Hualālai last erupted in 1801. A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929, lasting about a month. This caused $100,000 worth of damage to the Kona district ($1.2 million as of 2010), and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.5 and 6.5 were felt as far away as Honolulu. This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface, but there was no surface activity or eruption. The 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake, with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona, caused much damage in the area.
Recent activity
Hualālai
Hualālai | Recent activity
The epicenter was just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona. The shock was centered southwest of Puakō and north of Kailua-Kona southwest of Puakō and north of Kailua-Kona, Hawaii Southwest of Puakō and north of Kailua-Kona, Hawaii
when was the last time mauna loa volcano erupted
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March 24 to April 15, 1984.
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what is the main entity?
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It is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean.
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what is its weather like?
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It has a tropical climate with warm temperatures at lower elevations and cool to cold temperatures higher up year-round.
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who monitors this volcano?
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The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, a branch of the United States Geological Survey.
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who founded it ?
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Thomas A. Jaggar.
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where is it located?
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A temporary offices located in Hilo on the Island of Hawaii.
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mention few volcanoes it monitors?
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Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, Hualālai, and Haleakalā.
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name few dangers of the second?
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It is a sudden, massive collapse of the volcano's flanks,  large earthquakes could trigger rapid flank collapses along these lines, creating massive landslides and possibly triggering equally large tsunamis.
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any recent updates seen in the third?
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The 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake.
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where did this natural calamity occur?
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Hualālai last erupted in 1801. A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929, lasting about a month. This caused $100,000 worth of damage to the Kona district ($1.2 million as of 2010), and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.5 and 6.5 were felt as far away as Honolulu. This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface, but there was no surface activity or eruption. The 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake, with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona, caused much damage in the area.
Hualālai | Recent activity
In 2010, earthquake activity and noises from Huaynaputina alerted the local population and led to a volcanological investigation. As part of this investigation, seismic activity was recorded around the amphitheatre; analysis showed that seismic activity was concentrated around the amphitheatre with no recorded earthquakes within it and appeared to be associated mainly with the faults and lineaments in the region. The researchers recommended more extensive seismometer coverage of the area and regular sampling of fumaroles, as well as reconnaissance of georadar and self potential of the volcano.
Huaynaputina | Hazards and volcanological research
However, the provincial government made efforts to prevent the news from spreading and urged people not to panic. The 1970 earthquake destabilized a glacier and snowmass which surged rapidly downhill, becoming a mudflow as it accumulated large volumes of loose dirt, rock and surface water. The death toll was made worse due to the earthquake having occurred on a Sunday, as thousands more people had congregated in Yungay for market when the mudflow struck and leveled the city. The slide then entered the Río Santa and caused extensive damage as it flowed all the way downstream to the Pacific Ocean.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Introduction
Hualālai is the third most active volcano making up the island of Hawaii, behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa. Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1,000 years, Hualālai has done so but 3 times. The recurrence of activity at the volcano seems to be every 200 to 300 years. A recent calm period, with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai, has seen the growth of homes, businesses, and resorts on the mountain's flanks. The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929, when an intense earthquake swarm rocked Hualālai, most likely caused by magmatic action near the volcano's peak.
Hualālai | Eruption history
More than half of this is under 3,000 years old, and about 12% is less than 1,000 years of age. Between the years 1700 and 2016, eruptions originated from six vents; four of these lava flows poured into the sea to the west coast.
Hualālai | History
Between 11:39pm on January 13, 2020 and 5:50am the following day, the PHIVOLCS reported a total of 44 earthquakes in the towns of Calaca, Laurel, Lemery, Mataasnakahoy, San Luis, Taal and Talisay in Batangas, and Alfonso in Cavite; among the strongest were a magnitude in Taal, which was felt at an Intensity III in Tagaytay, and a magnitude originating northeast of Talisay at 2:05am, measuring an Intensity IV ("moderately strong") in Tagaytay and Intensity II in Malabon and Pasay. As a result of these constant earthquakes, numerous fissures or cracks appeared across different barangays in the Batangas towns of Agoncillo, Lemery, San Nicolas, and Talisay, the towns within the 14-kilometer radius danger zone of Taal.
2020 Taal Volcano eruption | Seismic activity
On May 29, seismicity rapidly increased, and the alert level was restored to Orange because ash fell into more than 20 nearby communities. Over the next few months ash fell frequently until earthquakes increased again in June. Because of the severity of these tremors, evacuations were ordered by the Emergency Committee of Caldas on news media for 300–1500 people near the volcano. The alert level was raised to Red, indicating an imminent major volcanic event, and an eruption in diameter took place on July 2, 2012, continuing intermittently until the end of August. Ash plumes and sulfur dioxide emissions recurred until January 2013.
Nevado del Ruiz | Recent activity
The Ka'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of mafic and ultramafic xenoliths that came up with it. The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of Kiholo Bay, destroying the village of Kaʻūpūlehu. This 1801 flow, known as the Huehue flow, formed Keahole Point where Kona International Airport is now located, north of Kailua-Kona. The eruption at Hualālai was concurrent with an eruption at the nearby Mauna Loa. It is theorized that, in the near past, Hualālai has had synchronous eruptions with both Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
Hualālai | 1800–1801 eruption
On February 13, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) and the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) have reported a total of 2,484 volcano tectonic earthquakes on the vicinity of the volcano since the eruption, 176 of which were felt. The strongest were a series of magnitude earthquakes originating northwest of Agoncillo, Batangas, which were recorded at least thrice: at 11:56pm on January 12, 3:11am on January 13, and 6:35am later that day. As a result, an Intensity III ("weak") on the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale was felt in Tagaytay and an Intensity II ("slightly felt") was felt in Malabon.
2020 Taal Volcano eruption | Seismic activity
Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past, Hualālai is still potentially active, and is expected to erupt again within the next 100 years.
Hualālai | Eruption history
The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen the consequences of such an event. The area near the volcano has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives, dating back to before recorded history. The coast west of Hualālai in particular had several royal complexes. The volcano is also important ecologically, is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit, and is a popular hiking attraction. Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts, some built on historic flows, and a National Historical Park.
Hualālai | Introduction
Much of the north side and a large part of the center of the city was destroyed in 1941 by floodwaters and avalanche debris because of a burst reservoir from Lake Palcacocha that was the city's municipal water supply. The reservoir dam was about east of the town and more than 200 meters elevation above it. The dam failed because of sudden overflow pressure from an avalanche of glacier ice probably caused by a localized tremor (earthquake). Within a few minutes the stream bed was filled with an avalanche of water, mud, boulders, and associated debris whose crest by the time it reached the city may have exceeded 15 meters height above the stream bed.
Huaraz | Contemporary times
Calabozos is in the South Volcanic Zone, which contains potentially deadly and active volcanoes such as Mount Hudson, Llaima, and Villarrica. Villarrica and Llaima together have more than 80 reported episodes of volcanism since 1558, and at least 40 South Volcanic Zone volcanoes have had Holocene-age eruptions. Its remoteness means that Calabozos poses little threat to humans, but if necessary relief efforts could be orchestrated. The Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP) formed in response to the famous eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia and saved lives following the 1991 eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile by organizing evacuations. The team's stated aim is to "reduce eruption-caused fatalities and economic losses in developing countries".
Calabozos | Threats and preparedness
On January 15, 2020, Cavite Governor Jonvic Remulla declared the province under a state of calamity. A state of calamity was declared in the whole Calabarzon region via "Proclamation No. 906" which was signed by President Rodrigo Duterte on February 21. The declaration is set to last for one year unless lifted. Interior Secretary Eduardo Año directed the governors, mayors and local chief executives of Central Luzon, the National Capital Region and Southern Tagalog to convene their disaster risk reduction and management councils and instantly activate their incident management teams, network operations centers and other disaster response teams. The Department of the Interior and Local Government tasked the Philippine National Police (PNP) to deploy their disaster incident management task forces, reactionary standby forces and search and rescue units to the affected areas, while the Bureau of Fire Protection were tasked to assist the PNP and local government units in the mandatory evacuation of affected residents.
2020 Taal Volcano eruption | Local response
The dam of the Cañon del Pato hydroelectric plant was also destroyed, although the power station itself was unharmed. At Huallanca below Cañon del Pato, the river reportedly dried up for an hour after the earthquake, due to its temporary blockage upstream, then abruptly rose from its bed. After the water receded "dozens of corpses, and vehicles and other manmade materials" were found deposited in the flood zone. Large sections of railroad and highway between Huallanca and Chimbote were either buried or washed away, cutting off access to the region.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Effects elsewhere
PHIVOLCS recorded 796 aftershocks as of noon of July 11, 2017. Ormoc and Kananga declared a state of calamity. Residents in Lake Danao and Tongonan barangays of Ormoc are to be evacuated due to those localities being situated directly on the path of the Philippine Fault line. On August 23, 2017, an aftershock of magnitude 5.1 occurred.
2017 Leyte earthquake | Aftermath
The post-collapse lava flows have been affected by glacial activity, indicating that eruptive activity ceased before the end of the last glacial stage; thus the volcano was largely constructed in pre-Holocene times. However, a long and wide lava flow extending from the youngest summit lava dome appears to post-date glaciation, and the dome itself is also unmodified. An uncertain report of an eruption on 3 December 1903 exists, as well as on 8 October 1927. Increased fumarolic activity was observed in 1854, 1888, 1889, and 1960. Substantial earthquake activity occurs at Ollagüe in a diffuse pattern around the volcano, sometimes in the form of seismic swarms.
Ollagüe | Recent activity and hazards
During her last two years in office, President Aquino's administration faced a series of natural disasters and calamities. Among these were the 1990 Luzon earthquake, which left around 1,600 people dead and the 1991 volcanic eruption of what was then thought to be a dormant Mount Pinatubo, which was the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, killing around 300 people and causing widespread long-term devastation of agricultural lands in Central Luzon. On 1 November 1991 Tropical Storm Thelma (also known as Typhoon Uring) caused massive flooding in Ormoc City, leaving around 5,000 dead in what was then considered to be the deadliest typhoon in Philippine history.
Corazon Aquino | Natural disasters and calamities
On July 10, 2002, the west wall of the crater collapsed, slowly releasing approximately of water and sediments into the Maraunot River in Botolan, Zambales. On July 26, 2011, a 5.9 magnitude earthquake struck close to Pinatubo; however, no major damages or casualties were reported.
Mount Pinatubo | Recent activity
The flanks of the volcano do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source. Since 1991, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) has maintained a seismic recording station east of Hualālai's summit to monitor the volcano. During this time, not a single earthquake swarm or harmonic tremor, indicative of activity at the volcano, has occurred. Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude-4 earthquakes per year, these are attributed to a deep source off the coast of the north-western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma.
Hualālai | Future monitoring
Within its duration of 45 seconds, virtually every structure of consequence in the city's center was destroyed. A few minutes later, the north half of the city, particularly in the creek valley, was obliterated by an avalanche of icy mud carrying boulders and other debris.
Huaraz | Contemporary times
Soon after the disaster, authorities supervised repair of Yungay's irrigation systems which had been destroyed by the mudflow. However, the year's agricultural output still fell far short of normal. Relief efforts were hindered by the damage to roads and bridges in rough terrain; "it took two or three days for supplies to reach the upper Santa valley by road from Lima airport." There was controversy over the distribution of aid, as urban dwellers felt they were not receiving enough compared to indigenous peasants. President Juan Velasco saw the disaster as "a unique opportunity" to carry out his populist agenda, which aimed to erase socioeconomic divides in rural provinces such as Yungay.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Relief efforts
In the time of Pinatubo’s eruptive phase in June 1991, most of the population reacted favorably to the evacuation orders due to the early preparation and coordination efforts the authorities on the field have demonstrated. However, there were still some Aetas that changed their minds and decided to return to the mountains seeking refuge in caves and spiritual comfort from their God. There were also others that refused to leave, having been convinced that the expected eruption would not be extreme enough to reach their homes, and having been scared at the thought of having to abandon their belongings and crops.
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council | Precautionary Measures After Sensing an Eruption
Due to Yungay's cultural and economic importance as the capital of Yungay Province, many survivors not only from Yungay but the surrounding villages resisted government efforts to resettle them elsewhere. Within a year of the disaster, some 2,000 survivors had clustered in the refugee camp known as "Yungay Norte", only a few hundred metres north of the destroyed city. Although this location was much safer from landslides than old Yungay, it was geographically constrained – "aid personnel speculated that if the capital of the province were relocated there, it would soon outgrow the safe area and spill over into dangerous zones." The national government created the "Comisión de Reconstrucción y Rehabilitación de la Zona Afectada" (CRYRZA) agency to oversee aid and reconstruction efforts in the areas affected by the Ancash earthquake.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Relief efforts
This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan-United States project to explore the volcano's flanks, utilizing the remotely operated vehicle ROV "Kaikō". Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water deep, and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes, the slump at Hualālai formed gradually.
Hualālai | Structural features
Much of the mud that initially buried the city drained away within a few days of the disaster, leaving a plain of larger rocks which remains today in much the same state.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Casualties and losses
The earthquake caused property damage, injuries, landslides, power outages, and airport delays and closures. Governor Linda Lingle issued a disaster declaration for the entire state.
2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake | Earthquake
Tephra and block-and-ash flows deposits from Holocene eruptions can be found within the amphitheatre, and some 7,000–1,000 year-old tephra layers close to Ubinas volcano have been attributed to activity at Huaynaputina. A debris avalanche deposit that crops out on the eastern side of the Río Tambo, opposite to the amphitheatre, may have been emplaced not long before the 1600 eruption. Three eruptions of the volcano have been dated to 9,700 ± 190, less than 7,480 ± 40 years ago and 5,750 years before present, respectively. The first two eruptions produced pumice falls and pyroclastic flows, the first event also depositing tephra in Laguna Salinas north of Huaynaputina and producing a block-and-ash flow to its south.
Huaynaputina | Holocene
The most recent eruption was in the period 1948 to 1953. During this period, Hibok-Hibok formed flank lava domes and produced pyroclastic flows that devastated coastal villages. The Camiguin Mindanao group is permanently monitored for volcanic and seismic activity.
Camiguin Mindanao | Volcanic Activity
Hualālai is expected to erupt again in the near future, as a 200- to 300-year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end. This presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it as well; for example, in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event, Kailua-Kona, which is from the volcano's summit, could be covered completely in a matter of hours. According to the USGS lava-flow hazard zones, on a scale of 1 to 9, all of Hualālai is listed as threat level 4. For comparison, almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3.
Hualālai | Future monitoring
During her last two years in office, President Aquino's administration faced series of natural disasters and calamities. Among these were the 1990 Luzon earthquake, which left around 1,600 people dead and the 1991 volcanic eruption of what was then thought to be a dormant Mount Pinatubo, which was the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, killing around 300 people and causing widespread long-term devastation of agricultural lands in Central Luzon. The worst loss of life occurred when Tropical Storm Thelma (also known as Typhoon Uring) caused massive flooding in Ormoc City in November 1991, leaving around 6,000 dead in what was considered to be the deadliest typhoon in Philippine history.
Presidency of Corazon Aquino | Natural disasters and calamities
The resulting debris-avalanche deposit covers an eighty km area to the northeast, although much of soils all around contain volcanic residues. The last known eruption occurred about 700 years ago, but there is still a possibility of it reactivating and should be monitored. The volcano is part of an ecological reserve as part of the Isidro Fabela State Park. On the road that leads up the volcano, there is a statue of the Virgin Mary. This road leads to a lookout point at the top, which allows for a view of about forty km in all directions. Visible from the valley floor are the radio and television transmission towers that are at the top.
Jocotitlán | Geography and environment
The town is located on a zone of land between the Andean plateau and the Brazilian shield. It is normally not seismically active but has a potential for earthquakes. The most recent seismic activity in the area occurred on the morning of January 23, 2010 when an earthquake of magnitude 5.3 occurred 10 miles southeast of the town. No injuries or damage were recorded in the town center.
Yapacaní | Natural events
A more recent example of the risks associated with slumps occurred in 1975, when the Hilina Slump suddenly lurched forward several meters, triggering a 7.2 earthquake and a tsunami that killed two campers at Halape.
Mauna Loa | Hazards
Telephone lines collapsed in O'Higgins Region. No infrastructural damage or casualties was reported. The aftershock was felt between the Valparaíso and Maule regions. The event reached Mercalli V intensity in Rancagua, Navidad, Talca, Curicó, amid other cities and towns.
2010 Pichilemu earthquake | Aftershocks
The 1970 Huascarán debris avalanche occurred on May 31, 1970 when a debris avalanche and mudflow triggered by the Ancash earthquake destroyed the Peruvian town of Yungay and ten nearby villages, leaving up to 18,000 people dead. It is the most deadly avalanche or glacier-related disaster in history, and the third or fourth most deadly landslide-related disaster of the 20th century, after the Haiyuan landslides (China), the Armero tragedy (Colombia) and by some estimates the Khait landslide (Tajikistan). The north peak of Huascarán from which the avalanche originated had been considered unstable since 1962, when a smaller collapse wiped out several villages of the Callejón de Huaylas valley near Yungay.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Introduction
The slopes of the volcano still contain fresh water springs, many of which run during the rainy season and when the snow melts off the volcano. Most of the municipality is deforested and the process continues due to lack of vigilance. Most wildlife has been exterminated except in the forested areas where some wildcats, deer and eagles can be found.
Calimaya | Environment
The eruption had a devastating impact on the region. Ash falls, pumice falls and pyroclastic flows incinerated everything within their path and buried the surroundings beneath more than of rocks, wiping out vegetation over a large area. Of the volcanic phenomena, the ash and pumice falls were the most destructive. Ash fall, debris flows and pyroclastic flows devastated an area of about around Huaynaputina, and both crops and livestock sustained severe damage. Between 11 and 17 villages within from the volcano were buried by the ash, among which were Calicanto and Chimpapampa south of Huaynaputina; the "Huayruro Project" that began in 2015 aims at rediscovering these towns.
Huaynaputina | Local impact
Bodies were found in the municipal seat and in smaller communities such as Salitre. 2,500 people lost everything in the disaster. President Calderón visited the disaster area and toured some of the attractions, both on the ground and by air. He was accompanied by Michoacan's governor Leonel Godoy to survey the damage. As an alternative to mining, Calderón suggested developing tourism in Angangueo as a Pueblo Mágico. However, residents demanded the assurance that the town would not disappear, and that jobs would be available. According to the director of the Forest Commission of Michoacan, Alejandro Méndez, deforestation from legal and illegal logging contributed to the landslides in 2010.
Angangueo | Environmental concerns
Due to the collapse of the 4-story Chuzon Supermarket, the Department of Interior and Local Government had to suspend all business permits of Chuzon Supermarket and its branches, as well as to conduct an investigation regarding the collapse of the 4-storey commercial establishment, which was built 4 years ago. There have been at least 421 aftershocks reported but only 8 were felt. in Central Luzon 5 dams were damaged and "needed immediate repairs", with an estimated cost of 20 million pesos, according to the National Irrigation Administration (NIA). PHIVOLCS stated that the volcano Mount Pinatubo, located near the earthquake's epicenter, has not shown any "anomalous activity".
2019 Luzon earthquake | Damage and effects
On January 13, 2020, the provincial board of Batangas declared the province under a state of calamity following the eruption, ordering the evacuation of residents within a radius of from the volcano. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs issued a situation report stating that an estimated number of 459,300 people are within the 14-kilometer danger zone; charity organization Save the Children estimated that 21,000 of those are children. According to the NDRRMC situational report for January 18, 2020, a total of 16,174 families or 70,413 individuals are taking shelter in 300 evacuation centers. These evacuation centers consist of over 140 schools across Batangas, Cavite and Laguna, according to the Department of Education (DepEd).
2020 Taal Volcano eruption | Local response
Geological formations in the park and the reserve are generally tertiary rocks of volcanic origin coupled with andesites and porphyrys. The cliffs of the San Pedro Peninsula depict eroded glacial features and the lakes also show many glacial effects.
Nahuel Huapi National Park | Geography
On Sunday, October 15, 2006, Kīholo Bay was struck by a 6.7 magnitude earthquake followed by a 6.0 magnitude earthquake seven minutes after the first. While no fatalities occurred due to the incident, over 60 residential buildings were red tagged by officials. The entire island suffered over $100 million worth of damage as a result of the earthquake.
Kiholo Bay | 2006 earthquake
Very similar to what happened after Ketsana, a state of calamity was declared in Luzon in order to undertake an emergency procedure in order to ensure safe and timely water releases from the dams. As several thousands of people still remained without power, Alfredo Panlilio, the Meralco senior vice president and head of customer retail services and corporate communications said that "These are mostly isolated circuits, or circuits which have been badly damaged, or the restoration of which is made more difficult by obstructions like debris." Unusually, most of the rainfall from the typhoon came long after its landfall, as it moved toward the South China Sea.
Typhoon Nesat (2011) | State of calamity
As of 11 February 17 people were reported dead and a further 285 injured. Of the reported fatalities, 9 were from People's Republic of China, 5 from Taiwan, 2 from Hong Kong of Canadian nationality, and 1 from the Philippines. 14 of them were in The Yun Men Tsui Ti building.
2018 Hualien earthquake | Casualties
This slide was not caused by an earthquake, nor were seven other large avalanches and debris flows that occurred in the Santa Valley between 1940–1970. Rather, the glacier had fractured under its own weight. Due to the steep slope of the underlying rock and lubrication by glacial melt, there was nothing to stop the ice from sliding downhill at high speed. In the wake of this and other glacier-related disasters in the Ancash region, notably glacial lake outburst floods that destroyed parts of Huaraz in the preceding two decades, the national government had tried to push forward "hazard zoning" which would limit development in flood and avalanche zones.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | 1962 Ranrahirca avalanche
Scientists flying over the volcano on March 8, 2012 noted fresh ash deposits on the east flank of the volcano near the crater, likely from an phreatic eruption on February 22. Later that day, a small ash plume erupted from the crater; by March 13, scientists detected ash deposits at the head of the Gualí River. After seismicity continued to increase, the alert level was raised to Orange, and in April Nevados National Natural Park authority closed the reserve, fearing lahars and ashfall hazards. The sudden activity peak in March did not culminate in a major eruption, and activity declined enough that the alert level was lowered to Yellow on May 3.
Nevado del Ruiz | Recent activity
Hualālai (pronounced in Hawaiian) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands. It is the westernmost, third-youngest and the third-most active of the five volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii, following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa. Its peak stands above sea level. Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300,000 years ago. Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801, and being unusually inactive for the last 2,000 years, Hualālai is still considered active, and is expected to erupt again some time within the next century.
Hualālai | Introduction
The Santa Valley has always experienced severe disasters. Beginning in 1702 when a glaciological flood is first recorded, the valley has repeatedly suffered deaths and destruction. In 1941, a flood destroyed one-third of Huaraz, killing 5,000 to 7,000 people. In 1962 and 1970, a massive avalanche of ice and rocks tumbled down from the western slopes of Huascarán and then roared down the river valley. The Santa River rose by eight metres and 3,000 to 4,000 people were killed in the catastrophe. Devastating landslides like these will always threaten the region, when falling glacial ice triggers sudden drainages of ice-dammed lakes in the mountainous region and liquid mud, blocks of ice and large rock boulders crash down the narrow valleys.
Santa River | Natural Hazards
In 2000, after a long period of quiescence, the volcano entered an eruptive phase that continues to this day (). The renewed activity in October 1999 produced major ashfall and led to the temporary evacuation of more than 25,000 inhabitants from Baños and the surrounding area Activity continued at a medium level until May 2006, when activity increased dramatically, culminating in violent eruptions on 14 July 2006 and 16 August 2006. The 16 August 2006 eruption has been the most violent since activity commenced in 1999. This eruption was accompanied by a high ash plume which spread over an area of , depositing ash and tephra to the southwest of the volcano.
Tungurahua | Recent volcanic activity
Kamakahonu, Holualoa Bay, and Keauhou Bay were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the westernization of Hawaii. It was here that Kamehameha I rested after his eight-year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles. His death in 1819 triggered social chaos. Mokuaikaua Church, built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral, still stands today. Hulihee Palace, where many of Hawaii's last kings spent their time, has been maintained as a museum since 1927. Today, the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts, since the rain shadow of the mountain causes many sunny days.
Hualālai | Human history
True fluctuations also occur, such as an advance of part of Quelccaya's southern margin reported in 1977 which bulldozed peat deposits, a pause of the Qori Kalis glacier between 1991-1993 probably linked with the global cooling caused by the Pinatubo eruption in 1991, a slow-down in the mid-2000s and an overall higher rate of retreat since 2000. The Qori Kalis outlet glacier has been observed since 1963, and between 1963 and 1978 retreated by about and between 1991 and 2005 by about . The retreat has been accompanied by a thinning and volume loss of the ice cap, increasing from between 1963-1978 over between 1978-1983 to between 1983–1991.
Quelccaya Ice Cap | Present retreat
A total of 96,061 people were affected and electricity was cut in seven municipalities and cities across Batangas and Cavite. The Talisay–Tagaytay Road in Calabarzon was temporarily closed because of the evacuation of the residents. Heavy ashfall reduced visibility to near zero in some parts of the Santa Rosa–Tagaytay Road. The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) also stated that there are 5,000 family food packs and sleeping kits on the way for distribution to the evacuation centers. The DSWD and the Department of Health (DOH) handed a combined total of (US$96,656) worth of assistance to the affected residents in Calabarzon.
2020 Taal Volcano eruption | Local response
Originating in 1820, Kīholo Bay was created as a man-made fishing pond for King Kamehameha the Great. The recreational area was bordered by rock walls 6 feet tall and 20 feet wide. These walls were destroyed in 1859 when an eruption from Mauna Loa, located 48 km away, caused the pond to be submerged in a flow of lava. The hardened lava from the eruption created the characteristic black pebble beaches of Kīholo Bay. The large stones that surround the tide pools are remnants of the walls built by Kamehameha. This historic area is now under government regulation and protection as the Kīholo State Park Reserve.
Kiholo Bay | History
Earlier, North Cotabato declared a state of calamity, and the provincial government's aid to the farmers suffering from the drought caused a protest and a clash with police in Kidapawan. The provinces of Iloilo, Guimaras, General Santos City, Isabela, Quirino, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Basilan, Bohol, and Cebu declared a state of calamity.
2014–16 El Niño event | Philippines
Lava domes and pyroclastic flows also originated within the collapse scar. Earthquakes and hydrothermal alteration probably caused the onset of the collapse event.
Hualca Hualca | Introduction
The northern wall of Mount Huascarán was destabilized, causing a rock, ice and snow avalanche and burying the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca. The avalanche started as a sliding mass of glacial ice and rock about wide and 1.6 km (1 mile) long. It advanced about to the village of Yungay at an average speed of 280 to 335 km per hour. The fast-moving mass picked up glacial deposits and by the time it reached Yungay, it is estimated to have consisted of about 80 million m³ of water, mud, rocks and snow.
1970 Ancash earthquake | Landslide
Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai. The Puu Waa Waa forest sanctuary was established in 1992 (along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian moist forest and dry forest biomes, and lies within a mile of the volcano's summit on its northwestern flank. Elevation differs from sea level near the coastal edge to near the summit. Median annual rainfall is about . Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region. The southern section of the reserve, closest to the summit, has been split into a bird sanctuary.
Hualālai | Ecology and environment
In 1962, two American scientists, David Bernays and Charles Sawyer, had reported seeing a massive vertical slab of rock being undermined by a glacier on mount Huascarán Norte, which threatened to fall and cause the obliteration of Yungay. According to Sawyer, when this was reported in the "Expreso" newspaper (27 September 1962), the government ordered them to retract or face prison, and they fled the country. Citizens were forcibly prevented from speaking of an impending disaster. Eight years later, the prediction came true. On May 31, 1970, the Ancash earthquake caused a substantial part of the north side of a mountain, Nevado Huascarán, to collapse and an unstable mass of glacial ice about 800 meters across at the top of Nevado Huascarán to fall.
Yungay, Peru | Ancash earthquake
Their fight, which took place over the center plains, shattered the mountain into smaller bodies and Mount Arayat lost its center peak. Other versions have it that Pinatubo's peak shattered because of Namalyari's immense fury in an attempt to teach humans the meaning of fear and show how misdeeds will be punished. According to the native elders, Apo Namalyari induced the June 1991 eruption because of displeasure toward illegal loggers and Philippine National Oil Company executives who performed deep exploratory drilling and well testing on the volcano looking for geothermal heat from 1988 to 1990. Discouraging results from the wells forced the abandonment of the prospect 13 months before the April 2, 1991 explosions.
Mount Pinatubo | History among Aetas
President Álvaro Colom declared a state of calamity in the region adjacent to the volcano, and the Ministry of Education closed the schools in the departments of Guatemala, Escuintla, and Sacatepequez. Heavy rainfall from Tropical Storm Agatha worsened the emergency situation, causing lahars, landslides and widespread flooding across the country. However, people working in coffee fields considered the rain brought by the storm to be helpful, removing ash from their trees.
Pacaya | May 2010 eruption
Ton-oc Falls in the barangay of Barral is also located within the watershed.
Calbayog Pan-as–Hayiban Protected Landscape | Description
Ninety-two people also survived by climbing an artificial hill at the town cemetery. These were the only structures in town that remained intact, along with "a statue of Jesus Christ with his arms outstretched, standing tall above the rubble" which remains today as a memorial to the dead. A photograph of four palm trees that once surrounded Yungay's main plaza, half buried in the mudflow but still standing, became symbolic of the disaster. The debris covered a total area of and reached depths of up to in the Ranrahirca area; in places the flow spread as wide as . Yungay town was buried under about of debris.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Casualties and losses
In 1999, a twenty-meter fissure opened after a period of rain. In 2007, a fault line opened in the ground for 800 meters from the municipal palace to Leandro Valle Schools, provoking several landslides and mandatory evacuations of over eighty families. About four tons of earth and debris moved as a result.
Pahuatlán | Climate
The first, Kona Village resort, was built in 1961. Since then the Four Seasons Resort and the Kūkio golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow. Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by the 2011 Sendai earthquake. The Hawaii Belt Road traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for Queen Kaahumanu.
Hualālai | Human history
Ibajay Bridge and Kalibo Bridge, which were the two of the biggest bridges in Panay, sustained damage (Bautista, M.L.P et al., 2011).
1948 Lady Caycay earthquake | Aklan Province
In late 2012 the mountain became quite active, spewing volcanic ash. In November 2012, and continuing into 2013, a 3 km exclusion zone was set up and residents living around the mountain were evacuated or moved to Maumere city on the main island of Flores. In the first 8 months of 2013 there was regular activity from the lava dome including repeated ash plumes – generally reaching altitudes of 2–3 km – dome collapses, explosions, avalanches and pyroclastic flows.
Paluweh | 2012–2013
On 31 May 1970, the Ancash earthquake caused a substantial part of the north side of the mountain to collapse in an avalanche with an estimated of ice, mud and rock, measured about . It advanced about at an average speed of , burying the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca under ice and rock, killing more than 20,000 people. At least 20,000 people were also killed in Huaraz, site of a 1941 avalanche (see Palcacocha Lake). Estimates suggest that the earthquake killed over 66,000 people. The final toll was 67,000 dead and 800,000 homeless, making this the worst earthquake-induced disaster in the Western Hemisphere.
Huascarán | 1970 earthquake
Known in the Philippines as Luis, PAGASA had issued some first Signal Warnings over Region II on September 13. PAGASA had also warned residents in regions of Luzon about landslides, thunderstorms and flash floods from the effects of Luis. Several rubber boats and medical aid supplies were prepared. As the storm was exiting the country, PAGASA reported that the province of Pangasinan was under the "state of calamity" due to flash floods, especially towns in Calasiao, Santa Barbara and even as far as Urdaneta. Meanwhile, the NDRRMC said that landslides had occurred in Cagayan Valley as of September 17. It was also reported that at least 200 houses had been destroyed while 600 were damaged.
Typhoon Kalmaegi (2014) | Philippines
According to Dr. Butch Rivera of Bicol Regional Training and Teaching Hospital, the hikers died due to trauma in their bodies, and suffocation. Authorities were also able to rescue a Thai national who was unable to walk due to fatigue and had suffered a broken arm and burns on the neck and back. Despite the eruption, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology stated that the alert level would remain at 0. No volcanic earthquake activity was detected in the 24 hours prior to the eruption, and no indication of further intensification of volcanic activity was observed. and no evacuation was being planned.
Mayon | 2013 phreatic eruption
An increase in seismic activity during February to April 2002 was followed by raising alert on the volcano. An ash eruption occurred on November 28, 2002.
Kanlaon | 2002
From 1989 to 1993, a long El Niño phenomenon which caused a severe drought in the archipelago. Droughts destroyed crops in farmlands and livestock led to a nationwide food shortage, dwindling water supplies also contribute a water shortage and electric blackouts left the national economy to a damage worth billions of pesos. Aquino declared the archipelago under a nationwide state of calamity because of the drought.
Presidency of Corazon Aquino | Natural disasters and calamities
It is likely that the development of the later Huaynaputina volcano within the composite volcano is coincidental, although a similar tectonic stress field controlled the younger vents. Recently emplaced, postglacial dacite bodies occur in the Huaynaputina area, some of which probably formed shortly before the 1600 eruption. Cerro Las Chilcas also predates the 1600 eruption and appears to be the earliest volcanic centre in the area. The Cerro El Volcán dome formed during the Quaternary and may be the remnant of a cluster of lava domes south of Huaynaputina.
Huaynaputina | Eruption history
The earthquake sequence triggered a large number of landslides and rockslides. Municipalities affected by landslides include Kidapawan City, Antipas, Arakan, Makilala, M'Lang and Tulunan in Cotabato province; Magsaysay, Bansalan, Malalag, Matanao and Kiblawan in Davao Del Sur. Three fatalities were caused by landslides triggered by the October 29 shock with a further six people reported missing. Two fatalities were caused by landslides triggered by the October 31 shock, with a further five people reported missing.
2019 Cotabato earthquakes | Landslides
The 2006 Kīholo Bay earthquake occurred on October 15 at with a magnitude of 6.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII ("Severe"). The shock was centered southwest of Puakō and north of Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, just offshore of the Kona Airport, at a depth of . It produced several aftershocks, including one that measured a magnitude of 6.1 seven minutes after the main shock. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center measured a nondestructive tsunami of on the coast of the Big Island.
2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake | Introduction
The Armed Forces of the Philippines coordinated with local governments and provincial disaster management units for updates on the situation and for damage assessments. The Department of Health placed the affected region into code red alert status. On October 16, the regional consular office of the Department of Foreign Affairs in Cebu suspended its operations in order to inspect for damage at its offices. All services will resume once public safety is ensured. Philippine President Benigno Aquino III visited the provinces of Cebu and Bohol on October 16, and assessed the damage caused by the quake. Minutes upon his arrival in Tagbilaran, Bohol, a 5.1 magnitude aftershock occurred.
2013 Bohol earthquake | Government response and aid
It also contains the Pan-as Falls and surrounding landscape which also supplies hydroelectric power to the city. The area was declared a forest reserve in 1967 known as the Pan-as Falls–Hayiban Watershed Forest Reserve with a total area of . In 1998, through Proclamation No. 1158 issued by President Fidel Ramos, the watershed was reclassified as a protected landscape. It is one of four protected areas in the island of Samar.
Calbayog Pan-as–Hayiban Protected Landscape | Introduction
More recent volcanic activity was phreatic and phreatomagmatic and formed the summit craters. The occurrence of recent volcanic activity and its location on the Olca-Paruma complex is unclear. An unconfirmed flank eruption occurred in 1865–1867 on Olca; it may have occurred on Volcan Paruma, however. Fumarolic activity has been ongoing for over sixty years, and may have spiked in November 1989 – March 1990 when seismic and fumarolic activity occurred at the volcano. During that instance, strong fumarolic activity was observed on 13November 1989 from Ujina, and seismic activity was reported in mid-March of the subsequent year. This fumarolic activity occurred in coincidence with earthquakes at Iquique on the coast.
Olca-Paruma | Eruption history
It occurred on 19 February and continued with a series of events into March. Witnessed by the people of the city of Arequipa, its impact in the region was severe, wiping out vegetation and burying the surroundings with of volcanic rock; it also damaged infrastructure and economic resources. The eruption had significant effects on Earth's climate, decreasing temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, causing floods, famines and cold waves in numerous places, and depositing several million tons of acid. The climate disruption caused social upheaval in many countries such as Russia and may have played a role in the onset of the Little Ice Age.
Huaynaputina | Introduction
A phreatic eruption was observed in 2005; whether it was related to the 2005 Tarapacá earthquake half a year earlier is unclear.
Isluga | Eruptive activity
As of January 2013, Seulawah Agam is showing signs of renewed activity. Localised seismicity has been recorded in the vicinity of the volcano.
Seulawah Agam | Introduction
The government evacuated tens of thousands of people; 48 hours later, the volcano erupted as predicted. It was Popocatépetl's largest eruption for a thousand years, yet no one was hurt.
Prediction of volcanic activity | Seismic case studies
By April 3, 1991, PHIVOLCS, after having concluded that the volcano was reawakening, decided to evacuate Aetas villages that were lying within a radius of 10 km around the summit. On May 13, 1991, a 5-level warning and evacuation system was constituted. This system included a concentric danger zone surrounding the volcano, continuously fixing four radii of evacuation from 10 to 40 kilometers between June 7 and 18, which mostly depended on the evolution of the threat. On the day of June 26, 1991, orders of evacuation were conveyed to local authorities or Coordination Councils (DCC). During those times, the entire zone located within the 10 km radius around the crater of Pinatubo has been decreed as permanent high risk sector by PHIVOLCS prohibiting all human occupation of the zone.
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council | Precautionary Measures After Sensing an Eruption
On the morning of August 16, 2006, the Tungurahua volcano exploded, in what appears to be the main event of an eruptive process that started in 1999. On August 17, the whole of Pelileo woke up covered with rocks and ashes. In all the parishes of the county it is reported that crops have been lost and farm animals are in danger.
Pelileo | Current events
Fissures erupted in the streets, causing traffic disruptions. Fissures were also observed along the roads between Pototan and Dingle and along the Santa Barbara railway. Fissures were also noted in the streets of Oton (Bautista, M.L.P et al., 2011). Ground disruptions described as “little canyons”, possibly the sandblows, were observed in Pototan, Cabatuan, Dingle, Passi and Calinog. A new, small brook appeared after huge cracks appeared at Tiring Landing Field (now the site of the Iloilo International Airport) in Cabatuan. In the city's Fort San Pedro, large fissures 4 metres wide by 10 metres long opened such that seawater was already visible (Bautista, M.L.P et al., 2011).
1948 Lady Caycay earthquake | Fissures
At 3:23 PM on Sunday, May 31, 1970 the Ancash earthquake (also known as the Great Peruvian earthquake) struck off the coast of Peru with a moment magnitude of 7.9. The shaking dislodged a slab of rock about wide from the western face of Huascarán's north peak, at an elevation of roughly . The rockfall occurred almost immediately after the shaking began, with witnesses comparing the sound to a gunshot or explosion. The fall triggered an "enormous dark cloud of dust" which rapidly blocked the view from below. The rock fell some vertically before landing on Glacier 511 and sliding nearly down its surface, accumulating a large volume of firn snow as it went.
1970 Huascarán debris avalanche | Earthquake and landslide
On July 19, 2007, a strong earthquake hit the town with magnitude 6 on Richter scale and damaged some properties. The partial assessment report of Hinunangan dated July 20, a copy of which was obtained by PIA through Gov. Mercado, placed the estimated cost of damage to properties at P1,650,000.00 broken down as P790,000 for government infrastructure and P860,000 from private infrastructure. Among the public properties destroyed were the water system - P 500,000; Das-ay Bridge railguard - P100,000; East Central School Concrete Fence - P80,000; Otama Elementary School - P50,000; Patong Elementary School - P40,000; and Tahusan Elementary School—P20,000.
Hinunangan | 2007 earthquake
The rock formations date to the beginning of the Cenozoic age. They were initially formed when volcanic activity deposited layers of hardened volcanic ash, or ignimbrite on the landscape, forming a plateau atop layers of sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate. Ignimbrite is a porous rock, so it is particularly vulnerable to erosion. Approximately 20,000 years ago, during the most recent ice age, the cycle of freezing, thawing, and re-freezing of snow on the plateau caused meltwater to filter into the cracks in the rock and enlarge them. Eventually, this resulted in large portions of the rock crumbling away, leaving the deeply eroded formations that now comprise the "Bosque de Rocas".
Huayllay National Sanctuary | Geology
Huaraz area residents who remembered the disaster of 1941 said in 1965 that the river itself was diverted by avalanche debris for some days until eroded away and carried downstream (northward), and there were boulders on the west bank that had come with the avalanche. On 31 May 1970 the same reservoir dam burst during the Ancash earthquake, which had a moment magnitude of 7.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). Down the creek valley, again came an avalanche, eerily similar to that of 1941. In the prior four years or so, the suburb had begun to again be redeveloped: numerous residences were built atop the 1941 avalanche deposit within the at-risk creek valley.
Huaraz | Contemporary times
At first it was not known whether this fault was formed during the earthquake or if it was just reactivated, however geologist José Cembrano from the University of Chile affirmed that "[the fault] corresponds to a long life fault, in a million years time, whose activity had not been detected before."
2010 Pichilemu earthquake | Geology
A landslide occurred in the Su-ao-Hualien highway.
1963 Su-ao earthquake | Effects
A total of ten landslides occurred in the state of Hidalgo as a result of heavy rainfall from Vicente and the nearby Willa. In the municipalities of Huasteca and Sierra, highway accesses were blocked by boulders and tree limbs. Two people were hospitalized due to a landslide in Zacualtipán. Seven people were evacuated after a house was buried in Calnali. Roads in Huehuetla and Tenango del Valle were impassable due to landslides. Landslides affected the Tlanchinol-Hueyapa state highway in Tepehuacán de Guerrero, the Pachuca-Huejutla highway in the Mineral del Chico municipality, and on the Mexico-Tampico federal highway. The rains also filled several dams and reservoirs in the state to over 90% of their capacity, however, there was no risk of failure as a result of active spillways.
Tropical Storm Vicente (2018) | Elsewhere
In July 1993, there were reports of earthquakes and alleged drying up of vegetation at the upper slopes and summit area of the volcano but volcanologists said the earthquakes were of tectonic in origin and there was no significant change in the volcanic activity. In February 2004, there were reports of grayish steam clouds hovering above the summit but volcanologists from PHIVOLCS said the seismic swarm was of tectonic origin and the steaming activity was only wispy to weak.
Babuyan Claro Volcano | Recent reported activity
Yucamane Chico and Calientes are of possibly pre-Pleistocene epoch age while Yucamane is younger. The activity of Calientes and Yucamane, however, overlapped in time, and both have generated lava flows which lie above moraines. Nazaparco was dated to 6.23 ± 0.1 million years ago, while dates of 540,000 ± 270,000 and 126,000 ± 3,000 before present on an older stage are reported for Caliente. Yucamane itself has lava flows dated at 380,000 ± 300,000, 23,000 ± 1,000 and 3,000 ± 2,000 years before present. Tephrochronology has shown the occurrence of an eruption 44,000 ± 2,130/2,910 years ago; another one occurred 36,450 ± 250 years ago and generated a lateral blast.
Yucamane | Eruptive history
On September 16, 2015, at 22:54:33 UTC (19:54:33 local time), a great earthquake of magnitude 8.3 hit the area, with an epicenter west of Illapel. The earthquake caused physical damage, the loss of human lives, forced the evacuation of one million people from the coast (some sources mistakenly claimed a million people evacuated from Santiago), and a tsunami warning was issued for parts of South America, Hawaii, California and French Polynesia. Copper prices spiked in early trading, on fears of supply disruption.
Illapel | Earthquake of September 16, 2015
By August 1, 2019, the whole province of Batanes has been placed under a state of calamity.
2019 Batanes earthquake | Response
The Surety Kohala Corporation assessed the structural integrity to their Kohala Ditch, which functioned as a tourist attraction for 10 years. Many roads and bridges collapsed or had deep cracks, and clean-up crews had to work for days to remove debris from the countless landslides. Many landmarks on the island were greatly affected. The Kalahikiola Congregational Church in Kohala was destroyed due to the collapse of the church's stone walls; the Hawi smoke stack, a relic of the old sugarcane trade, completely collapsed as well. The Hulihee Palace in Kailua Kona suffered extensive structural damage. Another popular tourist area, Kealakekua Bay, home of the white monument to Captain James Cook, was swept over by massive landslides that caused the entire bay and its surrounding areas to momentarily disappear in a thick cloud of brown dust.
2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake | Damage
In 1960, a teletsunami generated near the coast of Chile again devastated Hilo, resulting in 61 deaths. The earthquake responsible was the largest earthquake ever recorded, with a magnitude of 9.5 that caused waves tall in Hilo. A warning was issued in Hilo beforehand that correctly predicted the tsunami's arrival time, though it did not provide sufficient time for the majority of residents to evacuate. The tsunami also struck Japan killing 138 and the Philippines killing 32.
Teletsunami | 1960: Pacific Ocean
Iquitos is located in Region 3 of Systematic Regionalization Map of Peru, which means that the city has a low coefficient seismic value, although the 2011 Peru earthquake, which occurred southeast of Contamana, was felt in the city as a small and unexpected jolt.
Iquitos | Natural hazards
The glacier, lightened, rose before stabilizing in the water, and a large amount of trapped infill (subglacial and proglacial sediment) that was trapped under the glacier and had already been loosened by the earthquake was released as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide. The debris released was estimated by the study as being between 5 and 10 times the volume of the initial rockfall, a bulking ratio comparable with that of other events such as the September 2002 Kolka-Karmadon rock ice slide (estimated ratio between 5 and 10), the November 1987 Parraguirre landslide (est. ratio 2.5) and the May 1970 Huascarán landslide (est.
1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami | 2010 analysis