This makes it particularly difficult to swamp PAAMS during a saturation attack, even if the attacking elements are supersonic. The US Naval War College has suggested that the SAMPSON radar is capable of tracking 1,000 objects the size of a cricket ball travelling at three times the speed of sound (Mach 3), emphasising the system's capabilities against high performance stealth targets. A core component of PAAMS is the Aster missile, comprising Aster 15 and Aster 30. MBDA describe Aster as a "hit-to-kill" anti-missile missile capable of intercepting all types of high performance air threats at a maximum range of 120 km.
Advanced air-defence
Type 45 destroyer
Type 45 destroyer | Advanced air-defence
The Royal Navy describes the destroyers' mission as being "to shield the Fleet from air attack". It is equipped with the Sea Viper air-defence system utilizing the SAMPSON active electronically scanned array multi-function radar and the S1850M long-range radar. PAAMS is able to track over 2,000 targets and simultaneously control and coordinate multiple missiles in the air at once, allowing a large number of tracks to be intercepted and destroyed at any given time. They are primarily designed for anti-air warfare with the capability to defend against targets such as fighter aircraft and drones. The Type 45 destroyer is equipped with the Sea Viper (PAAMS) air-defence system utilizing the SAMPSON active electronically scanned array multi-function radar and the S1850M long-range radar. Type 45 destroyers are primarily designed for anti-air warfare with the capability to defend against targets such as fighter aircraft and drones as well as highly maneuverable sea skimming anti-ship missiles travelling at supersonic speeds.
what was one of the provisions of the petition of right (1628)
user
No person should be forced to provide a gift, loan or tax without an Act of Parliament.
assistant
what does the term "petition of right" refer to?
user
It is an English constitutional document setting out specific individual protections against the state.
assistant
who formulated it?
user
Charles I
assistant
what kinds of provisions does it have?
user
No person should be forced to provide a gift, loan or tax without an Act of Parliament. No free individual should be imprisoned or detained unless a cause has been shown. Soldiers or members of the Royal Navy should not be billeted in private houses without the free consent of the owner.
assistant
which period marked the age of sail for the navy mentioned above?
user
During the reign of Henry VIII.
assistant
do they have an escort fleet?
user
Yes, there are six Type 45 destroyers and 13 Type 23 frigates in active service.
assistant
what is type 45?
user
It is also known as the D or "Daring" class. It is a class of six guided missile destroyers built for the United Kingdom's Royal Navy.
assistant
did its engine face any trouble?
user
On occasion there have been near-complete power generation failures, temporarily disabling propulsion, power generation for weapons, navigational systems and other purposes, leaving the ships vulnerable to "total electric failure".
assistant
how strong was their air defense?
user
The Type 45 destroyers are primarily designed for anti-air warfare with the capability to defend against targets such as fighter aircraft and drones as well as highly maneuverable sea skimming anti-ship missiles travelling at supersonic speeds. The Royal Navy describes the destroyers' mission as being "to shield the Fleet from air attack". The Type 45 destroyer is equipped with the Sea Viper (PAAMS) air-defence system utilizing the SAMPSON active electronically scanned array multi-function radar and the S1850M long-range radar. PAAMS is able to track over 2,000 targets and simultaneously control and coordinate multiple missiles in the air at once, allowing a large number of tracks to be intercepted and destroyed at any given time.
Type 45 destroyer | Advanced air-defence
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by two 55-caliber 34-K AA guns and two 46-caliber 21-K AA guns, all in single mounts as well as a pair of DK or DShK machine guns. The 34-K guns could elevate between −5° and +85°, had a rate of fire of fire of 15–20 rounds per minute, and the ships carried 300 rounds per gun for them. Their muzzle velocity of gave their high-explosive shells a maximum horizontal range of and an effective ceiling of . The 21-K was a converted anti-tank gun with a rate of fire of 25–30 rounds per minute with an elevation range between −10° and +85°.
Gnevny-class destroyer | Armament and fire control
The larger air groups (80–110 planes, vs. 52–81 for late war British ships) allowed for a more effective combat air patrol (CAP) without reducing strike capability, improving the protection of the whole battle group and lessening the workload of the carrier escorts. Carrier fighters were able to shoot down far more kamikaze aircraft than any amount of deck armour would have protected against showing the value of absolute numbers, but in the early war period IJN aircraft had little difficulty in penetrating USN CAPs; near the end of the war, veteran American fighter pilots in superior F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighters were able to defeat the young, inexperienced and ill-trained kamikaze pilots with ease and run up huge kill scores but attackers were still able to get through.
Armoured flight deck | Defences
The Lockheed P-38 Lightning and Bell P-39 Airacobra were also initially specified to carry very heavy armament based on a central 37 mm cannon, specified as interceptor aircraft working in the anti-bomber role. Great Britain, by contrast, favored specialized "turret fighters", such as the Boulton Paul Defiant, which mounted heavy armament in a rotating turret. The P-38, a small, single-crewed example of the bomber destroyer type, was eventually outfitted with a 20 mm cannon and four .50-caliber machine guns in a central nacelle instead of a heavier cannon; it proved itself a highly competent fighter aircraft in the early phase of World War II.
Bomber destroyer | Introduction
The aircraft was barely capable of defending itself against enemy fighters, and then only after releasing its bomb. It had very good forward visibility, but rear visibility was poor.
Breda Ba.201 | Design
Later versions carried four or even six MG 151/20 cannon and twin 13 mm machine guns. The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were mounted (and where the pilot was exposed and not protected by armor as he was from the rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a bomber down. To rectify the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four, with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, creating the "Sturmbock" bomber destroyer version. This type replaced the vulnerable twin-engine "Zerstörer" heavy fighters which could not survive interception by P-51 Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat boxes in an air supremacy role starting very early in 1944 to clear any Luftwaffe defensive fighters from the skies.
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress | Luftwaffe attacks
Together with the 127 mm and the main air-defence system (Tartar/SM-1), all this weaponry made possible an effective air defence, both long range and close-in.
Audace-class destroyer | Armament
This makes it particularly difficult to swamp PAAMS during a saturation attack, even if the attacking elements are supersonic. The US Naval War College has suggested that the SAMPSON radar is capable of tracking 1,000 objects the size of a cricket ball travelling at three times the speed of sound (Mach 3), emphasising the system's capabilities against high performance stealth targets. A core component of PAAMS is the Aster missile, comprising Aster 15 and Aster 30. MBDA describe Aster as a "hit-to-kill" anti-missile missile capable of intercepting all types of high performance air threats at a maximum range of 120 km.
Type 45 destroyer | Advanced air-defence
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by two 55-caliber 34-K AA guns and three 46-caliber 21-K AA guns, all in single mounts as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. The 34-K guns could elevate between -5° and +85°, had a rate of fire of 15–20 rounds per minute, and the ships carried 300 rounds per gun for them. Their muzzle velocity of gave their high-explosive shells a maximum horizontal range of and an effective ceiling of . The 21-K was a converted anti-tank gun with a rate of fire of 25–30 rounds per minute with an elevation range between -10° and +85°.
Storozhevoy-class destroyer | Armament and fire control
It was not until the advent of long-range fighter escorts (particularly the North American P-51 Mustang) and the resulting degradation of the "Luftwaffe" as an effective interceptor force between February and June 1944, that the B-17 became strategically potent. The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, "The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home." Martin Caidin reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair collision with a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact.
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress | Bomber defense
The Sea Viper air-defence system: A 48-cell A50 Sylver Vertical Launching System for a mix of up to 48: The Type 45 does not have a formal theatre ballistic missile defence (TBMD) capability but its potential for such a role is being assessed. Land-based Aster 30 Block 1 missiles have intercepted short-range ballistic missiles and trials of a land-based SAMPSON modified for BMD were planned for early 2012. The Ministry of Defence announced in 2013 that the first ship, "Daring", would take part in ballistic defence trials with the US Missile Defence Agency (MDA) as part of a major research and development programme.
Type 45 destroyer | Anti-air warfare
The two USAAF Air Forces that bore the burden of the fighting in the European Theatre of Operations (ETO) were the Eighth Air Force and the Fifteenth Air Force. The American groups were equipped with Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and the Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bombers. The B-24 had a superior speed, range and bomb load to the B-17, but it could not maintain formation in altitudes above making it more vulnerable to AAA and fighter attack. The American command did not see the need for long-range fighters in 1942, and like Bomber Command in the early war period, believed the bomber would always get through.
Defence of the Reich | The new enemy
"He attacks all the time and persists in acting that way. To defend against him you not only have to attack him but to beat him to the punch." A key to Kenney's strategy was the neutralization of bypassed Japanese strongpoints like Rabaul and Truk through repeated bombings. He said a major shortfall was "the kids coming here from the States were green as grass. They were not getting enough gunnery, acrobatics, formation flying, or night flying." So he set up extensive retraining programs. The arrival of superior fighters, especially the twin-tailed Lockheed P-38 Lightning, gave the Americans an edge in range and performance.
Military history of the United States during World War II | Air strategy
The Bf 110's main strength was its ability to mount unusually powerful air-to-air weaponry. Early versions had four 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns in the upper nose and two 20 mm MG FF/M cannons fitted in the lower part of the nose. Later versions replaced the MG FF/M with the more powerful 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons and many G-series aircraft, especially those which served in the bomber-destroyer role, had two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons fitted instead of the MG 17. The defensive armament initially consisted of a single, flexibly mounted 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine gun.
Messerschmitt Bf 110 | Armament
The new bomber could fly above , was faster and could carry a larger bomb load than any previous bomber. Its potential for use against targets deep within an enemy nation was far greater than any previous aircraft. These qualities combined with its massive amount of defensive firepower brought ACTS theorists to conclude that the B-17 bomber fleet was invincible, that it was indeed true that "The bomber will always get through", a phrase uttered in 1932 by Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley. With increasing altitude, the circular error of probability (CEP) also increased, resulting in decreased damage to the target.
Industrial web theory | Weapons development
Given the overwhelming Allied air superiority, the Luftwaffe put its effort into the development of aircraft of such high performance that they could operate with impunity, but which also made bomber attack much more difficult, merely from the flight velocities they achieved. Foremost among these were the Messerschmitt Me 163B point-defense rocket interceptors, which started their operations with JG 400 near the end of July 1944, and the longer-endurance Messerschmitt Me 262A jet fighter, first flying with the "Gruppe"-strength Kommando Nowotny unit by the end of September 1944. In action, the Me 163 proved to be more dangerous to the Luftwaffe than to the Allies, and was never a serious threat.
North American P-51 Mustang | Beyond Pointblank
The Aster missile is autonomously guided and equipped with an active RF seeker enabling it to cope with "saturated attacks" thanks to a "multiple engagement capability" and a "high rate of fire". Presently the "Daring"-class destroyers are equipped with a 48-cell A50 Sylver Vertical Launching System allowing for a mix of up to 48 Aster 15 and 30 missiles.
Type 45 destroyer | Advanced air-defence
The specification also called for the aircraft to operate from short, unprepared airstrips. In the 1950s, the United States Navy sought a long-range, high-endurance interceptor aircraft to protect its carrier battle groups against long-range anti-ship missiles launched from Soviet jet bombers and submarines. The Navy needed a fleet air defense (FAD) fighter with a more powerful radar, and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. Seeking a FAD fighter, the Navy started with the subsonic, straight-winged aircraft, the Douglas F6D Missileer in the late 1950s. The Missileer was designed to carry six long-range missiles and loiter for five hours, but would be defenseless after firing its missiles.
General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark | Early requirements
During "Big Week", the 15AF lost 90 bombers, the 8AF lost 157 bombers and RAF Bomber Command lost another 131 bombers. The 8th AF's strength had dropped from 75% to 54%, and the strength of its fighter units had dropped from 72% to 65%. The Luftwaffe's "RLV" ("Reichs-Luftverteidigung") had lost 355 fighters and its operational strength shrank to 50%. The "RLV" also lost nearly 100 valuable fighter pilots. While Spaatz claimed it as a victory, the production of German fighters dropped only briefly. Nevertheless, the attritional battle would only get worse for the "Luftwaffe". After Big Week, air superiority had passed irrevocably to the Allies.
Defence of the Reich | American daylight supremacy
This class was originally conceived to be a stopper for long-range strategic bombers from the former Soviet Long Range Aviation/A-VMF and as area defence for carrier battle groups. As world political climates shifted, so too the role of the Type 42 followed. The class reached its operational zenith during the Falklands War with seven ships taking part in Operation Corporate and the immediate aftermath. The Type 42 provided a capable long-range defence against Argentine air force assets, scoring three confirmed kills. With their weaknesses exposed - "Sheffield" was hit and disabled by a long-range first generation air-to-surface missile and sank six days later, "Coventry" was sunk by conventional iron bombs and "Glasgow" was disabled by a single bomb which passed straight through her aft engine room without exploding - an extensive rethink was conducted and future iterations in and out of build and refit contained upgrades but limited by the Type 42's ageing overall design.
Type 42 destroyer | Availability and use of the Type 42
Operation Pointblank showed that Germany's aircraft and ball bearings plants were not very vulnerable to air attack. Its production of synthetic rubber, ammunition, nitrogen, and ethyl fluid was concentrated in fewer factories and would likely have been much more vulnerable. Despite bombing, "German single-engine fighter production ... for the first quarter of 1944 was 30% higher than for the third quarter of 1943, which we may take as a base figure. In the second quarter of 1944, it doubled; by the third quarter of 1944, it had tripled, in a year's time. In September 1944, monthly German single-engine fighter production reached its wartime peak – 3031 fighter aircraft.
Combined Bomber Offensive | Pointblank outcome
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Smely (1939) | Design
In January 2016, the Ministry of Defence acknowledged that the Northrop Grumman intercooler in the propulsion system was unreliable. A staggered refit was also announced, which will involve cutting into the ship's hulls and fitting additional diesel generation capacity. On occasion there have been near-complete power generation failures, temporarily disabling propulsion, power generation for weapons, navigational systems and other purposes, leaving the ships vulnerable to "total electric failure". In June 2016, defence chiefs stated that the Northrop Grumman intercooler could not cope with the warm waters of the Gulf. The manufacturers, Rolls-Royce, said that while the engines for the WR-21 had been built as specified by the Ministry of Defence, the conditions in the Middle East were not "in line with the specs of the intercooler".
Type 45 destroyer | Engine trouble
In 1999, the eventual replacement for the Type 42 was announced. Unlike in the 1970s, when economics dictated a large number of smaller hulls, the Type 45 destroyer is even bigger than the Type 82, but was limited to a build total of six units, which will be primarily be charged with escorting the Royal Navy's new aircraft carriers. In this way, the Type 45 can be seen as the true modern descendant of the Type 82.
Type 82 destroyer | Revival of the large air defence escort
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Strashny | Design and description
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Storozhevoy | Design
The newly designated "Sturmgruppen" consisting of the Fw 190A-8/R2 "Sturmbock" was also entering service with a few specialist "Gruppen" and "Staffeln" subunits of at least two "Jadgeschwader" wings, at least a few of which were allocated to defend Romania. The A-8/R2's armament consisted of two 30 mm MK 108 cannon which could destroy a B-17 with three hits, and shoot down a B-24 with a single hit. The Fw 190A-8/R2 had been armoured and was largely invulnerable to American defensive fire. However, the same attributes that made them deadly "bomber killers", damaged the Fw 190's already limited performance at high altitude, as the fighter became slower and unwieldy.
Defence of the Reich | The Luftwaffe's position
The Type 45 destroyers were built to replace the Type 42 ("Sheffield"-class) destroyers that had served during the Falklands War, with the last Type 42 being decommissioned in 2013. The National Audit Office reported that, during an "intensive attack", a single Type 45 could simultaneously track, engage and destroy more targets than five Type 42 destroyers operating together. After the launch of "Daring" on 1 February 2006 Admiral Sir Alan West, a former First Sea Lord, stated that it would be the Royal Navy's most capable destroyer ever, as well as the world's best air-defence ship. The reduction in the number to be procured from twelve, then to (up to) eight, finally with only six confirmed (in 2008) was controversial.
Type 45 destroyer | Introduction
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Sposobny (1940) | Design and description
This impressive force was 85 percent operational but the fuel shortages forced it to remain grounded. On 10 January 1945, NJG 1 reported a strength of 20 Bf 110s (18 operational) in Stab/NJG 1, I. , 64 He 219s (45 operational), 24 of 37 Bf 110s combat ready in II. , 31 from 73 Bf 110s in III. and 24 from 33 in IV. . The remaining crews were regarded as among the 's most precious assets. Their loss to the Mosquito intruders of 100 Group were out of proportion to the psychological damage done. Thus, one historian writes, an air of "Mosquito phobia" took hold by mid-1944.
Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 | 1945: Destruction of the Kammhuber Line
A report from "Luftflotte" 3 recognised the size and defensive power of American bombers required a timely interception by massed formations for any chance of success. In July alone, western fighter forces lost 335 single-engine aircraft to all causes—18.1 percent of the available strength reported on 1 July. There was also a noticeable decline in the quality of pilot training.
Hugo Sperrle | Defence of the Reich and "Steinbock"
Over the entire course of the war, an averaged 3,343 rounds of heavy and 4,940 rounds of light anti-aircraft were needed to shoot down an Allied bomber. An American postwar study showed, if the Germans had advanced their proximity fuse for their AA shells, American bomber losses would have been 3.4 times as high when flying at an average height of 25,000 ft at 250 miles/h. Instead of 11 aircraft per thousand, 37 aircraft would have been lost. However, even with the advance of a proximity fuse, no change in the outcome of the homeland air defence could be achieved.
Defence of the Reich | Defeat of American day offensive
As 1944 progressed, each in their turn, first the "Zerstörergeschwader" ("destroyer" wings)' twin-engined heavy fighters like the Bf 110 and the newer Messerschmitt Me 410 "Hornisse", then the heavily armed Fw 190A "Sturmböck" bomber destroyer aircraft were driven from the Reich's skies by the USAAF's P-51s. With such serious Allied fighter opposition, the Luftwaffe was put under severe pressure in March–April 1944. According to a report made by Adolf Galland, "General der Jagdflieger", on 27 April 1944, 500 aircraft and 400 pilots had been lost in the 10 previous operations. Galland also said that in the previous four months 1,000 pilots had been killed.
Defence of the Reich | American daylight supremacy
As mounting evidence, from all sorts of intelligence sources and from observation of ground movements, indicated that the Germans were suffering desperate local shortages, the tactical air forces intensified their attacks on oil trains and storage dumps near the front lines. The Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces showed improvement in the use of H2X radar devices, and RAF Bomber Command was employing Gee-H to better advantage as its crews became more experienced. It was discovered that synthetic oil plants lent themselves to successful air attacks more easily than oil refineries, since the former could be put out of action by relatively small damage to critical parts of their complicated machinery.
Defence of the Reich | Spaatz' strategy
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Svirepy | Design and description
The following table summarizes the operational strength of the German air force, or "Luftwaffe", by general category of aircraft. The period covered is World War II from 1940 to 1945, starting at the time of the Battle of Britain.
Luftwaffe serviceable aircraft strengths (1940–45) | Introduction
The use of a new alloy of aluminum, 75-S rather than the existing 24ST, gave a wing that was both stronger and lighter, while the undercarriage was strengthened to allow the aircraft to operate at weights of up to greater than the B-29. A larger vertical fin and rudder (which could fold to allow the aircraft to fit into existing hangars) and enlarged flaps were provided to deal with the increased engine power and weight, respectively. Armament was similar to that of the B-29, with two bomb bays carrying of bombs, and a further externally. Defensive armament was 13 × 12.7mm (.50 inch) machine guns (or 12 machine guns and one cannon) in five turrets.
Boeing B-50 Superfortress | Design and development
The "Luftwaffe"s operational fighter force had recovered from a low of 39% availability (44% for fighters and 31% for bombers) in the winter of 1941–1942, to 69% by late June (75% for fighters and 66% for bombers) in 1942. However, after increased commitments in the east, overall operational ready rates fluctuated between 59% and 65% for the remaining year. However, throughout 1942, the "Luftwaffe" was out-produced by 250% in fighter aircraft and by 196% in twin-engine aircraft.
Defence of the Reich | German production failures
The First Sea Lord, Admiral Philip Jones, clarified that the "WR-21 gas turbines were designed in extreme hot weather conditions to what we call "gracefully degrade" in their performance, until you get to the point where it goes beyond the temperature at which they would operate... we found that the resilience of the diesel generators and the WR-21 in the ship at the moment was not degrading gracefully; it was degrading catastrophically, so that is what we have had to address". While the Ministry of Defence does not release detailed information related to the number of problems experienced by the class, including total engine failure, several such occasions have been reported in the media.
Type 45 destroyer | Engine trouble
During World War II, US Army anti-aircraft systems were quite competent. Their smaller tactical needs were filled with four M2 (.50 BMG|.50 caliber) machine guns linked together (known as the "Quad Fifty"), which were often mounted on the back of a half-track to form the Half Track, M16 GMC, Anti-Aircraft. Although of even less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, they were at least widely available. They were also used to help suppress ground targets. Their larger 90 mm M2 gun would prove, as did the eighty-eight, to make an excellent anti-tank gun as well, and was widely used late in the war in this role.
United States Army air defense | History
In the immediate post war era the piston-engined ground-attack aircraft remained useful since all of the early jets lacked endurance due to the fuel consumption rates of the jet engines. The higher powered piston engine types that had been too late for World War II were still capable of holding their own against the jets as they were able to both out accelerate and out manoeuver the jets. The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued to be used throughout the Vietnam War.
Attack aircraft | Post-World War II
Over the next three years the Combined Bomber Offensive had forced the "Luftwaffe" to invest heavily in air defence. In the campaign against the RAF, the German air defence system, named the Kammhuber Line, had become increasingly sophisticated. In 1942 the introduction of Lichtenstein radar, despite its early teething difficulties, and greater improvements in the armament and capability of German night fighters produced a force capable of inflicting heavy losses on British bomber streams. Though British losses rarely reached more than ten percent of a raid—considered a minimum target to irreparably damage British combat power—the night fighter force grew in size and potency.
Operation Gisela | Operational situation (1945)
At the operational level the British fighter defences proved to be far more sophisticated. The RAF defences were not just based on the combat power of Fighter Command. Just as important as the "teeth" of the defence was the "eyes and ears" – its nervous system which carried intelligence and information between them to position the "teeth" to strike. By the summer, 1940, the Chain Home radar stations along the English and Scottish coasts were able to track incoming aircraft from continental Europe at all but the lowest altitudes. The best detection altitude was . Aircraft at this height could be detected over away.
The Hardest Day | C3: Command, communication and control
The Iraqi Air Force suffered almost complete obliteration in the opening stages of the Persian Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991). It lost most of its aircraft, as well as command-and-control capability, to precise Coalition strikes or when Iraqi personnel flew their aircraft to Iran. Iraqi Antiaircraft defenses, including shoulder-launched ground-to-air missiles, were surprisingly ineffective against coalition aircraft, suffering only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, of which 42 of these were the result of Iraqi action while the other 33 were reportedly lost to accidents. In particular, RAF and US Navy aircraft which flew at low altitudes to avoid radar were particularly vulnerable, though this changed when the aircrews were ordered to fly above the AAA.
Air supremacy | Post Cold War
The British approach of armoured flight decks was meant as an effective form of passive defence from bombs and kamikaze attacks that actually struck their carriers, while the American carriers primarily relied on fighters to prevent the carriers from being hit in the first place. In addition, RN carriers such as "Ark Royal" or "Illustrious" had far heavier anti-aircraft (AA) outfits than their USN counterparts, up to the introduction of the USN "Essex"-class carriers. "Ark Royal", in 1940, carried 16 x 4.5-inch guns, 32 x 40mm "Pom-pom" and 32 x 0.5 inch guns against 8 x 5-inch, 16 x 28 mm and 24 x .5-inch guns for "Enterprise", in 1940.
Armoured flight deck | Defences
Also available to the Americans at the start of the war was the 120 mm M1 gun "stratosphere gun", which was the most powerful AA gun with an impressive 60,000 ft (~18 km) altitude capability. The 90 mm and 120 mm guns would continue to be used into the 1950s.
United States Army air defense | History
Moreover, the American bombers were capable of flying faster at high altitude than many Japanese fighters. Even when the fighters managed to close within gun range, the well-built B-29s were often able to sustain large amounts of damage. Due to the difficulty of intercepting and downing B-29s, the Japanese fighter pilots increasingly perceived their efforts as being futile. From August 1944 Japanese aircraft occasionally conducted suicide ramming attacks on B-29s, and several specialized kamikaze fighter units were established in October; by the end of the war, ramming tactics had destroyed nine B-29s and damaged another 13 for the loss of 21 fighters.
Air raids on Japan | Air defenses
The designers had been conservative in rating the turbines and many, but not all, of the ships handily exceeded their designed speed during their sea trials. Others fell considerably short of it, although specific figures for most individual ships have not survived. Variations in fuel oil capacity meant that the range of the "Gnevny"s varied between at . As built, the "Gnevny"-class ships mounted four B-13 guns in two pairs of superfiring single mounts fore and aft of the superstructure. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and a pair of 21-K AA guns as well as two DK or DShK machine guns.
Soviet destroyer Reshitelny (1940) | Design and description
However, in common with all US surface combatants in the 1930s, the light AA armament was weak; only four .50 caliber machine guns (12.7 mm) were equipped. It was apparently felt that the heavy AA armament would shoot down most incoming aircraft in all situations, but the attack on Pearl Harbor showed that this was not true. The "Gridley"s' weak AA armament was partially remedied after Pearl Harbor by replacing the machine guns with seven 20 mm Oerlikon cannon (0.8 in). The "Gridley"s were alone among the 1930s and 1940s destroyers in not receiving any 40 mm Bofors guns (1.6 in) due to stability concerns.
Gridley-class destroyer | Armament
The Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense (FAD) aircraft with a more powerful radar, and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles.
General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B | Background
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Serdity (1940) | Design
The squadron was the only one in the 455th Group not to suffer any losses in this operation. On 26 June 1944, the squadron encountered fighter opposition that was described as the strongest Fifteenth Air Force had encountered to date, and which destroyed several Liberators of the 455th Group, which was leading the 304th Bombardment Wing on the raid. The enemy fighters intensified their attacks on the squadron after they were able to separate the 741st from its fighter escort. One squadron bomber was lost when a Luftwaffe fighter dove head on into it. The Liberator continued on the bomb run and dropped its bombs on the target before crashing into the ground.
741st Missile Squadron | Combat operations
The combination of greater efficiency and high fuel capacity gives an endurance of at . High power density and the hydrodynamic efficiency of a longer hull form allow high speeds to be sustained. It has been reported that "Daring" reached her design speed of in 70 seconds and achieved a speed of in 120 seconds during sea trials in August 2007.
Type 45 destroyer | Propulsion and power
(In addition to larger aircraft complements, the US Navy had larger fleets and more resources, so they could establish destroyer pickets as part of their "Big blue blanket" defense system, and develop dedicated AAW ships such as the antiaircraft cruisers which would have also drawn attention away from the carriers.) On the surface, the record seems balanced. British naval historian D.K. Brown put the practical difference between American and British design philosophies in no uncertain terms: "More fighters would have been better protection than armour," but that British designs were good for the circumstances in which they were meant to be used.
Armoured flight deck | Defences
In June 1941 the German aviation fiercely developed its attacks on Egypt to cause a moral and material impact for the benefit of the Axis powers, resulting in huge losses of lives and property and did not succeed in achieving actual casualties with military targets, facilities and ports due to the fierce resistance of the anti-aircraft artillery that forced the invading planes to drop their bombs away from vital goals. These continuous attacks enabled the anti-aircraft artillery forces to gain practical experience and identify the tactical shortcomings and work to solve them, so they replaced the 3-inch anti-aircraft guns with their 3.7-inch counterpart with their fixed and mobile types, and developed their tactics to the style of hitting, which depends on creating a curtain intensive fire at a certain point along the plane's itinerary before it reaches the bomb-dropping line, and all its cannons are fired at a specific time that is set according to the speed of the attacking plane and the distance that was discovered, which resulted in good results at that time due to the speed Ltd.
Egyptian Air Defense Forces | World War II
The only defensive weapons which reacted properly were the 20 mm AA cannons. The Sea Cat anti-aircraft missile system failed to lock onto the attackers, who also outmanoeuvred the 4.5" gun by carrying out their run out of its arc of fire. Two bombs exploded in the hangar area, destroying the Westland Lynx helicopter and blowing the Sea Cat launcher 80 ft (24 m) into the air before it crashed back down onto the flight deck, and the third crashed through the aft auxiliary machinery room but failed to explode. The aft switchboard was severely damaged, causing loss of power for some key assets, such as the main gun.
HMS Ardent (F184) | British version
Specification F.11/37 – issued in May 1937 – called for a home defence fighter capable of day and night operations, that could operate in the ground support role. Armament was to be four 20 mm (.79 in) cannons (i.e. superior to eight machine gun designs then under development) in a power operated turret and a single 250 lb (113 kg) bomb in an internal bomb bay. The turret was also expected to be aerodynamically faired to meet the wing so as not to unduly affect performance. The aircraft was expected to be able to have a speed of 370 mph (595 km/h) at 15,000 ft (4,572 m), with a service ceiling of 35,000 ft (10,668 m) and manage an endurance of two and a half hours.
Boulton Paul P.92 | Development
At the time, the Air Force had just introduced its own strategic jet bomber, the B-52 Stratofortress, and the shorter-range B-47 Stratojet was still suffering from a variety of technical problems that limited its availability. Its staff started pressing for accelerated production of the B-52 but also grudgingly accepted calls for expanded air defense. The Air Force was generally critical of spending effort on defense after it had studied the results of the World War II bombing campaigns and concluded that British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's pre-war thinking on the fruitlessness of air defense was mostly correct: "The bomber will always get through." Like the British, the US Air Force concluded that money would better be spent on making the offensive arm larger to deter an attack.
Bomber gap | US Air Force raises numbers of bombers
Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. Defensive armament increased from four machine guns and one nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not maneuver when attacked by fighters, and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack.
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress | Bomber defense
The Spitfire, from about mid-1940, had 73 pounds (33 kg) of armoured steel plating in the form of head (of 6.5 mm thickness) and back protection on the seat bulkhead (4.5 mm), and covering the forward face of the glycol header tank. The Hurricane had a similar armour layout to the Spitfire, and was the toughest and most durable of the three. Serviceability rates of Hawker's fighter were always higher than the complex and advanced Spitfire. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 E-3 received extra armour in late 1939, and this was supplemented with a 10 mm thick armoured plate behind the pilot's head during and after the Battle of France.
Aircraft of the Battle of Britain | Durability and armour
Galland reported that the enemy outnumbered his fighters between 6:1 and 8:1 and the standard of Allied fighter pilot training was "astonishingly high". Galland recognised the Luftwaffe was losing the attrition war and pushed for a focus on quality rather than quantity. Galland stated in his 27 April report, "I would at this moment rather have one Me 262 in action than five Bf 109s. I used to say three 109s, but the situation develops and changes." The need for technical superiority was evident in the losses in the first half of 1944. The "Luftwaffe" lost 33.8% of its single-engine fighters and 17.9% of its fighter pilots during February, and reached a new high in March, with 56.4% fighter aircraft and 21.7% fighter pilots written off.
Defence of the Reich | American daylight supremacy
During World War II, aircraft were used with devastating effect for both strategic bombing and for close support of ground troops, by all combatants. Land-based aircraft were effective when the airfields were in range of the targets and when a degree of air superiority could be established. Carrier-based aircraft were originally intended for use against enemy ships. In addition to this role, several aircraft like the P-47 Thunderbolt were employed for close air support for ground based troops in Europe and in the Pacific. By the time of the Korean War, air power had been supplemented by the introduction of the jet engine, which allowed fighter and bomber aircraft to fly faster.
United States battleship retirement debate | Air superiority
1,500 heavies, 380 medium bombers and 550 fighter bombers dropped 4,000 tons of high explosives. Bradley was horrified when 77 planes dropped their payloads short of the intended target: The Germans were stunned senseless, with tanks overturned, telephone wires severed, commanders missing, and a third of their combat troops killed or wounded. The defence line broke; J. Lawton Collins rushed his VII Corps forward; the Germans retreated in a rout; the Battle of France was won; air power seemed invincible. However, the sight of a senior colleague killed by error was unnerving, and after the completion of operation Cobra, Army generals were so reluctant to risk "friendly fire" casualties that they often passed over excellent attack opportunities that would be possible only with air support.
Air warfare of World War II | Close air support
Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 34-K anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts and three 21-K AA guns, as well as four DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over .
Soviet destroyer Sovershenny (1940) | Design and description
In 1943 Japanese air strength in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II was powerful, and they were capable of launching large scale attacks against Allied ground forces and installations at any time. On New Guinea, the Japanese had many bases from which to launch their air strikes. The swiftest and most effective means of gaining control of the air was to bomb those Japanese strongholds and destroy as many aircraft on the ground as possible. Such bombing strikes could best be accomplished during daylight hours, when fighter escort was essential. The only fighter aircraft then in the Southwest Pacific with sufficient range to escort bombers to and from Rabaul and Wewak was the Lockheed P-38 Lightning.
53rd Weapons Evaluation Group | World War II
An advanced radar-controllable fire control system was placed upon the two aft turrets; six anti-aircraft guns with 12,000 rounds of ammunition, placed in three LM/42 twin mountings, one forward and two aft; eight to 14 anti-aircraft guns with 16,000–28,000 rounds of ammunition, placed in LM/44 mountings; two quadruple torpedo tubes (8–12 rounds); and 60 mines with four depth charge launchers. Their propulsion systems were to consist of six Wagner boilers feeding high-pressure superheated steam (at and ) to two sets of Wagner geared steam turbines, which were in diameter. They were to have one electricity plant with one turbo-generator and four diesel generators, for a total output of at .
Type 1936C destroyer | Characteristics
The supporting night fighter unit, IV./NJG 1 performed better, accounting for three for two losses. Four days later, above Heliogoland, I. and IV./JG 1, reinforced by 2./JG 27 [II. "Gruppe" were diverted by an RAF light bomber attack] and an assortment of night fighters could bring down just two US heavy bombers while the Germans lost three fighters and two pilots; one from JG 1. Hansell, of the 1st Bombardment Wing, explained the US bombers' success as a result of improved gunnery, tight formation, and a "lack of determination by the enemy." The 54-bomber staggered combat wing defence proved effective against German fighters and became the standard formation in the Eighth Air Force.
Jagdgeschwader 1 (World War II) | Defence of the Reich: 1943
From 28 June to 20 September, "Luftflotte" 4 original strength of 1,600 aircraft, of which 1,155 were operational, fell to 950, of which only 550 were operational. The fleet's total strength decreased by 40 percent. Daily sorties decreased from 1,343 per day to 975 per day. Soviet offensives in the central and northern portions of the Eastern Front tied down Luftwaffe reserves and newly built aircraft, reducing "Luftflotte" 4 percentage of Eastern Front aircraft from 60 percent on 28 June to 38 percent by 20 September. The "Kampfwaffe" (bomber force) was the hardest hit, having only 232 out of an original force of 480 left.
Battle of Stalingrad | Air attacks
The hull of the flying boat was replaced by a lower fuselage. It carried up to of bombs — almost twice the load of a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress — but over just a radius. Due to its thick, short wing it was able to out-turn the main German night fighters, the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and the Junkers Ju 88. Heavy bombers still needed defensive armament for protection, even at night. The Stirling's low operational ceiling of just — also caused by the thick wing — meant that it was usually picked on by night fighters; within five months, 67 of the 84 aircraft in service had been lost.
Heavy bomber | World War II
The "Luftwaffe"s technical edge was slipping away. A front line experience report of the "Luftwaffenbefehlshaber Mitte" covering the last quarter of 1941, contained a myriad of complaints, including inadequate early-warning and direction-finding radar, lack of "Zerstörer" (Destroyer) aircraft with all weather capabilities and the poor climbing power of the Bf 109. "Generalfeldmarschall" Erhard Milch was to assist Ernst Udet with aircraft production increases and introduction of more modern types of fighters. However, they explained at a meeting of the "Reich Industrial Council" on 18 September 1941 that the new next generation aircraft had failed to materialise, and that obsolescent types such as the Heinkel He 111 bomber and Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber had to be continued to keep up with the growing need for replacements.We are simply faced with the question of whether we are to have no aircraft at all in 1943 or are to have large numbers of aircraft types which hitherto have proved adequate.
Defence of the Reich | German procurement problems
""In wartime, however, the US Navy found the armoured carriers fascinating. After having examined HMS Formidable in 1940, the US naval attaché commented that, were he crossing the Pacific, he would prefer her to a Yorktown, the closest US equivalent, on the basis that she might carry fewer aircraft, but she would be much more likely to get there"." Late in the war when the USN operated many carriers together and had improved radar, their fighter and AA defence was reasonably effective, yet both conventional and kamikaze attacks were still able to penetrate USN defences. "Bunker Hill" and "Franklin" nearly succumbed in 1945.
Armoured flight deck | Defences
Following the loss of "Sheffield", a new air defence tactic was devised to try to maximise the task group's remaining assets. This saw the two remaining Type 42s paired with the two Type 22 frigates (a pairing unofficially termed "Type 64") and deployed much further ahead of the main force in an effort to draw attacking aircraft away from the carriers. The idea was that in the event of Sea Dart being unable to function, the short range Sea Wolf advanced point defence missile fitted to the frigates could be used. In this, "Coventry" was paired with .
HMS Coventry (D118) | "Type 64"
But the "Luftwaffe" was also suffering. It was forced to combat the threat although it could not afford the man or material power losses. While their losses were far smaller than those of the British, the crews also suffered through bad weather, low-level skill and a high accident rate due to night flying. In the first three months of 1944, it lost 15% of its crews. The introduction of Mosquito night fighter variants caused problems for the "Nachtjagdgeschwader". The Mosquito proved superior in performance to most German night fighters and it is rumoured that German pilots were credited with two kills for shooting one down.
Defence of the Reich | Erosion of Kammhuber line
The aircraft had a top speed of and could carry a bomb weighing as much as , large enough to split a warship in two. However, it was otherwise unarmed, and heavily laden with its bomb, would have been an easy target for enemy fighter aircraft. The controls were crude, the visibility terrible, and the performance abysmal. "Tsurugi" had very poor take-off and landing performance and could not be safely flown by anyone other than experienced pilots. There were fatal crashes during testing and training. However new, better versions with improved controls and better visibility were under intensive development. The Japanese High Command had plans to construct some 8,000 per month in workshops all across Japan.
Nakajima Ki-115 | Performance
The new government, and by extension the Treasury, were particularly concerned about the size issues involved, as these were fluctuating quite frequently. They therefore demanded that the Admiralty keep to 53,000 tons. With the navy unwilling to alter the size of the carrier and its airgroup accordingly the difficulties spiralled, and the final tonnage was much more likely to be nearer 55,000 tons. The design issues also increased, including dramatically reduced top speed, deck space, armour and radar equipment. When the Cabinet met in February 1966, the new Secretary of State for Defence, Denis Healey, strongly supported the RAF and their plan for long-range strike aircraft, by now the F-111, partially due to the cost issues of running fleet carriers, and partially due to opposition to a strong British military.
CVA-01 | Cancellation
The heavily armed Messerschmitt Bf 110 could kill a bomber, particularly those armed with a quartet each of the BR 21 large-calibre air-to-air unguided rockets, but its slower speed made it easy prey for Thunderbolts and Mustangs. The big, slow twin-engine Junkers Ju 88C, used for bomber destroyer duties in 1942-3 as the American heavy bomber offensive got under way in August 1942, was dangerous because it could stand further off and fire its autocannon armament into the tight B-17 formations, sometimes with the specialized Ju 88P heavy-calibre "Bordkanone" armed bomber destroyers attacking; but they too were hunted down. The same fate also faced single-engined fighters carrying pairs of the BR 21 rockets each; and the later-used, heavily autocannon-armed "Sturmbock" bomber destroyer models of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A-8 that replaced the twin-engined "destroyers".
Air warfare of World War II | Destroying the Luftwaffe, 1944
A shell fired to would only be half as effective at and a quarter as accurate at . The German bombers usually tried to fly around heavy concentrations of anti-aircraft guns, and if forced to fly through them, chose to fly at heights of around . Most of the heavy artillery defences were located around London and the Thames Estuary. Others were concentrated around Dover, Folkestone, Harwich, Ipswich, Portsmouth and Southampton docks. For low-level defence, the Bofors 40 mm was used. This cannon had a rate of fire of 120 rounds a minute. The shells were capable of blowing a hole in an aircraft big enough for a man to fit through.
The Hardest Day | Anti-aircraft defences
Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over the period, going from a typical in the 900-kg Fokker D.VII of 1918 to in the 2,500-kg Curtiss P-36 of 1936. The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued, with naval air forces preferring the radial engines, and land-based forces often choosing in-line units. Radial designs did not require a separate (and vulnerable) cooling system, but had increased drag. In-line engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio, but there were radial engines that kept working even after having suffered significant battle damage. Some air forces experimented with "heavy fighters" (called "destroyers" by the Germans).
Fighter aircraft | Inter-war period (1919–38)
"Luftwaffe" strength increased to 298 aircraft from 210 before the Battle of Gazala and the Italian number rising to 460 aircraft. General Sir Harold Alexander—the new Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of Middle East Command—had only a short distance from the supply bases and ports in Egypt to the front line but supplies from Britain, the Commonwealth and the United States still took a long time to arrive. By the summer of 1942, equipment receipts began to increase, notably of new Sherman tanks and six-pounder anti-tank guns to supplement obsolete two-pounders. The RAF and associated air forces under command, supported by new American squadrons maintained a considerable degree of air superiority.
Battle of Alam el Halfa | Background
The He 111s were to cross over at Foulness, the Dorniers at Deal. Fighter escort was provided by 140 Bf 109s and Bf 110s from JG 3, JG 26, JG 51, JG 54 and ZG 26. The British correctly estimated the German strength as 250 aircraft. To meet the threat the Fighter Controllers at 11 Group's Uxbridge centre scrambled 13 Squadrons; No. 12 Group at Watnall passed on orders to four more. Soon, a combined total of 47 Spitfires and 97 Hurricanes were in the air. Ten of the RAF fighters in the air (nine Spitfires from No. 19 Squadron and one Hurricane from No.
The Hardest Day | Fresh German operations
Once British rearmament began, the air policy of the British government was to have air defences sufficient to defeat an attack and an offensive force equal to that of the . With no land border to defend, British resources had been concentrated on radar stations, anti-aircraft guns and increasing the number of the most modern fighter aircraft. If Germany attacked, the British intended to take the war to the Germans by attacking strategically important targets with its heavy bombers, types unsuitable for operations in direct support of land forces. Implementation of the policy required a considerable number of first-class fighter aircraft to defeat an attacker and bombers to destroy ground targets.
RAF Advanced Air Striking Force | 1930s Anglo-French air policy
Through 1943 the U.S. 8th Air Force and German "Luftwaffe" entered a period of rapid evolution as both forces attempted to gain an advantage. Having lost too many fighters to the bombers' defensive guns, the Germans invested in a series of heavy weapons that allowed them to attack from outside the American guns' effective range. The addition of heavy cannons like the 30mm calibre MK 108, and even heavier "Bordkanone" autoloading weapons in 37mm and 50mm calibres on their "Zerstörer" heavy fighters, and the spring-1943 adoption of the "Werfer-Granate 21" unguided rockets, gave the German single and twin-engined defensive fighters a degree of firepower never seen previously by Allied fliers.
Heinkel He 162 | State of the Luftwaffe fighter arm
Because of the distance between the airfields and Baghdad, the F-4s were lightly loaded, each only carrying two HARM anti-radiation missiles because of their high fuel consumption rate. This limited the number of targets the SEAD aircraft could attack. The F-16s on the other hand were very heavily loaded, each carrying Mark-84 bombs, two external fuel tanks, two air-air missiles to protect them from Iraqi aircraft, and 90 bundles of chaff, with fifteen flares. The Iraqi forces had several air bases within striking distance of the city that could be ready in minutes, all housing MIG-29s. The Iraqi forces also had thousands of AAA and SAM sites throughout the city, ranging from World War II-era flak guns to surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles on state of the art interceptors and fighters.
Package Q Strike | Strength
With Allied air superiority not only were major force concentrations vulnerable to tactical and heavy bombers themselves, but so were the vital assets—bridges, marshalling yards, fuel depots, etc.—needed to give them mobility. As it was in this case, the blitzkrieg solution was the worst of both worlds, neither being far enough forward to maximise the use of their defensive fortifications, nor far enough away and concentrated to give it room to manoeuvre. Similarly, for the Japanese in the final stages of the Island hopping campaign of the Pacific War, with Allied naval and air superiority and non-existent room to manoeuvre, neither a water's edge defensive strategy nor a holding back and counterattacking strategy could succeed.
Force concentration | Defence of France 1944
Allen's case for the primacy of sea power in 1940 is not unique. Derek Robinson and Geoff Hewitt have argued similarly, seeing the Royal Navy as the main invasion deterrent in 1940. However, neither criticised the RAF's leadership and strategy as emphatically as Allen. Some air historians have argued that Fighter Command's 11 Group was "perilously close to collapse" owing to the loss of experienced pilots and damage to command and control infrastructure during the critical period. 11 Group's continuing effectiveness was particularly important because the beaches upon which the Germans planned to land were within their operational area. Anthony Cumming judged that the immense superiority of the Royal Navy in home waters together with the anti-maritime limitations of the Luftwaffe were the main reasons for the Third Reich effectively abandoning Operation Sea Lion in 1940.
Hubert Raymond Allen | Primacy of sea power, 1940
At the start of the battle, the twin-engine Messerschmitt Bf 110 long range "destroyer" (German: "Zerstörer") was expected to engage in air-to-air combat while escorting the "Luftwaffe" bomber fleet. Although the aircraft was well designed and the best of its class, being reasonably fast (Bf 110C-3 about 340 mph [547 km/h]) and possessing a respectable combat radius, the concept that the Bf 110 could defend bombers against a concerted attack by a force of fast single-seat, single-engined fighters was flawed. When pitted against the Hurricane and Spitfire the Bf 110s began to experience heavy losses through being only slightly more manoeuvrable than the bombers they were meant to escort and suffering from poor acceleration.
Aircraft of the Battle of Britain | Messerschmitt Bf 110
The force then resumed patrol duties in the Solomons. On the morning of 5 April, "Strong" made a surface radar contact at a range of . The target was illuminated by her searchlight and proved to be a Japanese submarine. "Strong" and opened fire with all guns. "Strong" made at least three hits on the submarine, and "O'Bannon" also scored. The submarine, , settled by the stern and went under. Depth charge patterns from the destroyers ensured that it stayed down.
USS Strong (DD-467) | History
The appearance of United States Army Air Forces heavy bombers caused a problem for the German fighter force. The B-17 Flying Fortress in particular was especially durable, and the armament of the Bf 109 and Fw 190 were not adequate for bomber-destroyer operations. The B-17's eventual deployment in combat box formations provided formidable massed firepower from a hundred or more Browning AN/M2 .50 caliber machine guns. In addition, the "Luftwaffe"s original solution of "Zerstörer" twin-engine Messerschmitt Bf 110G bomber destroyers, while effective against unescorted Allied bomber formations, lacked maneuverability and were eviscerated by the USAAF's fighter escorts in late 1943 and early 1944.
Focke-Wulf Fw 190 operational history | The "Sturmböcke"
The old aircraft carrier "Argus" (launched in 1917) took part in Operation Strength (30 August – 14 September) with the heavy cruiser and the destroyers , and , protected by the Dervish covering force. Strength ferried pilots, their 24 Hurricanes and other personnel of 151 Wing RAF to Russia; the Hurricanes were flown off "Argus" direct to Vaenga airfield, near Murmansk. The ships reached the flying-off point safely due to the scarcity of reconnaissance aircraft in the region. Normal naval aircraft used a ramp at the end of the flight deck to help get into the air but the Hurricane undercarriage turned out to be not robust enough and the first two Hurricanes to take-off were damaged.
Operation Dervish (1941) | Operation Strength
Aircraft strength was 4,201 operational aircraft: 1,191 bombers, 361 dive bombers, 788 fighters, 431 heavy fighters, and 488 transports. Despite deficiencies it was an impressive force. However, even by the spring of 1940, the "Luftwaffe" still had not mobilized fully. Despite the shortage of raw-materials, "Generalluftzeugmeister" Ernst Udet had increased production through introducing a 10-hour working day for aviation industries and rationalizing production. During this period 30 "Kampfstaffeln" and 16 "Jagdstaffeln" were raised and equipped. A further five "Zerstörergruppen" ("Destroyer groups") were created (JGr 101, 102,126,152 and 176), all equipped with the Bf 110. The "Luftwaffe" also greatly expanded its aircrew training programs by 42%, to 63 flying schools.
Luftwaffe | Mobilization, 1938–41
The hangar itself was long, with width varying between and a height of . An upward-curved Ski-jump ramp at an angle of 6.5 degrees was fitted at the forward end of the ship's flight deck, this allowed the carrier's Sea Harriers to take off with a higher disposal payload, while shortening the take-off run, leaving more space for helicopter operations. The ship had a design air wing of 10 Westland Sea King anti-submarine helicopters and 8 British Aerospace Sea Harrier STOVL jet fighters. As built, defensive armament consisted of a twin Sea Dart Surface to air missile launcher in the ship's bows.
HMS Invincible (R05) | Design
Resistance to the air raids decreased sharply from April 1945. On 15 April the IJAAF and IJN air defense units were belatedly placed under a single command when the Air General Army was formed under the command of General Masakazu Kawabe, but by this time the fighter force's effectiveness had been greatly reduced due to high rates of casualties in training accidents and combat. Due to the poor standard of the remaining pilots and the deployment of P-51 Mustangs to escort B-29s, the Japanese leadership decided in April to withdraw their remaining fighters from combat. These aircraft were placed in reserve to counterattack the Allied invasion.
Air raids on Japan | Air defenses
The Argus pulse jet of the V-1 could be shot full of holes and still provide sufficient thrust for flight. The only vulnerable point was the valve array at the front of the engine and the only vulnerable points on the V-1 were the bomb detonators and the line from the fuel tank, three very small targets inside the fuselage. An explosive shell from a fighter's cannon or anti-aircraft gun was the most effective weapon, if it could hit the warhead. When the attacks began in mid-June 1944 there were fewer than 30 Hawker Tempests in No. 150 Wing RAF to defend against them.
Operation Diver | Aircraft
Barratt offered the Air Ministry the choice of a better-balanced force or the withdrawal of the AASF to Britain. If more fighters were to be sent to France it was vital that they be dispatched promptly, not after the Allies had been forced into another retreat. The Cabinet discussed the situation on 3 June; had been lost in May, ones had been delivered and Fighter Command had aircraft but the Cabinet refused to increase the three AASF fighter squadrons. The Air Staff found it difficult to explain away the success of tactical operations but claimed that air superiority was due to the advance of the German armies and that it was unworkable for armies in retreat, which became a self-fulfilling prophecy.
RAF Advanced Air Striking Force | Command
The UK had sought to procure a new class of air-defence guided missile destroyers in collaboration with seven other NATO nations under the NFR-90 project; the project collapsed due to varying requirements of the different countries involved. The UK then joined France and Italy in the programme; however, differing national requirements, workshare arguments and delays led to the UK withdrawing on 26 April 1999 and starting its own national project. On 23 November 1999 Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) was confirmed as prime contractor for the Type 45 project. Seven days later MES and British Aerospace merged to form BAE Systems (BAE), making the latter the prime contractor.
Type 45 destroyer | Development
The advent of jet engines for fighters and bombers posed new problems for interceptors. With closing speeds of 1,500 ft/s (457 m/s) or more for a head-on interception, the time available for a fighter pilot to successfully target an enemy aircraft and inflict sufficient damage to bring it down was vanishingly small. Wartime experience had shown that .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were not powerful enough to reliably down a bomber, certainly not in a single volley, and heavy autocannon did not have the range or rate of fire to ensure a hit. Unguided rockets had been proven effective in ground-attack work during the war, and the "Luftwaffe" had shown that volleys of their "Werfer-Granate 21" rockets, first used by elements of the "Luftwaffe's" JG 1 and JG 11 fighter wings on July 29, 1943 against USAAF bombers attacking Kiel and Warnemünde, could be a potent air-to-air weapon.
Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket | History
The operations of the Me 262 and Me 163 did little to offset the problem of Allied air superiority. German losses remained high due to the difference in fighter pilot training. On 7 April 1945, for example, only 15 of 183 Fw 190s and Bf 109s which were covered by a large force of Me 262s, returned to base from an interception sortie. The Germans reported the loss of 133 fighters, claiming 50 of the USAAFs bombers in return. In reality, only eight American bombers were shot down.
Defence of the Reich | Daylight defence
However, air defences remained operational during the attacks and the Shrikes hit two of the less valuable and rapidly replaced secondary fire control radars. After one Vulcan made an emergency landing at Rio de Janeiro, Brazilian authorities confiscated a Shrike which was not returned.
AGM-45 Shrike | History
Analysts speculated that the ship would have been equipped with an VLS system in the forward section for air-defense SAMs. However, when the ship was finally revealed, it was still armed with the 8-cell HQ-7 SAM launcher. These SAMs lack effectiveness against sea skimming missiles with multiple approaching angles. The PLAN was unsatisfied with the design and no further ships of the class were built. At the time, area air defence for the fleet was the PLAN's priority which older systems couldn't sufficiently provide, and since the capability couldn't be served by the final vessel the gap remained open. As a result, the decision to import two pairs of Sovremennyy-class destroyer from Russia was determined to fulfil the role.
Type 051B destroyer | History
Yet, even , Britain's newest carrier prior to World War II, never operated close to her theoretical aircraft capacity. Prior to the development of effective radar and high speed monoplane fighters, a successful fighter defence was extremely unlikely for any navy thus calling into doubt D.K. Brown's conclusions. The benefits of flight deck armour were intended to counter these issues. Fewer aircraft meant a lower priority to attack than the more heavily armed American carriers and the RN's operational doctrine dictated smaller airgroups, and the armoured hangar carriers had smaller avgas and ammunition supplies to match. However, RN carriers carried far more aircraft later in the war, making use of the deck park when they adopted USN style operational doctrine.
Armoured flight deck | Defences