilizes the reduction-oxidation (redox) chemistry of oxygen in the presence of dissimilar metal electrodes was introduced during the 1950s. This redox electrode utilized an oxygen-permeable membrane to allow the diffusion of the gas into an electrochemical cell and its concentration determined by polarographic or galvanic electrodes. This analytical method is sensitive and accurate down to levels of ± 0.1 mg/l dissolved oxygen. Calibration of the redox electrode of this membrane electrode still requires the use of the Henry's law table or the Winkler test for dissolved oxygen.
Biochemical oxygen demand | Polargraphic method
It was not until the end of the 18th century that Joseph Priestley discovered by accident the ability of plants to "restore" air that had been "injured" by the burning of a candle. He followed up on the experiment by showing that air "restored" by vegetation was ""not at all inconvenient to a mouse."" He was later awarded a medal for his discoveries that: ""...no vegetable grows in vain... but cleanses and purifies our atmosphere."" Priestley's experiments were followed up by Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch physician, who showed that "restoration" of air only worked in the presence of light and green plant parts.
Oxygen evolution | History of discovery
In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion. English chemist John Mayow (1641–1679) refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called "spiritus nitroaereus". In one experiment, he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one-fourteenth of the air's volume before extinguishing the subjects. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion. Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it.
Oxygen | Early experiments
This discovery of Sendivogius was however frequently denied by the generations of scientists and chemists which succeeded him. It is also commonly claimed that oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates in 1771–2. Scheele called the gas "fire air" because it was then the only known agent to support combustion. He wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript titled "Treatise on Air and Fire", which he sent to his publisher in 1775. That document was published in 1777. In the meantime, on August 1, 1774, an experiment conducted by the British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide (HgO) contained in a glass tube, which liberated a gas he named "dephlogisticated air".
Oxygen | Discovery
His group first made the salen ligands, which gave the first artificial oxygen carriers. He recognized that crystals, e.g. of zinc sulfide, are large molecules.
Paul Pfeiffer (chemist) | Introduction
One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work "Pneumatica", Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck. Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration.
Oxygen | Early experiments
In 1772, the chemist Joseph Priestley carried out a series of experiments relating to the gases involved in respiration and combustion. In his first experiment, he lit a candle and placed it under an upturned jar. After a short period of time, the candle burned out. He carried out a similar experiment with a mouse in the confined space of the burning candle. He found that the mouse died a short time after the candle had been extinguished. However, he could revivify the foul air by placing green plants in the area and exposing them to light. Priestley's observations were some of the first experiments that demonstrated the activity of a photosynthetic reaction center.
Photosynthetic reaction centre | Oxygenic photosynthesis
Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air", which he made in the famous experiment by focusing the sun's rays on a sample of mercuric oxide. He first tested it on mice, who surprised him by surviving quite a while entrapped with the air, and then on himself, writing that it was "five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air". He had discovered oxygen gas (O). Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of "Experiments and Observations on Air", published in 1776.
Joseph Priestley | Discovery of oxygen
In 1884 they opened a factory producing oxygen by their improved process. In the commercial process, oxygen capture and release was controlled by pressure rather than temperature, with oxygen being captured at high pressure and released at low pressure. This allowed a faster change between the capture and release phases, which would last one to two hours. The company was first named after the two brothers Brins Oxygen Company in 1906 it was renamed Britisch Oxygen Company.
Brin process | Introduction
The offer is gladly accepted. Dr. Ox and his assistant Gédéon Ygène (whose surnames happen to form the word "oxygène", "oxygen") propose to use electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, and pump the two gases through separate pipes to the city. The doctor's secret plan is however to conduct a large scale experiment on the effect of oxygen on plants, animals and humans, and so he pumps an excess of the invisible and odorless gas through all lamps. The enriched air has remarkable effects on the town. It accelerates the growth of plants, and causes excitement and aggressiveness in animals and humans.
Dr. Ox's Experiment | Plot
This discovery was made by Robin Hill, and subsequently the light-driven release of oxygen in the absence of CO was called the "Hill reaction". Our current knowledge of the mechanism of oxygen evolution during photosynthesis was further established in experiments tracing isotopes of oxygen from water to oxygen gas.
Oxygen evolution | History of discovery
Oxygen is a 2001 play by Roald Hoffman who received the chemistry Nobel prize in 1982, and Carl Djerassi, the Stanford biochemist. The play is a dramatisation of events leading to the discovery of oxygen in the eighteenth century.
Oxygen (play) | Introduction
Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the "phlogiston theory", which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731, phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx.
Oxygen | Phlogiston theory
… For my own part, I will frankly acknowledge that at the commencement of my experiments recited in this section I was so far from having formed any hypothesis that led to the discoveries I made in pursuing them that they would have appeared very improbable to me had I been told of them; and when the decisive facts did at length obtrude themselves upon my notice it was very slowly, and with great hesitation, that I yielded to the evidence of my senses. [emphasis Priestley's] Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of "Experiments and Observations on Air" and published it in 1776.
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air | Discovery of oxygen
In 1912, Bornstein developed cramps in his hands and legs while breathing oxygen at for 51 minutes. Smith then went on to show that intermittent exposure to a breathing gas with less oxygen permitted the lungs to recover and delayed the onset of pulmonary toxicity. Albert R. Behnke "et al." in 1935 were the first to observe visual field contraction (tunnel vision) on dives between and . During World War II, Donald and Yarbrough "et al." performed over 2,000 experiments on oxygen toxicity to support the initial use of closed circuit oxygen rebreathers. Naval divers in the early years of oxygen rebreather diving developed a mythology about a monster called "Oxygen Pete", who lurked in the bottom of the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit "wet pot" (a water-filled hyperbaric chamber) to catch unwary divers.
Oxygen toxicity | History
Then, in 1775, English chemist Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen (which he named "dephlogisticated air"), and, just a few years later, in 1779, Dutch physician and researcher Jan Ingen-Housz demonstrated that the bubbles of gas observed by Bonnet on submerged leaves consisted of this same gas. Ingen-Housz also published the first convincing evidence that leaves produce this gas only in sunlight. Senebier was a close friend of noted Genevan geologist and meteorologist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure and was instrumental in the education of Horace-Bénédict's son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure. Senebier trained the young man in Lavoisier's system of chemistry, which Nicolas-Théodore later applied in important plant-nutrition studies of his own.
Jean Senebier | Introduction
He ultimately obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide, silver carbonate, magnesium nitrate, and other nitrate salts. Scheele wrote about his findings to Lavoisier who was able to see the significance of the results. His discovery of oxygen (ca. 1771) was chronologically earlier than the corresponding work of Priestley and Lavoisier, but he did not publish this discovery until 1777, after both of his rivals had published.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele | The theory of phlogiston
Ingenhousz suggested in 1796 that CO (carbon dioxide) is split during photosynthesis to release oxygen, while the carbon combined with water to form carbohydrates. While this hypothesis was attractive and reasonable and thus widely accepted for a long time, it was later proven incorrect. Graduate student C.B. Van Niel at Stanford University found that purple sulfur bacteria reduce carbon to carbohydrates, but accumulate sulfur instead of releasing oxygen. He boldly proposed that, in analogy to the sulfur bacteria's forming elemental sulfur from HS (hydrogen sulfide), plants would form oxygen from HO (water). In 1937, this hypothesis was corroborated by the discovery that plants are capable of producing oxygen in the absence of CO.
Oxygen evolution | History of discovery
The presence of provided life with new opportunities. Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways, and the presence of oxygen created new possibilities for life to explore. Since the start of the Cambrian period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. The maximum of 35% was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period (about 300 million years ago), a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time. Whilst human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations, their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant.
Geological history of oxygen | Introduction
A friend, associate, and one of his chief advocates, was Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), the discoverer of oxygen. Priestley was one of the foremost scientists of his age.
David Hartley (philosopher) | Hartley's theories
Senebier also found that the amount of oxygen produced is roughly proportional to the amount of carbon dioxide available to the plant. Further, he determined that the green fleshy parts of leaves (the parenchyma) are the sites where carbon dioxide is transformed into oxygen. Senebier also correctly concluded that plants use the carbon in carbon dioxide as a nutriment. Senebier did some of his research jointly with fellow Swiss naturalist François Huber. Senebier arrived at his best known achievement, his demonstration that plants take up atmospheric carbon dioxide and give off oxygen, based entirely on the phlogiston theory of chemistry, and only in his later works did he reformulate his conclusions in terms of the more modern, oxygen chemistry developed by Antoine Lavoisier and colleagues.
Jean Senebier | Introduction
Johnston was a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley 1925-28 and an associate of cryogenics pioneer William Giauque when his experiments proved the existence of oxygen isotopes with atomic masses 17 and 18. Previously it had been believed that oxygen only existed as O; as atomic masses of other elements were calculated on the basis of 16.0 not 16.0035, this was a significant discovery. The work, published in 1929, also led to the discovery in 1932 of heavy hydrogen (deuterium) by Harold C Urey. Giauque was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize for chemistry for this work, and did not forget to recognize Johnston's contribution.
Herrick L. Johnston | University of California
Oxygen was liquefied in a stable state for the first time on March 29, 1883 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University, Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski. In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen for study. The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them separately. Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed .
Oxygen | Later history
Brin process is a now-obsolete industrial scale production process for oxygen. In this process barium oxide reacts at 500–600 °C with air to form barium peroxide which decomposes at above 800 °C by releasing oxygen. The reaction was discovered by Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard in 1811 and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault tried to use this reaction to establish a process to produce oxygen in 1852. The process worked only for a few cycles and then became inefficient. Two students of Boussingault, Quentin and Arthur Leon Brin, discovered that traces of carbon dioxide formed barium carbonate. Removing the carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide solved this problem.
Brin process | Introduction
Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (), strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high-altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation. However, ozone present at the surface is a byproduct of smog and thus a pollutant. Oxygen was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774. Priority is often given for Priestley because his work was published first. Priestley, however, called oxygen "dephlogisticated air", and did not recognize it as a chemical element.
Oxygen | Introduction
The basic oxygen process developed outside of traditional "big steel" environment. It was developed and refined by a single man, Swiss engineer Robert Durrer, and commercialized by two small steel companies in allied-occupied Austria, which had not yet recovered from the destruction of World War II. In 1856, Henry Bessemer patented a steelmaking process involving oxygen blowing for decarbonizing molten iron (UK Patent No. 2207). For nearly 100 years commercial quantities of oxygen were not available or were too expensive, and the invention remained unused. During WWII German (Karl Valerian Schwarz), Belgian (John Miles) and Swiss (Durrer and Heinrich Heilbrugge) engineers proposed their versions of oxygen-blown steelmaking, but only Durrer and Heilbrugge brought it to mass-scale production.
Basic oxygen steelmaking | History
The first oxygen "fail safe" device to be custom built and employed in clinical practice following these principles is on display at the Wood Library-Museum. He was the first to predict and establish mutual effects of multiple gas interactions on rates of anesthetic uptake, the "second gas effect."
Robert M. Epstein | Columbia University
A cryogenic oxygen plant is an industrial facility that creates molecular oxygen at relatively high purity. Oxygen is the most common element in the earth's crust and the second largest industrial gas. This process was pioneered by Dr. Carl von Linde in 1902.
Cryogenic oxygen plant | Introduction
Carl was credited for finding oxygen with two other people, Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier. The first English edition, "Chemical Observation and Experiments on Air and Fire" was published in 1780, with an introduction "Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire".
Carl Wilhelm Scheele | Existing theories before Scheele
Hydrogen: Cavendish, in 1766, was the first to distinguish hydrogen from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle (1670), and Joseph Priestley (?) had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793. Oxygen: Carl Wilhelm Scheele obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Priestley also prepared this new "air" by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777. Nitrogen: Rutherford discovered nitrogen while he was studying at the University of Edinburgh. He showed that the air in which animals breathed, after removal of exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle.
Nonmetal | 18th century: H, O, N, (Te), Cl
This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book "Sur la combustion en général", which was published in 1777. In that work, he proved that air is a mixture of two gases; 'vital air', which is essential to combustion and respiration, and "azote" (Gk. "" "lifeless"), which did not support either. "Azote" later became "nitrogen" in English, although it has kept the earlier name in French and several other European languages. Lavoisier renamed 'vital air' to "oxygène" in 1777 from the Greek roots " (oxys)" (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and "-γενής (-genēs)" (producer, literally begetter), because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids.
Oxygen | Lavoisier's contribution
Lavoisier concluded, "La respiration est donc une combustion," That is, respiratory gas exchange is combustion, like that of burning a candle. Lavoisier was the first to conclude by experiment that the Law of Conservation of Mass applied to chemical change. His hypothesis was that the mass of the reactants would be the same as the mass of the products in a chemical reaction. He experimented on vinous fermentation, determining the amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon in sugar. Weighing a quantity of sugar, he added yeast and water in measured amounts, allowing the mixture to ferment. Lavoisier then measured the mass of the carbonic acid gas and water that were given off during fermentation and weighed the residual liquor, the components of which were then separated and analyzed to determine their elementary composition.
History of experiments | Antoine Lavoisier
Robert Durrer (1890–1978) was a Swiss engineer who developed the basic oxygen steelmaking process (the Linz-Donawitz process, named after the towns where the technology was commercialized). The process was successfully tested by Durrer in 1948. A team led by Dr Theodor Eduard Suess in Austria adapted the process and scaled it to industrial size, after which it was commercialized by VÖEST and ÖAMG.
Robert Durrer | Introduction
The determination of dissolved oxygen in a variety of aqueous environments, such as sea water, blood, sewage, effluents from chemical plants, and soils is of tremendous importance to industry, biomedical and environmental research, and clinical medicine. One of the most common and convenient methods for making such measurements is with the Clark oxygen sensor, which was patented by L.C. Clark, Jr. in 1956.
Voltammetry | The oxygen electrode
Oxygen evolution is the process of generating molecular oxygen (O) by a chemical reaction, usually from water. Oxygen evolution from water is effected by oxygenic photosynthesis, electrolysis of water, and thermal decomposition of various oxides. The biological process supports aerobic life. When relatively pure oxygen is required industrially, it is isolated by distillation of liquified air.
Oxygen evolution | Introduction
Ionel Rosental, he edited two special issues of the on “Active Oxygen Chemistry”. In the same year, the Chemical Rubber Company (CRC) published his four volume series on "Singlet Oformula_1".
Aryeh Frimer | Scientific Interests and Publications
He has also set forth an hypothesis to explain the way oxygen ions are propagated from the earth's surface into space.
Imad Barghouthi | Career
ABC transporters). To do this, his group uses X-ray crystallography. His interest in nitrogenase began in William Lipscomb's laboratory.
Douglas C. Rees | Introduction
He does not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argues in the preface how important such discoveries are to rational religion. His paper narrates the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements. Thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele both have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (not "dephlogisticated air").
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air | Discovery of oxygen
In 1834, Thilorier sent the French Academy of Sciences a letter in which he described experiments with liquid carbon dioxide, which had been produced by a new apparatus, by means of which " … he obtained, by chemical means, and in a few moments, a liter of liquefied carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide]." Thilorier's original apparatus for liquefying carbon dioxide used tanks made of cast iron. However, cast iron is brittle and so there was a danger that such a tank might rupture under pressure. The apparatus could be dangerous: On 30 December 1840, Osmin Hervy, who prepared scientific demonstrations for lectures at the School of Pharmacy in Paris, was operating one of Thilorier's machines when the gas-generating cylinder exploded.
Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier | Apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide
This led to many organisms adapting from fermentation to respiration, leading to organisms evolving photosynthesis and what is termed the Cambrian explosion of species. It has also been suggested that this increased oxygen level reduced the influence of Ultraviolet radiation. It is now well documented that oxygen level reached at least 10% of the present value 2.4 billion years ago (for details see Great Oxygenation Event).
Pasteur point | Introduction
The isotope was first hypothesized and subsequently imaged by Patrick Blackett in Rutherford's lab 1924: It was a product out of the first man-made transmutation of N and He conducted by Frederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford in 1917-1919. Its natural abundance in Earth's atmosphere was later detected in 1929 by Giauque and Johnson in absorption spectra.
Oxygen-17 | History
The enzyme, hydrogenase, he found was responsible for the reaction, which is normally a temporary emergency survival mechanism used in an oxygen-deprived environment. The enzyme stops functioning when oxygen is produced, however the deprivation of sulphur ensures continuous hydrogen production.
Anastasios Melis | Introduction
John Mayow FRS (1641–1679) was a chemist, physician, and physiologist who is remembered today for conducting early research into respiration and the nature of air. Mayow worked in a field that is sometimes called pneumatic chemistry.
John Mayow | Introduction
That proposal was formally adopted by the International Committee on Atomic Weights (ICAW) in 1903. That was approximately the mass of one hydrogen atom, but oxygen was more amenable to experimental determination. This suggestion was made before the discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which occurred in 1912. The same definition was adopted in 1909 the physicist Jean Perrin in his extensive experiments to determine the atomic masses and Avogadro's constant. This definition remained unchanged until 1961. Perrin also defined the "mole" as an amount of a compound that contained as many molecules as 32 grams of oxygen ().
Dalton (unit) | Origin of the concept
But they needed someone—an important, well-respected scientist—whose name they could attach to their financial venture, to research the material to find out whether or not it could be used in such a manner. They found Benjamin Silliman Jr., professor of chemistry at Yale.
Benjamin Silliman Jr. | Introduction
Myers had complete charge of the government rain producing experiments for years. Each ten foot diameter balloon was filled with one-third oxygen and two-thirds hydrogen. To do this, the empty balloon was spread out on the ground with plenty of room around it. It was then attached to a hose to start filling with oxygen gas. The other end of the hose went to a retort that was filled with chlorinate of potassium and a small amount of manganese oxide. The retort was heated to a high temperature through a gasoline burner. Oxygen gas, generated at 600 cubic feet per hour, went through a lime-water wash and from there to fill the balloon.
Carl Edgar Myers | Artificial rain
Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago (Ma). After the Great Oxygenation Event, quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials, notably dissolved iron. By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma, free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms. Following the subsequent appearance, rapid evolution and radiation of land plants, which covered much of the Earth's land surface, beginning about 450 Ma, oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous, when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations.
Paleoatmosphere | Introduction
She proposed, and demonstrated through experiment, that many oxidation reactions occur only in the presence of water, that they directly involve water, and that water is regenerated and is detectable at the end of the reaction. Further, she proposed "recognisably modern mechanisms" for those reactions, and may have been the first scientist to do so. The role of oxygen, as she describes it, differs significantly from other theories of the time. Based on her experiments, she disagreed with some of the conclusions of Antoine Lavoisier as well as with the phlogiston theorists that he critiqued. Her research could seen as a precursor to the work of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, however Fulhame focused specifically on water rather than heavy metals.
Elizabeth Fulhame | Work
In August 1774 he isolated an "air" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, however, Priestley managed to replicate the experiment for others, including French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered "vitriolic acid air" (sulphur dioxide, SO). In March he wrote to several people regarding the new "air" that he had discovered in August. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and a paper outlining the discovery, titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air", was published in the Society's journal "Philosophical Transactions".
Joseph Priestley | Discovery of oxygen
This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen. At current rates of primary production, today's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years. In the absence of plants, the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian, and the concentrations of O attained were less than 10% of today's and probably fluctuated greatly; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago. These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life, with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period, .
Geological history of oxygen | Introduction
This test proved it was oxygen, or, as Joseph Priestley had called it, 'de-phlogisticated air'. In 1932, Robert Emerson and his student, William Arnold, used a repetitive flash technique to precisely measure small quantities of oxygen evolved by chlorophyll in the algae "Chlorella". Their experiment proved the existence of a photosynthetic unit. Gaffron and Wohl later interpreted the experiment and realized that the light absorbed by the photosynthetic unit was transferred. This reaction occurs at the reaction center of photosystem II and takes place in cyanobacteria, algae and green plants.
Photosynthetic reaction centre | Oxygenic photosynthesis
Around 1620, in England, Cornelius Drebbel made an early oar-powered submarine. To re-oxygenate the air inside it, he likely generated oxygen by heating saltpetre (potassium nitrate) in a metal pan to emit oxygen. Heating turns the saltpetre into potassium oxide or hydroxide, which absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. That may explain why Drebbel's men were not affected by carbon dioxide build-up as much as would be expected. If so, he accidentally made a crude rebreather more than two centuries before Saint Simon Sicard's patent. The first basic rebreather based on carbon dioxide absorption was patented in France in 1808 by from Brest, a mechanic in Napoleon's Imperial Navy.
Rebreather | Early history
Fridovich received numerous awards and recognitions for his work, including membership in the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. According to Google Scholar, he has over 51,000 citations in the scientific literature, including 7 papers with >1000 citations, and an H-index of 97. His discovery of the superoxide dismutase reaction essentially started the field of oxygen free radicals in biology and medicine, and that influence is shown by his election as president of the American Society of Biological Chemists (for 1982–83), the Oxygen Society (1987–1990), and the Society for Free Radical Research (1992–94), as well as award of the Science & Humanity Prize at the 2000 Oxygen Club World Congress.
Irwin Fridovich | Awards and honors
Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1774 when he focused sunlight on a sample of mercuric oxide and collected the resulting gas. Carl Wilhelm Scheele had also created oxygen in 1771 by the same method, but Scheele did not publish his results until 1777. Tellurium was first discovered in 1783 by Franz Joseph Müller von Reichenstein. He discovered tellurium in a sample of what is now known as calaverite. Müller assumed at first that the sample was pure antimony, but tests he ran on the sample did not agree with this. Muller then guessed that the sample was bismuth sulfide, but tests confirmed that the sample was not that.
Chalcogen | Early discoveries
The history of the oxygenator, or artificial lung, dates back to 1885, with the first demonstration of a disc oxygenator, on which blood was exposed to the atmosphere on rotating discs by Von Frey and Gruber. These pioneers noted the dangers of blood streaming, foaming and clotting. In the 1920s and 30s, research into developing extracorporeal oxygenation continued. Working independently, Brukhonenko in the USSR and John Heysham Gibbon in the US demonstrated the feasibility of extracorporeal oxygenation. Brukhonenko used excised dog lungs, while Gibbon used a direct-contact drum-type oxygenator, perfusing cats for up to 25 minutes in the 1930s. Gibbon's pioneering work was rewarded in May 1953 with the first successful cardiopulmonary bypass operation.
Membrane oxygenator | History
One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and he published a paper in "Philosophical Transactions" titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air." Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air" and described it as "five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air." He had discovered oxygen gas (O). As revised for "Experiments and Observations", his paper begins: The contents of this section will furnish a very striking illustration of the truth of a remark which I have more than once made in my [natural] philosophical writings … that more is owing to what we call "chance"—that is, philosophically speaking, to the observations of "events rising from unknown causes" than to any proper "design" or preconceived "theory" in this business.
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air | Discovery of oxygen
Shortly after its initial presentation to the American College of Surgeons, this apparatus was reviewed by Walton Lillehei who with DeWall made the first practical heart lung machine that employed a bubble oxygenator. With variations such machines were used for the next twenty years."
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation | History
The use of carbon dioxide, both as a raw material at the interface between chemistry and energy, as well as a green solvent and transport medium for continuous chemical processes, accompanied his scientific career.
Walter Leitner | Research areas
Chemical oxygen generators consist of chemical compounds that release O upon some stimulation, usually heat. They are used in submarines and commercial aircraft, providing emergency oxygen. Oxygen is generated by high-temperature decomposition of sodium chlorate: Potassium permanganate also releases oxygen upon heating, but the yield is modest.
Oxygen evolution | Chemical oxygen generation
The breathing apparatus consisted of one of the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthpiece. With this new equipment being engineered and produced by 1794, the way was paved for clinical trials, which began in 1798 when Thomas Beddoes established the ""Pneumatic Institution for Relieving Diseases by Medical Airs"" in Hotwells (Bristol). In the basement of the building, a large-scale machine was producing the gases under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who was encouraged to experiment with new gases for patients to inhale. The first important work of Davy was examination of the nitrous oxide, and the publication of his results in the book: "Researches, Chemical and Philosophical (1800)".
Nitrous oxide | Early use
In the 1770s Ingenhousz became interested in gaseous exchanges of plants. He did this after meeting the scientist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) at his house in Birstall, West Yorkshire, on 23 May 1771. Priestley had found out that plants make and absorb gases. Ingenhousz' travelling party in northern England included Benjamin Franklin. They then stayed at the rectory in Thornhill, Yorkshire with the polymath and botanist Rev. John Michell. In 1779, Ingenhousz discovered that, in the presence of light, plants give off bubbles from their green parts while, in the shade, the bubbles eventually stop. He identified the gas as oxygen.
Jan Ingenhousz | Work with photosynthesis
2,429,474 Apparatus for Determining the Vapor Content of a Gas 2,494,304 Differential Boiler 2,537,276 Heat Exchanger (H.O.M. et al.) 2,553,550 Control for Oxygen Producing Apparatus - co-inventor Samuel C. Collins 2,607,572 Packed Column for Contacting Two Fluid Phases 2,620,573 Low-Pressure Product Drying 2,662,520 Preservation and Storage of Biological Materials 2,680,352 Apparatus and Method for Pumping Liquefied Gaseous Fluids 2,906,101 Fluid Expansion Refrigeration Method and Apparatus (H.O.M. & William E. Gifford) 2,938,356 Method and Means for Controlling Temperature Adjacent Living Bodies 2,958,836 Multiple-Characteristic Superconductive Wire 2,975,604 Method of Distribution of Condensable Gases 2,986,891 Low-Temperature Vessels 3,026,190 Elastomer Bonded Abrasives (H.O.M. & Paul C.
Howard O. McMahon | Patents
This method of welding and cutting metal later became common.
Oxygen | Later history
He did not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argued in the preface how important such discoveries were to rational religion. His paper narrated the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements; thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as both Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been the first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been the first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (that is, the first to explain oxygen without phlogiston theory).
Joseph Priestley | Discovery of oxygen
He thus demonstrated the role of water as active partner in slow oxidations and showed the intermediate character of hydrogen peroxide generation.
Moritz Traube | Biological oxidation
This was to be sprayed onto the crowds from a gas cylinder pressurised with nitrogen gas, as pyridine is highly flammable. A subsequent industrial accident caused the death of a gas company employee when the experimental contaminated medical oxygen cylinder was returned to the gas supplier and filled with oxygen which exploded.
Project Coast | Unusual features
He initially experimented with Grove's use of activated platinum gauze with a sulphuric acid electrolyte, but quickly moved on to use activated nickel electrodes with an aqueous potassium hydroxide electrolyte. In January 1940, he moved to a laboratory at King's College London and there developed a double cell, with one unit for generating the hydrogen and oxygen gases and the other for the fuel cell proper. This could be reversed so that it acted as both an electrolyser and a fuel cell. Problems were encountered due to the high operating temperatures and pressures and the corrosive nature of the chemicals.
Francis Thomas Bacon | Life and works
In 1924, by studying the magnetic properties of solutions of oxygen in liquid nitrogen, Lewis found that O molecules were formed. This was the first evidence for tetratomic oxygen.
Gilbert N. Lewis | O Tetraoxygen
His results were published in "Vegetable Staticks" (1727) He also noted that "air makes a very considerable part of the substance of vegetables". English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) is noted for his discovery of oxygen (as now called) and its production by plants. Later Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799) observed that only in sunlight do the green parts of plants absorb air and release oxygen, this being more rapid in bright sunlight while, at night, the air (CO) is released from all parts. His results were published in "Experiments upon vegetables" (1779) and with this the foundations for 20th century studies of carbon fixation were laid.
History of botany | Physiology
Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen. In this process, is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, and . The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1,700 °C. Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry. Ethylene is reacted with to create ethylene oxide, which, in turn, is converted into ethylene glycol; the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products, including antifreeze and polyester polymers (the precursors of many plastics and fabrics). Large quantities of oxygen or air is used in oxy-cracking process and for the production of acrylic acid, diformyl-furane, and benzylic acid.
Oxygen | Industrial
Although his wife had forbidden him to do so, Schönbein occasionally experimented at home in the kitchen. One day in 1845, when his wife was away, he spilled a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. After using his wife's cotton apron to mop it up, he hung the apron over the stove to dry, only to find that the cloth spontaneously ignited and burned so quickly that it seemed to disappear. Schönbein, in fact, had converted the cellulose of the apron, with the nitro groups (added from the nitric acid) serving as an internal source of oxygen; when heated, the cellulose was completely and suddenly oxidized.
Christian Friedrich Schönbein | Explosives
John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, leading to the conclusion that the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases.
Oxygen | Later history
Concurrently Chemrec initiated development of second generation pressurized oxygen-blown technology based on operating experience and new patents. A pilot plant using this technology is today in continuous use adjacent to Smurfit Kappa's plant in Piteå, Sweden.
Chemrec | History
Leland Clark (Professor of Chemistry, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, and Fels Research Institute, Yellow Springs, Ohio) had developed the first bubble oxygenator for use in cardiac surgery. However, when he came to publish his results, his article was refused by the editor since the oxygen tension in the blood coming out from the device could not be measured. This motivated Clark to develop the oxygen electrode. The electrode, when implanted in vivo, will reduce oxygen and thus required stirring in order to maintain an equilibrium with the environment. Severinghaus improved the design by adding a stirred cuvette in a thermostat.
Clark electrode | History
Dr. Ox's Experiment (, "A Fantasy of Doctor Ox") is a humorous science fiction short story by the French writer Jules Verne, published in 1872. It describes an experiment by one Dr. Ox, and is inspired by the real or alleged effects of oxygen on living things.
Dr. Ox's Experiment | Introduction
The partial pressure of oxygen was controlled by temperature, which was controlled by controlling the pressure at which liquid nitrogen was allowed to boil, which was controlled by an adjustable pressure relief valve. No control valves other than the nitrogen pressure relief valve were required. Low temperature was also used to freeze out up to 230 grams of carbon dioxide per hour from the loop, corresponding to an oxygen consumption of 2 litres per minute as carbon dioxide will freeze out of the gaseous state at -43.3 °C or below. If oxygen was consumed faster due to a high workload, a regular scrubber was needed.
Rebreather | Cryogenic rebreather
Holthusen (1921) first quantified the oxygen effect finding 2.5 to 3.0-fold less hatching eggs of the nematode Ascaris in oxygenated compared to anoxic conditions, which was incorrectly assigned to changes in cell division. However, two years later, Petry (1923) first attributed oxygen tension as affecting ionizing radiation effects on vegetable seeds. Later, the implications of the effects of oxygen on radiotherapy were discussed by Mottram (1936). A key observation limiting hypotheses to explain the biological mechanisms of the oxygen effect is that the gas nitric oxide is a radiosensitizer with similar effects to oxygen observed in tumour cells. Another important observation is that oxygen must be present at irradiation or within milliseconds afterward for the oxygen effect to take place.
Oxygen effect | Historical research on the oxygen effect
The English scientist Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1775. Shortly after its discovery, there were reports of toxic effects of hyperbaric oxygen on the central nervous system and lungs, which delayed therapeutic applications until 1937, when Behnke and Shaw first used it in the treatment of decompression sickness. In 1955 and 1956 Churchill-Davidson, in the UK, used hyperbaric oxygen to enhance the radiosensitivity of tumours, while , at the University of Amsterdam, successfully used it in cardiac surgery. In 1961 et al. published on the use of hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of clostridial gas gangrene.
Hyperbaric medicine | Hyperbaric oxygen
The findings conflicted with those of J. Willard Hershey, who said that in his experiments, laboratory rats had died under those conditions. The oxygen tent had been introduced in the 1920s, and Barach turned the device into a closed system by adding ice chunks for cooling and soda lime for the absorption of the patient's exhaled carbon dioxide. He also introduced portable oxygen systems for emphysema patients and authored the first modern report of supplemental oxygen use for patients hospitalized with pneumonia. In 1950, Barach was one of three contributors to the first set of minimum standards for training programs in inhalation therapy (later known as respiratory therapy).
Alvan Barach | Biography
For his doctoral work at M.I.T., McMahon worked in the laboratory of Samuel C. Collins, chemist and professor of mechanical engineering, who became McMahon's mentor. Prof. Collins brought in a very substantial grant from the National Defense Research Committee at the outset of World War II to work on a project to liquefy oxygen “for use on high-flying aircraft,” along with other defense-related work. After receiving his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 1941, McMahon continued at M.I.T. as a research associate, and joined Dr. Collins in working on the development of a small, portable oxygen machine for the Office for Scientific Research and Development, with funding from the Navy Department.
Howard O. McMahon | Biography
The center compartment held the source of heat, in this case the guinea pig or piece of burning charcoal. The middle compartment held a specific amount of ice for the heat source to melt. The outside compartment contained packed snow for insulation. Lavoisier then measured the quantity of carbon dioxide and the quantity of heat produced by confining a live guinea pig in this apparatus. Lavoisier also measured the heat and carbon dioxide produced when burning a piece of charcoal in the calorimeter. Using this data, he concluded that respiration was in fact a slow combustion process. He also discovered through precise measurements that these processes produced carbon dioxide and heat with the same constant of proportionality.
History of experiments | Antoine Lavoisier