German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered rubidium in 1861 by the newly developed technique, flame spectroscopy. The name comes from the Latin word , meaning deep red, the color of its emission spectrum. Rubidium's compounds have various chemical and electronic applications. Rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption range, making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms. Rubidium is not a known nutrient for any living organisms. However, rubidium ions have the same charge as potassium ions and are actively taken up and treated by animal cells in similar ways.
Introduction
Rubidium
Rubidium | Introduction
Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff Robert Bunsen , Gustav Kirchhoff
where is rubidium found on the periodic table
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It is the 37th element.
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what letters are used to represent it?
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Rb
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who discovered it?
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Rubidium was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, in Heidelberg, Germany, in the mineral lepidolite through flame spectroscopy. Because of the bright red lines in its emission spectrum, they chose a name derived from the Latin word , meaning "deep red". Rubidium is a minor component in lepidolite. Kirchhoff and Bunsen processed 150 kg of a lepidolite containing only 0.24% rubidium monoxide (RbO). Both potassium and rubidium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid, but those salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water. Therefore, the less soluble rubidium hexachloroplatinate (RbPtCl) could be obtained by fractional crystallization.
Rubidium | History
After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen, the process yielded 0.51 grams of rubidium chloride (RbCl) for further studies. Bunsen and Kirchhoff began their first large-scale isolation of caesium and rubidium compounds with of mineral water, which yielded 7.3 grams of caesium chloride and 9.2 grams of rubidium chloride. Rubidium was the second element, shortly after caesium, to be discovered by spectroscopy, just one year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. The two scientists used the rubidium chloride to estimate that the atomic weight of the new element was 85.36 (the currently accepted value is 85.47).
Rubidium | History
German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered rubidium in 1861 by the newly developed technique, flame spectroscopy. The name comes from the Latin word , meaning deep red, the color of its emission spectrum. Rubidium's compounds have various chemical and electronic applications. Rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption range, making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms. Rubidium is not a known nutrient for any living organisms. However, rubidium ions have the same charge as potassium ions and are actively taken up and treated by animal cells in similar ways.
Rubidium | Introduction
He is also known for his studies involving the atomic weight of rubidium.
Jules Piccard | Introduction
They tried to generate elemental rubidium by electrolysis of molten rubidium chloride, but instead of a metal, they obtained a blue homogeneous substance, which "neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metallic substance". They presumed that it was a subchloride (); however, the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and rubidium chloride. In a second attempt to produce metallic rubidium, Bunsen was able to reduce rubidium by heating charred rubidium tartrate. Although the distilled rubidium was pyrophoric, they were able to determine the density and the melting point. The quality of this research in the 1860s can be appraised by the fact that their determined density differs by less than 0.1 g/cm and the melting point by less than 1 °C from the presently accepted values.
Rubidium | History
Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium. He obtained dark red crystals (probably of ]·"n") by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. He named iridium after Iris (), the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods, because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored. Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.
Iridium | Discovery
The next year, they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra: a bright red line for rubidium (from the Latin word "rubidus", meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word "caesius", meaning sky-blue). Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions.
Alkali metal | History
Rubidium is the chemical element with the symbol Rb and atomic number 37. Rubidium is a very soft, silvery-white metal in the alkali metal group. Rubidium metal shares similarities to potassium metal and caesium metal in physical appearance, softness and conductivity. Rubidium cannot be stored under atmospheric oxygen, as a highly exothermic reaction will ensue, sometimes even resulting in the metal catching fire. Rubidium is the first alkali metal in the group to have a density higher than water, so it sinks, unlike the metals above it in the group. Rubidium has a standard atomic weight of 85.4678. On Earth, natural rubidium comprises two isotopes: 72% is a stable isotope Rb, and 28% is slightly radioactive Rb, with a half-life of 49 billion years—more than three times as long as the estimated age of the universe.
Rubidium | Introduction
I had every right to call it by this name because Mr. Osann relinquished his ruthenium and the word does not yet exist in chemistry." Claus managed not only to isolate ruthenium, but also determine its atomic weight and chemical properties. He noted the similarity of the chemical properties of ruthenium, rhodium, palladium and platinum and meticulously documented his results. For this discovery, he was awarded the Demidov Prize of 5,000 rubles (which was of much financial help to his large family). Claus sent samples of new element for analysis to Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who was one of the most renowned scientists in the field of new elements, and thereby became known to European scientists.
Karl Ernst Claus | Ruthenium
Davyum was the proposed name for a chemical element found by chemist Serge Kern in 1877. It was shown that the material was a mixture of iridium and rhodium. In 1950 it was proposed that the new metal might also have contained rhenium, which had not been discovered in Kern's time.
Davyum | Introduction
While Hahn was in North America, his attention was drawn to a mica-like mineral from Manitoba that contained rubidium. Some years before he had studied the radioactive decay of rubidium-87, and had estimated its half life at 2 x 10 years. It occurred to Hahn that by comparing the quantity of strontium in the mineral (which had once been rubidium) with that of the remaining rubidium, he could measure the age of the mineral, assuming that his original calculation of the half life was reasonably accurate. This would be a superior dating method to studying the decay of uranium, because some of the uranium turns into helium, which then escapes, resulting in rocks appearing to be younger than they really were.
Otto Hahn | Rubidium–strontium dating
Andrés Manuel del Río y Fernández (10 November 1764 – 23 March 1849) was a Spanish–Mexican scientist, naturalist and engineer who discovered compounds of "vanadium" in 1801. He proposed that the element be given the name "panchromium", or later, "erythronium", but his discovery was not credited at the time, and his names were not used.
Andrés Manuel del Río | Introduction
Soviet chemist D. K. Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found eka-caesium, or francium. In 1925, he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of potassium, another alkali metal, and incorrectly concluded that eka-caesium was contaminating the sample (the radioactivity from the sample was from the naturally occurring potassium radioisotope, potassium-40). He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka-caesium, in which he named the element "russium" after his home country. Shortly thereafter, Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odessa, and he did not pursue the element further.
Francium | Erroneous and incomplete discoveries
Discouraged by this, Śniadecki dropped all his claims and did not talk about vestium anymore. Nevertheless, there have been speculations that this new element was ruthenium, found 37 years later by Karl Klaus. However, they are not accepted by modern sources.
Jędrzej Śniadecki | Life and work
In 1840, Claus, received a substantial amount of platinum ore samples for his studies from the Ural Mountains and the St Petersburg Mint and started working on chemistry and isolation of noble metals, in particular rhodium, iridium, osmium, and to a lesser extent, palladium and platinum. In 1844, he discovered a new chemical element, which he named ruthenium, after Ruthenia, the latinised name for Russia and the Latin name of Rus', by which Сlaus meant the Russian Empire and Russia in particular. Choosing the name for the new element, he stated: "I named the new body, in honour of my Motherland, ruthenium.
Karl Ernst Claus | Ruthenium
Berzelius gave the unknown material the name ""lithion"/"lithina"", from the Greek word "λιθoς" (transliterated as "lithos", meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material ""lithium"". Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1850 as having similar properties. Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope, invented in 1859 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff.
Alkali metal | History
After a thorough examination of the material he concluded that a new metal was present in the sample. He called it tellurium, but gave the credit of the discovery to Müller.
Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein | Discovery of tellurium
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite. The French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough for further experiments. In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named "ptene", from the Greek word "ptēnós", "winged".
Iridium | Discovery
The rubidium-strontium dating method is a radiometric dating technique used by scientists to determine the age of rocks and minerals from the quantities they contain of specific isotopes of rubidium (Rb) and strontium (Sr, Sr). Development of this process was aided by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, who later went on to discover nuclear fission in December 1938. The utility of the rubidium–strontium isotope system results from the fact that Rb (one of two naturally occurring isotopes of rubidium) decays to Sr with a half-life of 49.23 billion years. In addition, Rb is a highly incompatible element that, during partial melting of the mantle, prefers to join the magmatic melt rather than remain in mantle minerals.
Rubidium–strontium dating | Introduction
It is possible that the Polish chemist Jędrzej Śniadecki isolated element 44 (which he called "vestium" after the asteroid Vesta discovered shortly before) from South American platinum ores in 1807. He published an announcement of his discovery in 1808. His work was never confirmed, however, and he later withdrew his claim of discovery. Jöns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered ruthenium in 1827. They examined residues that were left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia. Berzelius did not find any unusual metals, but Osann thought he found three new metals, which he called pluranium, ruthenium, and polinium.
Ruthenium | History
It was found that the existing data on rutherfordium-261 was for an isomer, now designated rutherfordium-261m.
Copernicium | Discovery
In 1801, while examining mineral samples sent to him by the Purísima del Cardenal mine in Zimapán in the State of Hidalgo, del Río arrived at the conclusion that he had found a new metallic element. He prepared various compounds of the element, and observing their diverse colors, he named the element "panchromium" (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, on observing that the compounds changed color to red on heating, he substituted the name "erythronium" (Greek: ερυθρός "red"). The following year he gave samples containing the new element to Alexander von Humboldt, who sent them on to Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils in París for his analysis.
Andrés Manuel del Río | The discovery of vanadium
Émile Henriot (2 July 1885 – 1 February 1961) was a French chemist notable for being the first to show definitely that potassium and rubidium are naturally radioactive. He investigated methods to generate extremely high angular velocities, and found that suitably placed air-jets can be used to spin tops at very high speeds - this technique was later used to construct ultracentrifuges. He was a pioneer in the study of the electron microscope. He also studied birefringence and molecular vibrations.
Émile Henriot (chemist) | Introduction
As a result, Rb is enriched in crustal rocks. The radiogenic daughter, Sr, is produced in this decay process and was produced in rounds of stellar nucleosynthesis predating the creation of the Solar System.
Rubidium–strontium dating | Introduction
From this mixture, the lithium was precipitated by ammonium carbonate. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid, but these salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water, and the less-soluble caesium and rubidium hexachloroplatinate ((Cs,Rb)PtCl) were obtained by fractional crystallization. After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen, caesium and rubidium were separated by the difference in solubility of their carbonates in alcohol. The process yielded of rubidium chloride and of caesium chloride from the initial 44,000 litres of mineral water. From the caesium chloride, the two scientists estimated the atomic weight of the new element at 123.35 (compared to the currently accepted one of 132.9).
Caesium | History
The age of a sample is determined by analysing several minerals within multiple subsamples from different parts of the original sample. The Sr/Sr ratio for each subsample is plotted against its Rb/Sr ratio on a graph called an . If these form a straight line then the subsamples are consistent, and the age probably reliable. The slope of the line dictates the age of the sample. Indeed, given the universal law of radioactive decay and the following rubidium beta decay : ^{87}_{37}Rb ->[{\beta -}][{}]~^{87}_{38}Sr ~+e^{-}~+~\bar{\nu_e} we obtain the expression whom describes the growth of Strontium 87 in the rubidium mineral : ^{87}_{38}Sr(t)~=^{87}_{38}Sr(0)~+~^{87}_{37}Rb(e^{\lambda t}-1), \lambda being the decay constant of rubidium.
Rubidium–strontium dating | Calculating the age
Since the Soviets claimed to have first detected the new element they suggested the name "kurchatovium" (Ku) in honor of Igor Kurchatov (1903–1960), former head of Soviet nuclear research. This name had been used in books of the Soviet Bloc as the official name of the element. The Americans, however, proposed "rutherfordium" (Rf) for the new element to honor Ernest Rutherford, who is known as the "father" of nuclear physics. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted "unnilquadium" (Unq) as a temporary, systematic element name, derived from the Latin names for digits 1, 0, and 4. In 1994, IUPAC suggested the name "dubnium" (Db) to be used since "rutherfordium" was suggested for element 106 and IUPAC felt that the Dubna team should be recognized for their contributions.
Rutherfordium | Naming controversy
He found that a sample of this radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay – its "half-life" (11½ minutes in this case). From 1900 to 1903, he was joined at McGill by the young chemist Frederick Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921) for whom he set the problem of identifying the thorium emanations. Once he had eliminated all the normal chemical reactions, Soddy suggested that it must be one of the inert gases, which they named thoron (later found to be an isotope of radon). They also found another type of thorium they called Thorium X, and kept on finding traces of helium.
Ernest Rutherford | Scientific research
Rubidium is very susceptible to oxidation in air, similar to most of the other alkali metals, so it readily transforms into rubidium oxide, a yellow solid with the chemical formula RbO.
Period 5 element | Rubidium
It was discovered by Struve.
Nu Ceti | Introduction
Debate still exists as to whether the 1925 team actually did discover element 43.
Walter Noddack | Technetium
The following year, English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed X-ray photographs of manganese(II) sulfate. They observed spectral lines which they presumed to be of eka-caesium. They announced their discovery of element 87 and proposed the name "alkalinium", as it would be the heaviest alkali metal. In 1930, Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered element 87 (in addition to 85) when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto-optical machine. Allison requested that it be named "virginium" after his home state of Virginia, along with the symbols Vi and Vm. In 1934, H.G.
Francium | Erroneous and incomplete discoveries
Furthermore, we could consider the number of ^{86}_{38}Sr as a constant, for two reasons; firstly this isotope is stable, and secondly the half-time for ^{86}_{37}Rb (whom produced the ^{86}_{38}Sr radiogenic nucleide) is negligible compared to ^{87}_{37}Rb half-time. Hence, \frac{^{87}Sr}{^{86}Sr}= (\frac{^{87}Sr}{^{86}Sr} )_0~+\frac{^{87}Rb}{^{86}Sr}(e^{\lambda t}-1) the isochron equation. After measurements of Rubidum and Strontium concentration in the mineral we can easily determine the age, the t value, of the sample.
Rubidium–strontium dating | Calculating the age
John Isaac Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs, and in 1834 managed to create an iridium-pointed gold pen. In 1880, John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States; British company Johnson Matthey later stated they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a number of World Fairs. The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933. These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to .
Iridium | Metalworking and applications
The actual element was discovered several years later, and assigned the name neptunium.
Ausonium | Introduction
Richter went on to isolate the metal in 1864. An ingot of was presented at the World Fair 1867. Reich and Richter later fell out when the latter claimed to be the sole discoverer.
Indium | History
Rubicline, also referred to as Rb-microcline, is the rubidium analogue of microcline, an important tectosilicate mineral. Its chemical formula is (Rb, K)[AlSiO] with an ideal composition of RbAlSiO. Chemical analysis by electron microprobe indicated the average weight of the crystal is 56.66% SiO, 16.95% AlO, and 23.77% RbO, along with trace amounts of caesium oxide (CsO) and iron(III) oxide (FeO). Rubicline was first discovered in 1998 in Elba, Italy, by a team from the University of Manitoba. It was the first mineral to have been discovered with rubidium as an essential constituent. It has also been found in Mozambique and the Kola Peninsula in Russia.
Rubicline | Introduction
Dianium was the proposed name for a new element found by the mineralogist and poet Wolfgang Franz von Kobell in 1860. The name derived from the Roman goddess Diana. During the analysis of the mineral tantalite and niobite he concluded that it does contain an element similar to niobium and tantalum. The symbol was Di. Following the rediscovery of niobium in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, Friedrich Wöhler, Heinrich Rose, R. Hermann and Kobell analysed the minerals tantalite and columbite to better understand the chemistry of niobium and tantalum. The similar reactivity of niobium and tantalum hindered preparation of pure samples and therefore several new elements were proposed, which were later found to be mixtures of niobium and tantalum.
Dianium | Introduction
For this reason, Klaus is usually named as the discoverer of ruthenium rather than Osann.
Gottfried Osann | Introduction
He also taught chemistry at various high schools and colleges. Verneuil began working on the synthesis of rubies by flame fusion as far back as 1886 and came to a result within six years, depositing his sealed notes at the Paris Academy of Science in 1891 and 1892, but only announcing his discovery in 1902.
Auguste Victor Louis Verneuil | Biography
Ferdinand Reich (19 February 1799 – 27 April 1882) was a German chemist who co-discovered indium in 1863 with Hieronymous Theodor Richter. Reich was born in Bernburg and died in Freiberg. He was color blind, or could only see in whites and blacks, and that is why Theodor Richter became his science partner. Richter would examine the colors produced in reactions that they studied. Reich and Richter ended up isolating the indium, creating a small supply, although it was later found in more regions. They isolated the indium at the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology in Germany.
Ferdinand Reich | Introduction
Dirubidium is a molecular substance containing two atoms of rubidium found in rubidium vapour. Dirubidium has two active valence electrons. It is studied both in theory and with experiment. The rubidium trimer has also been observed.
Dirubidium | Introduction
Jacob Papish helped Hahn obtain several kilograms of the mineral. From 1,012 grams of the mineral, Strassmann and Ernst Walling extracted 253.4 milligrams of strontium carbonate, all of which was the strontium-87 isotope, indicating that it had all been produced from radioactive decay of rubidium-87. The age of the mineral had been estimated at 1,975 million years from uranium minerals in the same deposit, which implied that the half life of rubidium-87 was 2.3 x 10 years: quite close to Hahn's original calculation. Rubidium–strontium dating became a widely used technique for dating rocks in the 1950s, when mass spectrometry became common.
Otto Hahn | Rubidium–strontium dating
The fundamental series lines for rubidium appear in the near infrared. The valence electron moves from the 4"d" level as the 3"d" is contained in an inner shell. They were observed by R von Lamb. Relevant energy levels are 4"p"4"d" "j"=5/2 19,355.282 cm and "j"=3/2 19,355.623 cm, and the first "f" levels at 4"p"4"f" "j"=5/2 26,792.185 cm and "j"=7/2 26,792.169 cm.
Fundamental series | Rubidium
In 1953, it was discovered that rubidium carried a biological activity that was comparable to potassium. In 1959, preclinical trials showed in dogs that myocardial uptake of this radionuclide was directly proportional to myocardial blood flow. In 1979, Yano et al. compared several ion-exchange columns to be used in an automated Sr/Rb generator for clinical testing. Around 1980, pre-clinical trials began using Rb in PET. In 1982, Selwyn et al. examined the relation between myocardial perfusion and rubidium-82 uptake during acute ischemia in six dogs after coronary stenosis and in five volunteers and five patients with coronary artery disease. Myocardial tomograms, recorded at rest and after exercise in the volunteers showed homogeneous uptake in reproducible and repeatable scans.
Rubidium-82 | History
They dissolved platinum ore from the Ural mountains in aqua regia and sifted through the residue. Where Berzelius found nothing, Osann thought he had detected three new metals and named them pluranium (concatenation of "platinum" and "Ural"), ruthenium (after Ruthenia, the Latin name for Rus) and polinium (from the Greek word "polia", meaning grey-haired, for its residue color; not to be confused with polonium, discovered later). However, the quantity of the metals was too small to isolate, and Osann eventually withdrew his discovery claims. It was up to the Russian chemist Karl Klaus to verify their existence, which he did in 1844 by isolating measurable quantities of ruthenium.
Gottfried Osann | Introduction
A 1995 attempt at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory resulted in signs suggesting but not pointing conclusively at the discovery of a new isotope Ds formed in the bombardment of Bi with Co, and a similarly inconclusive 1994 attempt at the JINR showed signs of Ds being produced from Pu and S. Each team proposed its own name for element 110: the American team proposed "hahnium" after Otto Hahn in an attempt to resolve the situation on element 105 (which they had long been suggesting this name for), the Russian team proposed "becquerelium" after Henri Becquerel, and the German team proposed "darmstadtium" after Darmstadt, the location of their institute.
Darmstadtium | Discovery
Randolf Pohl, the original investigator of the puzzle, stated that while it would be "fantastic" if the puzzle led to a discovery, the most likely explanation is not new physics but some measurement artefact. His personal assumption is that past measurements have misgauged the Rydberg constant and that the current official proton size is inaccurate.
Proton radius puzzle | Measurement artefact
The Russian scientists proposed the name kurchatovium and the American scientists suggested the name "rutherfordium" for the new element. In 1992, the IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) assessed the claims of discovery and concluded that both teams provided contemporaneous evidence to the synthesis of element 104 and that credit should be shared between the two groups. The American group wrote a scathing response to the findings of the TWG, stating that they had given too much emphasis on the results from the Dubna group. In particular they pointed out that the Russian group had altered the details of their claims several times over a period of 20 years, a fact that the Russian team does not deny.
Rutherfordium | Naming controversy
He named it scandium, from the Latin "Scandia" meaning "Scandinavia". Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev's suggestions were correct; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law. Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev. Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides. In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite.
Group 3 element | History
Rubidium sulfide is an inorganic compound and a salt with the chemical formula RbS. It is a white solid with similar properties to other alkali metal sulfides.
Rubidium sulfide | Introduction
Charles Hatchett FRS FRSE (2 January 1765 – 10 March 1847) was a British mineralogist and analytical chemist who discovered the element niobium, for which he proposed the name "columbium". Hatchett was elected a Fellow of the Linnaean Society in 1795, and of the Royal Society in 1797. Hatchett was elected to the Literary Club in London in 1809 and became its treasurer in 1829.
Charles Hatchett | Introduction
Ausonium (atomic symbol Ao) was the name assigned to the element with atomic number 93, now known as neptunium. It was named after a Greek name of Italy, Ausonia. The same team assigned the name hesperium to element 94, after Hesperia, a poetic name of Italy. (Element 94 was later named plutonium). The discovery of the element, now discredited, was made by Enrico Fermi and a team of scientists at the University of Rome in 1934. In the same year Ida Noddack had already presented alternative explanations for the experimental results of Fermi. Following the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, it was realized that Fermi's discovery was actually a mixture of barium, krypton, and other elements.
Ausonium | Introduction
Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure which she later revised to 1%. Perey named the new isotope "actinium-K" (it is now referred to as francium-223) and in 1946, she proposed the name "catium" (Cm) for her newly discovered element, as she believed it to be the most electropositive cation of the elements. Irène Joliot-Curie, one of Perey's supervisors, opposed the name due to its connotation of "cat" rather than "cation"; furthermore, the symbol coincided with that which had since been assigned to curium.
Francium | Perey's analysis
They named it "illinium," after the university. Both of these reported discoveries were shown to be erroneous because the spectrum line that "corresponded" to element 61 was identical to that of didymium; the lines thought to belong to element 61 turned out to belong to a few impurities (barium, chromium, and platinum). In 1934, Josef Mattauch finally formulated the isobar rule. One of the indirect consequences of this rule was that element 61 was unable to form stable isotopes. From 1938, a nuclear experiment was conducted by H. B. Law "et al." at Ohio State University. Nuclides were produced in 1941 which were not radioisotopes of neodymium or samarium, and the name "cyclonium" was proposed, but there was a lack of chemical proof that element 61 was produced and the discovery not largely recognized.
Promethium | Searches for element 61
Rubidium silver iodide is a ternary inorganic compound with the formula RbAgI. Its conductivity involves the movement of silver ions within the crystal lattice. It was discovered while searching for chemicals which had the ionic conductivity properties of alpha-phase silver iodide at temperatures below 146 °C for AgI. RbAgI can be formed by melting together or grinding together stoichiometric quantities of rubidium iodide and silver(I) iodide. The reported conductivity is 25 siemens per metre (that is a 1×1×10 mm bar would have a resistance of 400 ohms along the long axis). The crystal structure is composed of sets of iodine tetrahedra; they share faces through which the silver ions diffuse.
Rubidium silver iodide | Introduction
Rubidium fluoride (RbF) is the fluoride salt of rubidium. It is a cubic crystal with rock-salt structure. There are several methods for synthesising rubidium fluoride. One involves reacting rubidium hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid: Another method is to neutralize rubidium carbonate with hydrofluoric acid: Another possible method is to react rubidium hydroxide with ammonium fluoride: The least used method due to expense of rubidium metal is to react it directly with fluorine gas, as rubidium reacts violently with halogens:
Rubidium fluoride | Introduction
Collet-Descotils's analysis found (mistakenly) that the samples contained only chromium. Humboldt, in turn, rejected del Río's claim of the discovery of a new element, and del Río himself concluded his discovery had been an error. In 1830, 27 years after its initial discovery, Professor Nils Gabriel Sefström of Sweden rediscovered the element in a sample of iron of Taberg. He gave it its current name, "vanadium", in honor of the Scandinavian goddess of love and beauty, Vanadis. In the same year, Friedrich Wöhler, the German chemist who had synthesized urea, analyzed some of del Río's samples of brown lead ore of Zimapán and demonstrated that Sefström's vanadium and del Rio's erythronium were the same.
Andrés Manuel del Río | The discovery of vanadium
Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río. Del Río extracted the element from a sample of Mexican "brown lead" ore, later named vanadinite. He found that its salts exhibit a wide variety of colors, and as a result he named the element "panchromium" (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, Del Río renamed the element "erythronium" (Greek: ερυθρός "red") because most of the salts turned red upon heating. In 1805, French chemist Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils, backed by del Río's friend Baron Alexander von Humboldt, incorrectly declared that del Río's new element was an impure sample of chromium.
Vanadium | History
Didymium had not been difficult to find, since in trivalent form it tinged the salts of ceria pink. During the period when didymium was believed to be an element, the symbol Di was used for it. In the illustration of Mendeleev's first attempt at a periodic table, shown on the right, the atomic weights assigned to the various lanthanides, including didymium, reflect the original belief that they were divalent. Their actual oxidation number of 3 implies that Mendeleev underestimated atomic weights for them by . In 1874, Per Teodor Cleve deduced that didymium was made up of at least two elements.
Didymium | Discovery
Noddack and her husband-to-be looked for the then still unknown elements 43 and 75 at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt. In 1925, they published a paper (Zwei neue Elemente der Mangangruppe, Chemischer Teil) and called the new elements rhenium (75) and masurium (43). They named the elements rhenium in respect of Ida's birthplace, and masurium in honor of his. After of scientists were sceptical of their results, the Noddack's began to perform more experiments to confirm their discoveries. Only that of rhenium was confirmed. They were unable to isolate element 43 and their results were not reproducible. These achievements led to Ida being awarded the German Chemical Society's prestigious Liebig Medal in 1931.
Ida Noddack | Element discovery
His discovery was announced in "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Infra-Red Emission Spectra of the Alkalies", Jena 1907. Carl Runge called this series the "new series". He predicted that the lines of potassium and rubidium would be in pairs. He expressed the frequencies of the series lines by a formula and predicted a connection of the series limit to the other known series. In 1909 W. M. Hicks produced approximate formulas for the various series and noticed that this series had a simpler formula than the others and thus called it the "fundamental series" and used the letter F.
Fundamental series | Introduction
(In fact, it was an isotope of the known element thorium; the concept of an isotope, along with the term, was only coined in 1913, by the British chemist Frederick Soddy). Ramsay was enthusiastic when yet another new element was found in his institute, and he intended to announce the discovery in a correspondingly suitable way. In accordance with tradition this was done before the committee of the venerable Royal Society. At the session of the Royal Society on 16 March 1905 Ramsay communicated Hahn's discovery of radiothorium. The "Daily Telegraph" informed its readers: Hahn published his results in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society" on 24 March 1905.
Otto Hahn | Discovery of radio thorium, and other "new elements"
In the 1950s, an Italian research company, Farmitalia Research Laboratories, began an organized effort to find anticancer compounds from soil-based microbes. A soil sample was isolated from the area surrounding the Castel del Monte, a 13th-century castle. A new strain of "Streptomyces peucetius", which produced a red pigment, was isolated, and an antibiotic from this bacterium was effective against tumors in mice. Since a group of French researchers discovered the same compound at about the same time, the two teams named the compound daunorubicin, combining the name "Dauni", a pre-Roman tribe that occupied the area of Italy where the compound was isolated, with the French word for ruby, "rubis", describing the color.
Doxorubicin | History
Krüss also suggested a new element similar to cobalt solving a problem in the sequence of iron, cobalt and nickel in the periodic table; he named it gnomium.
Gerhard Krüss | Introduction
Radium was discovered by Marie Sklodowska-Curie and her husband Pierre Curie on 21 December 1898, in a uraninite (pitchblende) sample in Jáchymov. While studying the mineral earlier, the Curies removed uranium from it and found that the remaining material was still radioactive. In July 1898 while studying pitchblende they isolated an element similar to bismuth which turned out to be polonium. They then isolated a radioactive mixture consisting mostly of two components: compounds of barium, which gave a brilliant green flame color, and unknown radioactive compounds which gave carmine spectral lines that had never been documented before. The Curies found the radioactive compounds to be very similar to the barium compounds, except that they were less soluble.
Radium | History
The symbol Np was later used for the element neptunium, and the name "nihonium", also named after Japan, along with symbol Nh, was later used for element 113. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work. Rhenium is generally considered to have been discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite.
Rhenium | History
He quickly realized that one of the half-lives closely matched the known 23-minute decay period of uranium-239, but the other half-life of 2.3 days was unknown. McMillan took the results of his experiment to chemist and fellow Berkeley professor Emilio Segrè to attempt to isolate the source of the radioactivity. Both scientists began their work using the prevailing theory that element 93 would have similar chemistry to rhenium, but Segrè rapidly determined that McMillan's sample was not at all similar to rhenium. Instead, when he reacted it with hydrogen fluoride (HF) with a strong oxidizing agent present, it behaved much like members of the rare earths.
Neptunium | Discovery
As early as 1870, chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium, with an atomic number of 87. It was then referred to by the provisional name "eka-caesium". Research teams attempted to locate and isolate this missing element, and at least four false claims were made that the element had been found before an authentic discovery was made.
Francium | History
Rubidium azide is an inorganic compound with the formula RbN. It is the rubidium salt of the azide ion (). Like most azides, it is explosive.
Rubidium azide | Introduction
Rubidium forms a number of oxides when exposed to air, including rubidium monoxide (RbO), RbO, and RbO; rubidium in excess oxygen gives the superoxide RbO. Rubidium forms salts with halides, producing rubidium fluoride, rubidium chloride, rubidium bromide, and rubidium iodide.
Rubidium | Compounds
The Berlin group started by irradiating uranium salt with neutrons from a radon-beryllium source similar to the one that Fermi had used. They dissolved it and added potassium perrhenate, platinum chloride and sodium hydroxide. What remained was then acidified with hydrogen sulphide, resulting in platinum sulphide and rhenium sulphide precipitation. Fermi had noted four radioactive isotopes with the longest-lived having 13- and 90-minute half-lives, and these were detected in the precipitate. The Berlin group then tested for protactinium by adding protactinium-234 to the solution. When this was precipitated, it was found to be separated from the 13- and 90-minute half-life isotopes, demonstrating that von Grosse was incorrect, and they were not isotopes of protactinium.
Discovery of nuclear fission | Research
Heinrich Rose (6 August 1795 – 27 January 1864) was a German mineralogist and analytical chemist. He was the brother of the mineralogist Gustav Rose and a son of Valentin Rose. Rose's early works on phosphorescence were noted in the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1821, and on the strength of these works, he was elected privatdozent at the University of Berlin from 1822, then Professor from 1832. In 1846 Rose rediscovered the chemical element niobium, proving conclusively that it was different from tantalum. This confirmed that Charles Hatchett had discovered niobium in 1801 in columbite ore. Hatchett had named the new element "columbium", from the ore in which niobium and tantalium coexist.
Heinrich Rose | Introduction
Rubidium sulfide reacts with sulfur in hydrogen gas to form rubidium pentasulfide, RbS.
Rubidium sulfide | Chemical properties
Rhenium ( meaning: "Rhine") was the second last-discovered of the elements that have a stable isotope (other new elements discovered in nature since then, such as francium, are radioactive). The existence of a yet-undiscovered element at this position in the periodic table had been first predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Other calculated information was obtained by Henry Moseley in 1914. In 1908, Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it "nipponium" (Np) after Japan ("Nippon" in Japanese). However, recent analysis indicated the presence of rhenium (element 75), not element 43, although this reinterpretation has been questioned by Eric Scerri.
Rhenium | History
The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in February 1932. In April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split lithium atoms with accelerated protons. Enrico Fermi and his team in Rome conducted experiments involving the bombardment of elements by slow neutrons, which produced heavier elements and isotopes. Then, in December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at Hahn's laboratory in Berlin-Dahlem bombarded uranium with slowed neutrons, and discovered that barium had been produced, and therefore that the uranium atomic nucleus had been split. Hahn wrote to his colleague Lise Meitner, who, with her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, developed a theoretical justification which they published in "Nature" in 1939.
Tube Alloys | Discovery of fission
Finally, Richard Pribram from the University of Czernowitz set out to settle the question. He was able to conclude that Linnemann's austrium did not constitute a new element but was – as already presumed by Lecoq – nothing but gallium. At the same time Pribram himself surmised that he might have found unidentified spectral lines of yet another new element, for which he as a homage to Linnemann again proposed the name austrium. But also these claims could not be substantiated in further investigations.
Austrium | Introduction
Rubidium-82 (Rb) is a radioactive isotope of rubidium. Rb is widely used in myocardial perfusion imaging. This isotope undergoes rapid uptake by myocardiocytes, which makes it a valuable tool for identifying myocardial ischemia in Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging. Rb is used in the pharmaceutical industry and is marketed as Rubidium-82 chloride under the trade names RUBY-FILL and CardioGen-82.
Rubidium-82 | Introduction
Hippolyte-Victor Collet-Descotils (November 21, 1773 in Caen – December 6, 1815 in Paris) was a French chemist. He studied in the École des Mines de Paris, and was a student and friend of Louis Nicolas Vauquelin. He is best known for confirming the discovery of chromium by Vauquelin, and for independently discovering iridium in 1803. In 1806, Collet-Descotils misidentified erythronium, a new element discovered in Mexico by Andrés Manuel del Río, thinking that it was chromium. This resulted in Alexander von Humboldt rejecting Del Río's discovery. The same element was rediscovered thirty years later in Sweden and renamed as vanadium.
Hippolyte-Victor Collet-Descotils | Introduction
The initial discovery was quite serendipitous. Rosenberg was looking into the effects of an electric field on the growth of bacteria. He noticed that bacteria ceased to divide when placed in an electric field and eventually traced the cause of this phenomenon to the platinum electrode he was using.
Barnett Rosenberg | Introduction
In 1996, the Russian team proposed the name "becquerelium" after Henri Becquerel. The American team in 1997 proposed the name "hahnium" after Otto Hahn (previously this name had been used for element 105). The name "darmstadtium" (Ds) was suggested by the GSI team in honor of the city of Darmstadt, where the element was discovered. The GSI team originally also considered naming the element "wixhausium", after the suburb of Darmstadt known as Wixhausen where the element was discovered, but eventually decided on "darmstadtium". "Policium" had also been proposed as a joke due to the emergency telephone number in Germany being 1-1-0.
Darmstadtium | Naming
References to the word "neutron" in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however.
Discovery of the neutron | Rutherford atom
In 1910, radium was isolated as a pure metal by Curie and André-Louis Debierne also by electrolysis.
Alkaline earth metal | Discovery
She has been investigating collisions between ammonia and rubidium. In 2013 she took part in a Royal Society International Exchange Fellowship, working at Imperial College London. She was made a Fulbright Program scholar in 2018 and joined the University of Leeds.
Heather Lewandowski | Research
This caused ambiguity at times. He proposed that the element tellerium had an atomic weight of 125 atomic mass units, although he acknowledged that his evaluation of tellerium could be based on mixtures of metals. Later, Brauner obtained samples of the substance referred to as didymium. In 1882, he was able to use spectroscopy to observe two groups of absorption bands, one blue (A = 449–443) and one yellow (A = 590–568). He concluded that didymium was actually a mixture of two rare earth elements. However, it was Carl Auer von Welsbach who recognized that didymium was actually a mixture of the two rare earth elements praseodymium and neodymium, the discovery occurring in 1885.
Bohuslav Brauner | Scientific contributions
In 1947, Hulubei's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Paneth, who would later chair the IUPAC committee responsible for recognition of new elements. Even though Hulubei's samples did contain astatine, his means to detect it were too weak, by current standards, to enable correct identification. He had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 (francium) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work. In 1940, the Swiss chemist Walter Minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium A (polonium-218), choosing the name "helvetium" (from , the Latin name of Switzerland).
Astatine | History
Based on the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy, this was an isotope of the missing element, which they named "brevium" after its short half life. However, it was a beta emitter, and therefore could not be the mother isotope of actinium. This had to be another isotope of the same element. Hahn and Meitner set out to find the missing mother isotope. They developed a new technique for separating the tantalum group from pitchblende, which they hoped would speed the isolation of the new isotope. The work was interrupted by the First World War. Meitner became an X-ray nurse, working in Austrian Army hospitals, but she returned to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in October 1916.
Otto Hahn | Discovery of protactinium
The Baltic German naturalist and chemist Karl Ernst Claus, member of the Russian Academy of Science, was born in 1796 in Dorpat (Tartu), then in the Governorate of Livonia of the Russian Empire, now in Estonia. In 1844, he isolated the element ruthenium from platinum ore found in the Ural Mountains and named it with the neuter form of the Latin name for the Rus'.
Ruthenia | Ruthenium
Some authors credit Cruickshank with first suspecting an unknown substance in a Scottish mineral, strontianite, found near Strontian, in Argyleshire. Other authors name Adair Crawford for the discovery of this new earth, due to the mineral's property of imparting a redding color to a flame. It was later isolated by Humphry Davy and is now known as strontium.
William Cruickshank (chemist) | Strontium
When rubidium is intercalated, the NbSe layers separate to accommodate it. Each individual layer is also compressed slightly. The Nb-Se distance stays the same, but the Nb-Nb distance in the layer increases. The Se-Se distance on top and bottom of the layer decreases, and the Nb-Se-Nb angle increases. Extra electron density transfers from the Rb atoms to the niobium layer.
Niobium diselenide | Rubidium
Separating radium from the barium in the ore proved very difficult. It took three years for them to produce a tenth of a gram of radium chloride, and they never did manage to isolate polonium. In 1898, Ernest Rutherford noted that thorium gave off a radioactive gas. In examining the radiation, he classified Becquerel radiation into two types, which he called α (alpha) and β (beta) radiation. Subsequently, Paul Villard discovered a third type of Becquerel radiation which, following Rutherford's scheme, were called "gamma rays", and Curie noted that radium also produced a radioactive gas. Identifying the gas chemically proved frustrating; Rutherford and Frederick Soddy found it to be inert, much like argon.
Discovery of nuclear fission | Radioactivity
The following table has parameters for RbRb the most common for the natural element.
Dirubidium | Molecular constants for excited states
In 1925 in Germany, Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg reported that they detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928 they were able to extract 1 gram of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite.
Otto Berg (scientist) | Rhenium
Inscrip. Lat." vol. v. Berlin, 1877, p. 828).
Clastidium | Introduction
Martin Heinrich Klaproth discovered zirconium when analyzing the zircon containing mineral jargoon in 1789. He deduced that the mineral contained a new element and named it after the already known Zirkonerde (zirconia). However, he failed to isolate the newly discovered zirconium. Cornish chemist Humphry Davy also attempted to isolate this new element in 1808 through electrolysis, but failed. In 1824, Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius isolated an impure form of zirconium, obtained by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in an iron tube.
Group 4 element | Zirconium
In 1963, M. H. Hey proposed using iridosmine for hexagonal specimens with 32% < Os < 80%, osmiridium for cubic specimens with Os < 32% and native osmium for specimens Os > 80% (the would-be mineral native iridium of >80% purity was not known at that time). In 1973, Harris and Cabri defined the following names for Os-Ir-Ru alloys: ruthenosmiridium was applied to cubic Os-Ir-Ru alloys, where Ir < 80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) and Ru > 10% of (Os+Ir+Ru) with no single other element >10% of the total; Rutheniridosmine was applied to cubic Os-Ir-Ru alloys, where Os < 80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) and Ru is 10–80% of (Os+Ir+Ru) with no single other element >10% of the total; the Ru-Os alloys be known as ruthenian osmium (>50% Os), osmian ruthenium (>50% Ru); the Ru-Ir alloys be known as iridian ruthenium and ruthenian iridium where the boundary between them is defined by the alloy's miscibility gap (a minimum 57% Ir for ruthenian iridium and a minimum of 55% Ru for iridian ruthenium).
Osmiridium | Nomenclature
Rubidium perchlorate, RbClO, is the perchlorate of rubidium. It is an oxidizing agent, as are all perchlorates.
Rubidium perchlorate | Introduction
Obrium rubidum is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by John Lawrence LeConte in 1850.
Obrium rubidum | Introduction
His group had responsibility for characterizing radioactive isotopes created by the fission of uranium and for developing a process for chemical separation of plutonium. In 1945 he was a member of the Clinton Laboratories team, with Jacob Marinsky and Lawrence E. Glendenin, that isolated the previously undocumented rare-earth element 61. Marinsky and Glendenin produced this element (later named "promethium") both by extraction from fission products and by bombarding neodymium with neutrons. They isolated it using ion-exchange chromatography. Publication of the finding was delayed until later due to the war. Marinsky and Glendenin announced the discovery at a meeting of the American Chemical Society in September 1947.
Charles D. Coryell | Introduction
It was not long before Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring discovered it as a decay product of a beta-emitting product of thorium. Based on the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy, this was an isotope of the missing element, which they named "brevium" after its short half-life. However, it was a beta emitter, and therefore could not be the mother isotope of actinium. This had to be another isotope. Two scientists at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (KWI) in Berlin-Dahlem took up the challenge of finding the missing isotope. Otto Hahn had graduated from the University of Marburg as an organic chemist, but had been a post-doctoral researcher at University College London under Sir William Ramsay, and under Rutherford at McGill University, where he had studied radioactive isotopes.
Discovery of nuclear fission | Protactinium