The red-wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin. Red wine is made from dark-colored grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.
Red wine
Wine
Wine | Red wine
Red wine, White wine, Rose wine, Fruit wine, Mead (honey wine) etc Red wine, Rice wine and other fruit wines such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, currant and elderberry White wine, red-wine, rosé wine, etc. Red wine, white wine, rose wine, fruit wine and honey wine.
how late can i buy beer in oregon
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2:30 a.m
assistant
how does people consume it?
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In 2007, Oregon's 2.6 million adults on average drank 32 gallons of beer each, versus 4 gallons of wine and 2 gallons of spirits.
assistant
what are some other drinks that they consume?
user
Beer, wine, liquor, whiskey, vodka, tequila, Jack Daniel etc
assistant
what is the second one mentioned?
user
It  is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grape juice.
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what is the historical account behind it?
user
The earliest known traces of wine are from ancient China ( BC), Georgia ( BC), Iran (Persia) ( BC), and Sicily ( BC).
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what are some different types?
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The fermenting of strains of this wild "Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris" (the ancestor of the modern wine grape, "V. vinifera") would have become easier following the development of pottery during the later Neolithic, BC. The earliest discovered evidence, however, dates from several millennia later. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine fermentation found has been at sites in China ( BC), Georgia ( BC), Iran ( BC), Greece ( BC), and Sicily ( BC). The earliest evidence of steady production of wine has been found in Armenia ( BC). The Iranian jars contained a form of retsina, using turpentine pine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine and is the earliest firm evidence of wine production to date.
History of wine | Prehistory
7000 B.C.” Additionally, Professor Hames' research stated: “The earliest wine, or fermented liquor, came from China, predating Middle Eastern alcohol by a few thousand years. Archeologists have found pottery shards showing remnants of rice and grape wine dating back to 7000 BCE in Jiahu village in Henan province.” Archaeologists have discovered production from native "mountain grapes" like "V. thunbergii" and "V. filifolia" during the 1st millennium BC. Production of beer had largely disappeared by the time of the Han dynasty, in favor of stronger drinks fermented from millet, rice, and other grains. Although these huangjiu have frequently been translated as "wine", they are typically 20% ABV and considered quite distinct from grape wine () within China.
History of wine | Ancient China
Alban wine—Ancient Greece and wine—Ancient Rome and wine—Ancient Rome and wine—Caecuban wine—Chian wine—Coan wine—Conditum Paradoxum—Cretan wine—Falernian wine—Great French Wine Blight Fumarium—History of wine—History of American wine—History of Bordeaux wine—History of California wine—History of French wine—History of Oregon wine production—History of Rioja wine Hypocras—Lesbian wine—Marriage at Cana—Passum—Persian wine—Police des Vins—Retsina—Shedeh—Shirazi wine—Vino Greco
Index of sociology of food articles | Wine History
Professor McGovern continued: “The Jiahu discovery illustrates how you should never give up hope in finding chemical evidence for a fermented beverage from the Palaeolithic period. Research very often has big surprises in store. You might think, as I did too, that the grape wines of Hajji Firuz, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia would prove to be the earliest alcoholic beverages in the world, coming from the so-called “Cradle of Civilization” in the Near East as they do. But then I was invited to go to China on the other side of Asia, and came back with samples that proved to be even earlier–from around 7000 BC.” Furthermore, other scholarly research has stated that: “There is also evidence for various types of alcoholic beverage production, including rice and grape wine, beer, and various liquors including baijiu in China, ca.
History of wine | Ancient China
In the early 1990s, the laboratory identified the earliest chemically confirmed instances of grape wine and barley beer from the Near East, viz., from Godin Tepe in Iran, ca. 3400-3000 B.C. Several years later, the earliest date for wine was pushed back another two millennia to the Neolithic period (ca. 5400-5000 B.C.), based on analyses of jars from the Museum's excavation at Hajji Firuz in Iran. In a paper published 2017 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a team of historians and scientists explicated the biomolecular archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for a further backdating to 6000–5800 B.C.
Patrick Edward McGovern | Investigations of ancient dyes, foods, beverages, and other organics
The first trace of wine that has been found dates to 7500 years ago, in present-day Iran but the results of archaeological excavations have not been able to determine from which time wine began to be produced. Epigraphy tells us about the presence of wine in the Middle East: it was produced in the "High Country" (the mountain borders between Anatolia and Armenia) and then imported into Mesopotamia especially from the 3rd millennium BC. The tablets of Hattusa describes wine with the term "wiyana" in the Hittite language, in Sumerian, and "karânu" in Akkadian. It could be red (), light (or maybe white: ), good wine (), honeyed () new (), or sour ().
White wine | Antiquity
Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The evidence of wine in China ( BC), Armenia ( BC),Georgia[10][10] from 6000 BC, Iran from 5000 BC, and Sicily from 4000 BC. The oldest archaeological evidence of wine produced from grapes has been found at sites in China ( BC), Georgia ( BC), Levant ( BC), Iran ( BC), Greece ( BC), Armenia ( BC), and Sicily ( BC). The earliest-extant evidence of wine production has been found in Armenia ( BC). The altered consciousness produced by wine has been considered religious since its origin. The ancient Greeks worshiped Dionysus or Bacchus and the Ancient Romans carried on his cult.
History of wine | Introduction
The earliest known evidence of winemaking at a relatively large scale, if not evidence of actual wineries, has been found in the Middle East. In 2011 a team of archaeologists discovered a 6000 year old wine press in a cave in the Areni region of Armenia, and identified the site as a small winery. Previously, in the northern Zagros Mountains in Iran, jars over 7000 years old were discovered to contain tartaric acid crystals (a chemical marker of wine), providing evidence of winemaking in that region. Archaeological excavations in the southern Georgian region of Kvemo Kartli uncovered evidence of wine-making equipment (containers called "qvevri") dating back 8000 years.
Winery | Ancient history
The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the discovery of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC. By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine.
Grape | History
The origins of wine predate written records, and modern archaeology is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wild grapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, and then began collecting them. After a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10,000–8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentism style of living, which led to agriculture and wine domestication. Wild grapes grow in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, the northern Levant, coastal and southeastern Turkey, and northern Iran.
History of wine | Prehistory
The earliest known traces of wine are from ancient China ( BC), Georgia ( BC), Iran (Persia) ( BC), and Sicily ( BC). Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects.. In 2017 the research led by Dr. Patrick E. McGovern, Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia acknowledged Georgia as the birthplace of wine. The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BC was found on the territory of modern Georgia.
Wine | History
Wines not made from grapes involve fermentation of additional crops including, rice wine and other fruit wines such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, currant and elderberry. Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from ancient China (7000 BC), Georgia (6000 BC), Iran (5000 BC), and Sicily (4000 BC). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Viking area of Vinland and Spanish traditions in New Spain. Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions.
Wine | Introduction
Among the grape varieties that have been speculated to be behind the ancient wine is the Abbuoto grape that is still grown in the Lazio region of central Italy today. However, wine experts and historians such as Jancis Robinson and Julia Harding cast doubt that the red Abbuoto grape was likely responsible for the ancient white wine.
Caecuban wine | Grape varieties
The oldest-known winery was discovered in the "Areni-1" cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found "V. vinifera" seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier." The seeds were from "Vitis vinifera", a grape still used to make wine. The cave remains date to about 4000 BC. This is 900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs.
History of wine | Armenia: Areni-1 winery
Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine elsewhere was relatively later, likely having taken place in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region between Eastern Turkey, and northern Iran.
Wine | History
It is not known when the first wine labeled as a rosé was produced, but it is very likely that many of the earliest red wines made were closer in appearance to today's rosés than they would be to modern red wines. This is because many of the winemaking techniques used to make today's darker, more tannic red wines (such as extended maceration and harder pressing) were not widely practiced in ancient winemaking. Both red and white wine grapes were often pressed soon after harvest, with very little maceration time, by hand, feet or even sack cloth, creating juice that was only lightly pigmented.
Rosé | History
The earliest evidence of deliberate winemaking is from excavation at sites like Areni-1 winery in what is now the Vayots Dzor Province of Armenia. This site, dating back to around 4000 BC included a trough that measured about 3 by 3 1/2 feet and included a drain that went into a 2 feet long vat that could contain about 14-15 gallons (52-57 liters) of wine. The carbon dating of these sites (and earlier sites at Çatalhöyük and Neolithic B sites in Jordan) are based on left over grape pips (seeds) and while they provide solid evidence of wine making, they don't necessarily provide evidence of how the wine was made and if the modern concept of pressing (i.e.
History of the wine press | Early history
Several ancient sources, such as the Roman Pliny the Elder, describe the ancient Greek method of using partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after, in order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The Greek Theophrastus provides the oldest known description of this aspect of Greek winemaking. In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served in "mixing bowls" rather than consumed in an undiluted state. Dionysus, the Greek god of revelry and wine—frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop—was sometimes given the epithet "Acratophorus", "giver of unmixed wine". Homer frequently refers to the "wine-dark sea" (, "oīnōps póntos"): in lack of a name for the color "blue," the Greeks would simply refer to red wine's color.
History of wine | Ancient Greece
The winery, which is over six-thousand years old, contains a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found grape seeds and vines of the species "Vitis vinifera". Patrick McGovern, a biomolecular anthropologist at the University of Pennsylvania, commenting on the importance of the find, said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier."
Areni | Copper Age excavations
Wine jars (amphorae) dating back to the 1st century CE were discovered in Biʾr ʿAlī in 1988, in an underwater excavation along the shores of the Indian Ocean. On one of the jars is inscribed a word in the Palmyrene (Tadmori) alphabet and a word in Syriac script. The conclusion drawn by researchers, B. Davidde and R. Petriaggi, is that from the mid-1st century CE wine was imported from Italy and Syria upon camels that disembarked from Coptos (Qift) which lies along the banks of the Nile River in Egypt, thence unto ports Myos Hormos – a place that later became known as al-Quṣayr – and Berenike situated on the western shore of the Red Sea, and from there transported by ship to trade centers in Arabia, Ethiopia and India.
Bi'r Ali | Archaeological finds
Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly red. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture. "Shedeh", the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented from pomegranates as previously thought. Plutarch's "Moralia" relates that, prior to Psammetichus I, the pharaohs did not drink wine nor offer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung".
History of wine | Ancient Egypt
According to the latest research scholars stated: "Following the definition of the CNCCEF, China has been viewed as “New New World” in the world wine map, despite the fact that grape growing and wine making in China date back to between 7000BCE and 9000BCE. Winemaking technology and wine culture are rooted in Chinese history and the definition of “New New World” is a misnomer that imparts a Euro centric bias onto wine history and ignores fact." Furthermore, the history of Chinese grape wine has been confirmed and proven to date back 9000 years (7000 BC), including "the earliest attested use" of wild grapes in wine as well as "earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world", according to Adjunct Professor of Anthropology Patrick McGovern, the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia.
History of wine | Ancient China
A major step forward in our understanding of Neolithic winemaking came from the analysis of a yellowish residue excavated by Mary M. Voigt at the site of Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran. The jar that once contained wine, with a volume of about 9 liters (2.5 gallons) was found together with five similar jars embedded in the earthen floor along one wall of a "kitchen" of a Neolithic mudbrick building, dated to c. 5400-5000 BC. In such communities, winemaking was the best technology they had for storing highly perishable grapes, although whether the resulting beverage was intended for intoxication as well as nourishment is not known.
History of alcoholic drinks | Ancient Persia (or Ancient Iran)
Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which produce a red-colored juice. Much of the red-wine production process therefore involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin. It is a delicacy around the world.
Red wine | Introduction
The cave remains date to about 4000 BC – 900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs. Archaeologist Gregory Areshian of UCLA says, "The site gives us a new insight into the earliest phase of horticulture—how they grew the first orchards and vineyards." Gregory Areshian, co-director of the excavation and assistant director of the University of California Los Angeles's Cotsen Institute of Archaeology stated that "It's the oldest proven case of documented and dedicated wine production, stretching back the horizons of this important development by thousands of years,"
Armenian wine | History
Recent archaeological research has pushed back the date of the known origin of wine making in Persia far beyond that which writers earlier in the 20th century had envisaged. Excavations at the Godin Tepe site in the Zagros mountains (Badler, 1995; McGovern and Michel, 1995; McGovern, 2003), have revealed pottery vessels dating from c. 3100–2900 BC containing tartaric acid, almost certainly indicating the former presence of wine. Even earlier evidence was found at the site of Hajji Firuz Tepe, also in the Zagros mountains. Here, McGovern et al. (1996) used chemical analyses of the residue of a Neolithic jar dating from as early as 5400–5000 BC to indicate high levels of tartaric acid, again suggesting that the fluid contained therein had been made from grapes.
Persian wine | History
The names of wine-producing regions have been used for thousands of years to identify and qualify specific wines, including the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. In those days, the wines from Cyprus, Falerno and Bética were renowned. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey mentions the wines from Lemnos, Samos, Pédalos and Itaca. However, it was only towards the end of the 19th century that the use of geographic names was first regulated by law to prevent fraud. In 1883 the Convenio de la Unión de Paris on intellectual property was signed. In 1947 the "Oficina Internacional de la Viña y el Vino" stated that a wine could not have a DO unless it had a long tradition and an acknowledged reputation.
Montilla-Moriles | History
Under Roman rule, in the century and a half BC, the majority of the wine consumed in the area was required by law to be Italian in origin, as the distribution of fragments of wine amphorae found throughout Gaul after about 100 BC, especially along the coasts and rivers, suggests: some of the earliest amphorae, from the 2nd century BC, bear Iberian shipper's marks, indicating that distribution of wine predated conquest. It wasn't till the first century AD that there was record of Gaul's wine being of any note or renown. In his "Natural History" (book xiv), Pliny the Elder noted that in the region near Vienna (modern day Vienne in the Rhone wine region), the Allobroges produced a resinated wine that was held in esteem and commanded a high market price.
History of French wine | Early history
Production spread to other sites in Greater Iran and Greek Macedonia by BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes.
History of wine | Prehistory
The Romans also created a precursor to today's appellation systems, as certain regions gained reputations for their fine wines. The most famous was the white Falernian from the Latian–Campanian border, principally because of its high (~15%) alcohol content. The Romans recognized three appellations: Caucinian Falernian from the highest slopes, Faustian Falernian from the center (named for its one-time owner Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of the dictator), and generic Falernian from the lower slopes and plain. The esteemed vintages grew in value as they aged, and each region produced different varieties as well: dry, sweet, and light. Other famous wines were the sweet Alban from the Alban Hills and the Caecuban beloved by Horace and extirpated by Nero.
History of wine | Roman Empire
Most wines are red, although some white wines are produced. Permitted grape varieties are Grenache noir (at least 50%, 75% for the Grand Cru), Grenache gris, Grenache blanc and Carignan, and also (but rarely used) Macabeu, Muscat and Malvoisie.
Banyuls AOC | Grapes and wines
The Central European vineyards reached 100,000 hectares which was three and a half times the area in the 1990s. From the 13th century traders distinguished "vinum hunicum" (wine of the Huns), which was drunk by the people, from "vinum francium" (Wine of the Franks) which was the wine for the wealthy aristocracy. There was recognition of varieties of Riesling and Sylvaner from the late Middle Ages.
White wine | Middle Ages
Such wines were primarily drunk as everyday table wine by French workers, and they were known as "petit rouge" – small reds. Since high-yielding Aramon gives one of the least coloured wines that still pass as red, the practice of blending such wines with wines from "teinturier" grapes such as Alicante Bouschet was a measure used to give them a measure of increased credibility as reds.
Aramon (grape) | History
Thus, in this department alone, a vineyard surface somewhat larger than that of the entire Bordeaux region of today was added in 20 years, most of it planted with Aramon. The wine produced was undistinguished, but it was produced cheaply and in huge quantities. The simple reds of Languedoc initially competed with equally simple reds made closer to Paris, in areas where most of the wine production disappeared in the early 20th century due to the combined effect of competition and phylloxera. Thus, the wines were not made in a mold that wine consumers of the late 20th and early 21st century would have recognised as a typical "warm climate" style, but rather outmatched other thin red wines by means of sheer volume and lower production costs.
Aramon (grape) | History
Lebanon is among the oldest sites of wine production in the world. The Israelite Hosea (780–725 BC) is said to have urged his followers to return to Yahweh so that "they will blossom as the vine, [and] their fragrance will be like the wine of Lebanon". The Phoenicians of its coastal strip were instrumental in spreading wine and viticulture throughout the Mediterranean in ancient times. However, in the Arabian peninsula, wine was traded by Aramaic merchants, as the climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines. Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including date and honey wines.
History of wine | Medieval Middle East
Dessert wines range from slightly sweet (with less than 50 g/L of sugar) to incredibly sweet wines (with over 400 g/L of sugar). Late harvest wines such as Spätlese are made from grapes harvested well after they have reached maximum ripeness. Dried grape wines, such as Recioto and Vin Santo from Italy, are made from grapes that have been partially raisined after harvesting. Botrytized wines are made from grapes infected by the mold Botrytis cinerea or noble rot. These include Sauternes from Bordeaux, numerous wines from Loire such as Bonnezeaux and Quarts de Chaume, Tokaji Aszú from Hungary, and Beerenauslese.
Classification of wine | Dessert and fortified wine
During the 2nd century BC, Zhang Qian's exploration of the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang) reached the Hellenistic successor states of Alexander's empire: Dayuan, Bactria, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. These had brought viticulture into Central Asia and trade permitted the first wine produced from "V. vinifera" grapes to be introduced to China.
History of wine | Ancient China
Many Armenian reds are very sweet and rich, and Ethiopian wine has a similar quality. During periods of Islamic rule, Armenians were the suppliers of alcoholic beverages, such as wine, to the Muslims, who were not allowed to distill alcohol. In 2011 archaeologists in Armenia announced the discovery of the world's oldest-known wine production facility. Located in the Areni cave complex, it consists of a shallow basin used to press grapes, a vat for storage, and fermentation jars. They also found grape seeds, remains of pressed grapes, and dozens of dried vines. The seeds were from "Vitis vinifera", a grape still used to make wine.
Armenian wine | History
Ampelographers debate these descriptions of grapes and their possible modern counterparts or descendants. The Allobrogica grape that was used to produce the Rhone wine of Vienne may have been an early ancestor of the Pinot family. Alternative theories posit that it was more closely related to Syrah or Mondeuse noire—two grapes that produce vastly different wines. The link between these two is the Mondeuse noire synonym of Grosse Syrah. The Rhaetic grape that Virgil praised is believed to be related to the modern Refosco of northeastern Italy.
Ancient Rome and wine | Grape varieties
Red grape varieties include "Bordelesa Beltza" (Tannat), "Axeria" (Cabernet Franc) and "Axeria Handia" (Cabernet Sauvignon), while white wines are made from "Xuri Zerratia" (Courbu), "Izkiriota Ttipia" (Petit Manseng) and "Izkiriota" (Gros Manseng). They are cultivated on terraces between 100-400 m above sea-level and although the soils vary, one of the chief characteristics of the soils in the region is a deep red coloration. This fact is mirrored in the name of the nearby town of Baigorri which is a contraction of "bailara gorri" "red terrace".
Irouléguy AOC | Wine
Excavations in Cyprus on the Neolithic site at Erimi have revealed that sweet wine was made here some 6000 years ago. This is the earliest appearance of sweet wine in the Mediterranean region. A wine grape wine known as the Cypriot Manna (or Nama) . Similar principles were used to make the medieval Cypriot wine Commandaria, which is still produced today. The process of making raisin wines was described by the Greek poet Hesiod in mainland Greece around 800 BC. Various Mediterranean raisin wines were described in the first century AD by Columella and Pliny the Elder. Pliny uses the Greek term for honey wine for the following raisin wine, "The grapes are left on the vine to dry in the sun...It is made by drying grapes in the sun, and then placing them for seven days in a closed place upon hurdles, some seven feet from the ground, care being taken to protect them at night from the dews: on the eighth day they are trodden out: this method, it is said, produces a liquor of exquisite bouquet and flavour.
Straw wine | History
Red wines are made from Grenache noir and Syrah (minimum 60%, of which Syrah minimum 10%), Cinsault (maximum 20%), Carignan (maximum 20%) other accepted varieties are: Counoise, Gamay noir, Mourvèdre, Pinot noir. Rosé: The same varieties are used as for the red, and up to 20% of the allowed varieties for white wine may be used. White wines from Ugni blanc (maximum 50%), Roussanne & Marsanne (combined maximum of 20%), Clairette blanche, Grenache blanc, Vermentino, and Bourboulenc.
Luberon AOC | Wines
The earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 8,000 years. The history of viticulture is closely related to the history of wine, with evidence that humans cultivated wild grapes to make wine as far back as the Neolithic period. Evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of "Vitis vinifera" occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia. The oldest-known winery was discovered in the "Areni-1" cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found "V. vinifera" seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier." There is also evidence of grape domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age, around 3200 BC.
Viticulture | History
The vine disappeared from northern Germany and Baden, and the maximum altitude for viticulture descended to 220 metres. Hans-Jürgen Otto noted that: "all the vineyards suffered and decreased in area". In England the vine also disappeared. The less early vineyards preferred to select white varieties of grapes because, even if unripe, white grapes allowed wine that was a little sour to still be consumable, while red grapes do not give enough colour and green tannins make the wine bitter. The interruption of the fermentation by a cold winter led to the discovery of the process of secondary fermentation of champagne.
White wine | Modern era
Today, the five countries with the largest wine-producing regions are in Italy, Spain, France, the United States, and China. Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California.
Wine | Introduction
Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly red. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture. "Shedeh", the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented from pomegranates as previously thought. Plutarch's "Moralia" relates that, prior to Psammetichus I, the pharaohs did not drink wine nor offer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung".
Egyptian wine | History
The evidence for winemaking consisted of six jars that were embedded in the floor of what archeologists suspect was a kitchen area in a mudbrick building that was inhabited some time between 5400–5000 BC. Inside was yellowish deposits that chemical analysis showed contained residue of tartaric acid and calcium tartrate. Additionally, analysis found deposit of resin, identified as from the terebinth tree ("Pistacia terebinthus") that grew wild in the area. It is possible that the resin was used as a preservative, in a manner similar to the Greek wine Retsina still being produced today, suggesting that winemaking in Hajji Firuz Tepe was deliberately taking place over 7,000 years ago.
Hajji Firuz Tepe | Evidence for winemaking
A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy alcohol consumption, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine.
History of wine | Medieval Europe
These terms can be traced back to the early Middle Ages. As an example, the mystic Hildegard of Bingen wrote in the 12th century that the Frankish wine was stronger and set the blood so much in motion that it was necessary to dilute it with water, while the Hunnic wine was more watery by nature and therefore had not to be diluted. Some of the earliest specific varieties to be mentioned as Frankisch were Traminer, Pinot gris and Riesling in the 14th to 15th centuries. It could be noted that more than 500 years of not very well-documented viticultural history and highly uncertain grape identification separate Charlemagne and these written claims.
Frankish and Hunnic grape varieties | History
Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as red or white wine, sparkling, semi-sparkling or still, fortified and dessert wines. The color of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice, for example alicante bouschet, are known as teinturier. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red color is bestowed by a process called maceration, whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation.
Classification of wine | By vinification methods and style
Many viticultural practices were however taken from other parts of the Roman empire, as evidenced by Roman-style trellising systems surviving into the 18th century in some parts of Germany, such as the "Kammertbau" in the Palatinate. Almost nothing is known of the style or quality of "German" wines that were produced in the Roman era, with the exception of the fact that the poet Venantius Fortunatus mentions red German wine around AD 570.
German wine | Early history
In Ancient Rome, wine was normally mixed with water immediately before drinking, since the fermentation was not controlled and the alcohol grade was high. Wine was sometimes adjusted and "improved" by its makers: instructions survive for making white wine from red and vice versa, as well as for rescuing wine that is turning to vinegar. Those instructions as well as detailed descriptions of Roman viticulture date back to 160 BC in the first known text written in Latin prose. Wine was also variously flavored. For example, there was "passum", a strong and sweet raisin wine, for which the earliest known recipe is of Carthaginian origin; "mulsum", a freshly made mixture of wine and honey (called a pyment today); and conditum, a mixture of wine, honey and spices made in advance and matured.
Ancient Roman cuisine | Alcoholic drinks
The red-wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin. Red wine is made from dark-colored grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.
Wine | Red wine
This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears". Residue from five clay amphoras in Tutankhamun's tomb, however, have been shown to be that of white wine, so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.
History of wine | Ancient Egypt
Herodotus, writing about the culture of the ancient Persians (in particular, those of Pontus) writes that they were "very fond" of wine and drank it in large quantities.
History of wine | Ancient Persia
Wild grapes were harvested by neolithic foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately entwined with the history of wine. Changes in pip (seed) shape (narrower in domesticated forms) and distribution point to domestication occurring about 3500–3000 BC, in southwest Asia, South Caucasus ( Georgia), or the Western Black Sea shore region (Romania and Bulgaria). The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes has been found at Gadachrili Gora, near the village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality, in southeastern Georgia; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC.
Vitis vinifera | History
Traces of wine and beer found in ceramics dated to c. 3100-2900 BC and along with the findings at Hajji Firuz Tepe, provide evidence of the early production of those beverages in the Zagros Mountains. Some Kura-Araxes culture potsherds also seem to appear in association with wine making.
Godin Tepe | Early wine-making
Spanish wine was in Bordeaux before the region produced its own. French historian Roger Dion has suggested that the balisca vine (common in Spain's northern provinces, particularly Rioja) was brought from Rioja to plant the first Roman vineyards of Bordeaux. Spanish wines were frequently traded in Rome. The poet Martial described a highly regarded wine known as "ceretanum" from Ceret (modern-day Jerez de la Frontera). Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this wine was an early ancestor of sherry. Spanish wines penetrated more extensively than Italian wines into the Roman Empire, with amphoras from Spain discovered in Aquitaine, Brittany, the Loire Valley, Normandy, Britain and the German frontier.
Ancient Rome and wine | Hispania
Modern-day wines from the Rhone are often characterized by using the aroma descriptors of lavender and thyme, presumably as a reflection of the grape varieties used and the "terroir". Another widespread practice was the storage of amphoras in a smoke chamber called a fumarium to add smokiness to a wine's flavor. "Passum", or wine made from dried grapes or raisins, was also particularly popular and was produced in the eastern Mediterranean. It was widely used in ritual contexts and also found popularity in the kitchen and medicinal spheres.
Ancient Rome and wine | Wine styles
The Greeks are thought to have made red as well as rosé and white wines. Like today, these varied in quality from common table wine to valuable vintages. It was generally considered that the best wines came from Thásos, Lesbos and Chios. Cretan wine came to prominence later. A secondary wine made from water and pomace (the residue from squeezed grapes), mixed with lees, was made by country people for their own use. The Greeks sometimes sweetened their wine with honey and made medicinal wines by adding thyme, pennyroyal and other herbs. By the first century, if not before, they were familiar with wine flavoured with pine resin (modern "retsina").
Ancient Greek cuisine | Wine
Other major red varieties are Cannonau, Ciliegiolo, Gaglioppo, Lagrein, Lambrusco, Monica, Nerello Mascalese, Pignolo, Refosco, Schiava, Schioppettino, Teroldego, and Uva di Troia. "International" varieties such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah are also widely grown.
Italian wine | Rosso (red)
Use of wild grapes in production of alcoholic beverages has been attested at the Jiahu archaeological site (c. 7000 BC). High quality wine called "qióng jiāng yù yè" () is mentioned in the "Complete Tang Poems" "(Quan Tangshi)", an 18th century collection of around 50,000 poems compiled during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. The phrase, which translates literally to "jade-like wine", but has an idiomatic meaning along the lines of "wonderful wine". In 1995, a joint Sino-USA archaeology team including archaeologists from the Archeology Research Institute of Shandong University and American archaeologists under the leadership of Professor Fang Hui investigated the two archaeological sites 20 km to the northeast of Rizhao, and discovered the remnants of a variety of alcoholic beverages including grape wine, rice wine, mead, and several mixed beverages of these wines.
Wine in China | History
There are red, rosé and white wine. Wines are produced only from the defined area. The types of grapes for red and rosé wine are Abouriou, Merlot, Cabernet sauvignon, Cabernet franc, Duras, Fer, Négrette, Portugias bleu, Malbec and Tannat. The types of grapes for white wine are Colombard, Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng, Len de l'El, Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, Muscadelle and Ugni blanc.
Côtes de Gascogne | Rules for wine
Analyses of some of the earliest wine from the tomb of Scorpion I at Abydos, Egypt Ancient Egypt, dated to ca. 3150 B.C., has revealed the presence of a host of herbal additives, including herbs—savory ("Satureja"), "Artemisia seibeni" (a member of the wormwood family), blue tansy ("Tanacetum annuum"), balm ("Melissa"), senna ("Cassia"), coriander ("Coriandrum"), germander ("Teucrium"), mint ("Mentha"), sage ("Salvia"), and/or thyme ("Thymus/Thymbra"). Some active compounds in these plants have also shown to have "in vitro" anti-cancer effects The jar residues also yielded the earliest fragments of ribosomal DNA (as long as 840 base pairs) from a precursor of the wine/beer/bread yeast, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
Patrick Edward McGovern | Archaeological Oncology
The results of the biochemical analysis of the residues from the bottom of the wine-press and the storage jars carried out by Hans Barnard and his colleagues at UCLA were published in the "Journal of Archaeological Science" in January 2011. Botanical analysis and radiocarbon tests carried out by researchers at the University of California, Irvine and Oxford University have revealed the date of the Areni-1 winery to around 4100 BC and 4000 BC or the Late Chalcolithic Period. According to Areshian, the vintners used their feet to press the wine in the clay basin, the juice of which would then drain into the vat, where it would remain to ferment until being stored in jars.
Areni-1 winery | Analysis
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that the Celts first cultivated the grape vine, "Vitis vinifera", in Gaul. Grape pips have been found throughout France, pre-dating Greek and Roman cultural influences, with some examples found near Lake Geneva being over 12,000 years old. A major turning-point in the wine history of Gaul came with the founding of Massalia in the 6th century BC by Greek immigrants from Phocae in Asia Minor. By the 2nd century BC, Massalia (by then known as Massilia) came under Roman influence as a vital port on the trade route linking Rome to Roman settlements at Saguntum (near what is now modern Valencia in Spain).
History of French wine | Early history
Six red varieties are used: Cabernet Franc N, Cabernet Sauvignon, Tannat, Fer, Manseng Noir and Courbu Noir. According to Guy Lavignac this region had its own grape varieties for centuries: Bouchy, Fer, Manseng Noir, Courbu and probably others not included in its appellation. In the 18th Century, the Tannat variety was introduced. It was allegedly a hybrid of Côt and Pyrenean grapes. While the region's vineyards were being restored after a Phylloxera breakout, Cabernet Sauvignon was imported from Bordeaux. The Courbu and Manseng Noir grape varieties are today nothing more than relics of the past. Even so, they continue to be grown in a grape conservation.
Béarn AOC | Grape Varieties
The earliest reference to a named wine is from the lyrical poet Alkman (7th century BC), who praises "Dénthis," a wine from the western foothills of Mount Taygetus in Messenia, as ""anthosmías"" ("smelling of flowers"). According to wine expert Jancis Robinson, Limnio was almost certainly the "Lemnia" grape described by Aristotle as a speciality of the island of Limnos, which was probably the same as the modern-day Lemnió varietal, a red wine with a bouquet of oregano and thyme. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation. The most common style of wine in ancient Greece was sweet and aromatic, though drier wines were also produced.
Ancient Greece and wine | Greek wine
As an example of the rules, although climatic conditions would appear to be favorable, no Cabernet Sauvignon wines are produced in Rhône, Riesling wines in Loire, or Chardonnay wines in Bordeaux. (If such wines were produced, they would have to be declassified to Vin de Pays or French table wine. They would not be allowed to display any appellation name or even region of origin.) Traditionally, many French wines have been blended from several grape varieties. Varietal white wines have been, and are still, more common than varietal red wines.
French wine | Grape varieties
Archaeologists there have discovered even more evidence of large scale winemaking with and wine jars as well as large basins containing wine residue, indicating that they might have been used for treading grapes as an early wine press. The residue on the jars was also found on the side of the containers, rather than the bottom, indicating that these jars were kept on their side, most likely for long term storage.
Hajji Firuz Tepe | Other discoveries
Even after the development of newer, more efficient wine presses, many ancient and early winemakers still preferred making the lighter colored and fruitier style of wines. There was an understanding, as early as the time of the Ancient Greeks and Roman winemakers, that harder pressing and letting the juice "sit" for a period with the skins would make darker, heartier wines, but the resulting wines were often considered too harsh and less desirable. This sentiment lasted well into the Middle Ages, when the pale clarets from Bordeaux were starting to gain the world's attention. To the powerful English market, the most prized clarets were, according to wine historian Hugh Johnson, the "vin d'une nuit" or "wine of one night", which were pale-rosé colored wines made from juice that was allowed only a single night of skin contact.
Rosé | History
The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap white or rosé from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman "posca") would often be the only available choice. The aging of high quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a widespread problem.
Medieval cuisine | Wine
Out of more than two hundred ceramic pots discovered at the sites, seven were specifically used for grape wine. Remnants of grape seeds were also discovered. If grape wine consumption was once present in Bronze Age China, however, it was replaced by consumption of a range of alcoholic beverages made from sorghum, millet, rice, and fruits such as lychee or Asian plum. In the 130s and 120s BC, a Chinese imperial envoy of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) named Zhang Qian opened diplomatic relations with several Central Asian kingdoms, some of which produced grape wine. By the end of the second century BC, Han envoys had brought grape seeds from the wine-loving kingdom of Dayuan (Ferghana in modern Uzbekistan) back to China and had them planted on imperial lands near the capital Chang'an (near modern-day Xi'an in Shaanxi province).
Wine in China | History
Use of grapes is known to date back to Neolithic times, following the discovery in 1996 of 7,000-year-old wine storage jars in present-day northern Iran. Further evidence shows the Mesopotamians and Ancient Egyptians had vine plantations and winemaking skills. Greek philosophers praised the healing powers of grapes both whole and in the form of wine. "Vitis vinifera" cultivation and winemaking in China began during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century with the importation of the species from Ta-Yuan. However, wild vine "mountain grapes" like "Vitis thunbergii" were being used for wine making before that time. In traditional medicine of India "V.
Vitis vinifera | Uses
The traditional reds from El Priorat are a single grape ("varietal") bottling of Grenache or Carignan, or a blend of these two grapes in a Bordeaux style with other French varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, or Syrah, among others. Few wineries (cellars) follow these guidelines strictly, and the usual practice is to produce wines labeled as "vino de guarda" (aged wine), which has been in oak barrels for 18 months followed by 6 months in the bottle, with the optimal time for consumption being 2 years later.
Priorat (DOQ) | Wines
In 2012 Copper Age jars dating from the fourth millennium BC were found in a cave on Monte Kronio. Organic samples taken from the jars proved to contain tartaric acid and its salt, confirming the use of the vessel as wine containers. The site is the location of one of the earliest known evidences of winemaking, dating back 6000 years, a similar age to the evidence from Areni in Armenia.
Monte Kronio | Ancient winemaking
In the Middle Ages, wine was the common drink of all social classes in the south, where grapes were cultivated. In the north and east, where few if any grapes were grown, beer and ale were the usual beverages of both commoners and nobility. Wine was exported to the northern regions, but because of its relatively high expense was seldom consumed by the lower classes. Since wine was necessary, however, for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, assuring a supply was crucial. The Benedictine monks became one of the largest producers of wine in France and Germany, followed closely by the Cistercians.
History of wine | Medieval Europe
The Airén variety was extensively planted after the phylloxera plague of 1911 due to its good resistance to high temperatures. As a result of this Airén makes up 65% of all vines planted in the area, although in recent years this percentage has been steadily declining. Other varieties, such as Macabeo, are also being used for white wines. Tempranillo (or Cencibel as it is known in the area) is the traditional variety used for red wines, although recently new varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Garnacha, are being used more. The vines are almost all planted in square or rectangular formation to allow mechanisation of the vineyard activities, and some newer plantations are on trellises to allow an increase in production.
Valdepeñas (DO) | Vines
It was also during the late first century BC/early first century AD that viticulture started to spread to other areas of Gaul — beyond areas where the olive and fig would grow, where a suitable variety was found to be the "biturica", the ancestor of cabernet varieties. The high demand for wine and the cost of transport from Rome or Massilia were likely motivators for this spread. Archaeological evidence dating to the reign of Augustus suggests that large numbers of amphorae were being produced near Bézier in the Narbonensis and in the Gaillac region of Southwest France. In both these areas, the presence of the evergreen holm oak, "Quercus ilex", which also grows in the familiar Mediterranean climate served as a benchmark indicating an area where the climate was warm enough to ensure a reliable harvest each year.
History of French wine | Early history
In the Zagros Mountains of Iran, in one of the earliest examples of winemaking, archaeologists discovered terebinth resin deposits from 5400-5000 BC in jars that also contained grape-juice residue. "Pistacia lentiscus", an evergreen shrub or small tree of the Mediterranean region, supplies a resin called mastic.
Pistacia | Cultivation and uses
The exact origins of winemaking (and, thus, of pressing grapes) are not known, but most archaeologists believe that it originated somewhere in the Transcaucasia between the Black and Caspian Seas in the land that now includes the modern countries of Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. There are stories in the Imeretin Valley (in what is now Krasnodar Krai, Russia) dating to between 7000-5000 BC of early winemaking using hollowed out logs that they would fill with grapes, tread with their feet and then scoop the juice and crushed grape remains into jars to ferment. In the 17th century, French traveller Sir Jean Chardin described a similar practice still in use thousands of years later in Georgia.
History of the wine press | Early history
In Goygol Rayon of the country, archeologists have found jars with remains of wines which date back to the second millennium BC. In the Khanlar district of the Azerbaijan Republic, for example, archeologists have found jars buried with the remains of wine dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. Greek historian Strabo who had traveled to northern Azerbaijan (Caucasian Albania at the time) described cultivation of crops of grapes as so abundant that the residents were not able to harvest them. Other sources such as the epic poem Kitabi Dada Gorgud written in 7th-11th centuries describe enriched culture of wine-making.
Azerbaijani wine | History
This ancient vinifera originates in Georgia and is one of the oldest grape varieties. In Georgia, clay vessels were found with seeds of Rkatsiteli grapes which date back to 3000 BC. Rkatsiteli was popular in the Soviet Union prior to its fall and at one point was responsible for more the 18% of all Soviet wine production. There it was used to make everything from table wine to liqueurs to Sherry-like fortified wine. Prior to President Gorbachev's vine pull scheme, it was possibly the world's most widely planted white wine grape. In Kakheti it was particularly known for its sweet dessert wines fashioned in the same manner as port wine.
Rkatsiteli | History
Since ancient days Armenia has been famous for its wine-making traditions which are still kept in practice to this day. The ancient winery found in the Areni cave dates back to 6100 BC (see Areni-1 winery), and is the oldest one in the world found to this date, with the grape seeds found shown by genetic analyses to be those of the already domesticated Vitis vinifera. The written recorded history of Armenian wine can trace its roots back to 401–400 BC, when the Greek armies led by Xenophon passed through Armenian lands and were reportedly treated with wine and beer.
Armenian wine | History
Transcaucasia, in particular where modern-day Turkey, Georgia, Armenia and Iran are located, is one of the native areas of the wine-producing vine "Vitis vinifera". Some experts speculate that Transcaucasia may be the birthplace of wine production. Archaeological excavations and carbon dating of grape seeds from the area have dated back to 8000–5000 BC. Wine found in Iran has been dated to BC and BC, while wine found in Georgia has been dated to BC. The earliest winery, dated to BC, was found in Armenia.
Transcaucasia | Wine
Red: Mencía, Caiño tinto, Brancellao, Espadeiro, Loureira Tinta and Sousón White: Albariño, Godello, Palomino, Caíño blanco, Loureira, Treixadura and Torrontés
Barbanza e Iria | Grape varieties
Evidence of ancient viticulture is provided by cuneiform sources (ancient writing on clay tablets), plant remains, historical geography, and archaeological excavations. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption and cultivated grape species. In addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins. The earliest act of cultivation appears to have been the favoring of hermaphroditic members of the "Vitis vinifera" species over the barren male vines and the female vines, which were dependent on a nearby male for pollination. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic.
Viticulture | History
The red wines are a blend of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Merlot, sometimes supplemented by Côt or, less commonly, by Fer Servadou or Mérille. They are often dark in color, with full-bodied flavours. The white wines are mainly a blend of Sémillon with Sauvignon blanc, Sauvignon gris and Muscadelle, to which Ugni blanc, Ondenc and Chenin blanc are sometimes added. These combinations lead to the creation of fruity, dry white wines that can be powerful, and of medium-sweet or sweet wines that are aromatic and powerful.
Bergerac wine | Grape varieties
There are many different types of wine press, but they can be broadly divided into continuous presses and tank presses. Modern winemaking tends to favour tank presses with pneumatic membranes, which squeeze the grapes more gently than continuous presses. The press wine is often kept separate from the free-run, and kept for later blending or disposing. press can also be dependent on climate and slothrating.
Red wine | Types of press
The traditional Bordeaux varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet franc, Sémillon, Sauvignon blanc, Muscadelle, Malbec and Merlot are found here as well as the Rhône wine grape Syrah and the Burgundy grape Gamay. Local varieties Ugni blanc, Abouriou and Fer are also found. There is a much larger percentage of red wine made than white, though Sauvignon blanc production is increasing.
Côtes du Marmandais | Grapes and wines
In the 15th century, Pinot noir became heavily planted in the area. The resulting red wine had difficulty comparing well to the richness and coloring of Burgundy wines, despite the addition of elderberries to deepen the color. This led to a greater focus on white wines. The Champagne house of Gosset was founded as a still wine producer in 1584 and is the oldest Champagne house still in operation today. Ruinart was founded in 1729 and was soon followed by Chanoine Frères (1730), Taittinger (1734), Moët et Chandon (1743) and Veuve Clicquot (1772).
Champagne wine region | History of wine production
The tradition of wine appellation is very old. The oldest references are to be found in the Bible, where "wine of Samaria", "wine of Carmel", "wine of Jezreel", or "wine of Helbon" are mentioned. This tradition of appellation continued throughout the Antiquity and the Middle Ages, though without any officially sanctioned rules. Historically, the world's first exclusive (protected) vineyard zone was introduced in Chianti, Italy in 1716 and the first wine classification system in Tokaj-Hegyalja, Hungary, in 1730.
Appellation | History
Color ranged from dark, inky black to tawny to nearly clear. Oxidation was difficult to control, a common wine fault that meant many wines did not retain their quality beyond the next vintage. However, wines that were stored well and aged were highly prized: Hermippus described the best mature wines as having a bouquet of "violets, roses and hyacinth." Comedic poets noted that Greek women liked "old wine but young men."
Ancient Greece and wine | Greek wine
Historians think it was shortly after the discovery of wine itself, the alcoholic product of fermented grape juice, that cultures realized its value as a trade commodity. Although wild grapes of the genus "Vitis" could be found throughout the known world and all could be fermented, it took some degree of knowledge and skill to turn these grapes into palatable wine. This knowledge was passed along the trading routes that emerged from the Caucasus and Zagros Mountains down through Mesopotamia and to the Mediterranean, eventually reaching Phoenicia. Specific varieties of grapevines of the "V. vinifera" species were identified as especially favorable for winemaking, cuttings of which were spread via these trade routes.
Phoenicians and wine | Early history in wine trading
The main grape varieties grown are Barbera, Dolcetto, Grignolino, Freisa and Brachetto. The Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) wines produced from these are:
Costigliole d'Asti | Red wines
In 37 BC, Varro wrote in "Res Rusticae" that Falernian increased in value as it matured, and Pliny recorded that Falernian from the famed Opimian vintage of 121 BC was served at a banquet in 60 BC honoring Julius Caesar for his conquests in Spain. There were three notable varieties: Dry (Latin "austerum"), Sweet ("dulce"), and Light ("tenue").
Falernian wine | Characteristics
Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term "wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake. Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred BC in Georgia. It had reached the Balkans by BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece and Rome.
Drink | Wine
That's one of the reasons this variety is also called "Odessa" among Georgians. Russian poet Osip Mandelstam had described Isabella as "fleshy and heavy like a cluster of night itself". Radeda, a dry red Abkhazian wine, is made from Isabella. Isabella is also found on the south shore of the Black Sea in Turkey. The Pontic Greeks from Trabzon have used it for wine production named "zamura". The berries are known to be used for the production of Pekmez and the leaves for preparing Sarma.
Isabella (grape) | Modern history
The fame of Persian wine has been well known in ancient times. The carvings on the Audience Hall, known as Apadana Palace, in Persepolis, demonstrate soldiers of subjected nations by the Persian Empire bringing gifts to the Persian king.
History of wine | Armenia: Areni-1 winery
After years of research and DNA testing of vines from vineyards across the globe, a single 90-year-old grape vine from the garden of an elderly lady in Split, Croatia provided the evidence to show that Zinfandel was originally a Croatian grape known as "Tribidrag" that had been cultivated in Croatia since the 15th century. Other findings reported in "Wine Grapes" include the discovery of several species of Malvasia grapes growing in central and southern Italy are actually the Spanish wine grape Tempranillo and that Cabernet franc may have originated in Basque country of Spain. Additionally the origins of the assumed to be French varieties of Mourvèdre, Grenache and Carignan are shown to likely be Spanish instead.
Wine Grapes | DNA findings