Every emotional response has a behavioral component, an autonomic component, and a hormonal component. The hormonal component includes the release of adrenaline, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear. In an experiment, subjects who were injected with adrenaline expressed more negative and fewer positive facial expressions to fear films compared to a control group. These subjects also reported a more intense fear from the films and greater mean intensity of negative memories than control subjects. The findings from this study demonstrate that there are learned associations between negative feelings and levels of adrenaline.
Emotional response
Adrenaline
Adrenaline | Emotional response
Fear. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear. Release of adrenaline, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear.
the primary high energy molecule in human metabolism is
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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what is catabolism?
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It is the set of metabolic processes that breaks down large molecules.
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which hormones are related to it?
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Cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline, cytokines, orexin and melatonin.
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what is the emotional response due to the third one?
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Every emotional response has a behavioral component, an autonomic component, and a hormonal component. The hormonal component includes the release of adrenaline, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear. In an experiment, subjects who were injected with adrenaline expressed more negative and fewer positive facial expressions to fear films compared to a control group. These subjects also reported a more intense fear from the films and greater mean intensity of negative memories than control subjects. The findings from this study demonstrate that there are learned associations between negative feelings and levels of adrenaline.
Adrenaline | Emotional response
Findings support the idea that adrenaline does have a role in facilitating the encoding of emotionally arousing events, contributing to higher levels of arousal due to fear.
Adrenaline | Emotional response
Overall, the greater amount of adrenaline is positively correlated with an arousal state of negative feelings. These findings can be an effect in part that adrenaline elicits physiological sympathetic responses including an increased heart rate and knee shaking, which can be attributed to the feeling of fear regardless of the actual level of fear elicited from the video. Although studies have found a definite relation between adrenaline and fear, other emotions have not had such results. In the same study, subjects did not express a greater amusement to an amusement film nor greater anger to an anger film. Similar findings were also supported in a study that involved rodent subjects that either were able or unable to produce adrenaline.
Adrenaline | Emotional response
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.
Fight-or-flight response | Reaction
Emotion constitutes a major influence for determining human behaviors. It is thought that emotions are predictable and are rooted in different areas in our brains, depending on what emotion it evokes. An emotional response can be divided into three major categories including behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal. Emotion activates several areas of the brain inside the limbic system and varies per emotion: Several hormones are secreted in response to emotions and vary from general emotional tuning to specific hormones released from certain emotions alone:
Physiological psychology | Emotion
Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) "Gut Reactions".
Emotion | Two-factor theory
Physiological responses to emotion originate in the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system. Some of the responses include: heart rate, sweating, rate and depth of respiration, and electrical activity in the brain. Many researchers have attempted to find a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, although it is said that these attempts have rendered unsuccessful conclusions.
Emotionality | Emotion as physiological
Emotional responses include but are not limited to facial expressions and neurophysiological activities. For example, people display a “smile” when exposed to positive stimuli and a “frown” when exposed to negative stimuli. The feeling associated with emotion is called an affect, which can be categorized by valence and arousal. Valence describes the degree to which the feeling is a pleasure or displeasure. Arousal describes the degree to which a person is awoken by outside stimuli.
Emotional responsivity | Introduction
Main Article: Adrenaline See the Adrenaline: Emotional response and Memory sections for more information on how adrenaline affects behavior.
Behavioral endocrinology | Adrenaline
For example, the same visceral responses such as increased heart rate, sweating, widening of the pupils, and the discharge of adrenaline can be associated with the experience of fear or anger. However, they are also connected to conditions such as fever, feeling cold, and having difficulty breathing. Therefore, the physical emotional responses that had so far been documented are too general to be linked to a specific emotion.
James–Lange theory | Early criticism
When presented with a "cute" stimulus, the natural response is often positive, which is linked to activity within the hippocampus located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain. Dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin are all released during a pleasurable situation and are thus involved in neurological reward pathways. CTH, ACTH, cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline are all involved in the aggressive side of the response. When exposed to a stimulus, the emotions experienced activate the amygdala in the brain, eventually activating the hypothalamus which will, in turn, release CTH which travels via the infundibulum in order to bind to receptors allowing for the release of ACTH into the bloodstream, which will bind to receptors in the adrenal glands, which will release cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline as a stress response.
Cute aggression | Emotion regulation
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a role in emotion perception through its mediation of the physiological stress response. This occurs through the release of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor, also known as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), from nerve terminals in the median eminence arising in the paraventricular nucleus, which stimulates adrenocorticotropin release from the anterior pituitary that in turn induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex. This progressive process culminating in the release of glucocorticoids to environmental stimuli is believed to be initiated by the amygdala, which evaluates the emotional significance of observed phenomena. Released glucocorticoids provide negative feedback on the system and also the hippocampus, which in turn regulates the shutting off of this biological stress response.
Emotion perception | HPA axis
Researchers are unsure what causes low emotional arousal. Researchers have proposed three theories that could account for the low emotional arousal. The first theory stresses that emotional arousal is highly genetic. Secondly, some with low emotional arousal show underarousal of the hypothalamus pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA is responsible for the body's stress response. Because there is thought to be underarousal of the HPA axis, studies have shown that this causes reduced secretion of epinephrine and cortisol. These two hormones are responsible for the physiological response to a threat. Third, low emotion arousal often elicits hypoactivity of the amygdala. The amygdala in the brain is part of the limbic system, and is responsible for processing and regulating emotions.
Low arousal theory | Causes
In a crisis, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus, suppressing appetite and triggering the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. These steroid hormones increase appetite and, unlike CRH, remain in the bloodstream for a prolonged period of time, often resulting in hyperphagia. Those who experience this biologically instigated increase in appetite during times of stress are therefore primed to rely on emotional eating as a coping mechanism.
Emotional eating | Major theories behind eating to cope
One factor which influences the AB is emotional information. When the second target (T2) in an RSVP stream is an emotionally relevant stimulus it is more likely to be perceived during the period during which the AB typically occurs. The AB is not only modulated by emotional relevance of (T2) but also by the emotional relevance of (T1). When (T1) is emotionally relevant the AB is lengthened and when (T2) is emotionally relevant, the AB is reduced. This suggests that emotion can mediate attention.
Attentional blink | Emotion
The three-factor theory of emotion proposed by Zillmann is an advancement of Schachter's two-factor theory model, which proposed that emotion and emotional excitation was the product of both one's interoception of internal physiological stimuli (e.g. blushing, sweating or shaking etc.) and the environmental stimuli (e.g. media, people or danger etc.) which one is currently engaged with. This cognitive approach to emotion emphasised context specific emotional appraisal and cognition in relation to the stimuli present in the environment along with the internal states one experiences to cognitively formulate the most appropriate emotional response in a particular circumstance. In Schachter's two-factor theory, as Reisenzein (1984) posits "physiological arousal is necessary for the experience of an emotion (feeling), but not for emotion-related behaviour.
Dolf Zillmann | Three-Factor Theory of Emotion
Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion.
Emotion | Two-factor theory
This rapid increase of cortisol in the blood plasma can induce feelings of euphoria, which may explain the initial "rush" of falling in love. Studies show that ACTH can in turn stimulate NGF secretion in both the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus.
Nerve growth factor | Romantic love
The significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions. Common-sense suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that the physiological responses follow shortly after. Below are a few well-known theories which contradict this common-sense theory:
Emotionality | Theories of emotional response
These results led to the conclusion that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of a two-stage process: first, physiological arousal in a response to an evoking stimulus, and second, cognitive elaboration of the context in which the stimulus occurred.
Emotion perception | Two-factor theory
The third physiological response results in the release of thyrotropic hormone-release factor (TRF) which results in the release of thyrotropic hormone (TTH). TTH stimulates the release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine from the thyroid. This results in an increased basal metabolic rate (BMR). This effect is not as immediate as the other two, and can take days to weeks to become prevalent.
Effects of stress on memory | Thyroxine axis
The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high or low ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in the central nervous system. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of adrenaline precursors by enhancing the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, two key enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing adrenaline synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress. The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of adrenaline.
Adrenaline | Regulation
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.
Fight-or-flight response | Emotional reactivity
The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part. This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
Fight-or-flight response | Introduction
The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.
Fight-or-flight response | Introduction
Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:
Fight-or-flight response | Reaction
This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system. Once the person is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation. Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things.
Fear | Neurocircuit in mammals
Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), some dopamine, enkephalin and enkephalin-containing peptides, and a few other hormones into the blood stream. The secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline play an important role in the sympathetic nervous system response, commonly called the fight-or-flight response. The enkephalins and enkephalin-containing peptides are related to, but distinct from endogenous peptides named endorphins (which are secreted from the pituitary); all of these peptides bind to opioid receptors and produce analgesic (and other) responses. The hormones are secreted from chromaffin granules; this is where the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase catalyses the conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline.
Chromaffin cell | Function
1.) The "Alarm Action" - heart rate increases, blood sugar levels rise, pupils dilate, and digestion slows. 2.) The "Resistance" or "Adaptive" stage - The body attempts to repair the damage which caused the emergency arousal 3.) The "Exhaustion Stage" - The body grows ill; Mentally, possibly by neurosis or even psychotic disturbances, or physically, having the possibility to trigger several kinds of cardiovascular and kidney diseases, and Quite commonly, certain forms of asthma.
Ecophenotypic variation | Humans
The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression. As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity.
Classical conditioning | Conditioned emotional response
Cortisol is released from the adrenal glands following activation by ACTH release from the pituitary. The ACTH release creating the cortisol awakening response is strongly inhibited after intake of a low-dose dexamethasone. This is a synthetic glucocorticoid and this inhibition allows the detection of the presence of negative feedback from circulating cortisol that controls to ACTH-secreting cells of the pituitary. In the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis the pituitary release of ACTH is regulated by the hypothalamus. This occurs through the hypothalamus's production of the hypophysiotropic hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone, the production of which is subject to circadian influence and the day/night cycle. In the cortisol awakening response, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is controlled by the hippocampus.
Cortisol awakening response | Neurology
Men and women also respond to emotional stimuli differently and this may affect cortisol levels. This was also the first Functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI) study done utilising glucocorticoids, therefore more research is necessary to further substantiate these findings.
Explicit memory | Neurochemical factors of stress on the brain
A third emotional effect is the "fear of missing out" (FOMO), which is defined as the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent". FOMO has been classified by some as a form of social anxiety. It is associated with checking updates on friends' activities on social media. Some speculate that checking updates on friends' activities on social media may be associate It has negative influences on people's psychological health and well-being because it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings.
Social media | Emotional Effects
An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response. Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M.). This impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures.
Fear | Mechanism
If the startle response is strongly elicited through surprise then it will bring on the fight-or-flight response, which is a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival that causes a release of adrenaline for a boost of energy as a means to escape or fight. This response generally has a negative valence in terms of surprise. Surprise has one core appraisal-appraising something as new and unexpected-but new appraisals can shift the experience of surprise to another. Appraising an event as new predicts surprise, but the appraisal of the coping mechanism predicts the response beyond surprise, such as confusion or interest.
Surprise (emotion) | Physiological responses
Emotional responsivity is the ability to acknowledge an affective stimuli by exhibiting emotion. Increased emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating more response to a stimulus. Reduced emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating less response to a stimulus. Any response exhibited after exposure to the stimulus, whether it is appropriate or not, would be considered as an emotional response. Although emotional responsivity applies to nonclinical populations, it is more typically associated with individuals with schizophrenia and autism. Emotional responsivity is connected to broader psychology concepts about emotions. People exhibit emotions in response to outside stimuli. Positive affective stimuli trigger feelings of pleasure such as happiness; negative affective stimuli trigger feelings of displeasure such as disgust and fear.
Emotional responsivity | Introduction
Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is also used commonly to respond to both internal and external changes. One common cause of the release of this hormone is the Fight-or-flight response. When the body encounters an external stimulus that is potentially dangerous, epinephrine is released from the adrenal glands. Epinephrine causes physiological changes in the body, such as constriction of blood vessels, dilation of pupils, increased heart and respiratory rate, and the metabolism of glucose. All of these responses to a single stimuli aid in protecting the individual, whether the decision is made to stay and fight, or run away and avoid danger.
Stimulus (physiology) | Epinephrine
Adrenaline is a hormone and neurotransmitter also known as epinephrine. Adrenaline or adrenalin may also refer to:
Adrenaline (disambiguation) | Introduction
Resistance is the second stage. During this stage, increased secretion of glucocorticoids intensifies the body's systemic response. Glucocorticoids can increase the concentration of glucose, fat, and amino acid in blood. In high doses, one glucocorticoid, cortisol, begins to act similarly to a mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and brings the body to a state similar to hyperaldosteronism. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. The body attempts to respond to stressful stimuli, but after prolonged activation, the body's chemical resources will be gradually depleted, leading to the final stage.
Stress (biology) | Stage 2
Anger is associated with blood flow in the body shifting away from internal organs towards the limbs, physiologically preparing individuals for movement towards the cause of anger. Even when locomotion or physical confrontation is not required to address an unjust actor or event, the high arousal and emotional sensitivity associated with anger tend to motivate individuals to confront the issue. Emotional responses tend to diminish once the emotion elicitor, or the environmental cause of the emotion, changes, suggesting that emotions at the individual level function to evoke some sort of action or behavior to address the elicitor. For example, anger typically diminishes following an apology or the perception that justice has been restored.
Functional accounts of emotion | Intrapersonal functions
These changes indicate structural change follows stress hormone elevation.
Apical dendrite | Stress response and <a href="PTSD">PTSD</a>
Drug use, an example of response modulation, can be a way to alter emotion-associated physiological responses. For example, alcohol can produce sedative and anxiolytic effects and beta blockers can affect sympathetic activation.
Emotional self-regulation | Drug use
In a study that induced sadness in subjects by showing emotional film clips, the feeling was correlated with significant increases in regional brain activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex, in the region called Brodmann's area 9, and the thalamus. A significant increase in activity was also observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures.
Sadness | Neuroanatomy
The body responds to stress in many ways. Readjusting chemical levels is just one of them. Here are some examples of adjustments and changes. In terms of measuring the body's response to stress, psychologists tend to use Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome. This model is also often referred to as the classic stress response, and it revolves around the concept of homeostasis. General adaptive syndrome occurs in three stages: This physiological stress response involves high levels of sympathetic nervous system activation, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. The response involves pupil dilation, release of endorphins, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins.
Psychological stress | Physical effects
Epigenetic mechanisms may also be relevant to the intrauterine environment. Mothers with PTSD produced infants with lower salivary cortisol levels only if the traumatic exposure occurred during the third trimester of gestation. These changes occur via transmission of hormonal responses to the fetus leading to a reprogramming of the glucocorticoid responsivity in the offspring.
Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder | Epigenetics
Tears are made up of three layers: lipid, aqueous, and mucous. Tears are composed of water, salts, antibodies, and lysozymes (antibacterial enzymes), though composition varies among different tear types. The composition of tears caused by emotion differs from that of tears as a reaction to irritants, such as onion fumes, dust, or allergy. Emotional tears contain higher concentrations of stress hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone and leucine enkephalin (a natural pain killer), which suggests that emotional tears play a biological role in balancing stress hormone levels.
Tears | Chemical composition
The autonomic activity produced distinguished not only between positive and negative emotions, but also among negative emotions". However, as more studies were conducted, more variability was found in ANS responses to discrete emotion inductions, not only among individuals but also over time in the same individuals, and greatly between social groups. Some of these differences can be attributed to variables like induction technique, context of the study, or classification of stimuli, which can alter a perceived scenario or emotional response. However it was also found that features of the participant could also alter ANS responses. Factors such as basal level of arousal at the time of experimentation or between test recovery, learned or conditioned responses to certain stimuli, range and maximal level of effect of ANS action, and individual attentiveness can all alter physiological responses in a lab setting.
Psychophysiology | Emotion
It has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses to discrete emotional states. For example, anger might be constituted by a certain set of physiological responses, such as increased cardiac output and high diastolic blood pressure, which would allow us to better understand patterns and predict emotional responses. Some studies were able to detect consistent patterns of ANS responses that corresponded to specific emotions under certain contexts, like an early study by Paul Ekman and colleagues in 1983 "Emotion-specific activity in the autonomic nervous system was generated by constructing facial prototypes of emotion muscle by muscle and by reliving past emotional experiences.
Psychophysiology | Emotion
In the brain, reception of a signal for a stressor by the hypothalamus leads to an increase in activity of the sympathoadrenal system, essentially within the nerves that send signals to the adrenal glands. This is done through the activation by the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), also known as the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Increased activity of the adrenal nerves is done through the receptors for the corticotropin-releasing factor within the ganglia within the sympathetic nervous system. Corticotropin-releasing factors travel to the pituitary gland, where they activate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The release of the adrenocorticotropic hormone is determined by the release of the corticotropin-releasing factor as the interruption of the corticotropin-releasing factor causes a weakening of the adrenocorticotropic hormone response.
Sympathoadrenal system | Stress
The third ventricle hypothesis of depression proposes that the behavioural cluster associated with depression (hunched posture, avoidance of eye contact, reduced appetites for food and sex plus social withdrawal and sleep disturbance) serves to reduce an individual's attack-provoking stimuli within the context of a chronically hostile social environment. It further proposes that this response is mediated by the acute release of an unknown (probably cytokine) inflammatory agent into the third ventricular space. In support of this suggestion imaging studies reveal that the third ventricle is enlarged in depressives.
Evolutionary approaches to depression | The third ventricle hypothesis
Rather than releasing a neurotransmitter, the cells of the adrenal medulla secrete hormones. The adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine into the catecholamines; epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Because the ANS, specifically the sympathetic division, exerts direct control over the chromaffin cells the hormone release can occur rather quickly. In response to stressors such as exercise or imminent danger, medullary cells release the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood. Adrenaline composes about 85% of the released catecholamines, and noradrenaline the other 15%.
Adrenal medulla | Function
The adrenal medulla is a minor contributor to total circulating catecholamines (-DOPA is at a higher concentration in the plasma), though it contributes over 90% of circulating adrenaline. Little adrenaline is found in other tissues, mostly in scattered chromaffin cells, and in a small number of neurons which use adrenaline as a neurotransmitter. Following adrenalectomy, adrenaline disappears below the detection limit in the blood stream. Pharmacological doses of adrenaline stimulate α, α, β, β, and β adrenoceptors of the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nerve receptors are classified as adrenergic, based on their responsiveness to adrenaline. The term "adrenergic" is often misinterpreted in that the main sympathetic neurotransmitter is noradrenaline, rather than adrenaline, as discovered by Ulf von Euler in 1946.
Adrenaline | Physiological effects
By contrast, negatively valenced words stimulated greater activation in the right supramarginal gyrus in males, while greater activation in the left part of the hippocampus with negative stimuli. Therefore, different brain regions in males and females could allude to differential responses emotional processing in intimate situations.
Neuroanatomy of intimacy | Emotional processing
The amygdala, located in the temporal lobe, is a key brain region involved in the conditioned fear response and contributes to the autonomic, hormonal, and behavioral factors associated with that response. According to studies by Coover, Murison, & Jellestad and Davis and LeDoux in 1992, when a dog's amygdala is damaged, it does not show fear, and, when tamed by human beings, the dog's stress hormone levels in the blood are lower than they are in a normal dog. Similarly, humans become less likely to report feelings of fear after their amygdala has been damaged due to injury or stroke.
Conditioned emotional response | Neurological Origin
When a horse reacts to a threat, it may initially "freeze" in preparation to take flight. The fight-or-flight reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously and releases the neurotransmitters epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure and blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. Catecholamine hormones, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action.
Horse behavior | The "fight-or-flight" response
With this increase in arousal, certain areas of the brain are inhibited. The combination of an increase in emotional arousal and the inhibition of parts of the brain leads to emotional reasoning.
Emotional reasoning | Origin
It was found that there was greater activation in the bilateral anterior superior temporal gyrus and bilateral fusiform gyrus when it came to emotional stimuli. The amygdala has been connected with the automatic evaluation of threat, facial valence information, and trustworthiness of faces.
Social cue | Brain regions involved in processing
The term conditioned emotional response (CER) can refer to a specific learned behavior or a procedure commonly used in classical or Pavlovian conditioning research. It may also be called "conditioned suppression" or "conditioned fear response (CFR)." It is an "emotional response" that results from classical conditioning, usually from the association of a relatively neutral stimulus with a painful or fear-inducing unconditional stimulus. As a result, the formerly neutral stimulus elicits fear. For example, if seeing a dog (a neutral stimulus) is paired with the pain of being bitten by the dog (unconditioned stimulus), seeing a dog may become a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear (conditioned response).
Conditioned emotional response | Introduction
Hormones also play a part in stress management. Cortisol, a stress hormone, was found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. In females, however, cortisol levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in limbic activity was discovered. Many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men administer a fight-or-flight reaction to stress; whereas, females have a tend-and-befriend reaction. The "fight-or-flight" response activates the sympathetic nervous system in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. Conversely, the "tend-and-befriend" reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and relatives. Although these two reactions support a genetic basis to differences in behavior, one should not assume that in general females cannot implement "fight-or-flight" behavior or that males cannot implement "tend-and-befriend" behavior.
Coping | Physiological basis
The main concepts of the Cannon–Bard theory are that emotional expression results from the function of hypothalamic structures, and emotional feeling results from stimulations of the dorsal thalamus. The physiological changes and subjective feeling of an emotion in response to a stimulus are separate and independent; arousal does not have to occur before the emotion. Thus, the thalamic region is attributed a major role in this theory of emotion. The theory is therefore also referred to as the thalamic theory of emotion.
Cannon–Bard theory | Introduction
In males, the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, cingulate cortex, insula, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, hypothalamus, and cerebellum were shown to be activated. In females, activations in the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were noted. Male activations were greater in the precentral gyrus, insula, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum, while women shower greater activations in the visual cortex, angular gyrus, and thalamus. Regions in the female brain have been implicated in detection of intention, deception, and trustworthiness of others. It is ultimately suggested that the different emotional processing in males and females contributes to the different responses in issues in intimate relationships.
Neuroanatomy of intimacy | Emotional infidelity
If, however, the amygdala does not find any match to the stimulus received with its recorded threatening situations, then it acts according to the directions received from the neocortex. When the amygdala perceives a threat, it can lead that person to react irrationally and destructively. Goleman states that emotions "make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?" The emotional response "can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened." An amygdala hijack exhibits three signs: strong emotional reaction, sudden onset, and post-episode realization if the reaction was inappropriate.
Amygdala hijack | Definition
The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is an increase between 38% and 75% in cortisol levels peaking 30–45 minutes "after" awakening in the morning in some people. This rise is superimposed upon the late-night rise in cortisol which occurs "before" awakening. While its purpose is uncertain, it may be linked to the hippocampus' preparation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) in order to face anticipated stress.
Cortisol awakening response | Introduction
Activation of the H receptor results in the following physiological responses:
Histamine H2 receptor | Physiological responses
This condition was expected to use cues to explain their physiological change. In the epinephrine ignorant group, the experimenters did not explain to the subjects what symptoms they might feel. This group was expected to use cues to explain their physiological change. The epinephrine misinformed group was told that they would probably feel their feet go numb, and have an itching sensation over parts of their body, and a slight headache. This group was expected to use cues around them for their physiological change. The control group was injected with a placebo and was given no side effects to expect.
Two-factor theory of emotion | Empirical support
People often say they feel their "hair standing on end" when they are frightened or in awe. In an extremely stressful situation, the body can employ the "fight or flight" response. As the body prepares itself for either fighting or running, the sympathetic nervous system floods the blood with adrenaline (epinephrine), a hormone that speeds up heart rate, metabolism, and body temperature in the presence of extreme stress. Then the sympathetic nervous system also causes the piloerection reflex, which makes the muscles attached to the base of each hair follicle contract and force the hair up.
Goose bumps | Intense emotion
The left anterior insula (AI) increasingly responds to increasingly fearful stimuli. The AI may also be involved in the conscious experience of emotion.
Emotional lateralization | Anterior insula (AI)
Cortisol works with adrenaline (epinephrine) to create memories of short-term emotional events; this is the proposed mechanism for storage of flash bulb memories, and may originate as a means to remember what to avoid in the future. However, long-term exposure to cortisol damages cells in the hippocampus; this damage results in impaired learning.
Cortisol | Memory
Response modulation involves attempts to directly influence experiential, behavioral, and physiological response systems.
Emotional self-regulation | Response modulation
Barry Singer presented a model of the process of sexual arousal in 1984, in which he conceptualized human sexual response to be composed of "three independent but generally sequential components". The first stage, "aesthetic response," is an emotional reaction to noticing an attractive face or figure. This emotional reaction produces an increase in attention toward the object of attraction, typically involving head and eye movements toward the attractive object. The second stage, "approach response," progresses from the first and involves bodily movements towards the object. The final "genital response" stage recognizes that with both attention and closer proximity, physical reactions result in genital tumescence.
Sexual arousal | Singer's model of sexual arousal
Watching emotionally negative situations most significantly activates the right amygdala. This study indicates that lateral processing of emotions extends beyond the basic emotions to higher cognitive responses. Depression or having previously been depressed probably is due to altered brain structure or alters brain structure. Patients who have been depressed or are depressed show more activation to negative stimuli in emotion. When negative stimuli were presented to patients' right hemispheres, the patients were significantly more accurate and quicker to respond to the stimuli. The data in this study shows that psychological disorders are correlated with increased lateralization.
Emotional lateralization | Behavioral differences and cortical activation
A study in Hong Kong of children's reactions to messages from their mothers found that children are most receptive to I-messages that reveal distress, and most antagonistic towards critical you-messages. A study with university students as subjects did not find differences in emotional reactions to I-messages and you-messages for negative emotions, but did find differences in reactions for positive emotions. A study of self-reported emotional reactions to I-statements and you-statements by adolescents found that accusatory you-statements evoked greater anger and a greater inclination for antagonistic response than assertive I-statements.
I-message | Emotional reactions
In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were "secondary" to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, "is" the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be." An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear).
Emotion | James–Lange theory
For crying to be described as sobbing, it usually has to be accompanied by a set of other symptoms, such as slow but erratic inhalation, occasional instances of breath holding and muscular tremor. A neuronal connection between the lacrimal gland (tear duct) and the areas of the human brain involved with emotion has been established. Scientists debate over whether humans are the only animals that produce tears in response to emotional states. Charles Darwin wrote in "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" that the keepers of Indian elephants in the London Zoo told him that their charges shed tears in sorrow.
Crying | Introduction
In the anger condition the ranking was: epinephrine ignorant, placebo, epinephrine informed. Both results show that those participants who had no explanation of why their body felt as it did, were more susceptible to the confederate. These findings are considered to support the researchers' hypotheses.
Two-factor theory of emotion | Empirical support
Fear is not the only emotion that can be a result of misattribution of arousal. One of the earlier studies that focused on misattribution of arousal was done by Schachter and Singer in 1962. The researchers told the participants in their study that they were testing how their vision responded to a shot of vitamins called Suproxin. Suproxin was actually a shot of epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine activated the sympathetic nervous system and produced systems such as an elevated heart rate and blood pressure. The researchers then either told the participants the effects of the epinephrine, said nothing about any potential effects of the epinephrine, or told them they may feel some effects that had nothing to do with the epinephrine (for example, the researchers told the participants they could experience a headache from the shot).
Misattribution of arousal | Experiment: expansion on initial demonstration
Proposed in 1999 by Niedenthal et al., emotional response categorization theory proposes that emotional states provide a form of conceptual coherence in that any objects or events that pertain to an emotion are grouped together into categories. The theory consists of three claims:
Paula M. Niedenthal | Emotional response categorization theory
Emotional dysregulation (ED) is a term used in the mental health community that refers to emotional responses that are poorly modulated and do not lie within the accepted range of emotive response. Emotional dysregulation can be associated with an experience of early psychological trauma, brain injury, or chronic maltreatment (such as child abuse, child neglect, or institutional neglect/abuse), and associated disorders such as reactive attachment disorder. Emotional dysregulation may be present in people with psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, complex post-traumatic stress disorder, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. In such cases as borderline personality disorder and complex post-traumatic stress disorder, hypersensitivity to emotional stimuli causes a slower return to a normal emotional state.
Emotional dysregulation | Introduction
In experimental psychology the term "conditioned emotional response" refers to a phenomenon that is seen in classical conditioning after a conditioned stimulus (CS) has been paired with an emotion-producing unconditioned stimulus (US) such as electric shock. The conditioned emotional response is usually measured through its effect in suppressing an ongoing response. For example, a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning. Classical conditioning follows: in a series of trials the rat is exposed to a CS, often a light or a noise. Each CS is followed by the US, an electric shock. As an association between the CS and US develops, the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on.
Measures of conditioned emotional response | Introduction
In the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA Axis), corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is secreted by the hypothalamus in response to stress and other normal body processes. CRH then acts on the anterior pituitary and causes it to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol, which acts as a negative feedback indicator of the pathway. When an individual is exposed to stressful situations, the HPA axis activates the sympathetic nervous system and also increases the production of CRF, ACTH, and cortisol, which in turn increases blood glucose levels and suppresses the immune system. Increased expression of CRF has been found in the cerebrospinal fluid in depressed monkeys and rats, as well as individuals with depression.
Epigenetics of depression | Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
It is important to note that emotional response categorization is context dependent in that the resulting response depends greatly on an individuals past experiences.
Paula M. Niedenthal | Selective attention to emotional response
In humans, the stress response pathway consists of the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). The SAM system is a part of the sympathetic component of the autonomic nervous system. These systems are responsible for releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE), also known as the flight or fight response hormones. When epinephrine is released it will bind to various receptors in various target organs; this will exhibit multiple roles in the fight or flight mechanism. The HPA system is responsible for producing glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex; the main glucocorticoid in humans is the steroid hormone cortisol. In contrast to epinephrine, which takes a short amount of time for production, cortisol takes up to 25 minutes to reach peak levels.
Stress in early childhood | Stress response pathway in humans
"Emotions ran high in the premiere and there was much crying", stated Dahl, but noted that the dialogue, who he had previously been worried would be "too cutesy", was not bothering, and rather realistic, noting how the show is "smartly written." He also described the acting of Ellen Pompeo and Katherine Heigl as "worthy of attention."
Grey's Anatomy (season 3) | Critical response
Cortisol helps regulate the stress response via the negative feedback loop, which are activated when a person is subjected to specific situations that trigger the relationship between the emotionally charged memories of the traumatic event and the observable autonomic responses. Stress can also be considered a brain-body reaction due to external or internal cues this can include the environment as well as memory. The areas of the brain that communicate with one another are the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, and the hypothalamus. Through a series of feedback processes, the release of specific neurotransmitters as well as neuromodulators occurs.
Psychic numbing | Neuropsychophysiology
Cross-sectional research of cancer samples reveals some positive, negative and mixed links with emotional approach coping. Higher emotional processing and emotional expression in female cancer survivors was associated with higher positive emotions and lower negative emotions. In male cancer survivors, higher emotional processing has been linked to higher positive emotions and higher emotional expression has been linked with lower negative emotions and fewer intrusive thoughts. However, the links between emotional approach coping and psychological adjustment are not all positive some are negative or mixed. In one study of women who had received an abnormal result on an ovarian cancer screen, higher emotional processing was associated with higher intrusive thoughts and neither emotional processing nor emotional expression were associated with cancer-related post-traumatic growth.
Emotional approach coping | Cancer samples
Other striking functional dimorphisms are in the behavioral responses to ovarian steroids of the adult. Males and females respond to ovarian steroids in different ways, partly because the expression of estrogen-sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus is sexually dimorphic; i.e., estrogen receptors are expressed in different sets of neurons. Estrogen and progesterone can influence gene expression in particular neurons or induce changes in cell membrane potential and kinase activation, leading to diverse non-genomic cellular functions. Estrogen and progesterone bind to their cognate nuclear hormone receptors, which translocate to the cell nucleus and interact with regions of DNA known as hormone response elements (HREs) or get tethered to another transcription factor's binding site.
Hypothalamus | Responsiveness to ovarian steroids
Emotional well-being refers to the emotional quality an individual experiences. Emotional well-being is influenced by a variety of demographic, economic, and situational factors. For example, the onset of the COVID-19 outbreak, lowered emotional well-being by 74%. The implications of decreased emotional well-being are related to mental health concerns such as stress, depression, and anxiety. These in turn, contribute to physical health concerns such as digestive disorders, sleep disturbances, and general lack of energy. The profile of a person prone to emotional distress is likely someone with low self-esteem, pessimistic, emotionally sensitive, very self-critical…, people who need to constantly assert themselves through their emotions.
Emotional well-being | Introduction
An epidemiological study investigating behavioral, physiological, and molecular changes in the children of Holocaust survivors found epigenetic modifications of a glucocorticoid receptor gene, "Nr3c1". This is significant because glucocorticoid is a regulator of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and is known to affect stress response. These stress-related epigenetic changes were accompanied by other characteristics that indicated higher stress and anxiety in these offspring, including increased symptoms of PTSD, greater risk of anxiety, and higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol.
Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders | Holocaust
It has been found that adrenergic hormones, such as adrenaline, can produce retrograde enhancement of long-term memory in humans. The release of adrenaline due to emotionally stressful events, which is endogenous adrenaline, can modulate memory consolidation of the events, ensuring memory strength that is proportional to memory importance. Post-learning adrenaline activity also interacts with the degree of arousal associated with the initial coding. There is evidence that suggests adrenaline does have a role in long-term stress adaptation and emotional memory encoding specifically. Adrenaline may also play a role in elevating arousal and fear memory under particular pathological conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder.
Adrenaline | Memory
In humans, there are chromaffin cells in the adrenal glands (medulla) that get stimulated through the sympathetic nervous system during a stress response. These cells release the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE). Epinephrine and NE bind to receptors of target organs and instigate the fight or flight response. As an example, epinephrine increases heart rate and causes blood vessels to dilate in muscles and blood vessels to constrict in the skin and gut. This allows a sufficient amount of blood to access the brain and muscles. Also, epinephrine initiates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver, in turn increasing blood glucose levels.
Stress in early childhood | The sympathetic adrenomedullary system
The two main chemical messengers of the sympathoadrenal system are norepinephrine and epinephrine (also called noradrenaline and adrenaline respectively). These chemicals are created by the adrenal glands after receiving neuronal signals from the sympathetic nervous system. The different physiological effects of these chemicals depend on the particular tissue that it innervates. As part of the sympathoadrenal system, these chemicals act rapidly and dispel quickly as opposed to the longer lasting effect of hormones.
Sympathoadrenal system | Chemical messengers
Zillmann combined Schachter's cognitive approach to emotion with Hullian Drive Theory, particularly in regards to Hull's concept of 'excitational residues' in the cognitive process of emotional responses, implicating that both present and prior excitatory stimuli affect both excitatory levels and emotional cognition. However, Zilllmann argues that the individual is usually unable to recognise this residual effect of prior stimuli on current response, leading to a disproportionate response to a current stimulus. It is from this three-factor theory of emotion Zillmann would construct the foundation of his Excitation Transfer Theory, which he attributes as his most significant contribution to the field of media psychology.
Dolf Zillmann | Three-Factor Theory of Emotion
A study done by Loftis and Ross in 1974 looked at the effects of misattribution of arousal upon acquisition and extinction of a conditional emotional response. They conducted two experiments with 89 female undergraduates to show that misattribution procedures can alter physiological response to a conditioned source of a fear or arousal. The results suggested that self perception and attribution play a major role in emotional response.
Misattribution of arousal | Experiment: conditional emotional responses
"Early childhood attempts to cope with fear or rejection ... set up psychological patterns of behavior for the person's later life. Those behaviors in turn affect the biochemical imbalances in the brain's neuronal systems. Those altered imbalances in turn reinforce the behaviors, and the cycle feeds upon itself." "The body reacts biochemically to excessive stress as it attempts to regain its healthy dynamic balance" ; "In psychologically stressful situations, hormones may be brought into play to remedy the imbalance the body finds itself in." In the General Adaption Syndrome, which is the biological response to stress, there are three stages.
Ecophenotypic variation | Humans
The James–Lange theory describes how emotion is caused by the bodily changes which come from the perception of the emotionally arousing experience or environment. This theory states that events cause the autonomic nervous system to induce physiological arousal, characterized by muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration, dryness of mouth, tears, etc. According to James and Lange, the emotion comes as a result of the physiological arousal. The bodily feeling as a reaction to the situation actually is the emotion. For example, if someone just deeply insulted a person and their family, the person's fists might ball up and they might begin to perspire and become tense all around.
Arousal | James–Lange theory
The physiological response results in temporary breathlessness and vasoconstriction.
Cold shock response | Physiological response
Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord. Other emotions like fear and anxiety long thought to be exclusively generated by the most primitive parts of the brain (stem) and more associated to the fight-or-flight responses of behavior, have also been associated as adaptive expressions of defensive behavior whenever a threat is encountered. Although defensive behaviors have been present in a wide variety of species, Blanchard et al. (2001) discovered a correlation of given stimuli and situation that resulted in a similar pattern of defensive behavior towards a threat in human and non-human mammals.
Emotion | Neurobiological explanation
Generally, people are trained to behave in a "socially acceptable" way around strangers or acquaintances, suggesting that the social context of an environment can shape the levels of emotion expression. Biological factors also play a role in influencing emotion expression. One central biological argument is related to cognitive differences between genders. In a 2008 study using functional magnetic reasoning imaging (fMRI) to monitor brain activity in participants, researchers found that men and women differ in neural responses when experiencing negative emotions. "Compared with women, men showed lesser increases in prefrontal regions that are associated with reappraisal, greater decreases in the amygdala, which is associated with emotional responding, and lesser engagement of ventral striatal regions, which are associated with reward processing" (McRae, Ochsner, Mauss, Gabrieli, & Gross, 2008).
Gender and emotional expression | Nature versus nurture
Emotions are generally defined as two-step multicomponent processes involving elicitation, followed by psychological feelings, appraisal, expression, autonomic responses, and action tendencies. Attempts to localize basic emotions to certain brain regions have been controversial; some research found no evidence for specific locations corresponding to emotions, but instead found circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex, appeared to be involved in generating the emotions, while weaker evidence was found for the ventral tegmental area, ventral pallidum and nucleus accumbens in incentive salience. Others, however, have found evidence of activation of specific regions, such as the basal ganglia in happiness, the subcallosal cingulate cortex in sadness, and amygdala in fear.
Human brain | Emotion
Based on the previous discussion of the purported faults regarding the James–Lange theory of emotion's explanation, Cannon put forward a theory of emotion based on thalamic processes. According to Cannon, an external stimulus activates receptors and this excitation starts impulses toward the cortex. Upon arriving in the cortex, the impulses are associated with conditioned processes that determine the direction of the subsequent response. It is this response that stimulates the thalamic processes. Once the thalamic processes are activated, they are ready to discharge. The thalamic neurons fire in a special combination in a given emotional expression. These neurons then discharge precipitately and intensely.
Cannon–Bard theory | The Cannon–Bard theory