Retellings and reimaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of , stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition" of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the "Historia Brittonum" is a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic enemies struck a chord in Britain. Clemence Dane's series of radio plays, "The Saviours" (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff's play "The Long Sunset" (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders.
Modern legend
King Arthur
King Arthur | Modern legend
With the outbreak of the Second World War. 12th-century 12th-century. 18th-century
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Retellings and reimaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure of , stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition" of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the "Historia Brittonum" is a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of the Second World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic enemies struck a chord in Britain. Clemence Dane's series of radio plays, "The Saviours" (1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, and Robert Sherriff's play "The Long Sunset" (1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders.
King Arthur | Modern legend
This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period.
King Arthur | Modern legend
The romance Arthur has become popular in film and theatre as well. T. H. White's novel was adapted into the Lerner and Loewe stage musical "Camelot" (1960) and Walt Disney's animated film "The Sword in the Stone" (1963); "Camelot", with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and the cuckolding of Arthur, was itself made into a film of the same name in 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and in critically respected films like Robert Bresson's "Lancelot du Lac" (1974), Éric Rohmer's "Perceval le Gallois" (1978) and John Boorman's "Excalibur" (1981); it is also the main source of the material used in the Arthurian spoof "Monty Python and the Holy Grail" (1975).
King Arthur | Modern legend
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such as T. H. White's "The Once and Future King" (1958), Thomas Berger's tragicomic "Arthur Rex" and Marion Zimmer Bradley's "The Mists of Avalon" (1982) in addition to comic strips such as "Prince Valiant" (from 1937 onward). Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Bradley's tale, for example, takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials, and American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy.
King Arthur | Modern legend
The historicity of King Arthur has been debated both by academics and popular writers. While there have been many suggestions that Arthur was a real historical person, academic historians today consider King Arthur to be a mythological or folkloric figure. The first mention of Arthur appears in 829, where he is presented as a leader fighting against the invading Saxons in 5th- to 6th-century Sub-Roman Britain at the Battle of Badon, that is, more than three centuries after the events. He develops into a legendary figure in the Matter of Britain from the 12th century, following Geoffrey of Monmouth's influential "Historia Regum Britanniae".
Historicity of King Arthur | Introduction
The Arthurian scholar Norris J. Lacy opines: ""The Legend of King Arthur" has the leisure to depict the legend in detail, but the resulting periodic presentation, if not the medium itself, dilutes the force and drama of the Arthurian story in a way that rarely happens in literature, and certainly not either in the French Vulgate or in Malory."
The Legend of King Arthur | Reception
Indeed, the first modernisation of Malory's great compilation of Arthur's tales was published in 1862, shortly after "Idylls" appeared, and there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended. This interest in the "Arthur of romance" and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such as William Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication of "Idylls". While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions.
King Arthur | Tennyson and the revival
The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-century "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of the Kings of Britain"). In some Welsh and Breton tales and poems that date from before this work, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworld Annwn. How much of Geoffrey's "Historia" (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey's version of events often served as the starting point for later stories.
King Arthur | Introduction
Until the late 20th century, there was academic debate about the historicity of Arthur among historians and archaeologists. In the 21st century, many academics have turned against it. However, there are modern historians, such as Geoffrey Asche, who assert the historicity of a 5th century warlord called Arthur. In 1936, R. G. Collingwood and J. N. L. Myres treated Arthur as a Roman "comes Britanniarum". They assert that "the historicity of [Arthur] can hardly be called into question", though they are careful to separate the historical Arthur from the legendary Arthur. In 1971, Leslie Alcock claimed to "demonstrate that there is acceptable historical evidence that Arthur was a genuine historical figure, not a mere figment of myth or romance".
Historicity of King Arthur | Historiography
The historical origins of the Arthurian legend are lost in the mists of time: Roman Britain, Sarmatians, Picts or the Saxon kings? Who were Arthur's contemporaries? Archaeological findings in Wales, Cornwall and Scotland suggest the possible existence of this legendary figure. Arthurian legend is central to Anglo-Saxon culture, and by the 12th century King Arthur and his kingdom had become a national myth, elaborated by English and French writers. It owes its existence in literature to an Anglo-French rivalry: Henry II of England, for establishing his legitimacy, had the story of an Anglo-Saxon hero written that was destined to be a counterpart to Charlemagne.
Anne Berthelot | Career
For example, Lucius Artorius Castus was not contemporaneous with the Saxon invasions of Britain in the 5th century CE which gave rise to the Arthurian legends, and some of the earliest written references to Arthur are of him fighting against the Saxons. The strongest link between them may be the extended family or clan name "Artorius" which may have developed into the personal name "Arthur", but this does not necessarily mean Lucius Artorius Castus himself inspired the legends. The possibility, however unlikely or remote, is nonetheless real that he was remembered in local tales that grew in the retelling. No definitive proof, however, has yet been established that Lucius Artorius Castus was the "real" King Arthur.
Lucius Artorius Castus | Identification with King Arthur
While Arthurian literature grew to become a broadly European phenomenon, the Welsh can claim the earliest appearances of Arthur. Before Arthur became an international figure, writings and oral tales concerning him were more or less restricted to the Brythonic nations of Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. These tales in turn are divided roughly into Pre-Galfridian Traditions and those of Geoffrey of Monmouth. Wales also contributed to the Arthur of the Romance Tradition after the titular heir became an international sensation.
Welsh mythology | King Arthur
Elements of the film's promotion have likewise been criticized as historically unsound. Its tagline "The True Story Behind the Legend" has been criticised as false. A trailer for the film claims that historians now agree that Arthur was a real person because of alleged "recent" archaeological findings, yet there is no consensus amongst historians on Arthur's historicity and no recent archaeological find proves Arthur's existence; the so-called "Arthur stone", discovered in 1998 in securely dated 6th century contexts amongst the ruins at Tintagel Castle in Cornwall, created a stir but has subsequently been of little use as evidence.
King Arthur (2004 film) | Promotion
King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century the material was taken less seriously and was often used simply as a vehicle for allegories of 17th- and 18th-century politics. Thus Richard Blackmore's epics "Prince Arthur" (1695) and "King Arthur" (1697) feature Arthur as an allegory for the struggles of William III against James II. Similarly, the most popular Arthurian tale throughout this period seems to have been that of Tom Thumb, which was told first through chapbooks and later through the political plays of Henry Fielding; although the action is clearly set in Arthurian Britain, the treatment is humorous and Arthur appears as a primarily comedic version of his romance character.
King Arthur | Post-medieval literature
He suggested that the Sarmatians' descendants kept Castus' legacy alive over the centuries and mixed it with their ancestral myths involving magical cauldrons and swords.
Historicity of King Arthur | Lucius Artorius Castus and the Sarmatian connection
However, it may not refer to the origin of the name "Arthur", as "Artōrius" would regularly become "Art(h)ur" when borrowed into Welsh. John Morris argued that the appearance of the name "Arthur" among Scottish and Welsh figures suggests the name became popular in early 6th-century Britain for a short time. He proposed all such occurrences were due to the importance of another Arthur who may have ruled temporarily as Emperor of Britain, and suggested a period of Saxon advance was halted and turned back before resuming in the 570s.
Historicity of King Arthur | Etymology of "Arthur"
King Arthur (, , ) was a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and modern historians generally agree that he is unhistorical. The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the "Annales Cambriae", the "Historia Brittonum", and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as "Y Gododdin". Arthur is a central figure in the legends making up the Matter of Britain.
King Arthur | Introduction
It was also used on Cuban television Channel 6 for years, without crediting or paying royalties.
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | Commercial performance
The familiar literary persona of Arthur began with Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-historical "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of the Kings of Britain"), written in the 1130s. The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey's "Historia" (known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, "Galfridus") and those written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts).
King Arthur | Medieval literary traditions
Kemp Malone first made the connection between Artorius and King Arthur in 1924. Noting that the Welsh name "Arthur" plausibly derives from the Latin "Artorius", Malone suggested that certain details of Castus' biography, in particular his possible campaign in Brittany and the fact that he was obliged to retire from the military (perhaps because of an injury), may have inspired elements of Geoffrey of Monmouth's depiction of King Arthur. Later scholars have challenged the idea, based on the fact that Artorius lived two to three centuries before the period typically associated with Arthur, and the fact that the parts of the inscriptions ostensibly similar to Arthur's story are open to interpretation.
Historicity of King Arthur | Lucius Artorius Castus and the Sarmatian connection
Some writers have identified Athrwys ap Meurig as a potential historical basis for King Arthur. This identification is found at least as early as Thomas Carte's A General History of England, written in 1747. It was later put forward and popularised by William Owen Pughe in 1803. The theory subsequently gained more popularity during the 19th-century.
Athrwys ap Meurig | Arthurian connection
The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although Malory's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances – established since Geoffrey of Monmouth's time – and thus the legitimacy of the whole Matter of Britain. So, for example, the 16th-century humanist scholar Polydore Vergil famously rejected the claim that Arthur was the ruler of a post-Roman empire, found throughout the post-Galfridian medieval "chronicle tradition", to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians. Social changes associated with the end of the medieval period and the Renaissance also conspired to rob the character of Arthur and his associated legend of some of their power to enthrall audiences, with the result that 1634 saw the last printing of Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" for nearly 200 years.
King Arthur | Post-medieval literature
However, the hypothesis is not accepted by scholars who say it lacks a solid base.
King Arthur (2004 film) | Historical notes
Earnestly historicist, the production design of the show was of the heroic age, "ca. A.D." 500, like the HTV production "Arthur of the Britons" (1972–3). However, the tragic storyline of this BBC version kept closer faith with the chivalric romance of "Le Morte d'Arthur".
The Legend of King Arthur | Production
Whyte incorporates both traditional Arthurian names, places and events (albeit in Gaelic or Latin form) as well as the names of various historical figures that have been suggested as being the possible basis for the original King Arthur legend. The tacit implication is that Whyte's version of history is the true story that has become distorted over time to become the legend and stories of magic that we know today. The series has been published in different locations under three different titles. In Canada it was titled "A Dream of Eagles"; in the United States it was retitled "The Camulod Chronicles", and when it was eventually republished in Great Britain with a different reading order, it became "Legends of Camelot".
Jack Whyte | Introduction
Recent studies, however, question the reliability of the "Historia Brittonum". The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-century "Annales Cambriae", which also link Arthur with the Battle of Badon. The "Annales" date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often been used to bolster confidence in the "Historia"'s account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Badon. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the "Historia Brittonum"s account.
King Arthur | Historicity
It reached No. 2 on the UK Albums Chart and No. 21 on the US "Billboard" 200. It was certified gold in the US, Brazil, Japan, and Australia. The album was promoted with a world tour in 1975 that included three shows at Wembley Arena performed as an ice show, the last time it was performed in its entirety until 2016. The album was reissued in 2015 with a Quadrophonic mix, and re-recorded in 2016 with additional parts previously removed from the original score due to time constraints.
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | Introduction
Nevertheless, Arthur's full name in the film is "Artorius Castus", referring to Lucius Artorius Castus, a historical Roman active in Britain in the 2nd or 3rd century. It is specified that Arthur was given the ancestral name of a legendary leader. The film is loosely based on the "Sarmatian hypothesis", formulated by C. Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas in 1978, which holds that the Arthurian legend has a historical nucleus in the Sarmatian heavy cavalry troops stationed in Britain, referencing the similarities between the legends of king Arthur and the older legends of Nartian king Batraz. In the 2nd century, 5,500 Iazyges were transported there as auxiliaries during the Marcomannic Wars.
King Arthur (2004 film) | Historical notes
Non-specialists continue to propose a variety of theories for a possible historical identity of Arthur: Artuir mac Áedán, a son of the 6th-century king of Dál Riata in modern Scotland; Ambrosius Aurelianus, who led a Romano-British resistance against the Saxons; Lucius Artorius Castus, a 2nd-century Roman commander of Sarmatian cavalry; the British king Riothamus, who fought alongside the last Gallo-Roman commanders against the Visigoths in an expedition to Gaul in the 5th century. Academic historians have not supported these hypotheses in the 21st century.
Historicity of King Arthur | Introduction
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is the fourth studio album by English keyboardist Rick Wakeman, released on 27 March 1975 by A&M Records. It was his third concept album. Here, Wakeman retold the story of Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, and Merlin. Wakeman commenced writing music for it while recovering from a heart attack in 1974 and recorded it with his five-piece band, the English Rock Ensemble, the New World Orchestra, and the English Chamber Choir. "King Arthur" received positive reviews, though some labelled it a symbol of progressive rock excess.
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | Introduction
He was ultimately killed in battle in 582 – thus, he lived far too late to have been the victor at the Battle of Badon, as mentioned by Gildas in the early 6th century. This is the solution proposed by David F. Carroll (in his book "Arturius: A Quest for Camelot", 1996) and by Michael Wood.
Historicity of King Arthur | Artuir mac Áedán
The "Historia Brittonum" has drawn attention because of its role in influencing the legends and myths surrounding King Arthur. It is the earliest source that presents Arthur as a historical figure, and is the source of several stories which were repeated and amplified by later authors.
Historia Brittonum | Arthuriana
In John Cowper Powys's "" (1951), set in Wales in 499, just prior to the Saxon invasion, Arthur, the Emperor of Britain, is only a minor character, whereas Myrddin (Merlin) and Nineue, Tennyson's Vivien, are major figures. Myrddin's disappearance at the end of the novel is "in the tradition of magical hibernation when the king or mage leaves his people for some island or cave to return either at a more propitious or more dangerous time" (see King Arthur's messianic return). Powys's earlier novel, "A Glastonbury Romance" (1932) is concerned with both the Holy Grail and the legend that Arthur is buried at Glastonbury.
King Arthur | Modern legend
Scholars were able to narrow down the true historical facts of Arthur's life to two things, “Some scholars have taken everything out, argued everything away, leaving just two brief mentions in the "Easter Annals": 516: "Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights, and the British were victors." 537: "Strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut perished [or fell]"” (King Arthur: The Truth Behind the Legend). However, there is still a lot of information that is debatable of being facts or a part of the pseudohistory.
Cador | Historicity
Scholars generally reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period. It is sometimes popularly known as the "Age of Arthur" after this figure.
Roman Britain | Sub-Roman Britain
There are two entries in the "Annales" on King Arthur, one on Medraut (Mordred), and one on Merlin. These entries have been presented in the past as proof of the existence of Arthur and Merlin, although that view is no longer widely held because the Arthurian entries could have been added arbitrarily as late as 970, long after the development of the early Arthurian myth. The entries on Arthur and Mordred in the A Text: Concerning Arthur's cross at the Battle of Badon, it is mirrored by a passage in Nennius where Arthur was said to have borne the image of the Virgin Mary "on his shoulders" during a battle at a castle called Guinnion.
Annales Cambriae | Source for the Arthurian legend
Many stories involving Arthurian figures were likely passed down orally, which has led to many different interpretations and versions of the people and characters mentioned. Scholars generally question the historical accuracy of these tales. Evidence shows that people like Arthur may have been real historical figures. However, most of the deeds of Arthur have been discredited. Because of this, the people he is associated with and their stories could be solely a part of the orally passed down myths of Arthur's legacy and not true history. One of these figures was Cado, a successor of Geraint ab Erbin and a close associate of Arthur.
Cador | Historicity
Despite these many drastic diversions from the source material (including the Welsh Mabinogion), the producers of the film attempted to market it as a more historically accurate version of the Arthurian legends. Other liberties were taken with the actors' appearances: Keira Knightley's breasts were enlarged for the US theatrical film poster. This practice angered Knightley, who says that it "comes from market research that clearly shows that other women refuse to look at famous actresses and stars with small breasts." Later in 2006, Knightley claimed she is "not allowed to be on a magazine cover in the US without at least a C cup because it 'turns people off'."
King Arthur (2004 film) | Marketing
Some scholars have noted that the legendary King Arthur's name only appears as "Arthur", "Arthurus", or "Arturus" in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as "Artōrius" (although the Classical Latin "Artōrius" became "Arturius" in some Vulgar Latin dialects). However, this may not say anything about the origin of the name "Arthur", as "Artōrius" would regularly become "Art(h)ur" when borrowed into Welsh.
Arthur | Etymology
He then removed himself to the Forest of Teil and is said to have defeated a dragon which was terrorising the area. He died in his monastery around 570. His feast day is 16 August. It has been questioned whether or not Saint Armel could have actually been King Arthur. Some writers have identified Athrwys ap Meurig as a potential historical basis for King Arthur. This identification is found at least as early as Thomas Carte's A General History of England, written in 1747. It was later put forward and popularised by William Owen Pughe in 1803. The theory subsequently gained more popularity during the 19th-century.
Saint Armel | Introduction
By and large, modern works based on Arthurian legend continue to villainize Agravain.
Agravain | Modern adaptations
The popularity of Geoffrey's "Historia" and its other derivative works (such as Wace's "Roman de Brut") gave rise to a significant numbers of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France. It was not, however, the only Arthurian influence on the developing "Matter of Britain". There is clear evidence that Arthur and Arthurian tales were familiar on the Continent before Geoffrey's work became widely known (see for example, the Modena Archivolt), and "Celtic" names and stories not found in Geoffrey's "Historia" appear in the Arthurian romances. From the perspective of Arthur, perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guinevere, Percival, Galahad, Gawain, Ywain, and Tristan and Iseult.
King Arthur | Romance traditions
The Legend of King Arthur is a British television fantasy serial, produced by the BBC in association with Time-Life Television and the Australian Broadcasting Commission, and broadcast on BBC 1 in 1979.
The Legend of King Arthur | Introduction
Arthur is mentioned in several 12th- to 13th-century hagiographies of Welsh and Breton saints, including those of Cadoc, Carantoc, Gildas, Goeznovius, Illtud, and Paternus. The "Legenda Sancti Goeznovii" is a hagiography of the Breton saint Goeznovius which was formerly dated to c. 1019 but is now dated to the late 12th to early 13th century. It includes a brief segment dealing with Arthur and a leader known as Vortigern.
Historicity of King Arthur | Hagiographies
In 1924, Kemp Malone was the first to suggest the possibility that Lucius Artorius Castus was the inspiration for the figure of Arthur in medieval European literature. More recent champions have included authors C. Scott Littleton and Linda Malcor. The hypothesis has been heavily criticized by prominent Arthurian scholars due to the historical Artorius Castus having very little in common with the Arthurian legends and the arguments relying excessively on speculation and wishful thinking. Due to the significant differences between the persons and careers of the historical Lucius Artorius Castus and the traditional King Arthur, the consensus of mainstream historians is that it is very unlikely the former inspired the latter.
Lucius Artorius Castus | Identification with King Arthur
Productions whose plot "updates" or otherwise moves the legend to modern times.
List of works based on Arthurian legends | Modernization and parodies
Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances between and 1190. "Erec and Enide" and "Cligès" are tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, while "Yvain, the Knight of the Lion", features Yvain and Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the most significant for the development of the Arthurian legend are "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart", which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queen Guinevere, extending and popularising the recurring theme of Arthur as a cuckold, and "Perceval, the Story of the Grail", which introduces the Holy Grail and the Fisher King and which again sees Arthur having a much reduced role.
King Arthur | Romance traditions
How much earlier than this it existed is still debated. It did, in fact, remain a powerful aspect of the Arthurian legend through the medieval period and beyond. So John Lydgate in his "Fall of Princes" (1431–38) notes the belief that Arthur "shall resorte as lord and sovereyne Out of fayrye and regne in Breteyne" and Philip II of Spain apparently swore, at the time of his marriage to Mary I of England in 1554, that he would resign the kingdom if Arthur should return. A number of locations were suggested for where Arthur would actually return from. The earliest-recorded suggestion was Avalon.
King Arthur's messianic return | Origins
Geoffrey's structuring and shaping of the Merlin and Arthur myths engendered their vast popularity which continues today, and he is generally viewed by scholars as the major establisher of the Arthurian canon. The "History"'s effect on the legend of King Arthur was so vast that Arthurian works have been categorised as "pre-Galfridian" and "post-Galfridian", depending on whether or not they were influenced by him.
Geoffrey of Monmouth | Works
Quest for King Arthur is a 2004 History Channel production introduced by Ioan Gruffudd and narrated by Patrick Stewart. The production delves into multiple historical figures who may have contributed to Arthurian legend as early as the third century and as late as the 9th. It cites as its primary source of the legend the writings of Sir Thomas Malory. Other writings and sources, many used by Malory, are cited for their specific contributions to the legend.
Quest for King Arthur | Introduction
Malone's idea attracted little attention for decades, but it was revived in the 1970s as part of a theory known as the "Sarmatian connection". In a 1975 essay, Helmut Nickel suggested that Artorius was the original Arthur, and that a group of Sarmatian cavalry serving under him in Britain inspired the Knights of the Round Table. Nickel wrote that Castus' Sarmatian unit fought under a red dragon banner and that their descendants were still in Britain in the 5th century; he also identified similarities between the Arthurian legend and traditions associated with the Sarmatians and other peoples of the Caucasus region.
Historicity of King Arthur | Lucius Artorius Castus and the Sarmatian connection
Credits are adapted from the liner notes. The English Rock Ensemble Personnel
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | 2016 re-recording
The serial was released on VHS by BBC Video in 1985, and on DVD by Simply Media in 2016.
The Legend of King Arthur | Home video and DVD releases
The possibility of Arthur's return is first mentioned by William of Malmesbury in 1125: "But Arthur's grave is nowhere seen, whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will return." In the "Miracles of St. Mary of Laon" ("De Miraculis Sanctae Mariae Laudensis"), written by a French cleric and chronicler named Hériman of Tournai in c. 1145, but referring to events that occurred in 1113, mention is made of the Breton and Cornish belief that Arthur still lived. As Constance Bullock-Davies demonstrated, various non-Welsh sources indicate that this belief in Arthur's eventual messianic return was extremely widespread amongst the Britons from the 12th century onwards.
King Arthur's messianic return | Origins
One stanza praises the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies, but says that despite this, "he was no Arthur" – that is, his feats cannot compare to the valour of Arthur. "Y Gododdin" is known only from a 13th-century manuscript, so it is impossible to determine whether this passage is original or a later interpolation, but John Koch's view that the passage dates from a 7th-century or earlier version is regarded as unproven; 9th- or 10th-century dates are often proposed for it. Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries.
King Arthur | Pre-Galfridian traditions
Brown, Arthur Charles Lewis: The Round Table before Wace. pp. 183–205 of "Studies and Notes in Philology", Vol. VII. Boston:, 1900. (See The Round Table.) ---. Iwain; a Study in the Origins of Arthurian Romance., 1903. Brown, A. C. L: "Balin and the Dolorous Stroke." Modern Philology 7.2 (1909): 203-6. Brown, Arthur C. L. ---. "Welsh Traditions in Layamon's "Brut"." Modern Philology 1.1 (1903): 95-103. ---. "Gulliver's Travels and an Irish Folk-Tale." Modern Language Notes 19.2 (1904): 45-6. ---. "The Knight of the Lion." PMLA 20.4 (1905): 673-706. ---. "The Bleeding Lance." PMLA 25.1 (1910): 1-59. ---. "Chrétien's "Yvain"." Modern Philology 9.1 (1911): 109-28.
Arthur Charles Lewis Brown | Bibliography
This idea of Arthur's eventual return has proven attractive to a number of modern writers. John Masefield used the idea of Arthur sleeping under a hill as the central theme in his poem "Midsummer Night" (1928). C. S. Lewis also was inspired by this aspect of Arthur's legend in his novel "That Hideous Strength" (1945), in which King Arthur was said to be living in the land of Abhalljin on the planet Venus. The return of King Arthur has been especially prominent in the comics medium with examples from at least the 1940s. One of the better known uses of this motif is by Mike Barr and Brian Bolland, who have Arthur and his knights returning in the year 3000 to save the Earth from an alien invasion in the comic book series "Camelot 3000" (1982–85).
King Arthur's messianic return | Modern adaptations
In the film "King Arthur" (2004), Lucius Artorius Castus is partially identified with King Arthur. The film asserts that Arthur's Roman name was "Artorius Castus", and that Artorius was an ancestral name derived from that of a famous leader. His "floruit" ("prime time") is, however, pushed a few centuries later so that he is made a contemporary of the invading Saxons in the 5th century CE. This would be in agreement with native Welsh tradition regarding Arthur, although his activities are placed many decades earlier than the medieval sources assign to him. As a research consultant for the film "King Arthur" (2004), Linda Malcor's hypotheses regarding Lucius Artorius Castus were the primary inspiration for the screenplay.
Lucius Artorius Castus | Lucius Artorius Castus as King Arthur in modern entertainment
The earliest version of the "Annales Cambriae" ("Welsh Annals") was composed in the mid-10th century. It gives the date of Badon as 516 and lists Arthur's death as occurring in 537 at the Battle of Camlann. Like the "Annals", all other sources that name Arthur were written at least 400 years after the events which they describe.
Historicity of King Arthur | "Annales Cambriae"
The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text/story-type. A 2007 academic survey led by Caitlin Green has identified three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material. The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in the "Historia Brittonum", but the majority are supernatural, including giant cat-monsters, destructive divine boars, dragons, dogheads, giants, and witches.
King Arthur | Pre-Galfridian traditions
Many of his historical books are centred on factual analysis of the Arthurian legend, and the archaeological past of King Arthur, beginning with his "King Arthur's Avalon: The Story of Glastonbury," in 1957. The book was inspired by what Ashe had read in G. K. Chesterton's "Short History of England". He is a major proponent of the theory that the historical King Arthur was Riothamus, presented in an article in "Speculum", April 1981, and expanded in "The Discovery of King Arthur" (1985) and in various further articles. His fresh idea was to scrutinise Arthur's foreign campaigns in Geoffrey of Monmouth's account and take the material seriously, concluding that, though the legendary Arthur is a composite figure, the career of Riothamus seems to underlie at least a major portion of Geoffrey's account, for which Ashe adduces passages in a Breton text and several chronicles.
Geoffrey Ashe | Work
By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators, and it could not avoid being affected by World War I, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model. The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuade Thomas Hardy, Laurence Binyon and John Masefield to compose Arthurian plays, and T. S. Eliot alludes to the Arthur myth (but not Arthur) in his poem "The Waste Land", which mentions the Fisher King.
King Arthur | Tennyson and the revival
Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established a vast empire. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's "Historia", including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, the magician Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur, Arthur's conception at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann, and final rest in Avalon.
King Arthur | Introduction
Other examples include Stephen R. Lawhead's novel "Avalon: The Return of King Arthur" (1999), featuring a reincarnated Arthur who rises to restore the British monarchy as it is about to be abolished. In "Vinland Saga", a manga on the Viking invasion and rule of England, the character Askeladd, a Norwegian-Welsh half-blood, recounts the tale of his true king and ancestor, Lucius Artorius Castus and his glorious return from Avalon to save Britannia.
King Arthur's messianic return | Modern adaptations
"King Arthur" was released on 27 March 1975. the album peaked at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart and number 21 on the "Billboard" 200 in the United States. "King Arthur" became Wakeman's third consecutive gold album to be certified by the Recording Industry Association of America, and was also certified gold in Brazil, Japan and Australia. The album has sold 12 million copies in total. "Arthur" has been used by the BBC as the theme to its election night coverage from 1979 to 1997, and 2005, with the track returning for the corporation's 2019 United Kingdom general election coverage.
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | Commercial performance
The proposed vector of transmission is the Alans, some of whom migrated into northern France at around the time the Arthurian legends were forming. As expected, these parallels are most evident in the Ossetian versions, according to researcher John Colarusso. See "Historical basis for King Arthur – Sarmatian hypothesis" ( in subsection "Lucius Artorius Castus" ) for more details.
Nart saga | Connections to other mythology
The earliest datable attestation of the name Arthur is in the early 9th century Welsh-Latin text "Historia Brittonum", where it refers to a circa 5th to 6th-century Briton general who fought against the invading Saxons, and who later gave rise to the famous King Arthur of medieval legend and literature. A possible earlier mention of the same man is to be found in the epic Welsh poem "Y Gododdin" by Aneirin, which some scholars assign to the late 6th century, though this is still a matter of debate and the poem only survives in a late 13th century manuscript entitled the Book of Aneirin.
Arthur | Etymology
There is now a footpath from the site to Cadbury Castle in Somerset called Arthur's Way. However, many continue to argue against these legends. For example, archaeologist C.A. Ralegh Radford refused to believe in the legend and all of the associations, declaring in 1935 that "no concrete evidence whatsoever has yet been found to support the legendary connection of the Castle with King Arthur". Charles Thomas, a specialist in Cornish history, was unable to find solid links, mainly due to the fact that legends and stories would have been handed down only verbally during this period. Thomas stated in 1993 that "there simply is no independently attested connection in early Cornish folklore locating Arthur, at any age or in any capacity, at Tintagel." Many others disagree, maintaining that the legendary figure would essentially have been an Early Medieval British leader, involved in fighting the migrating Anglo-Saxons who were settling in Britain at that time.
Tintagel Castle | Arthurian legends
Geoffrey makes Arthur's capital Caerleon and even Thomas Malory has Arthur re-crowned there. The still-visible Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon has been associated with Arthur's 'Round-Table' element of the tales; and has been suggested as a possible source for the legend.
Caerleon | Arthurian legend
Arthur himself played a minor role in some of these works, following in the medieval romance tradition. Tennyson's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity with "Idylls of the King", however, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur's life for the Victorian era. It was first published in 1859 and sold 10,000 copies within the first week. In the "Idylls", Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood who ultimately failed, through human weakness, to establish a perfect kingdom on earth. Tennyson's works prompted a large number of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legends of Arthur and the character himself, and brought Malory's tales to a wider audience.
King Arthur | Tennyson and the revival
Ambrosius Aurelianus (also sometimes referred to as Aurelius Ambrosius) was a powerful Romano-British leader in Britain. He was renowned for his campaigns against the Saxons, and there is some speculation that he may have commanded the British forces at the Battle of Badon Hill. At any rate, the battle was a clear continuation of his efforts. Scholars such as Leon Fleuriot identified Ambrosius Aurelianus with the aforementioned Riothamus figure from Jordanes, an idea which forms part of Fleuriot's hypothesis about the origins of the Arthurian legend. Others, such as Geoffrey Ashe, disagree, since Ambrosius is not called "king" until the somewhat-legendary "Historia Brittonum".
Historicity of King Arthur | Ambrosius Aurelianus
Most of the events take place in Britain and France at an unspecified time (the historical events on which the Arthurian legend is based took place in the late 5th century, but the story contains many anachronisms and makes no effort at historical accuracy). In some parts, the plot ventures farther afield, to Rome and Sarras, and recalls Biblical tales from the ancient Near East. Malory modernized the legend by conflating the Celtic Britain with his contemporary Kingdom of England (for example identifying Logres as England, Camelot as Winchester, and Astolat as Guildford) and replacing the Saxons with the Saracens (specifically meaning the Ottoman Turks) as foreign invaders.
Le Morte d'Arthur | Synopsis and themes
Riothamus (also spelled Riotimus) was a historical figure whom ancient sources list as "a king of the Britons". He lived in the late 5th century, and most of the stories about him were recorded in the Byzantine historian Jordanes' "The Origin and Deeds of the Goths", written in the mid-6th century, only about 80 years after his presumed death. About 460, the Roman diplomat and bishop Sidonius Apollinaris sent a letter to Riothamus asking his help to quell unrest among the Brettones, a colony of Brittonic-speaking people living in Armorica; this letter still survives. In the year 470, the Western Roman Emperor Anthemius began a campaign against Euric, king of the Visigoths who were campaigning outside their territory in Gaul.
Historicity of King Arthur | Riothamus
The knights' characterisations in Arthurian legend are also dropped. For example, the film's portrayal of a boorish and lusty Bors, the father of many children, differs greatly from his namesake whose purity and celibacy allowed him to witness the Holy Grail according to legend. The cinematic portrayal of Bors is therefore much closer to the traditional depiction of Sir Kay than his legendary namesake. Lancelot and Galahad are portrayed as having similar ages, whereas according to traditional versions they are father and son respectively (the film's approach is also found in modern Arthurian fiction — such as Bernard Cornwell's "The Warlord Chronicles", in which they are brothers).
King Arthur (2004 film) | Cinematic versus traditional portrayal
King Arthur's family grew throughout the centuries with King Arthur's legend. Many of the legendary members of this mythical king's family became leading characters of mythical tales in their own right.
King Arthur's family | Introduction
One theory suggests that Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman military commander who served in Britain in the late 2nd century or early 3rd century, was a prototype of Arthur. Artorius is known from two inscriptions that give details about his service. After a long career as a centurion in the Roman army, he was promoted to prefect of Legio VI Victrix, a legion headquartered in Eboracum (present-day York, England). He later commanded two British legions on an expedition against either the Armoricans (in present-day Brittany) or the Armenians. He subsequently became civilian governor of Liburnia in modern Croatia, where he died.
Historicity of King Arthur | Lucius Artorius Castus and the Sarmatian connection
In the early 19th century, medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened interest in Arthur and the medieval romances. A new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen was shaped around the chivalric ideals embodied in the "Arthur of romance". This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur" was reprinted for the first time since 1634. Initially, the medieval Arthurian legends were of particular interest to poets, inspiring, for example, William Wordsworth to write "The Egyptian Maid" (1835), an allegory of the Holy Grail. Pre-eminent among these was Alfred Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem "The Lady of Shalott" was published in 1832.
King Arthur | Tennyson and the revival
The subject of Merlin has continued to be popular through the Renaissance and afterwards, especially since the renewed interest in the legend of Arthur in modern times. As noted by Arthurian scholar Alan Lupack, "numerous novels, poems and plays center around Merlin. In American literature and popular culture, Merlin is perhaps the most frequently portrayed Arthurian character." Diverting from his traditional role in the legends, sometimes Merlin is a villain, such as in Mark Twain's satire of the legend, "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" (1889).
Merlin | Modern fiction
The later manuscripts of the Triads are partly derivative from Geoffrey of Monmouth and later continental traditions, but the earliest ones show no such influence and are usually agreed to refer to pre-existing Welsh traditions. Even in these, however, Arthur's court has started to embody legendary Britain as a whole, with "Arthur's Court" sometimes substituted for "The Island of Britain" in the formula "Three XXX of the Island of Britain". While it is not clear from the "Historia Brittonum" and the "Annales Cambriae" that Arthur was even considered a king, by the time "Culhwch and Olwen" and the Triads were written he had become "Penteyrnedd yr Ynys hon", "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall and the North.
King Arthur | Pre-Galfridian traditions
King Arthur's messianic return is an aspect of the legend of King Arthur, the mythical 6th-century British king. Few historical records of Arthur remain, and there are doubts that he ever existed, but he achieved a mythological stature that gave rise to a growing literature about his life and deeds. One recurrent aspect of Arthurian literature was the notion that he would one day return in the role of a messiah to save his people.
King Arthur's messianic return | Introduction
The list is inserted between the death of the legendary Hengist and the reign of Ida of Bernicia.
Historicity of King Arthur | "Historia Brittonum"
"The Legend of King Arthur" by writer Gerry Conway and artist Nestor Redondo was a four-issue storyline which was advertised as "Coming Soon" in DC comic books dated September 1975, but the series was never published. A second volume of "The Best of DC" would have included stories reprinted from "The Brave and the Bold" #42; "All-Star Western" #11; "Superman" #247; and "Green Lantern" #75 but was canceled as part of the DC Implosion.
Limited Collectors' Edition | The issues
Howard Pyle's version of the tales of King Arthur introduces the reader to Arthur as a child. Arthur, having been raised by foster parents, has no knowledge of his noble lineage. One day, young Arthur finds a sword and succeeds in pulling it out of an enchanted anvil, a task thought be impossible. Arthur, now bearing the magic sword, learns of his royal lineage and becomes King of Britain.
The Story of King Arthur and His Knights | The Winning of Kinghood
There are a number of mentions of a legendary hero called Arthur in early Welsh and Breton poetry. These sources are preserved in High Medieval manuscripts and cannot be dated with accuracy. They are mostly placed in the 9th to 10th century, although some authors have dated them to as early as the 7th century. The earliest of these would appear to be the Old Welsh poem "Y Gododdin", preserved in a 13th-century manuscript. It refers to a warrior who "glutted black ravens [i.e., killed many men] on the rampart of the stronghold, although he was no Arthur." The Welsh poem "Geraint, son of Erbin" describes a battle at a port-settlement and mentions Arthur in passing.
Historicity of King Arthur | Bardic sources
So, he simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere in the "Mort Artu", whilst in "Yvain, the Knight of the Lion", he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap. Nonetheless, as Norris J. Lacy has observed, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these Arthurian romances, "his prestige is never—or almost never—compromised by his personal weaknesses ... his authority and glory remain intact." Arthur and his retinue appear in some of the "Lais" of Marie de France, but it was the work of another French poet, Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the development of Arthur's character and legend.
King Arthur | Romance traditions
King Arthur is the namesake of a brand of flour, King Arthur Flour.
List of works based on Arthurian legends | Advertising
The Matter of Britain stories, focusing on King Arthur, are one of the most popular literary subjects of all time, and have been adapted numerous times in every form of media. This list enumerates some of the notable works.
List of works based on Arthurian legends | Introduction
Most Arthurian mythology native to Scotland has been passed down through Celtic speech in Scots Gaelic songs like 'Am Bronn Binn'. In Arthurian legend Mordred, nephew of King Arthur, was raised in Orkney and it is speculated that Camelon in Stirlingshire may have been the original 'Camelot'. There is a tradition that Arthur had a Scottish son called Smervie More.
Scottish mythology | Arthurian legend
Henry VII became King of England upon defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. In an effort to strengthen the Tudor claim to the throne, Henry had royal genealogists trace his lineage back to the ancient British rulers and decided on naming his firstborn son after the legendary King Arthur. On this occasion, Camelot was identified as present-day Winchester, and his wife, Elizabeth of York, was sent to Saint Swithun's Priory (today Winchester Cathedral Priory) in order to give birth there. Born at Saint Swithun's Priory on the night of 19/20 September 1486 at about 1 am, Arthur was Henry and Elizabeth's eldest child.
Arthur, Prince of Wales | Infancy
The Story of King Arthur and His Knights is a 1903 novel by the American illustrator and writer Howard Pyle. The book contains a compilation of various stories, adapted by Pyle, regarding the legendary King Arthur of Britain and select Knights of the Round Table. Pyle's novel begins with King Arthur in his youth and continues through numerous tales of bravery, romance, battle, and knighthood. Pyle's writing was influenced by previous authors Arthurian writings, such as "King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table" and "Le Morte d'Arthur." "The Story of King Arthur and His Knights is" an American adaption of traditionally English stories that was written and illustrated for children.
The Story of King Arthur and His Knights | Introduction
A tie-in novel, "The Legend of King Arthur", authored by the screenwriter Andrew Davies, was published in London by Fontana/Armada in 1979.
The Legend of King Arthur | Novelisation
Arthur Rex: A Legendary Novel is a 1978 novel by American author Thomas Berger. Berger offers his own take on the legends of King Arthur, from the heroic monarch's inauspicious conception, to his childhood in bucolic Wales, his rise to the throne, his discovery of the great sword Excalibur, his establishment of the Knights of the Round Table, his long and honorable reign, and his heroic death in battle against the evil Mordred, his bastard son.
Arthur Rex | Introduction
During this period, Arthur was made one of the Nine Worthies, a group of three pagan, three Jewish and three Christian exemplars of chivalry. The Worthies were first listed in Jacques de Longuyon's "Voeux du Paon" in 1312, and subsequently became a common subject in literature and art.
King Arthur | Romance traditions
The folklorist Marjorie Rowling identified him with another legendary local giant, Hugh Cesario, but Jennifer Westwood and Jacqueline Simpson prefer to derive him from Sir Tarquin, an adversary of Sir Lancelot in Thomas Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur"; they believe that this story, unlocalized by Malory, probably became associated with north-west England because King Arthur was often said to hold his court in Carlisle.
Brougham Castle | Folklore
These are analogous to, and inspired the myth of, the Knights of the Round Table of King Arthur's court. Their tales constitute the first "chansons de geste". In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth based his stories of Arthur largely on stories of Charlemagne. During the Hundred Years' War in the 14th century, there was considerable cultural conflict in England, where the Norman rulers were aware of their French roots and identified with Charlemagne, Anglo-Saxon natives felt more affinity for Arthur, whose own legends were relatively primitive. Therefore, storytellers in England adapted legends of Charlemagne and his 12 Peers to the Arthurian tales.
Charlemagne | Middle Ages
Arthur proceeded to win battles in Britain and in Gaul but was eventually "summoned… from human activity," paving the way for the Saxons to return. The Saxon persecution caused many of the Britons to flee to Gaul, where they established Brittany. J. S. P. Tatlock set out signs that the preface to William's "Legenda" followed the outlines of Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae", written around 1136, and therefore that the date 1019 was a fiction but this conclusion has been challenged by Léon Fleuriot: the preface includes material that is found in early sources but not in Geoffrey, suggesting that the author had access to some earlier document.
Goeznovius | "Legenda Sancti Goeznovii"
In 2012, Wakeman released a rerecorded version of "Journey to the Centre of the Earth" with additional pieces that were originally removed from the arrangement due to the limited time available on a vinyl record. He was booked to perform the extended album in Argentina that year, but the promoter also wished for a show with an extended version of "King Arthur". Wakeman proceeded to work on new songs for the special occasion that were based on Morgan le Fay, Elaine, Camelot, Percival, and the Holy Grail. However, the promoter later asked for "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" instead and the new material remained unfinished.
The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table | Rerecording
From the evidence of medieval Welsh writings, some dating back possibly to before the first documents laying claim to any historical King Arthur in the 9th century, and from Welsh folk legend, Arthur is 'the leader of a band of heroes who live outside society, whose main world is one of magical animals, giants and other wonderful happenings, located in the wild parts of the landscape.'
Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle | British folk-tradition
Also in 1971, while conceding that Gildas does not mention Arthur, Frank Stenton says that this "may suggest that the Arthur of history was a less imposing figure than the Arthur of legend" but then argues that "it should not be allowed to remove him from the sphere of history." In 1977, John Morris argued in favour, but his work was widely criticised at the time as having "grave methodological flaws". David Dumville took the opposite position in the same year: "The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books."
Historicity of King Arthur | Historiography
Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature, with the result that the romance Arthur began to replace the heroic, active Arthur in Welsh literary tradition. Particularly significant in this development were the three Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien, albeit with some significant differences: "Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain" is related to Chrétien's "Yvain"; "Geraint and Enid", to "Erec and Enide"; and "Peredur son of Efrawg", to "Perceval". Up to , continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose.
King Arthur | Romance traditions