Michael Sendivogius (; ; 2 February 1566 – 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor. A pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds. He discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen—170 years before Scheele's discovery of the element. He correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre). This substance, the 'central nitre', had a central position in Sendivogius' schema of the universe.
Introduction
Michael Sendivogius
Michael Sendivogius | Introduction
He developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds He  developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds He  developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds. Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
oxygen (o2) is formed in photosynthesis as a direct result of
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Light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis
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how does lavoisier contribute?
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He conducted the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works
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what are its isotopes?
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They are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number
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what are its allotropes?
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Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
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how is it stored?
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Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
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is it toxic?
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No it is not toxic
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what are its industrial uses?
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Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.
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which scientist was involved in early experiments related to it?
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It was solated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele
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which theory was proposed by the second scientist?
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Theory of phlogiston
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which are some of the works of the first scientist?
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Daniel Stolcius in his "Viridarium Chymicum" (1624) praises Sendivogius as the author of twelve books. The most famous of these was his "New Chemical Light", published in 1604. Besides a relatively clear exposition of his theory on the existence of a 'food of life' in air, his books contain various scientific, pseudo-scientific and philosophical theories, and were repeatedly translated and widely read among such worthies as Isaac Newton into the 18th century.
Michael Sendivogius | Works
Michael Sendivogius (; ; 2 February 1566 – 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor. A pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds. He discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen—170 years before Scheele's discovery of the element. He correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre). This substance, the 'central nitre', had a central position in Sendivogius' schema of the universe.
Michael Sendivogius | Introduction
His answers led to other questions, and this scientific correspondence continued until 1740.
Dominique Parrenin | Works
Slightly later, this theory have been reconsidered, and highly expanded by Jacob Lurie.
Gabriele Vezzosi | Introduction
Building upon a naturalistic, empirical method pioneered by Aristotle in ancient Greece, Ibn al-Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence—an early pioneer in the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists. Born in Basra, he spent most of his productive period in the Fatimid capital of Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities. Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given the byname "al-Baṣrī" after his birthplace, or "al-Miṣrī" ("of Egypt"). Al-Haytham was dubbed the "Second Ptolemy" by Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi and "The Physicist" by John Peckham.
Ibn al-Haytham | Introduction
One of the first scientists to theorise this, Holtz contributed greatly to the debunking of a monophyletic Carnosauria.
Thomas R. Holtz Jr. | Theories
There is a notable change in the men, however; Simplicio, in particular, is no longer quite as simple-minded, stubborn and Aristotelian as his name implies. His arguments are representative of Galileo's own early beliefs, as Sagredo represents his middle period, and Salviati proposes Galileo's newest models.
Two New Sciences | Introduction
He said this was due to the first appearance of science being swept away by Renaissance humanism before science had to be re-introduced again in the 17th century. Sarton wrote in the "Introduction to the History of Science":
Continuity thesis | Sarton
1450–1490) and Michael Sendivogius' (1566–1636) satires - indulges in the contemporary controversies of natural philosophy. Such he not only relates to, among scores of other authorities, the toxicology of the Padovan physician and botanist Prospero Alpini (1553–1616), and polymathic writings of the humanists (father) Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558) and (son) Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609) but also discusses Paracelsism and its antagonists.
Johannes Nicolaus Furichius | Influences and interrelations
Becher's main contribution was the start of the theory itself, however much it was changed after him. Becher's idea was that combustible substances contain an ignitable matter, the "terra pinguis."
Phlogiston theory | Johann Joachim Becher
He was not the first, as Alexandre de Cassini and others of the 19th century split species based on fine distinctions of microstructure, a tendency which Bentham found excessive.
Synantherology | Introduction
Van Valen originally submitted his article to the Journal of Theoretical Biology, where it was accepted for publication. However, because "the manner of processing depended on payment of page charges", Van Valen withdraw his manuscript and founded a new Journal called "Evolutionary Theory", in which he published his manuscript as the first paper. The journal "Evolutionary Theory" was produced in Van Valens office on a photocopy machine under the motto "substance over form." Another noteworthy detail is Van Valen's acknowledgement to the National Science Foundation: "I thank the National Science Foundation for regularly rejecting my (honest) grant applications for work on real organisms, thus forcing me into theoretical work".
Red Queen hypothesis | Trivia
The "De generibus et speciebus" has been attributed to him. Now scholars call its author Pseudo-Joscelin. It may be by a student of his. The "Metalogicus" of John of Salisbury attributed to him the view that universals exist only in the collection, not the individuals.
Jocelin of Soissons | Works
In the "Al-Burhan" ('On Demonstration') section of the book, Avicenna discusses the philosophy of science and describes an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" and significantly diverges from it on several points. Avicenna explains the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asks how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba).
The Book of Healing | Philosophy of science
Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction ("istiqra"), and the method of examination and experimentation ("tajriba"). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."
Avicenna | Philosophy of science
In the "Al-Burhan" ("On Demonstration") section of "The Book of Healing", Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty".
Avicenna | Philosophy of science
Many of his students became very influential scientists in their own right, Lavoisier included. The French viewed phlogiston as a very subtle principle that vanishes in all analysis, yet it is in all bodies. Essentially they followed straight from Stahl's theory. Giovanni Antonio Giobert introduced Lavoisier's work in Italy. Giobert won a prize competition from the Academy of Letters and Sciences of Mantua in 1792 for his work refuting phlogiston theory. He presented a paper at the Académie royale des Sciénces of Turin on March 18, 1792 entitled "Examen chimique de la doctrine du phlogistique et de la doctrine des pneumatistes par rapport à la nature de l 'eau" (translates roughly to Chemical examination of the doctrine of phlogiston and the doctrine of pneumatists in relation to the nature of water), which is considered the most original defense of Lavoisier's theory of water composition to appear in Italy.
Phlogiston theory | Others
The Quaestiones are contained in an octavo notebook, currently in the Cambridge University Library, which was Newton's basic notebook in which he set down in 1661 his readings in the required curriculum in Cambridge and his later readings in mechanical philosophy. He entered notes from both ends. The initial notes, in Greek, were on Aristotle's logic at one end and his ethics, at the other. But following this, he drew a line across the page, below which appears his first notes on the new natural philosophy of his day— a compendium of limits on the radii of stars as determined by Galileo and Auzout.
Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae | Introduction
In the "On Demonstration" section of "The Book of Healing" (1027), the Persian philosopher and scientist Avicenna (Ibn Sina) discussed philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper procedure for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist might find "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna added two further methods for finding a first principle: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction ("istiqra"), and the more recent method of examination and experimentation ("tajriba").
History of scientific method | Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery.
History of biology | Introduction
After Darwin, the idea of evolution was more accepted and Geoffrey's idea of homologous structures was more accepted. The second major argument is that of the Scala Naturae (scale of nature) versus the phylogenetic bush. The Scala Naturae, later also called the phylogenetic scale, was based on the premise that phylogenies are linear or like a scale while the phylogenetic bush argument was based on the idea that phylogenies were nonlinear and resembled a bush more than a scale. Today it is accepted that phylogenies are nonlinear. A third major argument dealt with the size of the brain and whether relative size or absolute size was more relevant in determining function.
Evolutionary neuroscience | Major Arguments
In his work Kαvώv ('canon', a straight edge or ruler, thus any type of measure or standard, referred to as 'canonic'), Epicurus laid out his first rule for inquiry in physics: 'that the "first concepts be seen", and that they "not require demonstration" '. His second rule for inquiry was that prior to an investigation, "we are to have self-evident concepts", so that we might infer [ἔχωμεν οἷς σημειωσόμεθα] both what is expected [τò προσμένον], and also what is non-apparent [τò ἄδηλον]. Epicurus applies his method of inference (the use of observations as signs, Asmis' summary, p. 333: "the method of using the phenomena as signs (σημεῖα) of what is unobserved") immediately to the atomic theory of Democritus.
History of scientific method | Epicurus
Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of Gregory VII, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of the Roman Law, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the "trinitarian society" (politicians, the military and agriculturists).
Dominium mundi | The diet of Besançon and the first differences
He considered that the way that astronomers once thought that God ordered the movement of individual planets was comparable to individual creation of species in particular countries, but divine powers were "much more simple & sublime" in creating the first animals so that species then arose by "the fixed laws of generation". A hypothesis of "fresh creations" he saw as "mere assumption, it explains nothing further". From Owen, he learnt of John Hunter's observations on "the production of monsters" (mutants) at birth, and he noted that this could "present an analogy to production of species". He jotted down thoughts on how organisms could reach new islands: could "Owls transport mice alive?".
Inception of Darwin's theory | B notebook
[BNI] 63-8109) The "Turin Prolusions" (1896-1898) open the horizon to new discoveries and to the formulations of scientific theories and hypotheses concerning the relationship between science and its history. In this context are the famous "questions of words", which concern language and its functioning as a means of transmitting ideas (Cfr. Guglielmo Rinzivillo, "Giovanni Vailati. Storia e metodologia delle scienze" and "Giuseppe Peano, Giovanni Vailati. Contributi invisibili", idem "Una epistemologia senza storia", Rome, Nuova Cultura, 2013, ).
Giovanni Vailati | History of science
One day he invited a distinguished zoologist to deliver a lecture to the members. The speaker, adopting "a frankly atheistic approach," described the sequence of events leading to the emergence, "though he did not say how," of the first primitive life-form from lifeless matter. When he concluded, there was polite applause. Then, "a mild and very average youngster rose nervously to his feet," and with a slight stammer asked how there came to be anything in the first place. The naïve question took everyone by surprise. The lecturer "looked annoyed, hesitated, slowly turned red. Then, before he could answer, the whole club burst into a howl of laughter.
A. J. Cronin | Religion
These theories have been denied by author John Flansburgh.
S-E-X-X-Y | Introduction
The "Syntagma philosophicum" sub-divides, according to the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi as with Epicurus, is truly canonic), physics and ethics. The logic contains a sketch of the history of the science "De origine et varietate logicae", and is divided into theory of right apprehension ("bene imaginari"), theory of right judgment ("bene proponere"), theory of right inference ("bene colligere"), theory of right method ("bene ordinare"). The first part contains the specially empirical positions which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account. The senses, the sole source of knowledge, supposedly yield us immediate cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi takes as material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding compares these ideas, each particular, and frames general ideas.
Pierre Gassendi | The "Syntagma philosophicum"
From 1986-88 Fostiropoulos was investigating effects of intermolecular forces in real gases at the Institute of Physical Chemistry, Heidelberg University. One focus was to study the thermodynamic properties of freons in order to substitute them by environmentally compatible substances in refrigerator units.
Konstantinos Fostiropoulos | First scientific career - "fundamental research"
Archytas, who was the first theorist to give ratios for all of the genera, chose 28:27 and 36:35, and Didymus, some four centuries later, gave 32:31 and 31:30 .
Pyknon | Enharmonic
He did maintain the later-discredited phlogiston hypothesis, but wasn't doctrinaire about it. In 1786 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1787 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were John Playfair, James Hutton, and James Gregory.
Adair Crawford | Life
Nalin de Silva who is influenced by Paul Feyerabend rejected the existence of scientific method and propose proliferation of sciences on various chinthanayas. He proposes theories are stories constructed by abductive reasoning to explain phenomenas . He refuses ideas that science is truth or science is advancing towards the truth.
Nalin de Silva | Philoosphy of science
The conventional title "Physiologus" was because the author introduces his stories from natural history with the phrase: "the physiologus says", that is, "the naturalist says", "the natural philosophers, the authorities for natural history say". In later centuries it was ascribed to various celebrated Fathers, especially Epiphanius, Basil of Caesarea, and St. Peter of Alexandria. The assertion that the method of the "Physiologus" presupposes the allegorical exegesis developed by Origen is not correct; the so-called "Letter of Barnabas" offers, before Origen, a sufficient model, not only for the general character of the "Physiologus" but also for many of its details. It can hardly be asserted that the later recensions, in which the Greek text has been preserved, present even in the best and oldest manuscripts a perfectly reliable transcription of the original, especially as this was an anonymous and popular treatise.
Physiologus | Attributions
Young's work was subsequently supported by the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel.
Thomas Young (scientist) | Introduction
"For his come-back to fullerene research Fostiropoulos' references have been Nobel Laureate Harry Kroto and Robert Schlögl."
Konstantinos Fostiropoulos | Second scientific career - "applications"
With the advice of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder carried out elemental analyses of common animal and plant proteins. To everyone's surprise, all proteins had nearly the same empirical formula, roughly CHNO with individual sulfur and phosphorus atoms. Mulder published his findings in two papers (1837,1838) and hypothesized that there was one basic substance ("Grundstoff") of proteins, and that it was synthesized by plants and absorbed from them by animals in digestion. Berzelius was an early proponent of this theory and proposed the name "protein" for this substance in a letter dated 10 July 1838 The name protein that he propose for the organic oxide of fibrin and albumin, I wanted to derive from [the Greek word] πρωτειος, because it appears to be the primitive or principal substance of animal nutrition.
History of molecular biology | First isolation and classification
Terence Irwin writes:
First principle | Aristotle's contribution
The book is divided into four days, each addressing different areas of physics. Galileo dedicates "Two New Sciences" to Lord Count of Noailles. In the First Day, Galileo addressed topics that were discussed in Aristotle's Physics and also the Aristotelian school Mechanics. It also provides an introduction to the discussion of both of the new sciences. The likeness between the topics discussed, specific questions that are hypothesized, and the style and sources throughout give Galileo the backbone to his First Day. The First Day introduces the speakers in the dialogue: Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicio, the same as in the Dialogue.
Two New Sciences | Introduction
Galileo's earlier writing considered Juvenilia, or youthful writings, are considered his first attempts at creating lecture notes for his course "hypothesis of the celestial motions" while teaching in at the University of Padua. These notes mirrored those of his contemporaries at the Collegio as well as contained an "Aristotelian context with decided Thomistic (St. Thomas Aquinas) overtones." These earlier papers are believed to have encouraged him to apply demonstrative proof in order to give validity to his discoveries on motion. Discovery of folio 116v gives evidence of experiments that had previously not been reported and therefore demonstrated Galileo's actual calculations for the Law of Falling Bodies.
Two New Sciences | Methodology
This is considered to be the first principle of biogeography. He made the suggestion that species may have both "improved" and "degenerated" after dispersing from a center of creation. In volume 14 he argued that all the world's quadrupeds had developed from an original set of just thirty-eight quadrupeds. On this basis, he is sometimes considered a "transformist" and a precursor of Darwin. He also asserted that climate change may have facilitated the worldwide spread of species from their centers of origin. Still, interpreting his ideas on the subject is not simple, for he returned to topics many times in the course of his work.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon | Publications
Roberto Ardigò, Giovanni Canestrini, Giuseppe Colombo, Galileo Ferraris, Tullio Levi Civita, Guglielmo Marconi, Angelo Messedaglia, Umberto Nobile, Pietro Paleocapa, Louis Pasteur, Antonio Pacinotti, Gregorio Ricci Curbastro, Giuseppe Jappelli, Quintino Sella.
Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti | Class of Sciences
Treviranus was a proponent of the theory of the transmutation of species, a theory of evolution held by some biologists prior to the work of Charles Darwin. He put forward this belief in the first volume of his "Biologie; oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur", published in 1802, the same year similar opinions were expressed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. In the 1830s, he was the first to identify rod photoreceptor cells in the retina using a microscope.
Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus | Works
However, more recent studies by Carmen Radulet have exposed weaknesses in this theory and attributed the "Journal" with more certainty to scrivener João de Sá.
Álvaro Velho | Introduction
As for a critical evaluation of the second field see in particular the first chapter of Kandel et al. (2013); see also Kaan, 2002, Marcus 2003 and Newmeyer (2005). By referring to these sources, one can synthetically outline Andrea Moro's work in the two fields as follows. In the first field, he contributed to the theory of clause structure (in particular with respect to the theory of the copula discovering inverse copular constructions, to the notion of expletive proposing that an element like "there" and its equivalent across languages is a raised expletive predicate rather than an inserted expletive subject, and to the theory of syntactic movement (by proposing a weak version of the theory of antisymmetry, i.e.
Andrea Moro | Introduction
Opposite to the Eleatic monism of Parmenides is the pluralistic conception of being. In the 5th century BC, Anaxagoras and Leucippus replaced the reality of "being" (unique and unchanging) with that of "becoming", therefore by a more fundamental and elementary "ontic" plurality. This thesis originated in the Hellenic world, stated in two different ways by Anaxagoras and by Leucippus. The first theory dealt with "seeds" (which Aristotle referred to as ""homeomeries"") of the various substances. The second was the atomistic theory, which dealt with reality as based on the vacuum, the atoms and their intrinsic movement in it. The materialist "atomism" proposed by Leucippus was indeterminist, but Democritus ( 460 – 370 BC) subsequently developed it in a deterministic way.
Ontology | Ontological pluralism
Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1964 designed one of the first desktop programmable calculators, the Programma 101. In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine).
Italy | Science and technology
Daniel Sennert, a professor at Wittenberg wrote in 1619 that most chemical physicians followed the lead of Severinus and even referred to a “Severinian School” of medical theory, which was based on the philosophy of Paracelsus. Scholars including Jole Shackelford and Hiro Hirai ("Le concept de semences dans les théories de la matière à la Renaissance", 2005) have claimed that Severinus was an important predecessor of both Johann Baptista von Helmont and Pierre Gassendi.
Peder Soerensen | Introduction
In 1611 he published, at Venice, a scientific work entitled: , in which, according to Isaac Newton, he was the first to develop the theory of the rainbow by drawing attention to the fact that in each raindrop the light undergoes two refractions and an intermediate reflection. His claim to that distinction is, however, disputed in favor of Descartes. In 1625 his work "Euripus, seu de fluxu et refluxu maris sententia" was published posthumously in Rome. It is an important source for the strange story of the theory of tides. It contains an exact but qualitative, luni-solar explanation of the phaenomena.
Marco Antonio de Dominis | Scientific work
Aristotle was apparently receptive to such an idea, as evidenced by a passage in his "Prior Analytics": The first systematic physiognomic treatise to survive to the present day is a slim volume, "Physiognomonica" (English: "Physiognomonics"), ascribed to Aristotle (but probably of his "school" rather than created by the philosopher himself). The volume is divided into two parts, conjectured to have been originally two separate works. The first section discusses arguments drawn from nature or other races, and concentrates on the concept of human behavior. The second section focuses on animal behavior, dividing the animal kingdom into male and female types.
Physiognomy | Ancient physiognomy
Spallanzani's first scientific work was in 1765 "Saggio di osservazioni microscopiche concernenti il sistema della generazione de' signori di Needham, e Buffon" ("Essay on microscopic observations regarding the generation system of Messrs. Needham and Buffon") which was the first systemtic rebuttal of the theory of the spontaneous generation. At the time, the microscope was already available to researchers, and using it, the proponents of the theory, Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, Buffon and John Needham, came to the conclusion that there is a life-generating force inherent to certain kinds of inorganic matter that causes living microbes to create themselves if given sufficient time.
Lazzaro Spallanzani | Spontaneous generation
Erasmus Darwin notes Monboddo's work in his publications (Darwin 1803). Later writers consider Monboddo's analysis as precursive to the theory of Evolution. Whether Charles Darwin read Monboddo is not certain. Monboddo debated with Buffon regarding man's relationship to other primates. Charles Darwin did not mention Monboddo, but commented on Buffon: "the first author who in modern times has treated [evolution] in a scientific spirit was Buffon". Buffon thought that man was a species unrelated to lower primates, but Monboddo rejected Buffon's analysis and argued that the anthropoidal ape must be related to the species of man: he sometimes referred to the anthropoidal ape as the "brother of man".
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo | Evolutionary theorist
Hidvegi's first publications were about the theories of the origins of life, and the elaboration of a plausible mechanism for the biogenesis and evolution of biomembranes. He worked out the metabolic map as well as the reaction kinetics of a theoretical first living cell.
Máté Hidvégi | Early academic life
The New Science ( ) is the major work of Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico. It was first published in 1725 to little success, but has gone on to be highly regarded and influential in the philosophy of history, sociology, and anthropology. The central concepts were highly original and prefigured the Age of Enlightenment.
The New Science | Introduction
Many contemporary scientists, such as Gassendi, dispute Galileo's methodology for conceptualizing his law of falling bodies. Two of the main arguments are that his epistemology followed the example of Platonist thought or hypothetico-deductivist. It has now been considered to be "ex suppositione", or knowing the how and why effects from past events in order to determine the requirements for the production of similar effects in the future. Galilean methodology mirrored that of Aristotelian and Archimedean epistemology. Following a letter from Cardinal Bellarmine in 1615 Galileo distinguished his arguments and Copernicus' as natural suppositions as opposed to the "fictive" that are "introduced only for the sake of astronomical computations," such as Plato's hypothesis on eccentrics and equants.
Two New Sciences | Methodology
His most important works are: His contributions to the "Sitzungsberichte und Abhandlungen" of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences are particularly valuable. In 1886, Wilhelm Christ was the first who put forward the theory that the so-called Sea Peoples are identical with Plato's Atlanteans. Later, this thesis was repeated under varying perspectives by scholars and researchers such as Theodor Gomperz, Spyridon Marinatos, Jürgen Spanuth, John V. Luce, or Herwig Görgemanns.
Wilhelm von Christ | Work
A third proposal, by French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, held that the six "days" of the creation story were arbitrary and large ages rather than 24-hour periods.
Omphalos hypothesis | 19th-century thinkers
bees from flowers). The modern scientist John Bernal said that the basic idea of such theories was that life was continuously created as a result of chance events. In the 17th century, people began to question such assumptions. In 1646, Thomas Browne published his "Pseudodoxia Epidemica" (subtitled "Enquiries into Very many Received Tenets, and commonly Presumed Truths"), which was an attack on false beliefs and "vulgar errors." His contemporary, Alexander Ross, erroneously refuted him, stating: To question this [spontaneous generation], is to question Reason, Sense, and Experience: If he doubts of this, let him go to "Ægypt", and there he will find the fields swarming with mice begot of the mud of "Nylus", to the great calamity of the Inhabitants.
Abiogenesis | General acceptance of spontaneous generation until the 19th century
The astronomer Jean-Baptiste Morin was noted as one of the first people to question Descartes' method in creating his theories.
Dioptrique | Controversy
Let "a" ∈ C, and define For "a" = ∞, we set "N"("r",∞,"f") = "N"("r","f"), "m"("r",∞,"f") = "m"("r","f"). The First Fundamental Theorem of Nevanlinna theory states that for every "a" in the Riemann sphere,
Nevanlinna theory | First fundamental theorem
These three people are all Galileo just at different stages of his life, Simplicio the youngest and Salviati, Galileo's closest counterpart. It also provides an introduction to the discussion of both of the new sciences. The second day addresses the question of the strength of materials. The Third and Fourth days address the science of motion. The Third day discusses uniform and naturally accelerated motion, the issue of terminal velocity having been addressed in the First day. The Fourth day discusses projectile motion.
Two New Sciences | Introduction
His career ended in 1622. It had been marked by a studious application to the doctrines of Aquinas. Just as the Paris chapter was acknowledging his intellectual ability, he completed the first part of his "Summae theologiae S. Thomae Aquinatis doctoris angelici formalis explicatio". In this work he puts into syllogistic form the whole Summa Theologica, aimed primarily at the enlightenment of beginners. The first part was not published until the first section of the second part was ready (Venice), 1614. Three years later followed the second section, but it was not until 1622 that the third part appeared at Salo, instead of Venice.
Hieronymus Medices | Introduction
Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he advocated "a method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry." Earlier, in "The Canon of Medicine" (1025), Avicenna was also the first to describe what is essentially methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method. However, unlike his contemporary al-Biruni's scientific method, in which "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries", Avicenna developed a scientific procedure in which "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work." Due to the differences between their methods, al-Biruni referred to himself as a mathematical scientist and to Avicenna as a philosopher, during a debate between the two scholars.
History of scientific method | Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
Première Partie. Âge de la pierre (1868), Herzog, Zürich, 41 p.; but at closer look these are all reprints of papers that originally appeared in various science journals.
Adolph von Morlot | Publications
Developed under Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl, phlogiston theory was an attempt to account for products of combustion. According to the theory, a substance called phlogiston was released from flammable materials through burning. The resulting product was termed "calx", which was considered a 'dephlogisticated' substance in its 'true' form. The first strong evidence against phlogiston theory came from pneumatic chemists in Britain during the later half of the 18th century. Joseph Black, Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish all identified different gases that composed air; however, it was not until Antoine Lavoisier discovered in the fall of 1772 that, when burned, sulphur and phosphorus “gain[ed] in weight” that the phlogiston theory began to unravel.
Science in the Age of Enlightenment | Chemistry
Bernardino Telesio (; 7 November 1509 – 2 October 1588) was an Italian philosopher and natural scientist. While his natural theories were later disproven, his emphasis on observation made him the "first of the moderns" who eventually developed the scientific method.
Bernardino Telesio | Introduction
Already published the first volume (1962) and second (1964) and was being prepared for publication the third volume (1965; The Style, composition, literary development). The authors of the new "Theory of literature" - young and enthusiastic scientists S. Bocharov (С. Г. Бочаров), V. Kozhinov (В. В. Кожинов), P. Palievsky (П. В. Палиевский), G. Gachev (Г. Д. Гачев) - at the time yet had no global fame, but the weekly discussions of new texts in the Department of theory with the participation of two or three graduate students became truly Socratic feasts of intellectual thought. Theoretical concepts in historical perspective were associated with the revival of the ideas of Mikhail Bakhtin ( Михаил Бахтин).
Algimantas Bučys | Scientific specialization
Dr. Michael D. Gershon is the author of "The Second Brain" and the chairman of the department of anatomy and cell biology at Columbia University.
Michael D. Gershon | Introduction
He says in the introduction of the book that he has used the books of previous traditional scientists.
Muvaffak | The book al-abnyia
Around the same time introns were discovered, Senapathy was asking how genes themselves could have originated. He surmised that for any gene to come into being, there must have been genetic sequences (RNA or DNA) present in the prebiotic chemistry environment. A basic question he asked was how protein-coding sequences could have originated from primordial DNA sequences at the initial development of the very first cells. To answer this, he made two basic assumptions: (i) before a self-replicating cell could come into existence, DNA molecules were synthesized in the primordial soup by random addition of the 4 nucleotides without the help of templates and (ii) the nucleotide sequences that code for proteins were selected from these preexisting random DNA sequences in the primordial soup, and not by construction from shorter coding sequences.
Split gene theory | Hypothesis
Hilgendorf took his doctoral degree in May 1863. His thesis included information on the phylogeny of "Planorbis multiformis", a gastropod. He suggested that these organisms had evolved, however, his thesis was never published. His 1866 publication which described the phylogeny of "Planorbis multiformis" in detail has been described as "one of the most important contributions of paleontology to early Darwinism". Darwin acknowledged the findings of Hilgendorf and referred to his research in the sixth edition of "On the Origin of Species", 1872. He was the first to construct a phylogenetic tree based on fossil evidence. Hilgendorf has been described as the first scientist to introduce Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory to Japan in 1873.
Franz Martin Hilgendorf | Evolution
Marsilio Landriani (Milan, 1751 – Vienna, 1815) was an Italian chemist, physicist and meteorologist. He became known with his first book, (Physical investigations on the salubrity of air), published in 1775. In it he described a new instrument, the eudiometer, which was later improved by Volta with the addition of spark wires. From 1776 he held the chair of experimental physics in the Brera Ginnasio (College). In 1781 he published his second book, (Physical-chemical pamphlets), which contributed to opening a new way to the theory of acidity. Between 1787 and 1788 Guyton de Morveau and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier tried to convince Landriani to change over to the new chemistry, but he never was able to decide between phlogiston and oxygen.
Marsilio Landriani | Introduction
In his second "prolegomena" paper, R. Aris mentioned the work of N.Z. Shapiro, L.S. Shapley (1965), where an important part of his scientific program was realized.
Chemical reaction network theory | History
Michael of Ephesus or Michael Ephesius (; fl. early or mid-12th century AD) wrote important commentaries on Aristotle, including the first full commentary on the "Sophistical Refutations", which established the regular study of that text.
Michael of Ephesus | Introduction
Debates on Lamarck reflected the complex social and cultural changes that paved the way to the acceptance of various brands of evolutionary doctrines during the second half of the century. The doctoral dissertation Corsi discussed at Oxford in 1981 examined the role of the philosophy of science, natural theology, and the question of species in the works of the Reverend Baden Powell (1796–1860), Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford and the first Anglican theologian to fully embrace Darwin's theories. This unduly neglected protagonist of scientific and theological debates of his days offered a healthy corrective to the Darwin-centred accounts of debates on evolution in early nineteenth-century England ("Science and religion: Baden Powell and the Anglican debate, 1800–1860", Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Pietro Corsi | Research
Famiano Michelini was the first scientist to hypothesize a theory on active defense against corrosion of the river banks through the use of sprockets and he was never invited to the Cimento Academy. He died in Florence in 1665.
Famiano Michelini | Life
Russell is the originator of the theory that life emerged at alkaline submarine hydrothermal vents. Russell's theory is that oxygenic photosynthesis acting upon iron sulfide deposits in volcanic, oceanic vents, allowed the formation of precursors of protein and RNA. Russell studied 360-million-year-old mineral deposits in Ireland, which led to his insight that iron sulphite cells may have provided three-dimensional molds for the first cell walls. Russell was an undergraduate in geology at Queen Mary College of the University of London, took his PhD in geochemistry at University of Durham, taught at the University of Glasgow, and was a visiting Professor at the University of Grenoble.
Michael Russell (scientist) | History
He points out that the history of science has seen many posits once considered real entities, such as phlogiston, caloric, the luminiferous ether, and vital forces, thus eliminated.
Paul Churchland | Philosophical work
Robert Kargon considers that Hill was not, in strict terms, an Epicurean, reserving to Walter Charleton the first English exposition of Epicurean thought. The "Philosophia epicurea" was known to John Donne, through Ben Jonson's copy. It was referenced in Robert Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy". According to Robert Hues, other unpublished work followed Bruno.
Nicholas Hill (scientist) | Works
James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled "Theory of the Earth" to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Based upon a detailed examination of what we now recognise as the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere he showed that the present forces seen on the earth were sufficient to explain all the phenomena observed. He wrote "The Mosaic history places this beginning of man at no great distance; and there has not been found, in natural history, any document by which a high antiquity can be attribted to the human race. But this is not the case with regard to the inferior species of animals, particularly those which inhabit the ocean and its shorees.
History of creationism | Modern geology and gap theory
Vico’s humanism (his returning to a pre-modern form of reasoning), his interest in classical rhetoric and philology, and his response to Descartes contribute to the philosophical foundations for the second "Scienza Nuova". Through an elaborate Latin etymology, Vico establishes not only the distinguishing features of first humans, but also how early civilization developed out of a "sensus communis" or common (not collective) sense. Beginning with the first form of authority intuited by the "giganti" or early humans and transposed in their first "mute" or "sign" language, Vico concludes that “first, or vulgar, wisdom was poetic in nature.” This observation is not an aesthetic one, but rather points to the capacity inherent in all men to imagine meaning via comparison and to reach a communal "conscience" or "prejudice" about their surroundings.
The New Science | Ideas on rhetoric applied to history
He has an active history of collaboration with Nicola Guarino. In fact, an initial fragment of OntoUML was considered to be an evolution of the OntoClean methodology, the first methodology for ontological analysis in computer science, proposed by Guarino and Chris Welty.
Giancarlo Guizzardi | Collaborations
The answer to the second question is based on the neural doctrine proposed by Ramon y Cajal (1894). He hypothesized that the elementary biological unit is an active cell, called neuron, and the human machine is run by a vast network that connects these neurons, called neural (or neuronal) network. The neural network is integrated with the human organs to form the human machine comprising the nervous system.
Nervous system network models | Introduction
This idea was subsequently proposed independently by Wundt.
George Henry Lewes | Science
Hypotheses non fingo (Latin for "I feign no hypotheses", "I frame no hypotheses", or "I contrive no hypotheses") is a famous phrase used by Isaac Newton in an essay, "General Scholium", which was appended to the second (1713) edition of the "Principia".
Hypotheses non fingo | Introduction
He suggested the foundation of a specialised institute.
Istituto Sperimentale per la Zoologia Agraria | Introduction
Empedocles had formulated the classical theory that there were four elements: water, earth, fire and air and Aristotle reinforced this idea by characterising them as moist, dry, hot and cold. Fire was thus thought of as a substance and burning was seen as a process of decomposition which applied only to compounds. Experience had shown that burning was not always accompanied by a loss of material and a better theory was needed to account for this.
Phlogiston theory | History of phlogiston theory
In 1859, Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species", in which he twice stated the hypothesis that there was only one progenitor for all life forms. In the summation he states: The very last sentence begins with a restatement of the hypothesis: When the LUCA was hypothesized, cladograms based on genetic distance between living cells indicated that Archaea split early from the rest of living things. This was inferred from the fact that the archaeans known at that time were highly resistant to environmental extremes such as high salinity, temperature or acidity, leading some scientists to suggest that the LUCA evolved in areas like the deep ocean vents, where such extremes prevail today.
Last universal common ancestor | Hypotheses
After quoting Graham, Saliba notes that "the empirical emphasis placed by that very first astronomer on the value of his observations set the inescapable course to modern science. So where would the origins of modern science then lie?"
Continuity thesis | Graham and Saliba
The process of writing that first edition of the "Principia" went through several stages and drafts: some parts of the preliminary materials still survive, while others are lost except for fragments and cross-references in other documents. Surviving materials show that Newton (up to some time in 1685) conceived his book as a two-volume work. The first volume was to be titled "De motu corporum, Liber primus", with contents that later appeared in extended form as Book 1 of the "Principia". A fair-copy draft of Newton's planned second volume "De motu corporum, Liber secundus" survives, its completion dated to about the summer of 1685.
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica | Preliminary version
The nineteenth century philosopher of science, William Whewell, qualified this statement, as, he said, "it was by such a use of hypotheses, that both Newton himself and Kepler, on whose discoveries those of Newton were based, made their discoveries". Whewell stated:What is requisite is, that the hypothesis should be close to the facts, and not connected with them by other arbitrary and untried facts; and that the philosopher should be ready to resign it as soon as the facts refuse to confirm it. Later, Imre Lakatos would assert that such a resignation should not be too rushed.
Hypotheses non fingo | Later commentary
The text was first published, from one manuscript, by Father Philippe Labbe in 1657. Further fragments were discovered and edited by Dom Martin Bouquet and his collaborators before, in 1858, Eusèbe Castaigne published and edited the full text based, not on the manuscripts, but on Labbe and Bouquet et al. A fourteenth-century manuscript from the Angoumois was brought back from the Vatican Archives by George de Manteyer, and formed the basis for the first critical edition, published by Jacques Boussard in 1957, as an extension of the doctoral thesis he defended in 1956 for the Faculty of Letters of the University of Paris.
Historia pontificum et comitum Engolismensium | Introduction
Similar observations were published by Galileo a few weeks later.
William Lower | Introduction
Long is also usually credited for introducing the Interaction Hypothesis, a theory of second language acquisition which places importance on face-to-face interaction.
Michael Long (linguist) | Introduction
In biology, Francesco Redi was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in detail; Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy; Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory; Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine; Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine); Angelo Ruffini first described the Ruffini endings and was known for his work in histology and embryology; Filippo Pacini discovered the Pacinian corpuscles and was the first to isolate the cholera bacillus "Vibrio cholerae" in 1854, before Robert Koch's more widely accepted discoveries 30 years later.
Italians | Science and technology
Works of his that remain important to the history of science include "The Christian Doctrine of Creation and the Rise of Modern Natural Science" ("Mind", Volume 43, 1934, p. 446–468), "Christian Theology and Modern Science of Nature." ("Mind", Volume 44, 1935, pp. 439–466 ("part I") and Volume 45, 1936, pp. 1–27 ("part II")).
Michael Foster (philosopher) | Works
The phlogiston theory is a superseded scientific theory that postulated the existence of a fire-like element called phlogiston () contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The name comes from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν "phlogistón" ("burning up"), from φλόξ "phlóx" ("flame"). The idea was first proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher and later put together more formally by Georg Ernst Stahl. Phlogiston theory attempted to explain processes such as combustion and rusting, now collectively known as oxidation, and was abandoned before the end of the 18th century following experiments by Antoine Lavoisier and others. Phlogiston theory led to experiments which ultimately concluded with the discovery of Oxygen.
Phlogiston theory | Introduction
In 1938 he published one of the first books on mathematical biology and mathematical biophysics entitled: ""Mathematical Biophysics: Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology"." This fundamental book was eventually published in three revised editions, the last revision appearing in two volumes in 1960. It was followed in 1940 by ""Advances and applications of mathematical biology."", and in 1947 by ""Mathematical theory of human relations"", an approach to a mathematical model of society. In the same year he established the World' s first PhD program in Mathematical Biology at the University of Chicago. In the early 1930s, Rashevsky developed the first model of neural networks.
Nicolas Rashevsky | Major scientific contributions
In addition to his literary output, working with Ignaz Schiffermüller, Denis formed an early collection of butterflies and moths, and published the first catalog of the Lepidoptera found around Vienna. His collection was kept at the Hofburg Palace and was destroyed in course of the Revolution of 1848.
Michael Denis | Scientist
He is coauthor of a draft Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature (aka the PhyloCode) with Cantino. De Queiroz has published several articles on the history and philosophy of biology, related primarily, but not exclusively, to his own theoretical and conceptual contributions. He published a paper early in his career proposing that the Darwinian Revolution in systematic biology was not a sudden event but rather an extended process that is not yet completed. He has examined Charles Darwin’s writings on species and argued that his own ideas about how to achieve a unified species concept represent the ongoing development of the evolutionary view of species articulated by Darwin.
Kevin de Queiroz | Theoretical research
He also wrote an entry in "Treatises of Physiology".
Spyridon Mavrogenis | Works