Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia or Ioannis Philippi Ingrassiae (1510–1580) was an Italian physician, student of Vesalius, professor at the University of Naples, "Protomedicus" of Sicily and a major figure in the history of medicine and human anatomy.
Introduction
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | Introduction
Italian physician and professor at the University of Naples A physician and a professor at the University of Naples. He  was an Italian physician, student of Vesalius, professor at the University of Naples, "Protomedicus" of Sicily and a major figure in the history of medicine and human anatomy He was an Italian physician, student of Vesalius, professor at the University of Naples, "Protomedicus" of Sicily and a major figure in the history of medicine and human anatomy.
what are the 3 smallest bones in the human body
user
Strapes is one of them
assistant
what is the size of this above bone?
user
Roughly 3 x 2.5mm
assistant
which part of the body is this located?
user
Middle ear of humans
assistant
besides the human, is this bony structure present in other living species in the animal kingdom?
user
It is one of three ossicles in mammals, in non-mammalian four-legged animals its homologous form is called the columella
assistant
what are the functions this bony structure serves?
user
It transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear.
assistant
are there any variations of this bony structure?
user
It appears to be relatively constant in size in different ethnic groups
assistant
can this bony structure get affected or impaired?
user
Yes, its impairment causes conductive hearing loss
assistant
is there any remedy to solve this?
user
Two common treatments are stapedectomy and stapedotomy
assistant
how is the first treatment that you mentioned - carried out?
user
It is the surgical removal of the stapes and replacement with an artificial prosthesis
assistant
what are some of the complications involved?
user
Causes fibrosis-related damage to the base of the bone, or obliterative otosclerosis, resulting in obliteration of the base.
assistant
what does the term otosclerosis mean?
user
A condition where one or more foci of irregularly laid spongy bone replace part of normally dense enchondral layer of bony otic capsule in the bony labyrinth.
assistant
what is the main difference between the treatment we discussed versus stapedotomy?
user
In the former the Stapes is replaced by artificial prosthesis whereas in the latter an artificial prosthesis is inserted by making a small hole in the base of the stapes
assistant
with reference to the tiny bone discussed earlier, when does the development of it begin?
user
From the second pharyngeal arch during the sixth to eighth week of embryological life.
assistant
is there any intellect who first observed and discussed this tiny bony structure?
user
Yes, Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia although there is some controversy regarding it
assistant
what is the profession of this mentioned person?
user
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia or Ioannis Philippi Ingrassiae (1510–1580) was an Italian physician, student of Vesalius, professor at the University of Naples, "Protomedicus" of Sicily and a major figure in the history of medicine and human anatomy.
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | Introduction
Ingrassia was born in Regalbuto, Sicily. His family was well-educated and Ingrassia received a classical education that included the study of Latin and Greek. From 1532 to 1537 he attended the University of Padua studying under the famous anatomist Vesalius and leaving with a degree in medicine. He then worked as personal physician to nobleman near Palermo.
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | Early life and education
The stapes is commonly described as having been discovered by the professor Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia in 1546 at the University of Naples, although this remains the nature of some controversy, as Ingrassia's description was published posthumously in his 1603 anatomical commentary '. Spanish anatomist Pedro Jimeno is first to have been credited with a published description, in ' (1549). The bone is so-named because of its resemblance to a stirrup (), an example of a late Latin word, probably created in mediaeval times from "to stand" (), as stirrups did not exist in the early Latin-speaking world.
Stapes | History
In 1544 he became professor of anatomy and medicine at the University of Naples. He conducted dissection studies and recorded his findings in the book "In Galeni librum de ossibus doctissima et expectatissima commentaria", a critical commentary on Galen's "De Ossibus" that was published posthumously in 1603. He gave the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid and the ethmoid bone as well as several other bones of the head, and has the merit of first describing (1546) the third ear bone, the stapes. His work "De tumoribus praeter naturam" (1553) contains what is probably the first description of scarlet fever: he reported on a disease of children different from measles that caused a red rash all over the body, however he didn't mention the common symptom of a sore throat.
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | University of Naples
The book also contains a detailed study of the penis and the mechanism of its erection. In addition, it contains a description of 163 different types of tumors.
Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | University of Naples
The generic name honours Mr. Giuseppe Alberto Arisi, who found the material. The specific epithet refers to the relatively simpler morphology of the marginal dentition than in other Permian caseids.
Arisierpeton | Etymology
The skeletal structure of "G. longirostris" has been documented, especially the forelimbs by Ryosuke Motani in 1998 and the skull by Ryosuke Motani in 2000 . These studies involved modern documentation and research of previously discovered specimens.
Grippia | Biology
He however considered human thought to be different.
Filippo Bottazzi | Introduction
He was not the first, as Alexandre de Cassini and others of the 19th century split species based on fine distinctions of microstructure, a tendency which Bentham found excessive.
Synantherology | Introduction
Unlike his predecessors, Mondino focuses specifically on anatomical descriptions rather than engaging in a larger discourse on pathology and surgery in general. "Anathomia" opens with the assertion that human beings are superior to all other creatures because of their intellect, reasoning ability, tool-making abilities, and upright stature; because he possesses these noble qualities, man is worthy to be studied. Mondino goes on to describe the organs in the order in which they present themselves during the dissection process. Dissection began with the opening of the abdominal cavity via vertical incision running from the stomach to the pectoral muscles and a horizontal cut above the navel.
Mondino de Luzzi | Contributions to anatomy
Martin Ezcurra's 2016 analysis of archosauromorphs provided an alternative diagnosis for Suchia. Ezcurra found that "Koilamasuchus" was a member of the group, but also argued that Suchia excluded "Nundasuchus". As a result, his diagnosis for Suchia depended primarily on several traits visible in "Koilamasuchus," which was known from significantly less fossil material than most other Suchia. These traits are the presence of large, well-rimmed pits on either side of the dorsal (back) vertebrae, a humerus (upper arm bone) which has a symmetrical proximal portion when seen from the front, and a preacetabular process (front blade) of the ilium (upper hip bone) which has a moderate length, longer than it is high, but not longer than the pubic peduncle.
Suchia | Ezcurra (2016)'s synapomorphies
In former times people born with malformed skulls were rejected based upon their appearance. This still persists today in various parts of the world even though the intellectual development is often normal. The Austrian physician Franz Joseph Gall presented the science of phrenology in the early 19th century through his work "The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular". Hippocrates described trigonocephaly as follows: "Men's heads are by no means all like to one another, nor are the sutures of the head of all men constructed in the same form. Thus, whoever has a prominence in the anterior part of the head (by prominence is meant the round protuberant part of the bone which projects beyond the rest of it), in him the sutures of the head take the form of the Greek letter 'tau', τ".
Trigonocephaly | History
In “The Tabulae Anatomicae (Pictae) by Fabricius ab Aquapendente” (1909) Sterzi could ascertain that Fabricius incorporated into these drawings findings obtained by his former dissectors Giulio Casseri and Giulio Cesare Sala. In the monograph “Giulio Casseri (Casserius; 1552–1616) Anatomist and Surgeon” (1910), Sterzi gives a report of the biography and achievements of this anatomist, and of the teaching of Anatomy in the Padua Medical School. The works of Casserius (De Vocis Auditusque Organis, Pentaestheseion, Tabulae Anatomicae), who started as house servant of Fabricius and then became dissector and eventually the first Professor of Surgery in Padova, is described and documented in detail, as well as the long quarrel that later developed between him and his former master, Fabricius.
Giuseppe Sterzi | Medical historian
Through the study of the lightly differentiated castings of the portions of the brain, it was assumed that D. Patagonica was a terrestrial reptile due to the level of development of the olfactory sensory bulb within the casted brain.
Dinilysia | Theories of Origin
Giovanni Domenico Santorini (June 6, 1681 – May 7, 1737) was an Italian anatomist. He was a native of Venice, earning his medical doctorate at Pisa in 1701. He is remembered for conducting anatomical dissections of the human body. From 1705 until 1728, Santorini performed anatomical demonstrations in Venice. His best written work was the 1724 publication of "Observationes anatomicae", a detailed work involving anatomical aspects of the human body. He is credited for providing descriptions of several anatomical structures, including the following:
Giovanni Domenico Santorini | Introduction
He examined the writings of surgeon Michele Troja who noted the regeneration of bone tissue at site. In 1852 he was able to prevent necrosis to the lower jaw of a patient by the removal of tissue using specially designed surgical instruments. When he retired from work, he was reduced to poverty after being involved in a legal case after a brother died in debt.
Bernardino Larghi | Introduction
He made the discovery during the dissection of a cadaver, which he described in an article called ""Su un nervoso gangliare rigonfiamento alla pianta del piede"" (On the neural ganglion swelling on the sole of the foot).
Filippo Civinini | Introduction
Special attention is now giving to epigraphical and grammatical sources of "De Orthographia": in the theoretical section, at the beginning of the treatise, Tortelli handed down some grammatical fragments ascribable to Pliny the Elder’s "Dubius sermo" and to Papiriano, both of which are sources in Prisciano’s "De litteris". Tortelli attributed the existence of other fragments also to a Greek grammarian called Partenio. Under the item "Archimedes" one can found one of the first witness of the new humanistic translation of the Archimedean corpus, made by Iacopo da San Cassiano in the first half of the 15th century.
Giovanni Tortelli | Biography
Filippo Civinini (20 September 1805 – 11 May 1844) was an Italian anatomist from Pistoia. He is remembered for contributions made in the field of osteology, in particular the cranium. He studied medicine in Pistoia and Pisa, where in 1825 he earned his degree. In 1834 he was appointed anatomical dissector, and two years later attained the chair of anatomy at the University of Pisa. He composed the first catalogue on the collections of anatomy at the Museum of Pisa. In 1835 Civinini provided the first description of a neuroma that causes a painful foot condition known today as Morton's metatarsalgia.
Filippo Civinini | Introduction
In 1764, he resigned his professorship, but continued to give clinical lectures at the hospital. In the same year, he published "An Account of the Inoculation of Small-pox in Scotland."
Alexander Monro (primus) | "The Anatomy of the Human Bones"
He was the first to describe a handful of anatomical structures that now contain his name, including:
Emil Huschke | Introduction
Giorgio Baglivi (; ; September 8, 1668 – June 15, 1707), born and sometimes anglicized as was an Armenio-Italian physician and scientist. He made important contributions to clinical education, based on his own medical practice. His "De Fibra Motrice" advanced the "solidist" theory that the solid parts of organs are more crucial to their good functioning than their fluids, against the traditional belief in four humors. Baglivi, however, advocated against doctors relying on any general theory rather than careful observation. He was "a distinguished physiological researcher fascinated by the nerves, his microscopic studies enabled him to distinguish between smooth and striated muscles and distinct kinds of fibres."
Giorgio Baglivi | Introduction
Angelo Ruffini (Pretare of Arquata del Tronto; 1864–1929) was an Italian histologist and embryologist. He studied medicine at the University of Bologna, where beginning in 1894 he taught classes in histology. In 1903 he attained the chair of embryology at the University of Siena. He was the first to describe small encapsulated nerve endings (mechanoreceptors) which were to become known as Ruffini corpuscles. He used a gold chloride stain on his microscope slides in order for to view the tiny corpuscles.
Angelo Ruffini | Introduction
Therapsid remains are also known from the assemblage.
Jiyuanitectum | Introduction
Martin's Church. Among his notable discoveries, he is known as the first anatomist to describe the two tympanal bones of the ear, termed malleus and incus. In 1503 he showed that the tarsus (middle part of the foot) consists of seven bones, he rediscovered the fornix and the infundibulum of the brain. He also described the ducts of the submaxillary salivary glands.
Alessandro Achillini | Biography
The fossil shows many details of these, even the internal structure of some muscle and bone cells. Cristiano Dal Sasso also described "Saltriovenator", considered as the earliest known Ceratosauria and largest Early Jurassic theropod, discovered in 1996 in a quarry in Saltrio, in northern Italy.
Cristiano Dal Sasso | Biography
He did not understand the inferior recesses; and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth and the fifth as the seventh. Before Vesalius, the anatomical notes by Alessandro Achillini demonstrate a detailed description of the human body and compares what he has found during his dissections to what others like Galen and Avicenna have found and notes their similarities and differences. Niccolò Massa was an Italian anatomist who wrote an early anatomy text "Anatomiae Libri Introductorius" in 1536, described the cerebrospinal fluid and was the author of several medical works.
Scientific Revolution | Biology and medicine
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), a Flemish anatomist, was at first a "Galenist" at the University of Paris. When he moved to Italy and entered the University of Padua, he began dissecting human bodies. He studied many details of human anatomy and found that Galen made some anatomical mistakes. For example, Galen wrote that the sternum has seven segments, but Vesalius found it has three segments. Galen wrote that the bone of the arm is the longest bone in the human body, but Vesalius found that the bone of the thigh is actually the longest bone in human body. At age 25 Vesalius realized that the anatomical knowledge of Galen was derived from animal anatomy and therefore Galen had never dissected a human body.
Moulage | History
The reputation of the young "Privatdozent" of Göttingen had reached the ear of Johann von Goethe (1749–1832), and in 1807 Oken was invited to fill the office of Extraordinary Professor of the Medical Sciences at the University of Jena. He selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his ideas on the "Signification of the Bones of the Skull," based on a discovery of the previous year. This lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as privy councillor and rector of the university, and was published in the same year, with the title, "Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen". With regard to the origin of the idea, Oken narrates in his "Isis" that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Harz forest, he stumbled on the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the partially dislocated bones, and contemplated them for a while, when it suddenly occurred to him, "It is a vertebral column!" At a meeting of the German naturalists held at Jena some years afterwards, Professor Kieser gave an account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand duke, which is printed in the "Tageblatt", or "proceedings,” of that meeting.
Lorenz Oken | University of Jena
The 19th century discussion first focused on the question of how the anthropological findings had to be reconciled with characteristics of "Homo sapiens". Already Johann Carl Fuhlrott had noticed the unusual massiveness of the bones, the highly trained bumps, ridges and ledges that supported the attachment of vigorously trained muscles. One of the humerus had, according to his observation a healed injury. William King also referred to the unusual thickness of the skeletal bones, agreeing with Schaaffhausen, who had also evaluated the strongly rounded shape of the ribs and thus a quite unusual thorax for a human. King mainly concentrated on the construction of the preserved skull bones.
Neanderthal 1 | Anthropological analysis
In the 1860s he began compiling what was to become the "Iconographie Général des Ophidiens", an extensive illustrated collection of scientific papers relating to snakes, but he died before it was completed. The work was eventually finished and published in several parts by Sordelli.
Giorgio Jan | Biography
He came from San Severino, near Macerata, Italy, and was a contemporary of Andreas Vesalius, with whom he shares the reputation of having created the science of human anatomy. He is known as a supporter of Galen and extended the knowledge of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the tube that bears his name. He is the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus and the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea. He is the first who studied accurately the anatomy of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and second dentition.
Bartolomeo Eustachi | Biography
It consists of an almost complete articulated skeleton, compressed on a single plate.
Yangavis | Introduction
He studied them closely from 1833 on, and first discussed them in 1835 at the "Società medico-fisica" in Florence, but did not publish his research (""Nuovi organi scoperti nel corpo umano"") until 1840. Within just a few years, the work was widely known in Europe and the bodies had become known as Pacinian corpuscles.
Filippo Pacini | Introduction
Traditional scholars objected to the mixing of mathematics with the established forms of scholarly speculation and argument. Coresio described this approach as one which was 'full of radical change, and represented all things in the universe under different faces'.
Giorgio Coresio | Introduction
At the end of 1726, Monro published his only major textbook "The Anatomy of the Human Bones," which went through eight editions in his lifetime and a further three after his death. Later editions included a description of "The Anatomy of the Human Nerves". It was translated into most European languages and in 1759 a French folio edition was published in Paris with elegant engravings by Joseph Sue, Professor of Anatomy to the Royal Schools of Surgery and to the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris. Thomas Thomson wrote that the book "may be considered as the completion on the subject, since it would be exceedingly difficult and perfectly unnecessary to introduce any improvements upon the descriptions which Dr Monro has given." The great reputation attained by Monro's work did much to increase the fame of the new school of medicine on Edinburgh.
Alexander Monro (primus) | "The Anatomy of the Human Bones"
There is some doubt as to the discoverers of the auditory ossicles and several anatomists from the early 16th century have the discovery attributed to them with the two earliest being Alessandro Achillini and Jacopo Berengario da Carpi. Several sources, including Eustachi and Casseri, attribute the discovery of the malleus and incus to the anatomist and philosopher Achillini. The first written description of the malleus and incus was by Berengario da Carpi in his "Commentaria super anatomia Mundini" (1521), although he only briefly described two bones and noted their theoretical association with the transmission of sound. Niccolo Massa's "Liber introductorius anatomiae" described the same bones in slightly more detail and likened them both to little hammers.
Ossicles | History
He has been working since 1991 for the Milan Natural History Museum where he is the curator of fossil reptiles and birds. He was the technical coordinator of the excavations of Besano, which brought to light the complete skeleton of a Middle Triassic marine reptile of the order of Ichthyosaurs, the "Besanosaurus" with embryos in the belly, published in 1996 along with Giovanni Pinna. He studied "Scipionyx", the first dinosaur found in Italy at Pietraroja, whose description appeared in Nature in 1998. This small theropod dinosaur, nicknamed "Ciro", generated much publicity because of the unique preservation of large areas of petrified soft tissue and internal organs such as muscles and intestines.
Cristiano Dal Sasso | Biography
Giorgio Coresio (1570-1659?) from the Greek (then Ottoman) island of Chios was a lecturer in Greek at the University of Pisa from 1609-1615. He was obliged to resign his chair either because it was discovered that he secretly professed the Greek Orthodox faith, or because of his mental illness - he is said to have had daily visions of saints. Coresio was one of the group described scornfully by Galileo as the 'Pigeon League' of Aristotelian philosophers, associated with Lodovico delle Colombe. Galileo argued for an approach which he described as 'pluming the wings [i.e. of natural philosophy] with the feathers of mathematics, without which it is impossible to rise even an arm's measure above the earth'.
Giorgio Coresio | Introduction
For example, the basipterygoid processes (a pair of plates at the bottom of the braincase which connect to the roof of the mouth) were short, blade-like, and tilted forwards. In addition, the exoccipitals (a pair of braincase bones adjacent to the foramen magnum, the main exit for the spinal cord) were wide and edged by a pronounced ridge next to the exit holes for the hypoglossal nerve. Bonaparte (1975) additionally described squamosal and quadrate bones similar to those of "Euparkeria" attached to PVL 3872's braincase, although these were not mentioned by later studies.
Marasuchus | Skull
In 1946 his position in Athens ended, but in the academic year 1948-1949 he was called back as honorary director. In October 1949 he published his dissertation on fellowship with the title "On the formation of the neural mesh of man" and went to Thessaloniki, where he took up a position as teacher in Anatomy. In March 1950 he was elected Professor of Anatomy at the Medical School of the Aristotle University; the election was cancelled in May, and he was elected to the position of temporary Professor of Anatomy in May 1951. During 1953, he worked in Stockholm, on a scholarship from the World Health Organization, on the microscopic anatomy of the central nervous system.
Alexander Savvas | Biography
Writing in the journal La Nature, de Lapouge describes the bones in detail: "I think it unnecessary to note that these bones are undeniably human, despite their enormous size... The first is the middle part of the shaft of a femur, 14 cm length, almost cylindrical in shape, and the circumference of the bone is 16 cm... The second piece is the middle and upper part of the shaft of a tibia... The circumference is 13 cm at the nutrient foramen... the length of fragment is 26 cm... The third, very singular, was regarded by good anatomists as the lower part of a humerus...
Giant of Castelnau | Discovery
Giovanni Antonio Galli (1708–1782) was a physician who pioneered the teaching of obstetrics in Bologna using three-dimensional models. Giovanni Antonio Galli was born in 1708. He was appointed a Professor in the School of Surgery of the University of Bologna. Galli opened a school on obstetrics in his house. He encouraged Anna Morandi Manzolini, wife and assistant of the wax anatomical modeler Giovanni Manzolini, to give private lectures on anatomy. She had learned from her husband and from her own experience in dissection, and gained a European reputation. Anna Morandi was widowed in 1755. Soon after, she was appointed Professor of Anatomy at the Academy of Sciences of Bologna Institute.
Giovanni Antonio Galli | Introduction
He was born in Mondolfo in the Duchy of Urbino and died in Rome, where he practiced surgery in the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia and San Giacomo degli Incurabili. In 1672, he published his noted "Anatomia Chirurgica", a textbook for surgeons which went through a number of editions. A year after his death was published the beautiful "Anatomia per Uso et Intelligenza del Disegno", which consisted of renderings of his anatomical preparations by the artist Charles Errard (1606–1689), director of the Accademia, and most likely engraved by François Andriot (died 1704). Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654–1720), the Papal physician, edited the work and provided much of the commentary.
Bernardino Genga | Introduction
He designed and constructed tools for his patients, and for surgeries. He was amateur-drawer, a sculptor, a patron of art and a conservative, royalist politician. Camper published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical methods. These laid the foundation of all subsequent work.
Petrus Camper | Introduction
When Vesalius lectured on the human skeleton, he also had to present the bones of animals to give credibility to Galen's observations.
De humani corporis fabrica | Book 1: The Bones and Cartilages
In 1972, Romer described the specimens his team had discovered in the journal "Breviora". He named a new genus for the specimens, "Gracilisuchus", with the prefix "Gracili-" referring to "the obviously graceful build of the little reptile". Furthermore, he placed them in the type and only species "G. stipanicicorum", which honors the work of Pedro and Maria Stipanicic in the stratigraphy and paleobotany of the Triassic period. In this paper, Romer also provided a skeletal reconstruction of "Gracilisuchus", due to his impression that nearly the entire skeleton was available. However, several elements had been erroneously referred by him. The lack of complete knowledge regarding its anatomy hampered subsequent studies of "Gracilisuchus", until papers from Lecuona, Desojo, and Diego Pol in 2011 and 2017 redescribed its remains.
Gracilisuchus | Additional specimens and description
He was the first to describe the loreal pits of the Crotalinae. Tyson however did not recognize its heat-sensing function, thinking it was a hearing organ.
Edward Tyson | Anatomical research
A much more detailed description of the first two ossicles followed in Andreas Vesalius' "De humani corporis fabrica" in which he devoted a chapter to them. Vesalius was the first to compare the second element of the ossicles to an anvil although he offered the molar as an alternative comparison for its shape. The first published description of the stapes came in Pedro Jimeno's "Dialogus de re medica" (1549) although it had been previously described in public lectures by Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia at the University of Naples as early as 1546. The term "ossicle" derives from , a diminutive of "bone" (; genitive ).
Ossicles | History
Varolio described many of the brain's structures for the first time including the pons or "pons Varolii" which is a reflex center of respiration and a communication bridge between spinal cord and brain, the "crura cerebri" and the ileocecal valve. Another area of interest to him was the mechanism of erectile function. Although the “Musculi erectores penis” (i.e. Mm. bulbospongiosi and ischicavernosi) had already been described by Galen in the 2nd century A.D., this knowledge was lost by the time of Varolio, who re-discovered them and gave a surprisingly accurate description of the mechanism of erection although his inaccurate attribution of erection to "erector muscles" continued to be believed by most anatomists for three centuries.
Costanzo Varolio | Introduction
Giovanni Battista Monteggia (1762 – 1815) was an Italian surgeon. The Monteggia fracture is named after him.
Giovanni Battista Monteggia | Introduction
Sterzi illustrates the comparative anatomy of meninges from the amphioxus to man. Contrary to previous reports the spinal meninges, both in the adult lower vertebrates and in the early developmental stages of the more advanced vertebrates, are very simple. From the mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube only a single leaflet forms the primitive meninx. In the following phylo- and ontogenetic stages, the latter divides into an internal leaflet: the secondary meninx, and into an external one: the dura mater. Finally, in higher vertebrates, even the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and the pia. In the same animals, Sterzi demonstrated that, while in the spinal medulla the dura keeps its identity, in the skull it fuses with the periosteum (Sterzi, 1902).
Giuseppe Sterzi | Scientific career
Leonardo Da Vinci, among his many talents, also contributed to the study of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time. Many artists, Antonio Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on the muscles. Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy, authored the book "De humani corporis fabrica", which contained many illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone instead of two. Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton.
Human skeleton | The Renaissance
The clear and philosophical views of Fracastoro were disregarded, and the talent and argumentative powers of the learned were doomed for three centuries to be wasted in the discussion of these two simple and preliminary questions: first, whether fossil remains had ever belonged to living creatures; and secondly, whether, if this be admitted, all the phenomena could be explained by the Noachian deluge.
Girolamo Fracastoro | Geology
Bianconi argued that homologous structures are explained on mechanical principles. Darwin briefly mentioned Bianconi and rejected his arguments in a footnote in his "The Descent of Man".
Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi | Career
Ferenc Kiss, famous for his work produced for the human anatomy atlas, drew his textbook, which was translated into thirteen languages and more than a hundred editions. He proclaimed that half the age of most of the people speaking the development of one and a half years of age, and it will need to communicate is the most important factor.
János Szentágothai | Academic career
He remained in that post until 1804, when he stepped down to allow his student Santo Fattori to assume the chair. In May 1791, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on account of being the "Author of some ingenious observations on the Ganglions of the Nerves, on the structure of the organs of hearing and smell, and other subjects of anatomy and Physiology"
Antonio Scarpa | Biography
Some researchers however, contend that the lower arm did not allow pronation, a rotation of the radius around the ulna, so that the hand could not be directed downward, making the animal an obligate biped. The skull is small, pointed and triangular. There are four teeth in the premaxilla. The neck is only moderately elongated but thin. The neural spines of the tail are low. The second finger is longer than the third finger. The first toe is not strongly reduced. Von Huene identified a cluster of stomach stones (gastroliths) in association to specimen SMNS 12667. Yates identifies two unique derived traits (autapomorphies): the presence of a raised crescent-like ridge on the upper part of the inner side of the pubis shaft; and the presence of a vaulted bony web between two lower extensions of a braincase bone, the "processus basipterygoidei", with a raised central bony platform on top of the vault.
Efraasia | Description
He utilized a microscope to study the structure of muscles and the brain. Following Malpighi's death in 1694, Baglivi performed his autopsy and gave an thorough description of the cerebral apoplexy that killed him. While in Rome, he befriended Bellini, Lancisi, Redi, Tozzi, and Trionfetti. In 1695, he became second physician to Pope and, in 1696, was elected professor of anatomy at the College of Sapienza. He received memberships in Rome's Academy of the Arcadians (1699) and the Tuscan "Fisiocriti" (1700). He continued as a personal physician to and was named the Sapienza's professor of theoretical medicine in 1701. He continued his observations by microscope as professor of theoretical medicine at the Sapienza, as well as examining the properties of saliva, bile, and blood.
Giorgio Baglivi | Life
Each sample represented certain diseases and helped develop our understanding of physiology, the study of the function of the human body. This section also displays two anatomical wax models, which were sculpted by Clemente Susini which was modelled after Felice Fontana's dissections, as well as a collection of skulls from people such as Giovanni Gorini (a math professor), Giuseppe Moretti (director of the botanical garden), Pasquale Massacra (painter), Antonio Bordoni (mathematician) a reproduction cast of the skulls belonging to Ugo Foscolo, Francesco Petrarca, Gian Galeazzo Visconti as well as a plaster cast of Alessandro Volta's unusually large skull.
University History Museum, University of Pavia | Sala Scarpa
There are at least two anatomical structures called a Malpighian corpuscle. They are also known as: These structures are named after Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), an Italian physician and biologist regarded as the father of microscopical anatomy and histology.
Malpighian corpuscle | Introduction
In his article, Parrington (1956) highlighted the apparent contrast between the primitive appearance of the forelimb bones and the more derived appearance of the vertebrae, resembling those of archosaurs. Thus, he concluded that the specimen did not bear close resemblances to any known synapsid, including the ones collected at the same locality, and suggested possible close affinities with archosaurs due to the vertebral morphology and the presence of hollow limb bones and an ectepicondylar groove on the humerus. Hughes (1963) subsequently noted similar vertebral morphology in some "pelycosaurian" synapsids and concluded that, as the combination of a derived vertebral column and a primitive limb structure occurs in proterosuchian archosauromorphs, UMZC T836 might possibly be a proterosuchian ancestor.
Aenigmastropheus | Discovery
This reinterpretation has several implications for bone identifications in the rest of the skull. The ventral process (lower branch) of the squamosal, which extends onto the cheek region of the skull, contacts a smaller crescent-shaped bone near the jaw joint. Under Bartholomai's interpretation, this bone was a fragment of the jugal (cheek bone), but Ezcurra reinterpreted it as a strap-like quadratojugal bone, which was near the jaw joint. Regardless of these interpretations, the rear branch of the jugal would not have been long enough to enclose the lower temporal fenestra. The lower temporal fenestra (also known as the infratemporal fenestra) was typically a large hole on the side of the skull, although it was not completely enclosed from below in many lepidosaurs (the group of reptiles containing lizards, snakes, and the tuatara) and a few archosauromorphs (such as "Prolacerta" and "Kadimakara").
Kadimakara australiensis | Holotype
Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini (30 July 1811, Padua – 29 January 1889, Pisa) was an Italian botanist, geologist and paleontologist.
Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini | Introduction
Giovanni Battista Morgagni (25 February 1682 – 6 December 1771) was an Italian anatomist, generally regarded as the father of modern anatomical pathology, who taught thousands of medical students from many countries during his 56 years as Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua. His most significant literary contribution, the monumental five-volume "On the Seats and Causes of Disease", embodied a lifetime of experience in anatomical dissection and observation, and established the fundamental principle that most diseases are not vaguely dispersed throughout the body, but originate locally, in specific organs and tissues.
Giovanni Battista Morgagni | Introduction
He began training as a surgeon at age seventeen in Milan. He got his doctorate of medicine in 1789 at University of Pavia. In the same year, his first book, "Fasciculi Pathologici", was published. From 1790 he practiced as a surgical assistant, prosector, and prison doctor. In 1795 he was appointed professor of anatomy and surgery, holding a chair of "Istituzioni Chirurgiche" at University of Pavia. He contracted syphilis after cutting himself during an autopsy. Monteggia was second to describe the Monteggia fracture, a fracture of the proximal third of the ulna with the dislocation of the head of radius.
Giovanni Battista Monteggia | Biography
Before he had been long in Padua the students of the German nation, of all the faculties there, elected him their patron, and he advised and assisted them in the purchase of a house to be a German library and club, for all time. He was elected into the imperial Caesareo-Leopoldina Academy in 1708 (originally located at Schweinfurth), and to a higher grade in 1732, into the Royal Society in 1724, into the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1731, the St. Petersburg Academy in 1735, and the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1754. Among his more celebrated pupils were Antonio Scarpa (who died in 1832, connecting the school of Morgagni with the modern era), Domenico Cotugno (1736–1822), and Leopoldo Marco Antonio Caldani (1725–1813), the author of the magnificent atlas of anatomical plates published in 2 volumes at Venice in 1801–1814.
Giovanni Battista Morgagni | Middle career
Maria Follieri (1932-2012) was a pioneering Italian archaeobotanist and held the Chair of Palaeobotany at La Sapienza.
Maria Follieri | Introduction
Within this clade, which Shen and colleagues did not name, "Liaoningvenator" formed a group with "Eosinopteryx" while "Anchiornis" formed a group with "Xiaotingia". The former two are united by the lack of serrated teeth at the front of the jaw; the skull being more than 90% of the length of the femur; the cervical ribs having slender shafts and being longer than their corresponding vertebrae; and the front end of the ilium being "gently straight". Meanwhile, the latter two share the tips of the neural spines on the dorsals being fan-shaped; the coracoid being sub-triangular; the claw on the first digit of the hand being strongly arched, being higher than the top of the articulating surface; the presence of a "lip" at the top end of the claws on the second and third digits; the front edge of the pubic shaft being convex; and the claws on the third and fourth digits of the foot being strongly curved.
Liaoningvenator | Classification
Michael T. Tworek, "Filippo Buonaccorsi," "Repertorium Pomponianum"
Filippo Buonaccorsi | External links
The medical opinions of Aretaeus have been discussed by such scholars as Johann Albert Fabricius, Albrecht von Haller, and Kurt Sprengel. Aretaeus has been treated more recently in a couple of short monographs: For Aretaeus' influence on Giambattista Morgagni, the father of anatomical pathology, see:
Aretaeus of Cappadocia | Secondary literature
Chatterjee asserts that the pelvic girdle is apomorphic comparative to archaic birds and displays a retroverted pubis, fusion of the ischium and ilium, an antitrochanter, and the presence of a renal fossa. The pubis does appear to display opisthopuby, although this has yet to be verified. The alleged fusion of the ischium and ilium into an ilioischiadic plate is currently not substantiated by the fossils at hand, despite Chatterjee's auspicious illustration to the contrary in "The Rise of Birds". At this time the pelvic girdle is not sufficiently well preserved to ascertain whether or not a renal fossa was present, although as no known avian from the Mesozoic displays a renal fossa, it is not clear why "Protoavis" should, even if it is more derived than "Archaeopteryx".
Protoavis | Pelvic girdle
Among his pupils were Bartolomeo Cavarozzi, Juan Fernández, and Antonio de Pereda.
Giovanni Battista Crescenzi | Introduction
We have the following plates :
Giovanni Maria da Brescia | Introduction
Combining art and science, he tried to find a dialectical relationship between imagination and analysis, and to achieve a rational synthesis.
Filippo Lussana | Introduction
Antonio Pacchioni (1665–1726) was an Italian scientist and anatomist, who focused chiefly on the outermost meningeal layer of the brain, the dura mater. Pacchioni's granulations (or pacchionian bodies), where the arachnoid layer protrudes through the dura, are named for him (although they are now generally known as arachnoid granulations). Pacchioni was born in Reggio Emilia, where he later attended university. He received his degree in medicine in 1688, and left for Rome in 1689.
Antonio Pacchioni | Introduction
Comparative osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention. In 1786 he published at Jena his essay "Ueber den Zwischenkieferknochen des Menschen und der Thiere", showing that the intermaxillary bone existed in man as well as in brutes. But not a word in this essay gives the remotest hint of his having then possessed the idea of the vertebral analogies of the skull. In 1820, in his "Morphologie", he first publicly stated that thirty years before the date of that publication he had discovered the secret relationship between the vertebrae and the bones of the head, and that he had always continued to meditate on this subject.
Lorenz Oken | Homological views
Julius Caesar Aranzi (Giulio Cesare Aranzio, Arantius) (1529/1530 – April 7, 1589) was a leading figure in the history of the science of human anatomy. He was born in Bologna, the son of Ottaviano di Jacopo and Maria Maggi. Owing to the poverty of the family, he studied with his uncle Bartolomeo Maggi, (1477-1552), a famous surgeon who was a lecturer at the University of Bologna as well as court physician to Julius III. He held this uncle in such high esteem that he assumed his surname, calling himself Giulio Cesare Aranzio Maggio. He was admitted to the University of Padua where he made his first discovery in 1548, at the age of nineteen, when he described the elevator muscle of the upper eyelid.
Julius Caesar Aranzi | Introduction
Finally due to an intervention of the count Alexei Grigorevich Razumovsky his employment contract could be renewed and Weitbrecht was appointed Full Professor of anatomy in January 1747. Shortly after having restarted officially his work he suddenly died due to the takings resulting from the above mentioned uncertain situation. In his time Josias Weitbrecht was considered one of the most important anatomists. He described first and foremost the construction and function of the intervertebral disc. Some special foramina, ligaments, cartilages and fibres were named after him. Furthermore in winter 1738 he recalibrated the Delisle thermometers, which usually had 2400 graduations, to a new Delisle scale with 0 degrees as the boiling point and 150 degrees as the freezing point of water.
Josias Weitbrecht | Life and career
I provided a skeleton for the countries he studied, and he provided the flesh. The skeleton I proposed is a worldwide structure in cultural differences among cultures."
Philippe d'Iribarne | Introduction
The upper level of the building still houses the Anatomical theatre, which was built in 1636 by Antonio Levanti. It was the hall used for anatomy lectures and displays. It is shaped like an amphitheater and made from fir wood with a coffer ceiling, decorated with statues. It is overlooked by the ornate seat of the professor, topped by a baldaquin and supported by the statues of two naked and skinless men, known as "gli spellati" (the skinned ones), made by Ercole Lelli. The numerous sculptures that decorated the walls represent doctors from ancient and modern times: the busts are of people considered of lesser importance, while the most revered are represented in full.
Archiginnasio of Bologna | Anatomical Theater
Following his stay in England, he traveled to Berlin, where he attended lectures by Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) and performed histological studies of Pacinian corpuscles in the laboratory of Wilhelm Kühne (1837-1900). In 1865, he was named professor of microscopic anatomy at the University of Naples, and two years later served as professor of experimental physiology at the University of Parma. From 1870 he was associated with the University of Bologna, working as a professor of comparative anatomy and histology.
Giuseppe Vincenzo Ciaccio | Introduction
The eyes pointed forwards to a degree, providing some binocular vision. Most of the skull consisted of bone struts. The presumed pygostyle was absent; investigating the real nine tail vertebrae instead of impressions showed that they were unfused, though very reduced. The wing finger lacked the fourth phalanx. According to Bennett a membrane, visible near the shin, showed that the wing contacted the ankle and was thus rather short and broad. Bennett also restudied the holotype, interpreting bumps on the jaws as an indication that hairs forming a protruding bristle were present on the snout.
Anurognathus | Description
Stefano Lorenzini (born around 1652, Florence, Italy — date of death unknown) was an Italian physician and noted ichthyologist. He studied medicine in Pisa and surgery at the Hospital of St. Florence Maria Nuova, with teachers including Francesco Redi, Nicholas Steno, John Fynch among other prominent scholars. He fell into disgrace with the Grand Duke Cosimo III de' Medici, who imprisoned him along with his brother Lorenzo Lorenzini, a famous mathematician. His observations on sharks, published in Florence in 1678, was an in-depth study of the animals' anatomy and physiology, based on new mechanistic and corpuscular perspectives applied to the study of the living organism.
Stefano Lorenzini | Introduction
In 1316, Mondino de Luzzi's "Anathomia" began the modern study of brain anatomy. Niccolò Massa discovered in 1536 that the ventricles were filled with fluid. Archangelo Piccolomini of Rome was the first to distinguish between the cerebrum and cerebral cortex. In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published his seven-volume "De humani corporis fabrica". The seventh book covered the brain and eye, with detailed images of the ventricles, cranial nerves, pituitary gland, meninges, structures of the eye, the vascular supply to the brain and spinal cord, and an image of the peripheral nerves. Vesalius rejected the common belief that the ventricles were responsible for brain function, arguing that many animals have a similar ventricular system to humans, but no true intelligence.
Human brain | Renaissance
It is probably for him that Giovanni Antonio Scopoli (1723–1788) dedicated "Psittacus krameri" (today "Psittacula krameri") in 1769. He is also known as an entomologist.
Wilhelm Heinrich Kramer | Introduction
Its head has been removed in jest several times. The original identity of the person depicted has not been determined, and it was named after a clergyman from the nearby chiesa del Sudario.
Abbot Luigi | Introduction
Robert Ernst Eduard Wiedersheim (21 April 1848 in Nürtingen – 12 July 1923 in Schachen (Lindau)) was a German anatomist who is famous for publishing a list of 86 "vestigial organs" in his book "The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History".
Robert Wiedersheim | Introduction
"Elachistosuchus" was originally thought to be a pseudosuchian archosaur by Janensch (1949). Janensch diagnosed it among other pseudosuchians by its small body size, the lack of a specialized body plan, and the presence of a large posttemporal fenestra and what he believed to be an antorbital fenestra. Walker (1966) reinterpreted "Elachistosuchus" as a rhynchocephalian closely related to the only living genus "Sphenodon" (the tuatara), based on the long front portion of the jugal bone, the allegedly acrodont dentition, the large posttemporal fenestra, the absence of an external lower jaw fenestra, and a strongly twisted end of the humerus. Walker (1966) also argued that the antorbital fenestra identified by Janensch actually represented a damaged opening for the lacrimal canal.
Elachistosuchus | Description
In 1600 he was appointed to the chair of Botany and of Anatomy at the Sapienza University of Rome. In the same year he became the director of the Papal botanical garden (now the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Roma "La Sapienza").
Giovanni Faber | Biography
He also demonstrated the continuity of all meninges with the envelopes of nerves and with the filum terminale. The second group of studies, “Vessels of the Spinal Medulla” (1900–1904) and of the Brainstem (1913) started with a communication read by the young Sterzi at the 14th Congress of the German Anatomical Society in 1900. It includes a paper of 370 pages written in German for the journal Anatomische Hefte (Sterzi, 1904), dealing with the comparative anatomy and embryology of these vessels from the cyclostomes (petromyzontes) to man. Sterzi showed that, both in petromyzontes and in the precocious developmental stages of higher vertebrates, the spinal medulla receives its blood from the superficial vessels.
Giuseppe Sterzi | Scientific career
He discovered "a minute living creature ... with six feet and a sharp head" of which he rendered a graphic sketch.
Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo | Early life and education
Reconstructions of "Heptasuchus" depicting this taxon with unusually large premaxillary teeth are based on a single premaxillary tooth that has partially slipped out of its socket. The hip had a long, straight pubis which was curved in anterior view and had a pubic boot. The ulna was gracile and lacks a strong olecranon process seen in "Postosuchus". Vertebrae are represented by cervical centra, some neural spines from the dorsals or caudals, and caudal centra. Fragments of ribs, gastralia, and possible osteoderms (bony scutes) were collected as well, but have not been formally described or illustrated. Zawiskie "et al." (2011) diagnosed "Heptasuchus" based on two autapomorphies, anatomical features that differentiate it from all other known archosaurs: the presence of large, posteriorly directed flanges on the parabasisphenoid and a distinct, orbit-overhanging postfrontal.
Heptasuchus | Description
"Sapeornis" was large for an early avialan, about long in life, excluding the tail feathers. The hand of "Sapeornis" was far more advanced than that of "Archaeopteryx". It had three fingers, the outer ones with two and the middle one with three phalanges, and a well-fused carpometacarpus. Its arms were about half again as long as the legs, suggesting a large wing area. On the other hand, its shoulder girdle was apparently ill-adapted to flapping flight and its furcula was unusual, with a hypocleidum similar to more advanced avialans but a general anatomy even more primitive than in "Archaeopteryx". The humerus was large and bore holes, apparently to save weight, as in the Confuciusornithidae.
Sapeornis | Description
He obtained a doctorate in law. He returned to Milan and was admitted to the College of Legists.
Filippo Archinto | Biography
It is also inferred that its posture would have been semi-plantigrade, since the fingers of the hands would support its weight, but instead the feet they would have been plantigrade, as inferred from the ankle bones.
Pyrotherium | Paleobiology
His mentor and friend, the Scots born accoucheur and anatomist James Douglas was concerned that he would lose the arm as a result of the soft tissue infection which developed. Monro took an active part in discussions, and in one of his papers first sketched his "Account of the Bones in General". This would form the basis of his later textbook on osteology. Before he left London he sent home to his father some of his anatomical specimens. His father showed these to members of the Royal College of Physicians and the Incorporation of Surgeons. They were so impressed with the quality of these dissections that Adam Drummond, on seeing them, indicated that would resign his share of the professorship of anatomy in favour of Monro.
Alexander Monro (primus) | Studies in London, Paris and Leiden
Giovanni Rasori (1766–1837) was an Italian academic, physician and translator.
Giovanni Rasori | Introduction
"Mirarce eatoni" was a large turkey-sized bird. Skeletal morphology indicates that at the time of death, the individual was adult. All the surviving elements of the bones show complete fusion. The bones of the forelimbs deserve special attention. The humerus of the bird is short and strong. The left ulna was preserved as a mineral cast of the internal cavity with several small fragments of fossilized bone surface. Two folded spots preserved on the posterior edge of the bone body are interpreted as quill knobs. These elongated folds are located along the length of the bone. Despite the fact that bone fragments do not allow measuring the size of each tubercle, determining the distance between them or estimating the number of secondary feathers, their very presence on the fossil is a very significant fact, as this is the first time the structure has been found in enantiornithines.
Mirarce | Description
the hand). A plaster cast of the skull prior to its crushing was utilized for their description of the skull, but some areas, such as the palate and braincase, eluded restudy. Further study of the specimen was undertaken as part of Martin Ezcurra's 2016 study on archosauromorph systematics.
Boreopricea | History