Containers have been used to smuggle contraband or stolen cars. The vast majority of containers are never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number of containers in use. In recent years there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or terrorist materials into a country undetected. The US government has advanced the Container Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or scanned, preferably at the port of departure.
Hazards
Containerization
Containerization | Hazards
Containers have been used to smuggle contraband or stolen cars. There have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or terrorist materials into a country. They have been used to smuggle contraband or stolen cars, transport terrorists or terrorist materials, etc. smuggling of contraband or stolen cars;  transportation of terrorists or terrorist materials into a country undetected.
what was ss christopher columbus?
user
An American excursion liner on the Great Lakes
assistant
where is this lake situated?
user
The upper mid-east region of North America
assistant
which religions are practiced in that continent?
user
Christianity, Atheism,  Buddhism
assistant
what are the symbols associated with the first religion?
user
The cross
assistant
are there emblems like that symbol?
user
Yes
assistant
what was its significance in pre christian era?
user
In the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial.
assistant
and what is its significance in christianity?
user
Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
assistant
does the lake mentioned above has any sea transport connection to any ocean?
user
Yes, the Great Lakes accessible to ocean-going vessels, shifts in shipping to wider ocean-going container ships
assistant
how does the last type of ship mentioned above carries cargo?
user
They carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization.
assistant
when did this technique originate?
user
The late 18th century
assistant
what are the hazards associated with the process?
user
After helping McLean create the successful design, Tantlinger convinced him to give the patented designs to industry; this began international standardization of shipping containers.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable. Containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat 'Starvationer' with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph (quarry) to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. In 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.
Containerization | Origin
The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.
Containerization | Origin
Although a number of companies were addressing this issue, the technique is generally considered to have originated in the Heavy Organic Chemicals Division of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), which was then a major British and international chemical company. The history has been described by Trevor Kletz who was the company's safety advisor from 1968 to 1982, from which the following is abstracted. In 1963 a team of 3 people met for 3 days a week for 4 months to study the design of a new phenol plant. They started with a technique called "critical examination" which asked for alternatives, but changed this to look for deviations.
Hazard and operability study | History
After the US Department of Defense standardized an cross section container in multiples of lengths for military use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes. In 1955, former trucking company owner Malcom McLean worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the modern intermodal container. The challenge was to design a shipping container that could efficiently be loaded onto ships and would hold securely on long sea voyages. The result was a tall by wide box in -long units constructed from thick corrugated steel. The design incorporated a twistlock mechanism atop each of the four corners, allowing the container to be easily secured and lifted using cranes.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
On 17 May 1917, Benjamin Franklin Fitch inaugurated exploitation of an experimental installation for transfer of the containers called demountable bodies based on his own design in Cincinnati, Ohio in US. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks. Prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems. In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the container system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon. The Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland.
Containerization | Twentieth century
In April 1951, at Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station, the Swiss Museum of Transport and "Bureau International des Containers" (BIC) held demonstrations of container systems, with the aim of selecting the best solution for Western Europe. Present were representatives from France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy and the United States. The system chosen for Western Europe was based on the Netherlands' system for consumer goods and waste transportation called "Laadkisten" (literally, "loading bins"), in use since 1934. This system used roller containers that were moved by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to a capacity of , and up to size.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
In the beginning of the 19th century the process of canning foods was mainly done by small canneries. These canneries were full of overlooked sanitation problems, such as poor hygiene and unsanitary work environments. Since the refrigerator did not exist and industrial canning standards were not set in place it was very common for contaminated cans to slip onto the grocery store shelves.
Canning | Potential hazards
containerization: the related sphere packing problem has been studied since the 17th century (Kepler conjecture)).
Cutting stock problem | Classification
By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. "Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where they were transferred to horse-drawn carts by crane." Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones.
Containerization | Origin
By the beginning of the eighteenth century, sizes for retail containers such as glass bottles had become standardized for their markets. In 1810, Frenchman Philippe de Girard came to London and used British merchant Peter Durand as an agent to patent his own idea for a process for making tin cans. The canning concept was based on experimental food preservation work in glass containers the year before by the French inventor Nicholas Appert. Durand did not pursue food canning, but, in 1812, sold his patent to two Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product, and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London.
Container | History
A number of considerations go into the design of modern containers:
Container | Modern characteristics
Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.
Food preservation | Modern industrial techniques
During the 1990s and thereafter several other varieties were developed including those listed below.
Particle method | History
Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers (also called shipping containers and ISO containers). The containers have standardized dimensions. They can be loaded and unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred from one mode of transport to another—container ships, rail transport flatcars, and semi-trailer trucks—without being opened. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes and special forklift trucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed or widely applied until after World War II, when it dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the post-war boom in international trade, and was a major element in globalization.
Containerization | Introduction
American containers at this time were not standardized, and these early containers were not yet stackable – neither in the U.S. nor Europe. In November 1932, the first container terminal in the world was opened by the Pennsylvania Rail Road Company in Enola, PA. The development of containerization was created in Europe and the US as a way to revitalize rail companies after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, in New York, which resulted in economic collapse and a drop in all modes of transport. In April 1951 at Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station, the Swiss Museum of Transport and the "Bureau International des Containers" (BIC) held demonstrations of container systems for representatives from a number of European countries, and from the United States.
Intermodal container | History
Queueing theory shall be introduced to the quantity and quality of equipment required.
Container port design process | Equipment
Containerization did away with the manual sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced many thousands of dock workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo. Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time and reduced losses from damage and theft. Containers can be made from a wide range of materials such as steel, fibre-reinforced polymer, aluminium or a combination of all.
Containerization | Introduction
In 1933 in Europe, under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce, The International Container Bureau (French: Bureau International des Conteneurs, BIC) was established. In June 1933, "Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal" (B.I.C.) decided about obligatory parameters for container use in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations: In April 1935 BIC established a second standard for European containers: In the 1950s, a new standardized steel Intermodal container based on specifications from the United States Department of Defense began to revolutionize freight transportation.
Intermodal freight transport | Containerization
Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory and taken to a port warehouse where they would be offloaded and stored awaiting the next vessel. When the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at several other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo. Delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination.
Containerization | Origin
Cranes were used in harbors starting in the Middle Ages (see crane: harbor usage and list of historical harbour cranes). Modern inter-modal containerization emerged in the mid-1950s from transport strategies developed in the Second World War and the Korean War, and the development of specialized cranes paralleled developments in containerization. The first container crane was built by Paceco (formerly the Pacific Coast Engineering Company) for Matson at the Encinal Terminal in Alameda, California in 1959 https://www.asme.org/wwwasmeorg/media/resourcefiles/aboutasme/who%20we%20are/engineering%20history/landmarks/85-paceco-container-crane.pdf
Container crane | History
Containers have been used to smuggle contraband or stolen cars. The vast majority of containers are never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number of containers in use. In recent years there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or terrorist materials into a country undetected. The US government has advanced the Container Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or scanned, preferably at the port of departure.
Containerization | Hazards
The decalcomania was applied over an already glazed surface and re-fired. The process began to be mechanized from the turn of the 20th century.
Decalcomania | Origins
Containers must allow venting of oxygen produced by decomposition over time, otherwise they may burst.
Sodium hypochlorite | Storage hazards
The concept of the IBC was patented in 1992 by inventor Olivier J. L. D'Hollander working for Dow Corning S.A. It was inspired by the patent of a "Fold up wire frame containing a plastic bottle", patented in 1990 by Dwight E. Nicols for Hoover Group, Inc.
Intermediate bulk container | History
This process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century.
Hydrogen peroxide | Discovery
Indeed, before the process was improved, one employee of the Experimental Station became ill with typhoid fever.
Pascalization | Late 1800s
However, damaged or retired containers may also be recycled in the form of shipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged. In the summer of 2010, a worldwide shortage of containers developed as shipping increased after the recession, while new container production had largely ceased.
Containerization | Empty containers
A preservation method using both pressure and another treatment (such as heat) to kill spores has not yet been reliably achieved. Such a technique would allow for wider use of pressure on food and other potential advancements in food preservation. Research into the effects of high pressures on microorganisms was largely focused on deep-sea organisms until the 1980s, when advancements in ceramic processing were made. This resulted in the production of machinery that allowed for processing foods at high pressures at a large scale, and generated some interest in the technique, especially in Japan. Although commercial products preserved by pascalization first emerged in 1990, the technology behind pascalization is still being perfected for widespread use.
Pascalization | Late 1900s–today
CONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements. The first major shipment of CONEXes, containing engineering supplies and spare parts, was made by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the Port of San Francisco, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952; shipment times were almost halved. By the time of the Vietnam War the majority of supplies and materials were shipped by CONEX. By 1965 the US military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967. making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
In a container with a porous barrier containing a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The gas leaving the container is slightly enriched in the lighter molecules, while the residual gas is slightly depleted. Simon's team conducted experiments with copper gauze as the barrier. Because uranium hexafluoride, the only known gas containing uranium, was both scarce and difficult to handle, a mixture of carbon dioxide and water vapour was used to test it. The result of this work was a report from Simon on the "Estimate of the Size of an Actual Separation Plant" in December 1940.
MAUD Committee | University of Oxford
The use of standardized steel and aluminum shipping containers began during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when commercial shipping operators and the US military started developing such units. During World War II, the US Army began experiments with containers to ship supplies to the front lines. Cargo was being delayed at ports due to the time required by break bulk loading and offloading of ships. In addition the supplies suffered from pilferage and in-transit damage. In 1948 the U.S. Army Transportation Corps developed the "Transporter", a rigid, corrugated steel container, able to carry . It was long, wide, and high, with double doors on one end, was mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.
Conex box | History
During the Korean War the Transporter was evaluated for handling sensitive military equipment and, proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft of material and damage to wooden crates convinced the army that steel containers were needed.
Containerization | World War II
Allowing for the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to approximately for , and for containers.
Containerization | ISO standard
Because of the relatively low pressure involved, many supercritical fluid methods can incorporate thermolabile materials. Modern techniques involve renewable, nonflammable and nontoxic chemicals.
Micronization | Modern techniques
The effects of containerization rapidly spread beyond the shipping industry. Containers were quickly adopted by trucking and rail transport industries for cargo transport not involving sea transport. Manufacturing also evolved to adapt to take advantage of containers. Companies that once sent small consignments began grouping them into containers. Many cargoes are now designed to fit precisely into containers. The reliability of containers also made just in time manufacturing possible as component suppliers could deliver specific components on regular fixed schedules.
Containerization | Effects
Atlantic coast, from North Carolina to New York. It soon became apparent that "trailerships", as they were called, would be inefficient because of the large waste in potential cargo space on board the vessel, known as broken stowage. The original concept was modified into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ships, hence the designation container ship or "box" ship. At the time, U.S. regulations would not allow a trucking company to own a shipping line. McLean secured a bank loan for $22 million and in January 1956 bought two World War II T-2 tankers, which he converted to carry containers on and under deck.
Malcom McLean | Containerization
This so-called Malaccamax size constrains a ship to dimensions of in length and wide. However, few initially foresaw the extent of the influence of containerization on the shipping industry. In the 1950s, Harvard University economist Benjamin Chinitz predicted that containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship its industrial goods more cheaply to the Southern United States than other areas, but he did not anticipate that containerization might make it cheaper to import such goods from abroad. Most economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shipping companies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with containerization, but did not predict that the process of containerization itself would have a more direct influence on the choice of producers and increase the total volume of trade.
Containerization | Twenty-first century
The material was stirred continually to eliminate defects, such as bubbles.
Cristallo | Process
This became the first post World War II European railway standard UIC 590, known as "pa-Behälter." It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark. With the popularization of the larger ISO containers, support for pa containers was phased out by the railways. In the 1970s they began to be widely used for transporting waste. In 1952 the US Army developed the Transporter into the CONtainer EXpress or "CONEX" box system. The size and capacity of the Conex were about the same as the Transporter, but the system was made "modular", by the addition of a smaller, half-size unit of long, wide and high.
Containerization | Mid-twentieth century
During the first 20 years of containerization, many container sizes and corner fittings were used; there were dozens of incompatible container systems in the United States alone. Among the biggest operators, the Matson Navigation Company had a fleet of containers, while Sea-Land Service, Inc used containers. The standard sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that now exist evolved out of a series of compromises among international shipping companies, European railroads, US railroads, and US trucking companies. Four important ISO (International Organization for Standardization) recommendations standardized containerization globally: Based on these standards, the first TEU container ship was the Japanese "" from shipowner NYK, who started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers.
Containerization | Toward standards
The process was much more complicated, and little used after about 1820.
Transfer printing | Process
Methods for transferring or distributing risk were practiced by Chinese and Babylonian traders as long ago as the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, respectively. Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessel's capsizing. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous Code of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BC, and practiced by early Mediterranean sailing merchants. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen, or lost at sea.
Insurance | Early methods
The National Labor Relations Board originally upheld the challenge, only to be reversed by the United States Supreme Court in two cases in the 1980s that found that the rules were lawful and did not violate federal labor law. Ironically, however, the Rules on Containers were subsequently eviscerated by the Federal Trade Commission, which found that the Rules were an impermissible restraint on trade.
International Longshoremen's Association | Containerization
The method was further refined within the company, under the name "operability studies", and became the third stage of its hazard analysis procedure (the first two being done at the conceptual and specification stages) when the first detailed design was produced. In 1974 a one-week safety course including this procedure was offered by the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) at Teesside Polytechnic. Coming shortly after the Flixborough disaster, the course was fully booked, as were ones in the next few years. In the same year the first paper in the open literature was also published. In 1977 the Chemical Industries Association published a guide.
Hazard and operability study | History
By 1813 they were producing their first tin canned goods for the Royal Navy.
Container | History
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) then issued standards based upon the U.S. Department of Defense standards between 1968 and 1970.
Intermodal freight transport | Containerization
As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle.
Containerization | Loss at sea
This method was originally developed in a pilot scale program which began in 1979 and is known as the Chemical Agent Munition Disposal System (CAMDS).
Destruction of chemical weapons | Incineration
The earliest documented design of pressure vessels was described in 1495 in the book by Leonardo da Vinci, the Codex Madrid I, in which containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift heavy weights underwater. However, vessels resembling those used today did not come about until the 1800s, when steam was generated in boilers helping to spur the industrial revolution. However, with poor material quality and manufacturing techniques along with improper knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there was a large number of damaging and often fatal explosions associated with these boilers and pressure vessels, with a death occurring on a nearly daily basis in the United States.
Pressure vessel | History
These traditional methods of dispensing were cheap, and did not protect the food products from open air environments which allowed the accelerated spoilage of food, and created the potential for outside contaminants to affect the food.
Bulk bins | Introduction
Either loading or unloading break bulk cargo on and off ships typically took several days. It was strenuous and somewhat dangerous work. Losses from damage and theft were high. The work was erratic and most longshoreman had a lot of unpaid idle time. Sorting and keeping track of break bulk cargo was also time-consuming, and holding it in warehouses tied up capital. Old style ports with warehouses were congested and many lacked efficient transportation infrastructure, adding to costs and delays in port. By handling freight in standardized containers in compartmentalized ships, either loading or unloading could typically be accomplished in one day.
Productivity-improving technologies | Containerization
Lack of manpower and educational commitments caused Kärkkäinen's attempts at reviving the project to fail. The final specifications were never published, and the last news entry on the project's SourceForge web page is dated September 6th, 2003.
Multimedia Container Format | History
This is done because the shape of their hull is usually incompatible with the previous method.
Jumboisation | Methods
Containerization started gaining prominence in 2014, with the introduction of Docker.
Virtualization | Containerization
This container, called a "bomb" by Spedding, was placed into a furnace. When heated to a temperature of , the contents of the container reacted violently, leaving a 35-gram ingot of pure uranium metal. The process was quickly scaled up; by October 1942 the "Ames Project" was producing metal at a rate of per week. The uranium tetrafluoride and magnesium were sealed in a refractory-lined reactor vessel, still referred to as a "bomb". The thermite reaction was initiated by furnace heating the assembly to ; the large difference in density between slag and metal allowed complete separation in the liquid state, yielding slag-free metal.
Ames process | History
There are several aspects, based on PIANC (1997), a designer needs to consider:
Container port design process | Waterside Access
During World War II, the Australian Army used containers to help more easily deal with various breaks of gauge in the railroads. These non-stackable containers were about the size of the later 20-foot ISO container and perhaps made mainly of wood. During the same time, the United States Army started to combine items of uniform size, lashing them onto a pallet, unitizing cargo to speed the loading and unloading of transport ships. In 1947 the Transportation Corps developed the "Transporter", a rigid, corrugated steel container with a carrying capacity, for shipping household goods of officers in the field. It was long, , and " high, with double doors on one end, mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.
Containerization | World War II
In the United States, containerization and other advances in shipping were impeded by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which was created in 1887 to keep railroads from using monopolist pricing and rate discrimination but fell victim to regulatory capture. By the 1960s, ICC approval was required before any shipper could carry different items in the same vehicle or change rates. The fully integrated systems in the United States today became possible only after the ICC's regulatory oversight was cut back (and abolished in 1995); trucking and rail were deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.
Containerization | Toward standards
A similar technique was used in "Container Learn", a 2001 project for Tower Hamlets College, providing twelve extra classrooms on a site with limited space and completed in the time between terms.
Container City | Introduction
This step was proposed by Hans Dockhorn and Anneke Treep.
CFOP method | History
The key technique was to row a small boat next to a large ship and transfer pieces of paper through a hoisted pale between the vessels. This technique advanced to a powered tugboat moving at the same speed as the large ship and more mail could then be transferred between them. This developed out further in the twentieth-first century by specially designed supply boats to be able to transfer not only mail, but packages and supplies between the moving vessels.
John Ward Westcott | Introduction
The Container Revolution is the introduction of pottery into the Eastern Woodlands of North America during the Archaic period. As these societies became more sedentary, they were able to manufacture and use vessels that would have broken during transportation. Pots allowed for more efficient processing of wild seeds, which created less work for people when the pots were made waterproof. More-efficient seed collection systems and the deliberate manipulation of the native plants, in turn led to the domestication of several plant species. This is just one of many cultural developments that began during this time.
Container Revolution | Introduction
Another technique involves the consecutive spraying of the molten metal onto a chemical vapor deposition surface. However, the layers do not fuse together as desired and this causes oxides to be contained in the structure and pores to form around the structure. Manufacturing companies take an interest in the resultant products because of their near-net shaping capabilities.
Splat quenching | Procedure
By 1835, a lieutenant reported to the Chief of Engineers that steamboat travel had become much safer, but by the mid-1840s the appropriations for snag removal dried up and snags re-accumulated until after the Civil War.
Snag (ecology) | Maritime hazard
JACADS workers utilized incineration to destroy the chemical agents at Johnston Atoll. After workers loaded the weapons onto a conveyor, automated equipment would take over the process. The equipment removed the explosive component of the weapon and drained the chemical agent. The explosive and chemical agent were then incinerated at high temperature. The metal weapons casings were then thermally decontaminated and scrapped.
Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System | Disposal method
The HAZOP technique is qualitative, and aims to stimulate the imagination of participants to identify potential hazards and operability problems. Structure and direction are given to the review process by applying standardised guide-word prompts to the review of each node. The relevant international standard calls for team members to display 'intuition and good judgement' and for the meetings to be held in 'a climate of positive thinking and frank discussion'. The HAZOP technique was initially developed in the 1960s to analyze major chemical process systems but has since been extended to other areas, including mining operations and other types of process systems and other complex systems such as nuclear power plant operation and software development.
Hazard and operability study | Introduction
Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%. In 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers. In 2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125 million TEU or 1.19 billion tonnes worth of cargo. The first ships designed to carry standardized load units were used in the late 18th century in England. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat "Starvationer" with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal.
Container ship | History
Containers were stacked on top of each other during shipping, and the upper layers crushed those below, resulting in fuel flowing freely in the bilges, with the resulting poisoning and fire risks.
Flimsy | Introduction
Containerization allowed tremendous cost saving versus break bulk cargo, where each piece of cargo had to be loaded and unloaded individually. Malcom McLean, who founded the pioneer container line Sea-Land Service in 1956, conceived the concept of containerization while sitting in his truck at the port waiting for a ship to be unloaded. Simply put, his idea was to separate the truck's "box" from its chassis and wheels and load the entire "box" with its cargo inside onto the ship, thus speeding up loading and unloading of ships. It would also dramatically increase ship productivity by reducing ship idle time, and reduce damage and pilferage of cargo at the same time.
Seatrain Lines | Containerization
By the 1830s, railways across several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. "Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a truck, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where they were transferred to horse-drawn carts by crane." Early versions of standardized containers were used in Europe before World War II. Construction of these containers had a steel frame with wooden walls, floor, roof and doors. The first international standard for containers was established by the Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal (B.I.C.) in 1933, and a second one in 1935, primarily for transport between European countries.
Intermodal container | History
Henry Brown, an American inventor, patented a "receptacle for storing and preserving papers" on November 2, 1886. This was a fire and accident safe container made of forged metal, which could be sealed with a lock. It was special in that it kept the papers separated.
Filing cabinet | Horizontal file
Benjamin Eisenstadt invented a machine that produced the modern sugar packet after a failed endeavor to package and sell tea bags, later packaging other items, including sauces.
Packet (container) | History
The machines would make markings and indentations on the blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process. One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour productivity due to the less labour-intensive requirements of managing the machinery. Richard Beamish, assistant to Brunel's son and engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, wrote: So that ten men, by the aid of this machinery, can accomplish with uniformity, celerity and ease, what formerly required the uncertain labour of one hundred and ten. By 1808, annual production from the 45 machines had reached 130,000 blocks and some of the equipment was still in operation as late as the mid-twentieth century.
Mass production | Industrial
The method is applied to complex 'processes' for which sufficient design information is available, and not likely to change significantly. This range of data should be explicitly identified and taken as the ‘design intent’ basis for the HAZOP study. For example, a prudent designer will have allowed for foreseeable variations within the process creating a larger design envelope than just the basic requirements and the HAZOP will be looking at ways in which this might not be sufficient. For processes plant, the nodes are chosen so that for each a meaningful "design intent" can be specified and they are commonly indicated on piping and instrumentation diagram (P&IDs) and process flow diagram (PFD).
Hazard and operability study | Method
The notion of finalization as a separate step in object destruction dates to , by analogy with the earlier distinction of initialization in object construction in . Literature prior to this point used "destruction" for this process, not distinguishing finalization and deallocation, and programming languages dating to this period, like C++ and Perl, use the term "destruction". The terms "finalize" and "finalization" are also used in the influential book "Design Patterns" (1994). The introduction of Java in 1995 contained codice_1 methods, which popularized the term and associated it with garbage collection, and languages from this point generally make this distinction and use the term "finalization", particularly in the context of garbage collection.
Finalizer | History
Hennessy and Patterson coined the term "hazard" for situations where instructions in a pipeline would produce wrong answers.
Classic RISC pipeline | Hazards
Bail closures on bottles were invented by Henry William Putnam in 1859. These involved heavy wire bail attached to a bottle's neck that swung over the cork to hold it in.
Closure (container) | History
All were manual and most involved messy fluids.
Photostat machine | Background
Many materials exist in an impure form, purification, or separation provides a usable product.
Industrial processes | Separation
The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers had begun operation in 1926 for the regular connection of the luxury passenger train between London and Paris, the Golden Arrow/Fleche d'Or. Four containers were used for the conveyance of passengers' baggage. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to the ports of Dover or Calais. The next step was in Europe was after the Second World War. Vessels purpose-built to carry containers were used between UK and Netherlands and also in Denmark in 1951. In the United States, ships began carrying containers in 1951, between Seattle, Washington and Alaska.
Containerization | Purpose-built ships
Natural conditions are classified as whether the area selected is developed or natural. Natural condition determines whether there will be existing utilities and constraint for future terminal development.
Container port design process | Natural conditions
Containerization greatly reduced the expense of international trade and increased its speed, especially of consumer goods and commodities. It also dramatically changed the character of port cities worldwide. Prior to highly mechanized container transfers, crews of 20–22 longshoremen would pack individual cargoes into the hold of a ship. After containerization, large crews of longshoremen were no longer necessary at port facilities, and the profession changed drastically. Meanwhile, the port facilities needed to support containerization changed. One effect was the decline of some ports and the rise of others. At the Port of San Francisco, the former piers used for loading and unloading were no longer required, but there was little room to build the vast holding lots needed for container transport.
Containerization | Effects
Paraffin impregnation was introduced in 1925, and the embedding of organs in plastic was developed in the 1960s.
Plastination | Related preservation methods
Commingled Containers is an experimental short film by Stan Brakhage, produced in 1997.
Commingled Containers | Introduction
Structural materials and methods have changed, but in principle, the basic design concept has been the same for centuries. Today's cargoes, however, have shifted to a greater number of toxic substances. That has added the health concern of toxicity to the existing safety concerns of fire and explosion, not just during a voyage, but even when a vessel is in a shipyard for routine maintenance and repair. In 1963, the National Fire Protection Association National Fire Protection Association assumed jurisdiction over the Marine Chemist program. The NFPA continues to oversee the profession which is based on the NFPA Standard 306: Standard for Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels.
Marine chemist | Introduction
Once "C" is well inside the container, almost all of the electric field lines from "C" strike the container surface. The result (proved below) is that the total charge induced on the inside of the container is equal to the charge on "C". In Procedure 5, when "C" is touched to the container's inner wall, all the charge on "C" flows out and neutralizes the induced charge, leaving both the inner wall and "C" uncharged. The container is left with the charge on its outside. The net effect is that all the charge that was previously on "C" is now on the outside of the container.
Faraday's ice pail experiment | Explanation
Container port design process is a set of correlated practices considered during container port design, aiming to transfer general business mission into detailed design documents for future construction and operation. The design process involves both conceptual design and detailed design.
Container port design process | Introduction
Several articles, categories, and lists cover the topic of reusable containers:
Reusable container | Introduction
This ongoing modernisation of trade began with the invention of shipping containers in the mid-twentieth century, which largely solved the issue of reliability and safety in international trade and also greatly reduced the cost of loading and transportation.
Trade Finance Technology (TradeTech) | Origins
The hazard is insufficiently covered in NFPA 12 and it may constitute a hazard for seagoing general cargo vessels where fire protection for cargo holds employs pressurized storage of liquefied carbon dioxide.
1954 Bitburg explosion | Relevance
In 1834, Thilorier sent the French Academy of Sciences a letter in which he described experiments with liquid carbon dioxide, which had been produced by a new apparatus, by means of which " … he obtained, by chemical means, and in a few moments, a liter of liquefied carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide]." Thilorier's original apparatus for liquefying carbon dioxide used tanks made of cast iron. However, cast iron is brittle and so there was a danger that such a tank might rupture under pressure. The apparatus could be dangerous: On 30 December 1840, Osmin Hervy, who prepared scientific demonstrations for lectures at the School of Pharmacy in Paris, was operating one of Thilorier's machines when the gas-generating cylinder exploded.
Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier | Apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide
By observing the characteristic gamma rays emitted by this isotope, one can determine whether the contents of a given sealed container were made before or after the first atomic bomb explosion (Trinity test, 16 July 1945), which spread some of it into the atmosphere, quickly distributing trace amounts of it around the globe. This procedure has been used by researchers to check the authenticity of certain rare wines, most notably the purported "Jefferson bottles". Surface soils and sediments are also dated by measuring the activity of Cs.
Caesium-137 | Fukushima Daiichi disaster
Once the source and severity of the situation had been confirmed, a need was recognized to improve standard practice for the safety of lab personnel and to bring laboratories into adherence with public safety protocol such as those outlined by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) or the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Environmental regulations regarding waste containers were at this time becoming more rigorously enforced than previously, making the situation urgent. After researching available options, it became clear that no solution existed to the problem of effectively containing chemical waste evaporation aside from re-capping original waste containers after each use.
Eco funnel | Origin
American Patents Development Corp. (APDC) held a patent for a dry ice transport enclosure (shipping container), in which a smaller container of dry ice was surrounded by a freezable material (such as ice cream) being refrigerated; this arrangement was contrary to the usual packaging practice of surrounding the material being refrigerated with regular ice. The patent was not on dry ice itself, which was well known as a refrigerant, nor on the container itself, but on the combination of the container and dry ice and the freezable material. A typical claim of the patent provided: 6. A transportation package consisting of a protective casing of insulating material having packed therein a quantity of frozen carbon dioxide in an insulating container and a quantity of freezable product in freezing proximity to said frozen carbon dioxide and the gas evaporated therefrom, arranged so that said frozen carbon dioxide is less accessible for exterior heat than said freezable products.
Carbice Corp. v. American Patents Development Corp. | Background
Early pottery and ceramic containers often had lids that fit reasonably snug onto the body of the container. The narrow necks of ancient amphora were closed with a plug of cork, wood, or ceramic and sealed with mortar. Wooden Barrels often had bungholes closed by cork or wood bungs. Some early tinplate cans were made with threaded necks for screw top closures. Beverage bottles started using the Hutter Stopper in 1893. This involved a porcelain plug fitted with a rubber washer, which was then forced down into the lip of the bottle. This technique only works with carbonated beverages. The Hutter Stopper became standard in beer bottling in the late 1890s / early 1900s.
Closure (container) | History
By the 1950s, fluidized bed technology was being applied to mineral and metallurgical processes such as drying, calcining, and sulfide roasting.
Fluidization | Applications
When the original line developed a leak, a worker originally replaced it with new line and with new connections. Later the line, which was too long and created a tripping hazard, was shortened, but in the process the worker replaced the new end connector with the old fitting. The line was rated to , while normal operating pressure never fluctuated higher than . When the line with a customized connector was brought up to normal operating pressure, it separated from the connector at between . Hydraulic fluid spattered onto the heating lines for the cooker and immediately vaporized. This vapor then went directly into the flame of the gas-fired cooker.
Hamlet chicken processing plant fire | Investigation
Up to this time the term HAZOP had not been used in formal publications. The first to do this was Kletz in 1983, with what were essentially the course notes (revised and updated) from the IChemE courses. By this time, hazard and operability studies had become an expected part of chemical engineering degree courses in the UK.
Hazard and operability study | History
Barrows' innovations did not move forward in history without some controversy or challenges. Some doubts arose in the mid-1970s concerning document conservation practices. These criticisms were being directed at the Barrow process of lamination and deacidification. The doubts appeared in a summary in the "American Archivist", April, 1976. The criticisms were stating that the Barrow lamination process had some harmful effects caused by heat. Frazer G. Poole, the assistant Director for Preservation for the Library of Congress authored the article. Upon further investigation by The Preservation for the Library of Congress into the allegations, they found Poole's report to be lacking in hard scientific data because the report consisted of broad observations, undocumented generalizations, and inferential statements.
William Barrow (chemist) | Critical reputation