Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (; 12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term black-body radiation in 1862. Several different sets of concepts are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him, concerning such diverse subjects as black-body radiation and spectroscopy, electrical circuits, and thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen.
Introduction
Gustav Kirchhoff
Gustav Kirchhoff | Introduction
Kirchhoff's circuit laws, laws of spectroscopy and law of thermochemistry. Kirchhoff's circuit law, Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy and Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry Kirchhoff's circuit laws Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
where is rubidium found on the periodic table
user
It is the 37th element.
assistant
what letters are used to represent it?
user
Rb
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who discovered it?
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Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
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who is the former?
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German chemist
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which university did he attend?
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Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
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what scientific law did the latter introduce?
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There are several Kirchhoff's laws, all named after Gustav Kirchhoff:
Kirchhoff's laws | Introduction
He married Luise Brömmel in 1872. Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845, while still a student. He completed this study as a seminar exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation. He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen. In 1857 he calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at the speed of light. He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, which Kirchhoff used to pioneer the identification of the elements in the Sun, showing in 1859 that the Sun contains sodium.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Life and work
Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that, in thermochemistry, the variation of the heat of a chemical reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants: Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (; 12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term black-body radiation in 1862. Several different sets of concepts are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him, concerning such diverse subjects as black-body radiation and spectroscopy, electrical circuits, and thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Introduction
In 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair dedicated specifically to theoretical physics at Berlin. He also contributed to optics, carefully solving the wave equation to provide a solid foundation for Huygens' principle (and correct it in the process).
Gustav Kirchhoff | Life and work
Kirchhoff's first law is that the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point (or node) is zero. The second law is that in a closed circuit, the directed sums of the voltages in a closed system is zero.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Kirchhoff's circuit laws
Kirchhoff's original contribution to the physics of thermal radiation was his postulate of a perfect black body radiating and absorbing thermal radiation in an enclosure opaque to thermal radiation and with walls that absorb at all wavelengths. Kirchhoff's perfect black body absorbs all the radiation that falls upon it.
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation | Original statements
The output of this self-taught scientist caught the attention of the academic establishment and on 7 April 1875 he found himself inducted into the Leopoldina Academy of Sciences ("" Sacri Romani Imperii Academia Caesarea Leopoldino-Carolina Naturae Curiosorum""), remaining a member till his death in 1887. An honorary doctorate from Kiel University followed. He would bequeath his own natural history collection to the . In the end Kirchenpauer was the last Hamburg senatorial magistrate at Ritzebüttel. After 1864 the duties were undertaken by an official.
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer | Ritzebüttel and science
Kirchhoff did not know about the existence of energy levels in atoms. The existence of discrete spectral lines was later explained by the Bohr model of the atom, which helped lead to quantum mechanics.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy
He and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861. At Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Neumann's, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya. He contributed greatly to the field of spectroscopy by formalizing three laws that describe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, building substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Ångström (see also: spectrum analysis). In 1862 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Life and work
This yields Kirchhoff's law:
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation | Theory
In 1859, not knowing of Stewart's work, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff reported the coincidence of the wavelengths of spectrally resolved lines of absorption and of emission of visible light. Importantly for thermal physics, he also observed that bright lines or dark lines were apparent depending on the temperature difference between emitter and absorber. Kirchhoff then went on to consider bodies that emit and absorb heat radiation, in an opaque enclosure or cavity, in equilibrium at temperature . Here is used a notation different from Kirchhoff's. Here, the emitting power denotes a dimensioned quantity, the total radiation emitted by a body labeled by index at temperature .
Planck's law | Gustav Kirchhoff
In 1858 Kirchenpauer was appointed, at his own request, the senatorial magistrate at Ritzebüttel, the coastal fort a couple of hours downstream from Hamburg. The fort marks the strategically vital point at which the Elbe meets the North Sea, He retained the office till 29 August 1864. On the administrative front he undertook the separation between justice and administration there. The appointment also allowed him the opportunity to pursue his passion for natural science: he devoted much time to studying under a microscope the life forms clinging to the buoys at the mouth of the estuary. Kirchenpauer continued with these studies after returning to Hamburg in 1864: between 1862 and 1884 he would publish six papers on hydroids, describing eight new nominal genera and seventy-seven new nominal hydroid species.
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer | Ritzebüttel and science
In 1810 he summed up his views on organic and inorganic nature into one compendious system. In the first edition of the "Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie", which appeared in that and the following years, he sought to bring his different doctrines into mutual connection, and to "show that the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms are not to be arranged arbitrarily in accordance with single and isolated characters, but to be based upon the cardinal organs or anatomical systems, from which a firmly established number of classes would necessarily be evolved; that each class, moreover, takes its starting-point from below, and consequently that all of them pass parallel to each other"; and that, "as in chemistry, where the combinations follow a definite numerical law, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions, and in natural history the classes, families, and even genera of minerals, plants, and animals present a similar arithmetical ratio." The "Lehrbuch" procured for Oken the title of "Hofrath", or court-councillor, and in 1812 he was appointed ordinary professor of the natural sciences.
Lorenz Oken | University of Jena
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation is a succinct and brief account of a complicated physical situation. The following is an introductory sketch of that situation, and is very far from being a rigorous physical argument. The purpose here is only to summarize the main physical factors in the situation, and the main conclusions.
Planck's law | Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
Through assistance from Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–1877), he attained the chair of Roman law at the University of Basel in 1838. In Basel he published works on medieval "Verfahrensrechtler" (procedural law). In 1842 he became a professor at the University of Rostock, followed by a professorship at the University of Halle (1847). In 1850 he was appointed judge at the "Oberappellationsgericht" (supreme court of appeals) of the four "Freien Städte" in Lübeck.
Agathon Wunderlich | Introduction
Gustav Kirchhoff stated his law in several papers in 1859 and 1860, and then in 1862 in an appendix to his collected reprints of those and some related papers. Prior to Kirchhoff's studies, it was known that for total heat radiation, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive ratio was the same for all bodies emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium. This means that a good absorber is a good emitter. Naturally, a good reflector is a poor absorber. For wavelength specificity, prior to Kirchhoff, the ratio was shown experimentally by Balfour Stewart to be the same for all bodies, but the universal value of the ratio had not been explicitly considered in its own right as a function of wavelength and temperature.
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation | Original statements
This law turned out to be inconsistent yielding the ultraviolet catastrophe. The correct form of the law was found by Max Planck in 1900, assuming quantized emission of radiation, and is termed Planck's law. This marks the advent of quantum mechanics.
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation | History
The "Trigonoides" were the nonmetals made from regular triangles, while the metallic "Tetragonoides" were made from squares. Algebraic formulas of how to mix squares and triangles yielded the periodic laws. His "controversial ideas and colorful personality" proved to be an obstacle to the acceptance of his theories.
Gustavus Detlef Hinrichs | Periodic law
In addition, Huschke published many important writings on law.
Eduard Huschke | Introduction
Ernst Forsthoff (13 September 1902, Laar – 13 August 1974, Heidelberg) was a German scholar of constitutional law and a leading theorist of administrative law.
Ernst Forsthoff | Introduction
In 1890/91, he served as university rector. The "Tobler-Mussafia law", a grammatical rule applicable to Romance languages is named after Tobler and Austrian philologist Adolf Mussafia.
Adolf Tobler | Introduction
Under these circumstances, he gladly followed a call from the Grand Duchy of Baden to the University of Freiburg, where he lectured on pandects and constitutional law. He attracted a following among the students, who he introduced to the depths of his knowledge and sought to develop their enthusiasm for the problems it presented, while his colleagues contented themselves in their presentations with only exercising their memories. The all-encompassing character of his presentations is best comprehended by consulting the encyclopedic work he undertook in the 1820s called "The inner and outer system of practical, natural and Roman-Christian-Germanic precepts of law, statecraft and lawmaking" (), of which a first volume appeared, though no more followed.
Carl Theodor Welcker | University of Freiburg
Chancellor Gerhard Schröder studied there later in the century and became a lawyer thereafter.
Göttingen University Faculty of Law | Introduction
The Roman and German elements of the existing law were, without criticism or differentiation, welded into an ostensible whole for practical needs, with the result that it was difficult to say whether historical truth or practical ends were most prejudiced. As it was passed from person to person, new errors crept in, and even the best of teachers could not escape from the false method which had become traditional. These were the evils which Hugo set himself to combat, and he became the founder of the German Historical School of jurisprudence which was continued and further developed by Savigny. His magna opera are the "Lehrbuch eines civilistischen Cursus" (7 vols., 1792–1821), in which his method is thoroughly worked out, and "Civilistisches Magazin" (6 vols., 1790–1837).
Gustav Hugo | Biography
Forsthoff was among the few postwar European scholars who maintained adherence to the philosophy of strict legal positivism. His influential textbook "Lehrbuch des Verwaltungsrechts" (1950) also emphasized the comprehensive responsibility of the state for society, preferring to focus on the functioning of government rather than on its possible failure.
Ernst Forsthoff | Thought
He was educated at Jena and Bonn, and for several years was an instructor at schools in Mülheim an der Ruhr and Erfurt. From 1871 to 1873 he was a lecturer on geography at the Kriegsakademie of Berlin, and in the latter year was appointed to the chair of geography in the University of Halle. He was an editor of the "Anleitung zur deutschen Landes- und Volksforschung". He was elected member of the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina in 1878 and of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Gothenburg in 1888.
Alfred Kirchhoff | Biography
Gustav Kirchhoff was born on 12 March 1824 in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke. His family were Lutherans in the Evangelical Church of Prussia. He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg in 1847 where he attended the mathematico-physical seminar directed by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, Franz Ernst Neumann and Friedrich Julius Richelot. In the same year, he moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Later, in 1857, he married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot. The couple had five children. Clara died in 1869.
Gustav Kirchhoff | Life and work
Besides the aforementioned Society, he also served as a member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Royal Gustavus Adolphus Academy (in Uppsala, Sweden).
Lutz Röhrich | Introduction
He was also instrumental in further diminishing the influence of Roman and customary law in favour of codified legislation.
Gerhard Diephuis | Introduction
Consequently, in 1696, the emperor Leopold I issued a Decree authorizing the lectures of canon law by Hollandt (however, this covered only the lectures of canon law to the law students, the theology students continued to have separate lectures of canon law at the Faculty of Theology until 1771).
Kryštof Josef Hollandt | Introduction
The son of historical painter Johann Jakob Kirchhoff, he was born in Berlin, and educated there. He then taught in various colleges until, in 1865, he was appointed professor of classical philology at the University of Berlin, where he remained for the rest of his life. Kirchhoff's scientific studies covered a wide range in linguistics, antiquities, and Greek epigraphy. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1888.
Adolf Kirchhoff | Biography
The redefinition of the science of law and legal science to meet the requirements of modern law in the twentieth century was of significant concern to Kelsen. Kelsen would write book-length studies detailing the many distinctions to be made between the natural sciences and their associated methodology of causal reasoning in contrast to methodology of normative reasoning which he saw as more directly suited to the legal sciences. The science of law and legal science were key methodological distinctions which were of high importance to Kelsen in the development of the pure theory of law and the general project of removing ambiguous ideological elements from having undue influence on the development of modern twentieth century law.
Hans Kelsen | Science of law
He taught at the Law School of the University of Tokyo.
Otfried Nippold | Introduction
Legal science is one of the main components in the civil law tradition (after Roman law, canon law, commercial law, and the legacy of the revolutionary period). Legal science is primarily the creation of German legal scholars of the middle and late nineteenth century, and it evolved naturally out of the ideas of Friedrich Carl von Savigny. Savigny argued that German codification should not follow the rationalist and secular natural law thinking that characterized the French codification but should be based on the principles of law that had historically been in force in Germany. It is referred to as "Rechtswissenschaften" (plural) or "Rechtswissenschaft" (singular) in German.
Legal science | Introduction
This section covers Kelsen's years in Austria, Germany, Czechoslovakia and Switzerland. While still in Austria, Kelsen entered the debate on the versions of Public Law prevailing in his time by engaging the predominating opinions of Jellinek and Gerber in his 1911 Habilitation dissertation (see description above). Kelsen, after attending Jellinek's lectures in Heidelberg oriented his interpretation according to the need to extend Jellinek's research past the points which Jellinek had set as its limits. For Kelsen, the effective operation of a legal order required that it be separated from political influences in terms which exceeded substantially the terms which Jellinek had adopted as its preferred form.
Hans Kelsen | Reception during Kelsen's European years
He also points out that, much like the "ijazat attadris" was confined to law, the first degrees at Bologna were also originally confined to law, before later extending to other subjects.
Ijazah | Hypothesis on origins of doctorate
Gustavus Detlef Hinrichs (2 December 1836 – 14 February 1923) was a chemist and natural philosopher most widely known for his findings on periodic laws within the chemical elements.
Gustavus Detlef Hinrichs | Introduction
The question is always what the person skilled in the art would have understood the patentee to be using the language of the claim to mean. There is no presumption about the width of the claims. A patent may, for one reason or another, claim less than it teaches or enables.
Kirin-Amgen Inc v Hoechst Marion Roussel Ltd | The law
Theodor Kipp was born in 1862. He studied law at the University of Göttingen with Rudolf von Jhering and at the Leipzig University with Bernhard Windscheid. He earned his doctorate in 1883, was admitted as a lawyer in Leipzig in 1887, and obtained a position as an associate professor at the University of Halle. In 1889 he was appointed professor of Roman and civil law at the University of Kiel, and in 1893 became professor of Roman and civil law at the University of Erlangen. From 1899 to 1900 he was rector of the Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg. He edited the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (Civil Code) before it came into force in 1900.
Theodor Kipp | Life
From 1922 to 1924 he lectured at the University of Halle. Following that he became a professor at the Technical University of Stuttgart. He was offered the chair of mathematics position at the University of Greifswald and University of Giessen, which he declined, before accepting the mathematics chair position at the University of Freiburg in 1931.
Gustav Doetsch | Academia
Hans Kelsen is considered one of the prominent jurists of the 20th century and has been highly influential in Europe and Latin America, although less so in common-law countries. His Pure Theory of Law describes law as "binding norms", while at the same time refusing to evaluate those norms. That is, "legal science" is to be separated from "legal politics". Central to the Pure Theory of Law is the notion of a "basic norm" ("Grundnorm")'—a hypothetical norm, presupposed by the jurist, from which all "lower" norms in the hierarchy of a legal system, beginning with constitutional law, are understood to derive their authority or the extent to which they are binding.
Jurisprudence | Hans Kelsen
Ernst Gustav Kirsch (September 13, 1841 – January 8, 1901) was a German engineer. He was educated at Sorbonne, in Zürich and in Berlin. He was a professor from 1874 at the Chemnitz University of Technology in Chemnitz, Germany. Kirsch is primarily known for the Kirsch equations describing the elastic stress state around a hole.
Ernst Gustav Kirsch | Introduction
In 1887 he published a monograph on concepts and methods in legal science, "Enzyclopädie und Methodologie der Rechtswissenschaft: Einleitung in die Rechtswissenschaft", whose third edition 1905 was translated into English by Albert Kocourek, with an introduction by Roscoe Pound, as "Introduction to the Science of Law: Systematic Survey of the Law and Principles of Legal Study" (1911, reissued 1968). Other principal writings by Gareis are: He was also an editor of the journal "Blätter für Rechtsanwendung".
Karl von Gareis | Published works
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. This generalized the work of Georg Ohm and preceded the work of James Clerk Maxwell. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws. These laws can be applied in time and frequency domains and form the basis for network analysis. Both of Kirchhoff's laws can be understood as corollaries of Maxwell's equations in the low-frequency limit.
Kirchhoff's circuit laws | Introduction
He had a degree in law from Helsinki University.
Casimir Ehrnrooth | Introduction
In 1895 he received an honorary degree in natural sciences from the University of Tübingen.
Wilhelm Camerer | Introduction
The Kirchhoff-Institut für Physik (Kirchhoff Institute of Physics, KIP), built in 2002, is a research institute located in Heidelberg, Germany. It shares faculty with the physics and astronomy departments at the University of Heidelberg. The institute is named after Gustav Kirchhoff, who collaborated in Heidelberg in 1854 with Robert Bunsen in spectroscopic work. The scope of its research is broad. Many projects exist, from low temperature physics and neuronal information processing to surface physics. Facilities include (apart from several laboratories) a cleanroom, an ASIC laboratory, an experimental hall and, as it is also serves undergraduates, there are 2 auditoriums with a capacity of over 300 people, several seminar rooms and a CIP pool.
Heidelberg University Faculty of Physics and Astronomy | Kirchhoff Institute of Physics
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer (2 February 1808 – 3 March 1887) was a Jurist, Journalist and Natural history researcher. His zoological publications are considered to be a significant contribution to knowledge of hydroids and bryozoans. Kirchenpauer also contributed very considerably to the political and economic progress of his home city: between 1869 and 1887 he served seven times as the Mayor of Hamburg.
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer | Introduction
Most importantly, he studied law with his friend Jacob Grimm, now a professor who expounded the teachings of Edmund Burke and Friedrich Karl von Savigny, which held that social processes could be described but not explained; "it required the student to seek the fundamental principles of a society in its historical and everyday existence. Under the influence of this school, legal scholars abandoned "a priori" speculations for fieldwork." In 1819 he returned to inherit one of his family's estates at Bökendorf, near Abbenburg. He remained unmarried and continued collecting folklore and publishing folk songs. His niece Annette von Droste-Hülshoff frequently stayed with the family and came to work closely with August; the family documents he provided her gave her the impetus for writing her well-known novella "Die Judenbuche" (The Jew's beech, 1842).
August von Haxthausen | Life
Thereafter, Gustav Hugo, forerunner of the historical school of law, and Rudolf von Jhering, a most significant jurist who created the theory of "culpa in contraendo" and wrote "Battle for Right", taught here in the 19th century and maintained the good reputation of the faculty of law. Otto von Bismarck, the main creator and first chancellor of the second German Empire, had also studied law in Göttingen in 1833 and lived in a tiny house on the "Wall" (according to oral tradition, he lived there because his rowdiness had caused him to be banned from living within the city walls), now known as "Bismarck Cottage".
Göttingen University Faculty of Law | History
The Faculty of Law was officially established in 1975. Before that time period, law degrees were offered by the "SoWi" faculty, which was then the"Faculty of Social Sciences, Economics, Business and Law". In addition to Diploma and doctorate degrees in law, the RE faculty offers a Bachelor's degree in Business Law in cooperation with the "SoWi" faculty. Law degrees are also offered via multimedia distance learning. The abbreviation "RE" is derived from the first two letters of the faculty's name German name, "Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät." At present, the RE faculty consists of 20 institutes.
Johannes Kepler University Linz | Faculty of Law (RE)
For experimental purposes, a hole in a cavity can be devised to provide a good approximation to a black surface, but will not be perfectly Lambertian, and must be viewed from nearly right angles to get the best properties. The construction of such devices was an important step in the empirical measurements that led to the precise mathematical identification of Kirchhoff's universal function, now known as Planck's law.
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation | A hole in the wall of a cavity
Alfred Kirchhoff (23 May 1838 in Erfurt – 8 February 1907 in Mockau) was a German geographer and naturalist.
Alfred Kirchhoff | Introduction
This was met by some difficulties, but after the intervention by Oseen it was accepted for publication in a Swedish journal for the natural sciences where it appeared the following year. His work did not seem to generate much interest. One reason can be that the Swedish journal was not so well-known abroad. A couple of years later it was rediscovered by George David Birkhoff who included it in a popular science book he wrote. Thus it became known as "Birkhoff's theorem." The original discovery of Jebsen was pointed out first in 2005, and translated into English. From that time on it is now more often called the Jebsen-Birkhoff theorem.
Jørg Tofte Jebsen | Jebsen-Birkhoff theorem
From this followed an insistence in his economic research that the subject needs to be studied not simply from a theoretical quasi-mathematical standpoint, but also empirically and in the context of broader historical considerations.
Friedrich Lütge | Introduction
After this proof he found a new proof based on his study of incompressible tori in knot complements; he published this work "Knoten und Vollringe" in "Acta Mathematica", where he defined satellite and companion knots. His doctoral students include Theodor Bröcker.
Horst Schubert | Introduction
Johann Georg Estor (6 June 1699 – 25 October 1773), was a German theorist of public law, historian and book collector. To his opinion the Roman Law is strange to the original German law-culture and must be considered as a foreign body.
Johann Georg Estor | Introduction
One of Olivecrona's doctoral students, Per Stjernquist, who as a left-leaning liberal entirely rejected his supervisor's politics, became a pioneer of sociology of law and was largely responsible for establishing it as a university subject in Sweden in the early 1960s.
Karl Olivecrona | Introduction
Hugo was born at Lörrach in Baden. From the gymnasium at Karlsruhe he passed in 1782 to the University of Göttingen, where he studied law for three years. Having received the appointment of tutor to the prince of Anhalt-Dessau, he took his doctor's degree at the University of Halle in 1788. Recalled in the same year to Göttingen as extraordinary professor of law, he became a full professor in 1792. In the preface to his "Beiträge zur civilistischen Bucherkenntniss der letzten vierzig Jahre" (1828–1829) he gives a sketch of the condition of the civil law teaching at Göttingen at that time.
Gustav Hugo | Biography
These discrepancies forced Galileo to assert that the postulate held only under "ideal conditions," i.e., in the absence of friction and/or air resistance.
Two New Sciences | The law of falling bodies
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) was one of the first people to approach the study of the human response to a physical stimulus in a quantitative fashion. Fechner was a student of Weber and named his first law in honor of his mentor, since it was Weber who had conducted the experiments needed to formulate the law. Fechner formulated several versions of the law, all stating the same thing. One formulation states: ""Simple differential sensitivity is inversely proportional to the size of the components of the difference; relative differential sensitivity remains the same regardless of size.""
Weber–Fechner law | Weber's law
Kelsen attempted to reconstruct 'legal science ("Rechtswissenschaft")' as a 'science of norms ("Normen")', on analogy with Immanuel Kant's conception of a science of 'causality' as used in natural science (Hans Kelsen, "Society and Nature", 1946, pages 249-262, Kegan Paul Press). This type of legal science would be 'pure' in two senses as described below.
Pure Theory of Law | Supportive and supplementary commentary
That is, 'legal science' is to be separated from 'legal politics'. Central to the "Pure Theory of Law" is the notion of a 'basic norm ("Grundnorm")'a hypothetical norm, presupposed by the theory, from which in a hierarchy all 'lower' norms in a legal system, beginning with constitutional law, are understood to derive their authority or 'bindingness'. In this way, Kelsen contends, the bindingness of legal norms, their specifically 'legal' character, can be understood without tracing it ultimately to some suprahuman source such as God, personified Nature or a personified State or Nation. The "Pure Theory of Law" is generally considered among the most original contributions made by Hans Kelsen to legal theory.
Hans Kelsen | "Pure Theory of Law"
He then studied law at the Leiden University, where he also obtained his doctorate in law.
Gerrit van Poelje | Introduction
The state is not really limited by the law if the state alone can introduce and write this law, and if it can at any time make any changes that it wants to make in it. This kind of foundation of public law is clearly extremely fragile." As a result, Kelsen solidified his position endorsing the doctrine of the identity of law and state.
Hans Kelsen | Kelsen and his years in Austria up to 1930
A well disposed young man, between eighteen and twenty, well versed in the principles of his mother tongue, would, in twelve months, acquire a sufficient knowledge of Latin or Greek for all the purposes of life. Such a consideration well deserves the attention of the few scholars competent for a task which would prove so beneficial to the present and future generation of collegiate students. The present modes of teaching the dead languages are sadly defective. It is high time that a rational, uniform method should be adopted.
Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff | Introduction
He then became his assistant at his experimental lectures until 1791 when he was substituted by Johann Hermann Seyde. He received many orders from abroad, including, among other things, the title of court mechanic from the Duke Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.
Johann Andreas Klindworth | Biography
It has been subject to a wide array of influences from Roman law, such as the Corpus Juris Civilis, to Napoleonic law, such as the Napoleonic Code.
Law of Germany | Introduction
With the support of Humboldt and Gauss, Dirichlet was offered a teaching position at the University of Breslau. However, as he had not passed a doctoral dissertation, he submitted his memoir on the Fermat theorem as a thesis to the University of Bonn. Again his lack of fluency in Latin rendered him unable to hold the required public disputation of his thesis; after much discussion, the University decided to bypass the problem by awarding him an honorary doctorate in February 1827. Also, the Minister of Education granted him a dispensation for the Latin disputation required for the Habilitation. Dirichlet earned the Habilitation and lectured in the 1827/28 year as a Privatdozent at Breslau.
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet | Back to Prussia, Breslau (1825–28)
After finishing his law studies, he began to study natural history in 1920, especially the biological subjects, and earned his doctorate on February 10, 1923 with the thesis "Monographie der Prorhynchidae (Turbellaria Alloeocoela)". The turbellarians remained his subject of interest throughout his life.
Otto Steinböck | Life
This is known as Naeke's Law.
August Ferdinand Naeke | Introduction
He studied at the universities of Giessen and Heidelberg and qualified as a lecturer in 1813 at Giessen. A work on the philosophy of law that he published that year brought about his appointment as extraordinary professor. But after a short time, in 1814, he left his "alma mater" to follow a call from Kiel, where along with his academic duties he edited the "Kieler Blätter", which appeared for the first time in the middle of 1815. Called in 1817 to Heidelberg, he stayed there only until 1819, in which year he followed a call to Bonn. Here his work was hindered because of an 1817 petition to the diet () he had signed which had asked for a provincial constitution.
Carl Theodor Welcker | Education and early career
In his last years, Kelsen turned to a comprehensive presentation of his ideas on norms. The unfinished manuscript was published posthumously as "Allgemeine Theorie der Normen" (General Theory of Norms).
Hans Kelsen | Science of law
Johann Heinrich Bösenselle, , , was a lawyer, professor of law and Rector of the University of Olomouc. Originally from Westphalia, Johann Heinrich Bösenselle assumed position of professor of law at University of Olomouc in 1751. Bösenselle, together with Professor of Law Josef Antonín Sommer (), strived to enhance quality of Olomouc law school. The lectures were extended to cover international, public and natural law, taught according to Grotius and Vitoria. Bösenselle was also lecturing history of "Imperii Romano-Germanici" according to . In 1755 the study of law was extended to 3 years (while it was taking place 10 months a year).
Johann Heinrich Bösenselle | Introduction
In an analysis of the case, Sven Ove Hansson, Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy and the History of Technology at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, a former member of the Swedish Government Research Advisory Board, wrote: "[I]t is particularly interesting to note that the Court of Administrative Appeal nullified the decision by Gothenburg University to require individual consent and approval from an ethical review committee before giving access to sensitive data on individual research subjects. These are two of the cornerstones of the scientific community's own system for protecting research subjects."
Christopher Gillberg | Legal case
and at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
Gustav Aschaffenburg | Introduction
Gossen's laws, named for Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810–1858), are three laws of economics:
Gossen's laws | Introduction
The core of Radbruch's legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law. The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and certainty. Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefulness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice. Upon this notion was based the Radbruch formula, which is still vigorously debated today. The concept of law, for Radbruch, is "nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law." Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continued to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933.
Gustav Radbruch | Work
completing his studies in 1927. He was the co-founder of Mexico's National School of Anthropology and History in 1938, and held a research position at the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
Paul Kirchhoff | Introduction
Faxen's first law was introduced in 1922 by Swedish physicist Hilding Faxén, who at the time was active at Uppsala University, and is given by where It can also be written in the form where formula_11 is the mobility. In the case that the pressure gradient is small compared with the length scale of the sphere's diameter, and when there is no external force, the last two terms of this form may be neglected. In this case the external fluid flow simply advects the sphere.
Faxén's law | First law
By some authors, the Radbruch essay "Gesetzliches Unrecht und übergesetzliches Recht", which first included his theory, is regarded as one of the most influential German legal-philosophical writings of the 20th century.
Radbruch formula | Introduction
He is also associated with the founding of the chair of applied physics and the department of experimental physics V (biophysics).
Gottfried Landwehr | Introduction
The three brothers stayed on with their otherwise childless aunt and uncle in Saint Petersburg, where they grew up while their own father pursued his itinerant mercantile career. Gustav attended a German school in Saint Petersburg, being sent on in 1823 to a German speaking secondary school (Gymnasium) at Dorpat, a university city in Livonia celebrated as a centre of learning. In 1826 he transferred to the city's university where he studied jurisprudence and civil law, also joining the . In 1830 Kirchenpauer switched to Heidelberg where he completed his studies by receiving a qualification as a doctor in law on 5 August 1831.
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer | Early years
Alfred Tarski in his 1946 (2nd edition) "Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences" cites a number of what he deems "universal laws" of the sentential calculus, three "rules" of inference, and one fundamental law of identity (from which he derives four more laws). The traditional "laws of thought" are included in his long listing of "laws" and "rules". His treatment is, as the title of his book suggests, limited to the "Methodology of the Deductive Sciences". Rationale: In his introduction (2nd edition) he observes that what began with an application of logic to mathematics has been widened to "the whole of human knowledge":
Law of thought | Tarski (1946): Leibniz's Law
The for the promotion of scientific research and knowledge is named after him, as is the annually awarded .
Otto Brenner | Introduction
In 1947, he began to hold lectures in Freiburg on topics related to the history of mathematics. He also received support from Heinrich Behnke, which enabled him to publish his work. In 1952 he was appointed associate professor at the University of Freiburg. He took a professorship at the University of Munich in 1963, where he was appointed as the first Professor of the History of Science. There he founded the Institute for the History of Science. In 1964, against his stated will, he was chosen as deputy chairman of the German Society for the History of Medicine, Science and Technology.
Helmuth Gericke | Life
The Historical School is based on the writings and teachings of Gustav von Hugo and especially Friedrich Carl von Savigny. Natural lawyers held that law could be discovered only by rational deduction from the nature of man. The basic premise of the German Historical School is that law is not to be regarded as an arbitrary grouping of regulations laid down by some authority. Rather, those regulations are to be seen as the expression of the convictions of the people, in the same manner as language, customs and practices are expressions of the people. The law is grounded in a form of popular consciousness called the "Volksgeist".
German Historical School | Overview
Natural-law argument for the existence of God was especially popular in the eighteenth century as a result of the influence of Sir Isaac Newton. As Bertrand Russell pointed out much later, many of the things we consider to be laws of nature, in fact, are human conventions. Indeed, Albert Einstein has shown that Newton's law of universal gravitation was such a convention, and though elegant and useful, one that did not describe the universe precisely. Most true laws are rather trivial, such as mathematical laws, laws of probability, and so forth, and much less impressive than those that were envisioned by Newton and his followers.
Natural-law argument | Introduction
KNUST provides education for scientists and technologists. Since the graduates of the university have to function in society, the Faculty of Social Sciences was established to offer courses in liberal arts and social sciences. In 1970 a department of law was established in the Faculty of Social Sciences to teach land law as a 'core' subject in the BSc Land Economy and Management programme. Not long afterwards a combined honours degree of Economics/Law, Sociology/ Law, Geography/Law etc. was developed. The Department of Law also taught law courses in other faculties of the university. In 2002, the university decided that the social sciences faculty must undergo modern transformation, allowing a Faculty of Law to emerge.
KNUST Faculty of Law | History
Chladni studied law and philosophy in Wittenberg and Leipzig, obtaining a law degree from the University of Leipzig in 1782. That same year, his father died and he turned to physics in earnest. He gave lectures on law, mathematics, and natural sciences at the University of Wittenberg from 1783 to 1792. During this time, he began his first experiments with acoustics.
Ernst Chladni | Career
Turning to the early 19th century, the advent of the scientific method gave rise to a predominantly 'hybrid' method of teaching and research. This hybrid was characterised by a mixture of the new methods of science and the old Christian-derived ideas of harmony and reality as God-given. The first half of the century saw great scholars at Leiden in the burgeoning fields of natural history, physics and medicine. This was less so in law, with the exception of Joan Melchior Kemper who taught in the natural law tradition relying on philology. In terms of enrolment, law remained the largest faculty at Leiden; from 1775–1812, 1,270 students enrolled in law, the next largest being medicine at 953.
Leiden Law School | 19th century
On 29 April 1734, Schmauss held the chair of Natural Law (historiarum et juris naturae et gentium) in Göttingen. After he accepted a call to return to Halle, where he held an equivalent post, and briefly taught at Leipzig, but in 1744, he returned again to his previous position at Göttingen, where he remained until his death.
Johann Jakob Schmauss | Biography
Alfred Gomolka, Member of the European Parliament for the CDU, worked for the university as well as the mathematician Felix Hausdorff. Bernhard Windscheid is one of the fathers of present German civil law. Ferdinand Sauerbruch, Theodor Billroth, Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach and Friedrich Loeffler made important contributions to the field of medical science. Hermann Löns became famous as a poet just like the discovers of Africa explorer Gustav Nachtigal became known around the world. Carl Schmitt, one of the most influential figures of 20th century political science was a member of staff. Mie scattering is named for Gustav Mie, a former professor of Physics.
University of Greifswald | Notable people
That is, the concept of scientific laws has its origins in the biblical idea that human and existence nature is governed by laws decreed by God.
Zilsel Thesis | The thesis
Johann Wilhelm Adolf Kirchhoff (6 January 1826 – 26 February 1908) was a German classical scholar and epigraphist.
Adolf Kirchhoff | Introduction
Assume an electric network consisting of two voltage sources and three resistors. According to the first law: Applying the second law to the closed circuit "s", and substituting for voltage using Ohm's law gives: The second law, again combined with Ohm's law, applied to the closed circuit "s" gives: This yields a system of linear equations in formula_6: which is equivalent to Assuming the solution is
Kirchhoff's circuit laws | Example
Heidelberg was a popular university with the merchant families of Hamburg and afforded excellent opportunities for networking. He developed a particular friendship with Carl Friedrich Petersen, a fellow law student from Hamburg whose later career in city politics would in some respects mirror Kirchepauer's own.
Gustav Heinrich Kirchenpauer | Early years
Johann Georg Weishaupt (24 April 1716 – 20 September 1753) was a professor of law at the University of Ingolstadt. Weishaupt was born in Brilon in the Prussian government district of Arnsberg in Westphalia. He studied law in the University of Würzburg under Johann Adam von Ickstatt (1702–1776). He received a doctorate in law in 1743 and began to teach at the university. His dissertation was on "Dissertatio Juris Publici Universalis De Summo Imperio Atque Inde Descendente Jure, Obligatione, & Potestate". Johann Adam von Ickstatt became a professor of law at the University of Ingolstadt in 1746. Weishaupt also moved from Würzburg to the University of Ingolstadt.
Johann Georg Weishaupt | Introduction
Hans (Yitzhak) Klinghoffer was born in Galicia (today in Poland), but grew up in Vienna. He studied Law and Political Science at the University of Vienna, where he received Doctorate in Law in 1927 and in Political Science in 1930. When Germany annexed Austria he moved to France but in 1940 he was forced to move again, this time to Brazil. In Brazil he was Science Advisor to the American Delegate in the International Jurisprudence Convention in Rio de Janeiro from 1946 to 1948 and Legal Advisor to the Austrian Embassy in Brazil between 1948 and 1953. In 1953, Klinghoffer immigrated to Israel and was appointed to the Law Faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where he was Senior Lecturer (1953–1954), Associate Professor (1957–1968), Dean of Law Faculty (1959–1961) and Tenured Professor (1968–1974).
Yitzhak Klinghoffer | Biography