The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapour and aerosols. The average height of the troposphere is in the tropics, in the middle latitudes, and in the polar regions in winter. The total average height of the troposphere is . The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the Earth's surface influences airflow, is the planetary boundary layer. This layer is typically a few hundred meters to deep depending on the landform and time of day.
Introduction
Troposphere
Troposphere | Introduction
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. It is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. On earth, it is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. It is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place
what are the alternating dark and light bands in jupiter’s atmosphere called
user
Lightly colored "zones" and relatively dark "belts."
assistant
what is the atmosphere like in jupiter?
user
It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water.
assistant
how can you describe its structure vertically?
user
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere
assistant
what is the definition of the first mentioned layer?
user
In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter. As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary. The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface". The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
The stratosphere () is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is stratified (layered) in temperature, with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth; this increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation (shortened UV) by the ozone layer. This is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earth's surface, where temperature decreases with altitude. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, the tropopause, marks where this temperature inversion begins. Near the equator, the lower edge of the stratosphere is as high as , at midlatitudes around , and at the poles about Temperatures range from an average of near the tropopause to an average of near the mesosphere.
Stratosphere | Introduction
In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar. In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar. Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Vertical structure
Within the five principal layers above, that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties: The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is or , depending on the reference.
Atmosphere of Earth | Other layers
Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients. The lowest layer, the troposphere, has a complicated system of clouds and hazes, comprising layers of ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfide and water. The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows (winds) known as "jets". The bands alternate in color: the dark bands are called "belts", while light ones are called "zones". Zones, which are colder than belts, correspond to upwellings, while belts mark descending gas. The zones' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice; what gives the belts their darker colors is uncertain.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Introduction
These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.
Jupiter | Cloud layers
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the "atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)" or the "planetary boundary layer (PBL)" . The air temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called an "inversion layer" (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the Convective Boundary Layer, typically to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the inversion layer) is called the "free troposphere" and it extends up to the tropopause (the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere). In tropical and mid-latitudes during daytime, the Free convective layer can comprise the entire troposphere, which is up to 10 km to 18 km in the Intertropical convergence zone.
Atmospheric dispersion modeling | Atmospheric layers
There is no complex stratigraphy observed at the excavated location. Only two soil horizons were recorded. The upper layer is a deposit that has two morphological characteristics. It has a sedimentary characteristic which was enhanced by the slope gradient of the terrain. The content derived from the decomposition of the leaf-fall and the accumulation of cow-dung is the other constituent of this layer. Ancient potsherds found here would have been due to the disturbances caused at the site during the road construction. The second layer is the basal one that was developed through the weathering of the parent rock. This layer is devoid of any cultural material.
Haldummulla | Stratigraphy
The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s. They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology, which had become well developed by that time. Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence, which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere (above the water clouds). The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather. The production of the jets in this model is related to a well-known property of two dimensional turbulence—the so-called inverse cascade, in which small turbulent structures (vortices) merge to form larger ones.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Shallow models
From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
Atmosphere of Earth | Stratification
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where nearly all weather conditions take place. It contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapour and aerosols. The average height of the troposphere is in the tropics, in the middle latitudes, and in the polar regions in winter. The total average height of the troposphere is . The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the Earth's surface influences airflow, is the planetary boundary layer. This layer is typically a few hundred meters to deep depending on the landform and time of day.
Troposphere | Introduction
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about . The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing.
Atmosphere of Earth | Stratosphere
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about up to the thermopause at an altitude range of . The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere. The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules.
Atmosphere of Earth | Thermosphere
The first successful rocket, Troposphere 2 (30.94 kg and 0.19 m in diameter), launched in 2007 and reached an altitude of 1500 m (1.5 km).
Troposphere (rocket family) | Troposphere 2
Discussion of the layers in the Earth's atmosphere is needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface is known as the "troposphere". It extends from sea-level to a height of about 18 km and contains about 80 percent of the mass of the overall atmosphere. The "stratosphere" is the next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. The third layer is the "mesosphere" which extends from 50 km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling.
Atmospheric dispersion modeling | Atmospheric layers
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Iapygia quadrangle | Layers
The chromosphere (literally, "sphere of color") is the second of the three main layers in the Sun's atmosphere and is roughly 3,000 to 5,000 kilometers deep. Its rosy red color is only apparent during eclipses. The chromosphere sits just above the photosphere and below the solar transition region. The layer of the chromosphere atop the photosphere is homogeneous. A forest of hairy-appearing spicules rise from the homogeneous layer, some of which extend 10,000 km into the corona above. The density of the chromosphere is only 10 times that of the photosphere, the layer beneath, and 10 times that of the atmosphere of Earth at sea level.
Chromosphere | Introduction
During the years that followed, he named the two layers of the atmosphere known as the "troposphere" and the "stratosphere". This naming convention has since been maintained, with (higher-altitude) layers that were subsequently discovered being given names of this sort. After Teisserenc de Bort's death in 1913, the heirs donated the observatory to the state so that the research tasks could be continued.
Léon Teisserenc de Bort | Troposphere and stratosphere
The first layer is composed of black sediments, sometimes yellow mixed soil. During the archaeological excavations, clay dishes belonging to medieval times were found. During the archaeological excavations carried out in 1962-1965, parts of clay dishes belonging to the Middle Ages, Bronze Age, and Eneolithic period were found. However, during archaeological excavations in subsequent years, the material remains belonging to the Eneolithic period were not registered. The total thickness of the layer was 77–125 cm.
Azokh Cave | The first layer
Earth’s atmosphere consists of multiple layers with different temperature and density characteristics; common atmospheric models include the International Standard Atmosphere and the US Standard Atmosphere. A good approximation for many purposes is a polytropic troposphere of 11 km height with a lapse rate of 6.5 K/km and an isothermal stratosphere of infinite height (Garfinkel 1967), which corresponds very closely to the first two layers of the International Standard Atmosphere. More layers can be used if greater accuracy is required.
Air mass (astronomy) | Layered atmosphere
Atop the troposphere is the tropopause, which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere. The tropopause is an inversion layer, where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness. The word "troposphere" is derived from the Greek "tropos" (meaning "turn, turn toward, change") and "sphere" (as in the Earth), reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behaviour. Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere.
Troposphere | Introduction
The mesosphere (; from Greek "mesos", "middle") is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define its limits: it begins at the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called the stratopause), and ends at the mesopause, which is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere with temperatures below . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season (higher in winter and at the tropics, lower in summer and at the poles), but the lower boundary is usually located at altitudes from above the Earth's surface and the upper boundary (the mesopause) is usually around .
Mesosphere | Introduction
The mesosphere of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the thermosphere begins at approximately 120 km, eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere (exosphere) at about 220 to 350 km. The exosphere begins when the atmosphere becomes so thin that the average number of collisions per air molecule is less than one. The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers: the lower one between 62–73 km and the upper one between 73–95 km. In the first layer the temperature is nearly constant at 230 K (−43 °C). This layer coincides with the upper cloud deck.
Atmosphere of Venus | Upper atmosphere and ionosphere
He arranged the layers as follows:
Tel Kabri | Stratigraphy
The surface layer shows a depth of order few meters, with a particular composition of elements and sandy-clay mixed with volcanic ash, lava and pumice.
Brusciano | Introduction
The layers are as follows.
Bouma sequence | Description
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued "zones" and darker "belts". The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are common in zonal jets. The zones have been observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations. The cloud layer is only about deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region.
Jupiter | Cloud layers
Double-hop reception over is possible.
Ionosphere | E layer
The first stratum consists of dark-brown clay soil. In addition to archeological findings, rock fractures have also been found. The thickness of the stratum is 30–43 cm.
Azokh Cave | The first stratum
Both conceptions of the noosphere share the common thesis that together human reason and the scientific thought has created, and will continue to create, the next evolutionary geological layer. This geological layer is part of the evolutionary chain. Second generation authors, predominantly of Russian origin, have further developed the Vernadskian concept, creating the related concepts: noocenosis and noocenology.
Noosphere | Introduction
A double layer (DL, also called an electrical double layer, EDL) is a structure that appears on the surface of an object when it is exposed to a fluid. The object might be a solid particle, a gas bubble, a liquid droplet, or a porous body. The DL refers to two parallel layers of charge surrounding the object. The first layer, the surface charge (either positive or negative), consists of ions adsorbed onto the object due to chemical interactions. The second layer is composed of ions attracted to the surface charge via the Coulomb force, electrically screening the first layer.
Double layer (surface science) | Introduction
The stratosphere is a region of Earth's upper atmosphere. Stratosphere may also refer to:
Stratosphere (disambiguation) | Introduction
The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures, which are parallel to the equator. The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets. Therefore, in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them. While these weather–layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets, they have serious problems. A glaring failure of the model is the prograde (super-rotating) equatorial jet: with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde (subrotating) jet, contrary to observations. In addition, the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Shallow models
The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored "zones" and relatively dark "belts." The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ). The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted. The basic belt-zone structure probably extends well towards the poles, reaching at least to 80° North or South.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Zones, belts and jets
Although the temperature may be at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C. The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
Atmosphere of Earth | Stratosphere
The top of the Aquitanian stage (the base of the Burdigalian) is at the first appearance of foram species "Globigerinoides altiaperturus" and the top of magnetic chronozone C6An.
Aquitanian (stage) | Stratigraphic definition
The next layer, the "nucleus", was made of twelve to eighteen inches of successively laid and rolled layers of concrete. "Summa crusta" of silex or lava polygonal slabs, one to three feet in diameter and eight to twelve inches thick, were laid on top of the rudens. The final upper surface was made of concrete or well smoothed and fitted flint.
Roman engineering | Roads
The intermediate layers of the troposphere are the regions with less influence of human activity. This region is far enough from the surface for not being affected by the surface emissions. Additionally, commercial and military flights only cross this region during ascending or descending maneuvers. Moreover, in this region there exist two types of clouds with a large horizontal extension: "Nimbostratus" and "Altostratus", which cannot originate from human activity. Consequently, it is assumed that there are no anthropic clouds of these two "genera". However, what can occur is enhancing existing "Nimbostratus" or "Altostratus" due to the additional water vapor or condensation nuclei emitted by a thermal power plant, for instance.
Anthropogenic cloud | Middle homogenitus
The presence of diatomic sulfur (S) and carbon disulfide (CS) was recorded—the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S in any astronomical object— together with other molecules such as ammonia (NH) and hydrogen sulfide (HS), while oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Observational history
Inversion layer may refer to one of the following:
Inversion layer | Introduction
The top of the Bathonian (the base of the Callovian stage) is at the first appearance of ammonite genus "Kepplerites". In the Tethys domain, the Bathonian contains eight ammonite biozones:
Bathonian | Stratigraphic definitions
and can be between high at a given place and time because of these. A portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well.
Thermopause | Introduction
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about , although this altitude varies from about at the geographic poles to at the Equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height. Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface.
Atmosphere of Earth | Troposphere
The density falls off to below 10 e/cm at night.
F region | F1 and F2 layers
It consists of three layers, superior, middle, and inferior.
Substantia innominata | Layers
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or lapse rate, is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
Atmosphere of Earth | Stratification
The exosphere begins variously from about 690 to 1,000 km above the surface, where it interacts with the planet's magnetosphere. Each of the layers has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height.
Atmosphere | Earth's atmosphere
In 1902, Léon Teisserenc de Bort from France and Richard Assmann from Germany, in separate but coordinated publications and following years of observations, published the discovery of an isothermal layer at around 11–14 km, which is the base of the lower stratosphere. This was based on temperature profiles from mostly unmanned and a few manned instrumented balloons.
Stratosphere | Discovery
Stratigraphically, the site has been divided in four layers.
Pešturina | Layers
The first of the cave system's entrance is permanently covered in thick layers of snow and ice and has an average air temperature of . The cave system progressively becomes warmer in deeper areas, with an average air temperature of in the middle part and at the bottom. Empty shells of "Zospeum tholussum" were encountered by the team beginning at a depth of and down to the lake at the bottom of the cave, which is about beneath the Trojama cave entrance. The shells were usually found embedded in layers of mud, with an appearance described as a "grazing-labyrinth-like" structure.
Zospeum tholussum | Discovery
Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together.
Amazonis quadrangle | Layers
This membrane consists of three layers:
Round window | Structure
Above the F layer, the number of oxygen ions decreases and lighter ions such as hydrogen and helium become dominant. This region above the F layer peak and below the plasmasphere is called the topside ionosphere. From 1972 to 1975 NASA launched the AEROS and AEROS B satellites to study the F region.
Ionosphere | F layer
Jupiter was expected to either consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 78% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting predominantly of molecular hydrogen, or perhaps to have no core at all, consisting instead of denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the center, depending on whether the planet accreted first as a solid body or collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk. However, the "Juno" mission, which arrived in July 2016, found that Jupiter has a very diffuse core, mixed into the mantle.
Jupiter | Internal structure
Higher than the troposphere, at the tropopause, the temperature is approximately constant with altitude (up to ~20 km) and is 220 K. This means that at this layer L = 0 and T= 220K, so that the exponential drop is faster, with H = 6.3 km for air (6.5 for nitrogen, 5.7 for oxygen and 4.2 for carbon dioxide). Both the pressure and density obey this law, so, denoting the height of the border between the troposphere and the tropopause as U:
Density of air | Tropopause
Clouds of this structure have both cumuliform and stratiform characteristics in the form of rolls, ripples, or elements. They generally form as a result of "limited convection" in an otherwise mostly stable airmass topped by an inversion layer. If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the troposphere, increased airmass instability may cause the cloud layers to develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform buildups. The stratocumuliform group is divided into cirrocumulus (high-level), altocumulus (mid-level), and stratocumulus (low-level).
Cloud | Stratocumuliform
Typically knit wool or synthetic fleece. A common material is polar fleece.
Extreme cold weather clothing | First insulating layer
It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.
Atmosphere of Earth | Troposphere
The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is a thermodynamic gradient stratification layer, marking the end of the troposphere. It lies, on average, at above equatorial regions, and about over the polar regions.
Tropopause | Introduction
The exosphere ( "outside, external, beyond", "sphere") is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by colliding with each other. In the case of bodies with substantial atmospheres, such as Earth's atmosphere, the exosphere is the uppermost layer, where the atmosphere thins out and merges with interplanetary space. It is located directly above the thermosphere. Very little is known about it due to lack of research. Mercury, the Moon and three Galilean satellites of Jupiter have surface boundary exospheres, which are exospheres without a denser atmosphere underneath.
Exosphere | Introduction
Stratum membranosum or membranous layer may refer to:
Stratum membranosum | Introduction
The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced "thermos") meaning heat, the thermosphere begins at about 80 km (50 mi) above sea level. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 1,700 °C (3,100 °F) or more.
Thermosphere | Introduction
Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, "tropos", meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower of the troposphere. Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place.
Atmosphere of Earth | Troposphere
The ionization is so weak that when night falls, and the source of ionization is removed, the free electron and ion form back into a neutral molecule. The mesosphere has been called the "ignorosphere" because it is poorly studied relative to the stratosphere (which can be accessed with high-altitude balloons) and the thermosphere (in which satellites can orbit). A deep sodium layer is located between . Made of unbound, non-ionized atoms of sodium, the sodium layer radiates weakly to contribute to the airglow. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimetre. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors.
Mesosphere | Dynamic features
The centre of the first, and larger of the two epicycles, represented by the point e1 in the diagram, revolves uniformly from west to east around the circumference of a deferent whose centre is the centre of the Earth's orbit, represented by the point S in the diagram, with a period relative to the fixed stars as given in the section "The order of the spheres" above. The centre of the second epicycle, represented by the point e2 in the diagram, revolves uniformly from east to west around the circumference of the first, with the same period relative to the radial line joining S to e1.
Commentariolus | The outer planets, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars
These two species can be found in the high, middle, or low levels of the troposphere depending on the stratocumuliform genus or genera present at any given time.
Cloud | Stable or mostly stable
The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules that surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of about to more than . It exists primarily due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the surface to about . Above that is the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. In the stratosphere incoming solar radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above , in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive ion.
Ionosphere | Geophysics
The structure of the Sun contains the following layers:
Sun | Structure and fusion
The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976. His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others. Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.
Atmosphere of Jupiter | Deep models
Some sources distinguish between the terms "near space" and "upper atmosphere", so that only the layers closest to the Kármán line are described as "near space".
Mesosphere | Introduction
The F layer or region, also known as the Appleton–Barnett layer, extends from about to more than above the surface of Earth. It is the layer with the highest electron density, which implies signals penetrating this layer will escape into space. Electron production is dominated by extreme ultraviolet (UV, 10–100 nm) radiation ionizing atomic oxygen. The F layer consists of one layer (F) at night, but during the day, a secondary peak (labelled F) often forms in the electron density profile. Because the F layer remains by day and night, it is responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves and long distance high frequency (HF, or shortwave) radio communications.
Ionosphere | F layer
This string should be removed before adding a second layer. To prevent this kind of attack, one can use the method provided by Bruce Schneier:
Multiple encryption | Importance of the first layer
Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining 1% consisting of other elements. The interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia, possibly underlaid by a thin layer of water. Jupiter is covered with a cloud layer about 50 km deep.
Extraterrestrial atmosphere | Jupiter
Earth's atmosphere consists of a number of layers that differ in properties such as composition, temperature and pressure. The lowest layer is the troposphere, which extends from the surface to the bottom of the stratosphere. Three quarters of the atmosphere's mass resides within the troposphere, and is the layer within which the Earth's terrestrial weather develops. The depth of this layer varies between 17 km at the equator to 7 km at the poles. The stratosphere, extending from the top of the troposphere to the bottom of the mesosphere, contains the ozone layer. The ozone layer ranges in altitude between 15 and 35 km, and is where most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed.
Atmosphere | Earth's atmosphere
A patch of ground that is different in height from that around it, usually where multiple construction works have taken place.
Hyperart Thomasson | The Geological layer
The protonosphere is a layer of the Earth's atmosphere (or any planet with a similar atmosphere) where the dominant components are atomic hydrogen and ionic hydrogen (protons). It is the outer part of the ionosphere, and extends to the interplanetary medium. Hydrogen dominates in the outermost layers because it is the lightest gas, and in the heterosphere, mixing is not strong enough to overcome differences in constituent gas densities. Charged particles are created by incoming ionizing radiation, mostly from solar radiation.
Protonosphere | Introduction
consists of light-yellowish clay soil. During the archeological investigations, a piece of individual rock and clay dishes were registered inside the layer. Clay dishes have mainly belonged to the medieval, Bronze, and Eneolithic periods. The total thickness of the layer was 90-180 sm.
Azokh Cave | The second layer
Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together.
Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle | Layers
It is subdivided into three inward-thickening layers, all of which contain varying amounts of vesicles that become larger toward the interior.
Lava balloon | Appearance
The first atmosphere would have consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. In addition, there would probably have been simple hydrides such as those now found in gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, notably water vapor, methane, and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated, the gases would have escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.
Paleoclimatology | Earliest atmosphere
In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, denser layers of the atmosphere.
Sky | Introduction
First a "cross" is made on the first layer, consisting of the center piece and four edges. The first layer corners and edges of the second layer are put into their correct positions simultaneously (four pairs). The last layer is solved by first orienting and then permuting the last layer of the cube using a few sets of algorithms.
Jessica Fridrich | Introduction
Where the ice cap is exposed in certain places, it is found to contain many layers. Some are shown in the picture below.
Vastitas Borealis | Layers
Physically, there is no clear boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. At the pressure level of 10 bars (1 MPa), the temperature is around . At the phase transition region where hydrogen—heated beyond its critical point—becomes metallic, it is calculated the temperature is and the pressure is 200 GPa.
Jupiter | Internal structure
The Earth's exosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium, with some heavier atoms and molecules near the base.
Exosphere | Introduction
The sinking of the jet first starts when the mid level inflow goes under the trailing stratiform cloud before descending to the melting layer.
Rear-inflow jet | Introduction
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia.
Atmosphere of Earth | Earliest atmosphere
These are the 'spheres', 'heavens' ... Fixed in each of the first seven spheres is one luminous body. Starting from Earth, the order is the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn; the 'seven planets'. Beyond the sphere of Saturn is the "Stellatum", to which belong all the stars that we still call 'fixed' because their positions to one another are ... invariable. Beyond the "Stellatum" there is a sphere called the First Moveable or "Primum Mobile" ... its existence was inferred to account for the motions of the others."
The Discarded Image | "The Heavens"
CBL depth has a strong diurnal cycle with a 4-phase process growth (1) Formation of a shallow mixed layer : During the early morning the mixed layer is shallow and its depth increases slowly because of the strong nocturnal stable inversion capping. (2) Rapid growth : By the late morning, the cool nocturnal air has been warmed to a temperature near that of the residual layer, so the thermals penetrate rapidly upward during the second phase, allowing the top of the mixed layer to rise at rates of up to 1 km per 15 minutes.
Convective planetary boundary layer | Evolution
The second type is a complex of felsic magmatic rocks. These rocks are mostly tonalite, trondhjemite or granodiorite, types of rock similar in composition to granite (hence such terranes are called TTG-terranes). TTG-complexes are seen as the relicts of the first continental crust, formed by partial melting in basalt.
History of Earth | First continents
The zeroth layer line has formula_9 (i.e., the equatorial layer line), the first layer line has formula_10 and the second layer line has formula_11, and so on. Alternatively the reciprocal lattice points lie a long a cylinder with a constant formula_2 value whose axis is coincident with the rotation axis. If the crystal is mounted on the c-axis then the layer lines are related to the repeat distance along this axis. If H is the layer separation distance and R is the radius of the detector then
Bernal chart | Introduction
A stratigraphic section is a sequence of layers of rocks in the order they were deposited.
Stratigraphic section | Introduction
The most significant route of air entering the stratosphere is through the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) via convection. The air masses are shifted by convection are able to rise several kilometers within a few hours. This transport mechanism is fast enough for VSLS lifetimes.
Very short-lived substances | Transport
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First Descents | External links
Since the boundary layer equations are Parabolic partial differential equation, the natural coordinates for the problem is parabolic coordinates. The transformation from Cartesian coordinates formula_96 to parabolic coordinates formula_97 is given by
Blasius boundary layer | First-order Blasius boundary layer in parabolic coordinates
Three settlement layers can be distinguished, separated by limnic sediments. The first layer (A) is dated to the beginning of the interstadial. The vegetation is still turning to boreal, an open steppe type habitat, the pollen assemblage dominated by grasses. Layer C coincides with the climatic optimum. Tree pollen rise to 70%, birch and pine dominate.
Königsaue | Stratigraphy
It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the tropopause) and at about 85 km (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the ozone layer. The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρ H ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height).
Thermosphere | Neutral gas constituents
The planned second layer will consist of 36 blocks, in a 6 by 6 format with a presumptive stage completion date of 2983. This is the first layer that requires a block be placed atop another block, which would require a crane or some form of scaffolding such as an earthen ramp used as an incline.
Time Pyramid | Second tier
The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500 GPa.
Jupiter | Internal structure