Jainism (), traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Jain dharma traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or "tirthankaras", with the first being Rishabhanatha or also known as Adinath bhagwan of this era, whom the Jain tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third "tirthankara" Parshvanatha whom historians date to 8th or 7th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth "tirthankara," Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal "dharma" with the "tirthankaras" guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology. The main religious premises of the Jain dharma are "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "anekāntavāda" (many-sidedness), "aparigraha" (non-attachment) and "asceticism" (abstinence from sensual pleasures).
Introduction
Jainism
Jainism | Introduction
Historians date it to 8th or 7th century BCE. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first "tirthankara" Rishabhanatha as its earthly founder.
which of the following is not among the practices of jainism
user
Violence, attachment, sensual pleasures, lie and possessiveness are some of them.
assistant
and which are the practices?
user
Jains take five main vows: “ahiṃsā”, “satya”, “asteya”, “brahmacharya” and “aparigraha".
assistant
when did jainism begin?
user
According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna. Jains consider their religion eternal. The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE. After the 12th-century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.
History of Jainism | Introduction
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes "ahimsa" (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are "ahimsa", "anekantavada" (non-absolutism), "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: "ahimsa", "satya" (not lying), "asteya" (non stealing), "brahmacharya" (chastity), and "aparigraha". Monks follow them completely whereas "śrāvakas" (householders) observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Timeline of Jainism | Introduction
The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. Jains consider the kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as patrons of Jainism. Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.
Jainism | Ancient
The two main sects of Jainism, the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara" sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE. These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, "Acharya" Bhadrabahu moved to Karnataka to survive a twelve-year-long famine. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha. When followers of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the "Angas". Also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.
History of Jainism | Schism
Historians believe that a united Jain community existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the "moksha" (liberation) of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into two denominations: the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara". "Acharya" Kundakunda is the most revered "acharya" (preceptor) of the "Duḥṣamā" period of the present "avasarpiṇī" (descending) era. The "Kalpa Sūtra" describes Mahavira's asceticism in detail; from it, most of the ascetic practices (including the restraints and regulations) are derived:
Jain monasticism | History
This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of "aparigraha" which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the 5th-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
He was the head till 463 BCE. Sudharma Svami and Jambu Svami are also traditionally said to have attained "keval jnana". It is said that no one after Jambu Svami has attained it till now.
History of Jainism | Lineage
The period of 16th to 18th century was a period of reforms in Jainism. The following schools arose during this period :
Jain philosophy | Medieval traditions
Mahavira (599–527 BC), the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and subjectivism known as "Anekantavada". As a result of this acceptance of alternate religious practices, the phenomenon of proselytisation is largely absent in these religions but not unknown. Converts are welcome to the Jain faith.
Proselytism | Jainism
The first schism in Jainism happened around the fourth century BCE, leading to rise of two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara, which were later subdivided in further sub-sects.
Schism | Jainism
For example, the Hindu Rashtra kuta dynasty started the early group of Jain temples, and Yadava dynasty built many of the middle and later Jain group of temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.
History of Jainism | Hindu kings
The historical roots of Jainism in India date back to the 9th-century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.
History of religion | Axial age
Devout Jains take five main vows: "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "satya" (truth), "asteya" (not stealing), "brahmacharya" (sexual continence), and "aparigraha" (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. "Parasparopagraho Jīvānām" (the function of souls is to help one another) is its motto and the "Ṇamōkāra mantra" is its most common and basic prayer. Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with different views on ascetic practices, gender and which texts can be considered canonical; both have mendicants supported by laypersons ("śrāvakas" and "śrāvikas").
Jainism | Introduction
The statement "" is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma. When lord Mahaviraswami revived and reorganized the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE, Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 8th century BCE. He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" ("Caujjama"), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of Ahimsa.
Nonviolence | Jainism
Jainism (), traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Jain dharma traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or "tirthankaras", with the first being Rishabhanatha or also known as Adinath bhagwan of this era, whom the Jain tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third "tirthankara" Parshvanatha whom historians date to 8th or 7th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth "tirthankara," Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal "dharma" with the "tirthankaras" guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology. The main religious premises of the Jain dharma are "ahiṃsā" (non-violence), "anekāntavāda" (many-sidedness), "aparigraha" (non-attachment) and "asceticism" (abstinence from sensual pleasures).
Jainism | Introduction
Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The later is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism, and it is attributed to Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira. The Jain "Bhagavati Sutra" refers to the Ajivika founder as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two fell out and parted ways. The "Bhagavati Sutra" mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala. Jainism also flourished under the Nanda Empire (424–321 BCE).
History of Jainism | Ajivika
Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the "Digambara" and the "Śvētāmbara". The monastic practices of two the major sects vary greatly, but the major principles of both are identical. Five "mahāvratas" (Great Vows), from Mahavira's teachings, are followed by all Jain ascetics. Historians believe that a united Jain "sangha" (community) existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the "moksha" (liberation) of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into the major denominations.
Jain monasticism | Introduction
The statement ' (or, "Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty"'/virtue/attribute/religion" — slashes are used here to present alternative denotations) is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma. When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE, "Ahimsa" was already an established, strictly observed rule. Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 8th century BCE. He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged.
Ahimsa | Jainism
According to Padmanabh Jaini, Vasudhara Dharani, a Buddhist work was among the Jainas of Gujarat in 1960s, and a manuscript was copied in 1638 CE. The Dharani was recited by non-Jain Brahmin priests in private Jain homes.
Buddhism and Jainism | Buddhist Texts in Jain Libraries
The Śramaṇa tradition includes Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvikas, Ajñanas and Cārvākas. The historical roots of Jainism in India have been traced to the 9th-century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha, the 23th Jain Tirthankara, and his non-violent philosophy, and to Mahavira (599–527 BCE), the 24th Jain Tirthankara. Jainism traces its roots further back to the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha. Mahavira stressed five vows, including "ahimsa" (non-violence) and "asteya" (non-stealing). Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal.
Religion in India | Rise of Shramana Religions
Information regarding the political history of Jainism is uncertain and fragmentary. Jains consider the kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as patrons of Jainism.
History of Jainism | Political history
Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE.
History of Jainism | Interaction with other religions
Emperor Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty, was religiously tolerant, while being a patron of Jainism. Inscriptions found in Udayagiri mentions that he erected a statue of the Rishabhanatha, the first "Tirthankara" and made cave-dwellings for monks. In first century CE, "Acharya" Bhutabali lead a group of Jain monks to the caves surrounding Madurai for spreading Jainism. According to the "Ashokavadana", a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks.
History of Jainism | Mauryan Empire
Historically Jainism was practiced by many communities across India. They are often conservative and are generally considered upper-caste. In 1958, a Sthanakvasi Jain called Muni Sameer Muni came into contact with members of the Khatik community in the Udaipur region, who decided to adopt Jainism. Their centre, Ahimsa Nagar, located about four miles from Chittorgarh, was inaugurated by Mohanlal Sukhadia in 1966. Sameer Muni termed them "Veerwaal", i.e. belonging to Mahavira. A 22-year-old youth, Chandaram Meghwal, was initiated as a Jain monk at Ahore town in Jalore district in 2005. In 2010 a Mahar engineer called Vishal Damodar was initiated as a Jain monk by Acharya Navaratna Sagar Suriji at Samet Shikhar.
Dalit | Jainism
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first "tirthankara" Rishabhanatha as its earthly founder. Scholars have conjectured that images such as those of the bull in Indus Valley Civilization seal are related to Jainism. It is one of the "Śramaṇa" traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, it existed before them. The historicity of first twenty two Tirthankars is not traced yet. The 23rd tirthankar, Parshvanatha, was a historical being, possibly of the eighth century BCE. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the 5th century BCE.
Jainism | Ancient
Along with a number of her contemporary researchers, Guseva was also of the opinion that Jainism originated long before 500 BCE. She suggested that Jainism is very different from Brahmanism and the Vedic religion, noting that Jainism does not believe in the Varna system, rejects the concept that Veda is holy, and opposes the concept of gods being the center of worship.
Natalya Romanovna Guseva | Views on Jainism
It is unclear when Jain scriptures were written down, with oldest surviving Jain manuscripts dated to the 11th-century CE. Jain literature, like those of Buddhism and Hinduism, is believed to have been transmitted by an oral tradition. The texts were largely lost over time. The Svetambara tradition has a collection of Agamas and texts, which it believes are ancient. However, the "Digambara" sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain "Aagams" in the Svetambara tradition. They believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Indrabhuti Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga had survived. This was about 683 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira.
History of Jainism | Literature
Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. Jain immigration began in earnest in the late 1960s and has continued to the present day.
Jainism in the United States | Introduction
Jain texts and tradition believe in 24 Tirthankaras. They are depicted as five to one hundred times taller than average human beings and to have lived for thousands of years in Jain tradition. Historians only consider the last two generally based on historical figures of the 1st millennium BCE. Buddhist sources don't mention Mahavira as a founder of new tradition, but as part of an ascetic "Nirgranthas" (without knot) tradition. This has led scholars to conclude that Mahavira was not the founder, but a reformer of a tradition established by his predecessor, Parsvanatha.
History of Jainism | Tirthankaras and lineage
The Maurya dynasty started by Chandragupta has had a historic role on Indian religions. Ashoka (273–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta was inspired by Buddhist ideologies. There is a reference to Jains in the edicts of Ashoka where the duties of "dhammamahatma" (law-authorities) are dealt with. The inscription reads: Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is said to have converted into Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhasti according to the tradition. He lived in a place called Ujjain. It is believed that he erected many Jain temples, and the temples whose origins are forgotten were often ascribed to him in later times.
History of Jainism | Mauryan Empire
According to a 1925 proposal of Glasenapp, Jainism's origin can be traced to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 8th–7th century BCE), and he considers the first twenty-two Tirthankaras as legendary mythical figures. According to another proposal by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed. The last two "tirthankara", Parshvanatha and Mahavira () are considered historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd "Tirthankara" Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna.
History of Jainism | Origins
Jainism, founded by Mahavira circa 570 BC, had its own monasteries since 5th century BC.
Monastery | Jainism
Sagarmal Jain divides the history of Jaina yoga and meditation into five stages, 1. pre-canonical (before sixth century BCE), 2. canonical age (fifth century BCE to fifth century CE), 3. post-canonical (sixth century CE to twelfth century CE), age of tantra and rituals (thirteenth to nineteenth century CE), modern age (20th century on). The main change in the canonical era was that Jain meditation became influenced by Hindu Yogic traditions. Meditation in early Jain literature is a form of austerity and ascetic practice in Jainism, while in the late medieval era the practice adopted ideas from other Indian traditions. According to Paul Dundas, this lack of meditative practices in early Jain texts may be because substantial portions of ancient Jain texts were lost.
Jain meditation | Ancient history
The details of the doctrine emerged in Jainism in the 1st millennium CE, from debates between scholars of Jain, Buddhist and vedic schools of philosophies.
Anekantavada | Introduction
In 1984, on 14 December, the Anjanshalaka ceremony was carried at Pali for the images of Shantinath, Mahavir and Parswanath. In 1985, on 25 August, the above images were placed in the Jain Centre, Leicester. In 1988, on 8 July, the images were entered in the Garbagriha (permanent place of adobe) and the Pratistha ceremony was celebrated for 16 days from 8 July 1988 to 23 July 1988.
Jainism in the United Kingdom | Jain Samaj Leicester
Around the 8th century CE, Hindu philosopher Ādi Śaṅkarācārya tried to restore the Vedic religion. Śaṅkarācārya brought forward the doctrine of Advaita. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise. This was particularly in the southern Indian states. According to a Saivite legend, the Pandya king Koon Pandiyan ordered a massacre of 8,000 Jain monks. This event is depicted graphically in walls of Tivatur in North Arcot. However, this legend is not found in any Jain text, and is believed to be a fabrication made up by the Saivites to prove their dominance.
Jainism and Hinduism | Decline of Jainism
During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara of present cosmic age. Though, Mahavira is sometimes mistakenly regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.
History of Jainism | Mahavira
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion founded around the sixth century BCE. Janism is a nontheistic religion currently practiced in multiple countries, due to Jain settlers who immigrated there (mainly United Kingdom, United States, Canada and some African countries). Jainism is inclusive of women. One of the cornerstones of the religion is the “fourfold" sangha which describes the Jainism community, which is made up of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. The religious status of women is a very important aspect of the history of the religion and one of the most critical issues between the oldest religious divisions of the religion, Svetambar and Digambar.
Women and religion | Jainism
When Mahavira revived and reorganized the Jain community in the 6th century BCE, "ahimsa" was already an established, strictly observed rule. Parshvanatha, a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE and founded a community to which Mahavira’s parents belonged. Parshvanatha’s followers vowed to observe "ahimsa"; this obligation was part of their "caujjama dhamma" (Fourfold Restraint). In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains criticized Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus for negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. In particular, they strongly objected to the Vedic tradition of animal sacrifice with subsequent meat-eating, and to hunting.
Jain vegetarianism | Historical background
There is reasonable historical evidence that the 23rd "Tirthankara", Parshvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira, lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE.
History of Jainism | Parshvanatha
This is how the "Digambara" and "Śvētāmbara" sects arose, the "Digambara" being naked whereas the "Svetambara" were white clothed. "Digambara" found this as being opposed to the Jain tenets, which, according to them, required complete nudity for the monks. Some interpret the presence of gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records as referring to "Digambaras" Jain "Śramaṇa" practice. Vallabhi council was formed at 454 CE. At this council, Svetambara accepted their texts as the scriptures of Jainism. The "Digambara" sect completely rejects these scriptures as not being authentic. This 5th century event solidified the schism between these major traditions within Jainism.
History of Jainism | Schism
Others are split into various subtraditions where either Jain temples and halls are built but "puja" is minor, or where all construction and use of temples, images and idols is actively discouraged and avoided. These subtraditions began around 14th-century through 18th-century. One of the key Jain scholar who opposed devotional temples, images and idols was Lonka Shah (c. 1476 CE). These later subtraditions are primarily Sthānakavāsī and Terapanth orders. Early colonial era observers and some early 20th-century Jain writers such as Malvaniya hypothesized that this movement against idol worship may be the impact of Islam on Jainism, but later scholarship states that the subtraditions arose from an internal dispute and debate on the principle Ahimsa (non-violence).
Śvētāmbara | History
The canonical texts of Jainism are called "Agamas". These are said to be based on the discourse of the "tirthankara", delivered in a "samavasarana" (divine preaching hall). These discourses are termed as "Śrutu Jnāna" ("Jinvani") and comprises eleven "angas" and fourteen "purvas". According to the Jains, the canonical literature originated from the first "tirthankara" Rishabhanatha. The "Digambara" sect believes that there were 26 "Agam‑sutras" (12 "Ang‑agams" + 14 "Ang‑bahya‑agams"). However, they were gradually lost starting from one hundred fifty years after Lord Mahavir's "nirvana". Hence, they do not recognize the existing Agam-sutras (which are recognized by the "Śvētāmbara" sects) as their authentic scriptures.
Jain literature | Canonical
Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is an earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his. The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition. While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high-quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries.
History of Jainism | Ajivika
According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira's following had swelled to 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns by the time of his death in 527 BC. For some two centuries the Jains remained a small community of monks and followers. However, in the 4th century BCE, they gained strength and spread from Bihar to Orissa, then so South India and westwards to Gujarat and the Punjab, where Jain communities became firmly established, particularly among the mercantile classes. The period of the Mauryan Dynasty to the 12th century was the period of Jainism's greatest growth and influence. Thereafter, the Jainas in the South and Central regions lost ground in face of rising Hindu devotional movements.
Missionary | Jain missions
Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four "tirthankara" and revere Rishabhanatha as the first "tirthankara" (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. This theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two "tirthankara", the 23rd "tirthankara" Parshvanatha (c. 8th–7th century BCE) and the 24th "tirthankara" Mahavira () are considered historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha.
History of Jainism | Introduction
Traditionally, the original doctrine of Jainism was contained in scriptures called Purva. There were fourteen Purva. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first "tirthankara". There was a twelve-year famine around fourth century BCE. At that time, Chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu was the head of Jain community. Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, another Jain leader remained behind. During this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in 12th Anga, Ditthivaya by the adherents of Sthulbhadra.
Jain schools and branches | Schism
As per the tradition, Jain Sangh was divided into two major sects: The now defunct Yapaniya sect followed the Digambara practice of nudity and eating from the hands while standing up along with Śvetāmbara beliefs and texts. They notably also permitted their ascetics to be "half-clothed" ("ardhambara") in public areas only. The Yapaniya sect was absorbed into the Digambara community during the medieval period.
Jain philosophy | Earlier traditions
Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain centre between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE. Inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE shows that the schism of "Digambara"/"Svetambara" had already happened. King Harshavardhana of the 7th century, grew up in Shaivism following family, but he championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. King Ama of 8th-century converted to Jainism, and Jaina pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era. Mularaja, the founder of Chalukya dynasty constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. In the second half of the 1st century CE, Hindu kings sponsored and helped build major Jaina caves temples.
History of Jainism | Hindu kings
Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.
History of Jainism | Mauryan Empire
Jain "Sangha" was established in Madurai in 5th century CE.
Sangha (Jainism) | History
On 3 September 1949, while addressing a public meeting at Allahabad, the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru said: The said speech can be considered to be a clarification on Article 25 of the Constitution of India. 10.2 On 31 January 1950, the PPS to the then Prime Minister of India sent a letter to the Jain Deputation on behalf of the then Prime Minister, which reads as under: (See adjoining image for original letter)
Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India | Jawaharlal Nehru
The medieval Jain scholars rewrote the Hindu mythologies into Jain versions. According to Paul Dundas, these satires were aimed at the Jain lay householder community, were means to inculcate piety and subvert the religious teachings offered by their Hindu neighbors. Such literary freedoms were not limited to Jain scholars. Buddhist and Hindu scholars engaged in creating similar satire, mythology and parody-filled fiction targeting the Jains and each other. The emergence of major philosophical ideas within Hinduism impacted Jainism. According to a 1925 publication by von Glasenapp, around the 8th century CE, Śaṅkarācārya brought forward the doctrine of Advaita. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise.
History of Jainism | Hinduism
The Muslim invaders who conquered parts of Northern India, like Mahmud Ghazni (1001 CE) and Mohammad Ghori (1175 CE), oppressed the "Jaina" community. Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. This period witnessed the destruction of Jain temples, their pilgrimage centers and other forms of persecution. There were significant supporters of Jainism, such as Emperor Akbar the Great (15421605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered the release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan. After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th century.
History of Jainism | Islam
The creation of idols, their consecration, the inclusion of Jaina layperson in idols and temples of Jainism by the Jaina monks has been a historic practice. However, during the iconoclastic era of Islamic rule, between the 15th and 17th century, a Lonka sect of Jainism emerged that continued pursuing their traditional spirituality but without the Jaina arts, images and idols.
Idolatry | Jainism
The Jain year starts with Pratipada following Diwali. Jain calendar is known as Vira Nirvana Samvat and their year 2501 started with Diwali of year 1974. The Jain business people traditionally start their accounting year from Diwali. The relationship between the Vir and Shaka era is given in Titthogali Painnaya and Dhavalaa by Acharya Virasena: पंच य मासा पंच य वास छच्चेव होन्ति वाससया| परिणिव्वुअस्स अरिहितो तो उप्पन्नो सगो राया|| Thus the Nirvana occurred 605 years and 5 months before the Saka era.
Diwali (Jainism) | Jain New Year
During the Middle Vedic period Rgveda X, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed. The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies. Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.
Indian religions | Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)
In 1683, they stamped linga symbol in the main "basati" of Jains in Halebid. Jains were forced to perform Shiva rites.
History of Jainism | Lingayatism
The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.
Jainism | Many-sided reality ("anekāntavāda")
Acharya Nanesh, the eighth Achayra of Sadhumargi Jain Shravak Sangha had preached among the Balai community in 1963 near Ratlam. His followers are called "Dharmapal". In 1984, some of the Bhangis of Jodhpur came under the influence of Acharya Shri Tulsi and adopted Jainism.
Dalit | Jainism
Jain immigration began in earnest in the late 1960s after the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965. The United States has since become a center of the Jain diaspora. The first former Jain monastic to travel to the United States, Chitrabhanu, arrived in 1971. He gave several lectures about Jainism at Harvard University and established a Jain center in New York City. The first monk who traveled outside India by use of mechanical means was Acharya Sushil Kumar who arrived in the United States in 1975. He established multiple Jain centers, including International Mahavira Jain Mission popularly known as Siddhachalam.
Jainism in the United States | History
Jainism is considered by some to be distinct from Vedic religion and from a pre-Aryan tradition viz. "Sramana" or "Aarahata" tradition.
Jainism and Hinduism | History
Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely. Jainism was revived and re-established after Mahavira, the last and the 24th "Tirthankara", synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BC, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BC. Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas.
Indian philosophy | Jain philosophy
According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.
History of Jainism | Buddhism
Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori (1175) and Ala-ud-din Muhammed Shah Khalji (1298) further oppressed the Jain community. They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned Jain books and killed Jains. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (15421605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered the release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan. After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th century.
Jainism | Medieval
Jain literature was transmitted through oral tradition and consisted of teachings of Jain leaders like Mahavira. After Bhadrabahu, the teachings became inconsistent and differences emerged among Jain leaders due to the schism of religious order into Digambara and Śvētāmbara. After the emigration of large number of Jain monks to south with Bhadrabahu, numerous councils were called to organise the sacred teachings. One of them was organised at Pataliputra. Another was organised in 2nd-century BCE in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Kalinga (now in Odisha) during the reign of Kharavela. The council concluded with the decision to write the teachings, marking the origins of written Jain literature.
Jain literature | History
The Badami cave temples and the constructed Aihole Jain monuments were built by Chalukya rulers in the 7th century, and the Jain parts of the Ellora Caves date from around this period. The earliest of the large group of Jain temples at Deogarh were begun, and in general the excavation of new rock-cut sites ceased in this period, as it also did in the other two main religions. Instead stone-built temples were erected.
Jain art | Jain art between 5th-9th century
Bittideva employed a female general who was a Jaina lady named Jakkiyabbe. His era saw temples being installed for all 24 Tirthankaras. The Vijayanagara Empire king Bukka Raya I, states von Glasenapp, ensured that both Vaishnava and Jaina traditions enjoyed same cultural and religious freedoms, and helped repair Jain temples. Anandatirtha, a Hindu thinker, preached a dualistic theology, which attracted many Jains to convert to Hinduism.
History of Jainism | Vaishnavism
Virchand Gandhi made a presentation of Jainism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893, marking one of the earliest appearances of Jainism outside India. The World Jain Congress was held in Leicester in 1988.
Jain communities | Diaspora
Jain philosophy arose from the shramana traditions. In its 2500 years post-Mahavira history, it remained fundamentally the same as preached by Mahavira, who preached essentially the same religion as the previous Tirthankara. Harry Oldmeadow notes that the Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components. The schisms into Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and liberation of women. Apart from these minor differences in practices, there are no major philosophical differences between the different sects of Jainism.
Jain philosophy | Schools and traditions
Devotional idolatry has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara ("Jina") and human "gurus" have been venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers. Like other major Indian religions, Jainism has premised its spiritual practices on the belief that "all knowledge is inevitably mediated by images" and human beings discover, learn and know what is to be known through "names, images and representations". Thus, idolatry has been a part of the major sects of Jainism such as Digambara and Shvetambara. The earliest archaeological evidence of the idols and images in Jainism is from Mathura, and has been dated to be from the first half of the 1st millennium AD.
Idolatry | Jainism
The lawgivers were not so clear on the conduct of Jain laymen, assuming that a violent situation would not arise amongst a community that was numerically small. After the Montagu Declaration in 1917, the Jain Political Association was set up by the same circle of predominately Digambara Jain intellectuals to create a unitary political representation for the Jains. In due course the society intended, after due search of the śāstric literature, to give a definite shape to Jaina Law. The culmination of this effort was the most prominent book on the subject of Jain law, written by Champat Rai Jain.
Jain law | Modern
Jains see their tradition as eternal. Organized Jainism can be dated back to Parshva who lived in the ninth century BCE, and, more reliably, to Mahavira, a teacher of the sixth century BCE, and a contemporary of the Buddha. Jainism is a dualistic religion with the universe made up of matter and souls. The universe, and the matter and souls within it, is eternal and uncreated, and there is no omnipotent creator deity in Jainism. There are, however, "gods" and other spirits who exist within the universe and Jains believe that the soul can attain "godhood"; however, none of these supernatural beings exercise any sort of creative activity or have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers.
History of atheism | Jainism
According to Jain history, late in his life, Chandragupta renounced the empire he built and handed over his power to his son, became a Jain monk, and headed to meditate and pursue spirituality in the Deccan region, under the Jain teacher Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola. There state Jain texts, he died by fasting, a Jain ascetic method of ending one's life by choice ("Sallenkana-Vrata"). Jain legends state that there was a twelve-year famine that triggered him to perform the fast, but this legend is only found in the Jain textual tradition. The 3rd century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions several ancient Indian religious groups including the "Niganthas" (Jain).
History of Jainism | Mauryan Empire
, an important tenet of all the religions originating in India, is now considered as an article of faith by the adherents of the Indian religions. Mahatma Gandhi was of the view: Bal Gangadhar Tilak has credited Jainism with the cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion. Some scholars have traced the origin of Ahimsa to Jains and their precursor, the sramanas. According to Thomas McEvilley, a noted Indologist, certain seals of Indus Valley civilisation depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals, providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism. This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner.
Ahimsa in Jainism | Appreciation
This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali" bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Jain meditation | Post-canonical
Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire. Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE.
Indian religions | Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE)
Jainism is the oldest living sramana tradition in India. In its current form it is traced to Parshvanath (250 years before Mahavira), the twenty-third of tirthankaras or "fordmakers" in Jain belief. Mahavira was born to a ruling family in the town of Vaishali, located in the modern state of Bihar. The first tirthankara was Rishabha, who lived long before Mahavira. Next to the Baháʼí Faith, Sikhism is the youngest of the world's major monotheistic religions. Sikhism was established in the 15th century in the state of Punjab in North India. Although born into a Hindu household in 1469 in the Punjab region, Guru Nanak challenged existing practices and is considered the founder of the new faith.
Jainism and Sikhism | History
After the nirvana of Parshvanatha, his disciple Subhadatta became the head of the monks. Subhadatta was succeeded by Haridatta, Aryasamudra, Prabha and lastly Kesi. Uttaradhyayana, a Svetambara text have records of a dialogue between Mahavira's disciple and Kesi; Kesi along with his community accepted Mahavira as a "tirthankara" and merged with him as a result. The "Tirthankaras" are believed in the Jain tradition to have attained omniscience, known as "kevala gyana". After Mahavira, one of his disciples Sudharma Svami is said to have taken over the leadership. He was the head of Jain community till 600 BCE. After his death, Jambuswami, a disciple of Sudharma Svami became the head of the monks.
History of Jainism | Lineage
According to von Glasenapp writing in the 1920s, it is said Hoysala King Bittideva (c. 1108–1152 CE) converted from Jainism and became a follower of Ramanuja, then ordered the Jains thrown in an oil mill and crushed if they did not convert. According to more contemporary scholars such as T. K. Tukol, the rule of Bitti Deva did not persecute or force convert Jains. He converted, but his queen Shantaladevi remained a Jaina. She was the patron of art and built Jain temples. Bittideva's general and prime minister Gangaraja, states Tukol, was "a Jaina who under the guidance of his Guru Subhachandra did many acts of piety and religion to advance the cause of Jainism".
History of Jainism | Vaishnavism
Similarly, he found the Jain theory of karma and rebirths incompatible and inflexible with his own ideas for these. Beyond the times of the Mahavira and the Buddha, the two ascetic Sramana religions competed for followers, as well merchant trade networks that sustained them. Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions have been significant, and in some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are the same or similar but present different doctrines. Jainism had a tradition of itinerant mendicants with less emphasis on a monastery style living for monks. Buddhism, in contrast, emphasized "sangha" or monasteries.
History of Jainism | Buddhism
Mahavira and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century BCE). Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as "Nigantha Nataputta". Buddhist scriptures record that during Prince Siddhartha's ascetic life (before he attained enlightenment and became Buddha) he undertook many fasts, penances, and austerities, mentioned in the Jain tradition. In "Majjhima Nikaya", Buddha shares his experience: The Buddha tried ascetic methods found in Jainism, abandoned that path and taught the Middle Way instead. Many "suttas" of Buddhism acknowledge the Jain influence. The "Samaññaphala Sutta" (D i.47), for example, states: The Buddha disagreed with the Mahavira's concept of soul or self ("jiva").
History of Jainism | Buddhism
Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987. Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit "jina" (victor), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation. The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With four to five million followers worldwide, Jainism is small compared to major world religions. Jains form 0.37% of India's population, mostly in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011, 31.46% of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%). Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%) also have significant Jain populations.
Jainism | Modern era
Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. There is no specific ritual for becoming a Jain. One does not need to ask any authorities for admission. One becomes a Jain on one's own by observing the five vows ("vratas") The five main vows as mentioned in the ancient Jain texts like Tattvarthasutra are: Following the five vows is the main requirement in Jainism. All other aspects such as visiting temples are secondary. Jain monks and nuns are required to observe these five vows strictly.
Religious conversion | Jainism
Islam and Jainism interacted with each other in the Indian subcontinent following the frequent Islamic incursions, and later the Islamic conquest and rule of the subcontinent from twelfth century CE onwards, when much of northwest, north and central India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Moghuls (Mughal people) of Turko-Mongol origin. Jainism and Islam have different theological premises, and their interaction has been mixed ranging from religious persecution to mutual acceptance. Jains faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (15421605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered release of caged birds and banned killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan.
Islam and Jainism | Introduction
In "Digambara" tradition, two main texts, three commentaries on main texts, and four "Anuyogas" (exposition) consisting of more than 20 texts are followed. These scriptures were written by great "Acharyas" (scholars) from 5th to 14th century CE using the original "Agama Sutras" as the basis for their work. According to Vijay. K. Jain: The "prathmanuyoga" (first exposition) contains the universal history, the "karananuyoga" (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology and the "charananuyoga" (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and "Sravakas". The "Shatkhandagama" is also known as "Maha‑kammapayadi‑pahuda" or "Maha‑karma‑prabhrut". Two "Acharyas"; Pushpadanta and Bhutabali wrote it around 6th century CE.
Jain literature | Digambara literature
Raj Bhakta Marg or Kavi Panth or Shrimadia are founded on teachings of Shrimad Rajchandra by his followers after his death in 1901 They combine Digambara and Shvetambara traditions. Former Sthanakavasi monk Kanji Swami established Kanji Panth in 1934, which is regarded to be a branch of Digambara Jainism. Akram Vignan Movement established by Dada Bhagwan draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu syncretistic movement. They do not term themselves as Jain. Yapaniya was a Jain order in western Karnataka which is now extinct. The first inscription that mentions them by Mrigesavarman (AD 475–490) a Kadamba king of Palasika who donated for a Jain temple, and made a grant to the sects of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas (identifiable as Digambaras), and the Kurchakas (not identified).
Jain schools and branches | Others
Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, "Nirvan Ladoo" is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities.
Jainism | Festivals
Thus, philosophical Scepticism is thought to have appeared around this historic time frame.
Ajñana | Origin
He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on "Digambara" monks by British Raj and prompted their discontinuance. The colonial-era laws that banned naked monks were abolished after India gained independence.
History of Jainism | British rule
In 1973 the Jain Samaj Leicester was formed. In 1979 an old church building on Oxford Street, in the heart of Leicester, was bought and named the Jain Centre. In 1980, the Jain Samaj was expanded as a European body. In 1982, the Jain Samaj opened an office in London. The All India (Overseas) Jinalaya Samiti was created to complete the temple according to the plans drawn by the architects from Leicester, Bombay and Ahmedabad. In 1983, on 10 November, Shilanyas ceremony (the laying of the foundation stones) for the first fully consecrated Jain temple in the western world, was performed.
Jainism in the United Kingdom | Jain Samaj Leicester
Jainism allows freedom of conscience and apostasy. Conversions of Jains to other religions, and the marriage of a Hindu king and Jain queen wherein each continued to follow their religion, and build temples of both religions, has been documented in Jain history. In some Digambara Jain writings, the Buddha is presented as someone who joined Mahavira's Jain sangha, but became an apostate and started his own religion now called Buddhism. This historic interaction is confirmed by early Buddhist texts wherein the Mahavira is called as "Nigantha Nataputta".
Islam and Jainism | Apostasy
One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining Nirvana or Moksha (i.e., liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or Tirthankara.
Monk | Jainism
A Gujarati Jain scholar Virchand Gandhi represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893. He worked to defend the rights of Jains, and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher spearheaded the revival of Jainism in Gujarat. He performed "śatāvadhāna" (100 "Avadhāna") at Sir Framji Cowasji Institute in Bombay on 22 January 1887, which gained him praise and publicity. He was awarded gold medals by institutes and public for his performances as well as title of "Sakshat Saraswati" (Incarnation of the Goddess of Knowledge) while he was in his teenage. The performances attracted wide coverage in national newspapers.
Jainism | Colonial era
Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the "Śramaṇa" religions. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th "Tirthankara" in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the "Tirthankaras" predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd "Tirthankara", was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few "Tirthankaras" and an ascetic order similar to the "Śramaṇa" movement.
History of India | Buddhism and Jainism
The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as "Aryikas". Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that "Acharya" Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of "Acharya" Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.
Jainism | Traditions and sects
Mahavira (599-527 BC), the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and subjectivism known as Anekantavada.
Relativism | Jainism
"Digambara" monks follow 28 "vratas" (vows): five "mahāvratas" (Great Vows); five "samitis" (regulations); the five-fold control of the senses ("pañcendriya nirodha"); six "Şadāvaśyakas" (essential duties), and seven "niyamas" (restrictions).
Jain monasticism | Digambara monks
The origins of Jainism are obscure. The Jains claim their religion is eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha the founder in the present time-cycle, and someone who lived for 8,400,000 purva years. Rishabhanatha is the first tirthankar among the 24 Tirthankaras who are considered mythical figures by historians. Different scholars have had different views on the origin. Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. This theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script.
History of Jainism | Origins
The five yamas or the constraints of the "Yoga Sutras of Patañjali" bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of Jainism. Three other teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colors" in karma (lesya); the " Telos" of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa), though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the Hindu texts known as the Upanishads [the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word "Ahimsa" in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct).
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | Jainism